erro Conic SECTIONS AND POLAR COORDINATES OVERVIEW In this chapter we give geometric definitions of parabolas, ellipses, and hhyperbolas and derive their standard equations. These curves are called conic seetions, or conics, and model the paths traveled by planets, satellites, and other bodies whose motions are driven by inverse square forces. In Chapter 13 we will see that once the path of a mov- ing body is known to be a conic, we immediately have information about the body's veloc~ ity and the force that drives it. Planetary motion is best deseribed with the help of polar co- ordinates, so we also investigate curves, derivatives, and integrals in this new coordinate system, Conic Sections and Quadratic Equations In Chapter | we defined a efrele asthe set of points in a plane whose distance from some fixed center point is a constant radius value. IF the center is (i) and the radius is a, the standard equation for the circle is (x ~ h)? + (y ~ &)? = a. Itis an example of a conic section, which are the curves formed by cutting a double cone with a plane (Figure 10.1); hhence the name conie section. ‘We now describe parabolas, ellipses, and hyperbolas as the graphs of quadratic equa- tions in the coordinate plane, Parabolas DEFINITIONS —_Parabola, Focus, Directrix A set that consists ofall the points in a plane equidistant from a given fixed point and a given fixed Line in the plane is a parabola, The fixed point is the focus of the parabola, The fixed line is the directrix. Ifthe focus F lies on the directrix L, the parabola is the line through F perpendicular to L. We consider this to be a degenerate case and assume henceforth that F does not lie onl. ‘A parabola has its simplest equation when its focus and directrix straddle one of the ‘coordinate axes. For example, suppose that the focus lies at the point F(0, p) on the positive ‘y-axis and that the directrix is the ine y = —p (Figure 10.2). In the notation of the figure, 669670 Chapter 10: Conic Sections and Polar Coordinates S39 (Cre: plane pxpendicutar ips plane oblique Parabola plane paral Hyper plane cus twconeasis to.cone axe to side of cone bt ses f cone @ Poin: plane through Single tine: plane Par finestting lines fone vertex only tangent 1 cone © FIGURE 10.1 The standard conic sections (a) are the curves in which a plane cuts a double cone. Hyperbolas come in two pars, called ‘ranches. The pont and lines obtained by passing the plane through the cones vertex (b) are degenerate cone sections. @ point P(x, y) lies on the parabola if and only if PF = PQ. From the distance formula, PF = Ve~ OP + ph = VE +P PO = Ve + — CP = Vora When we equate these expressions, square, and simpli, we get ee ee) ‘These equations reveal the parabola's symmetry about the y-axis. We call the y-axis the axis of the parabola (short for “axis of symmetry"), FIGURE 10.2 Thestandal form ofthe ‘The point where a parabola crosses its axis is the vertex. The vertex ofthe parabola parabola x? = 4py,p > 0 x? = 4py lies atthe origin (Figure 10.2), The positive number pis the parabola’s focal length.Vere at origin apy {F809} FIGURE 10.3 The parabola x= ppp > 0. 10.1. Conic Sections and Quadratic Equations 674. If the parabola opens downward, with its focus at (0, —p) and its dineetrix the line y= ps then Equations (1) become and 4py (Figure 10.3), We obtain similar equations for parabolas opening to the right orto the left (Figure 10.4 and Table 10.1), ‘TABLE 10.1 Standard-form equations for parabolas with vertices at the origin >) Equation Focus Direetrix Aais Opens x? = dpy (Op) deans Up x? = —4py (,-p) peaxis Down y (7,0) aeaxis To the right y= dpe (p.0) eanis To the left FIGURE 10.4 (a) The parabola y? = pr. (b) The parabola ym —Aps: EXAMPLE 1 Find the focus and directrix ofthe parabola y? = 10x. Solution We find the value of p in the standard equation »? = 4px: 4p=10, sop ‘Then we find the focus and directrix for this value ofp: nae n= ($0) Directs: = x= —p or672 Chapter 10: Conic Sections and Polar Coordinates ‘The horizontal and vertical shift formulas in Section 1.3 can be applied to the ‘equations in Table 10.1 to give equations for a variety of parabolas in other locations {see Exercises 39, 40, and 45-48), i) Ellipses DEFINITIONS Ellipse, Foci An ellipse is the set of points in a plane whose distances from two fixed points, in the plane have a constant sum. The two fixed points are the foei of the ellipse, FIGURE 10.5 One way to draw an ellipse uses two tacks anda loop of string to guide the pencil ‘The quickest way to construct an ellipse uses the definition. Put a loop of string ‘around two tacks F and F, pull the string taut with a pencil point P, and move the pencil around to trace a closed curve (Figure 10.5), The curve is an ellipse because the sum PR, + PFs, being the length of the loop minus the distance between the tacks, remains constant. The ellipse’s foci lie at F) and Fo. DEFINITIONS Focal Axis, Center, Vertices The line through the foci of an ellipse is the elipse’s focal axis. The point on the axis halfay between the foci is the center. The points where the focal axis and ellipse cross are the ellipse’s vertices (Figure 10.6) wes FIGURE 10.6 Points onthe focal axis of tthe foci are Fi(—c, 0) and Fa(c, 0) (Figure 10.7), and PF; + PF is denoted by 2a, an ellipse, then the coordinates of a point P on the ellipse satisfy the equation Very ty+ Vary ‘To simplify this equation, we move the second radical to the right-hand side, square, iso- late the remaining tadical, and square again, obtaining a 1 @ apes + Since PF; + PF: is greater than the length FF (triangle inequality for triangle PF\F:), I» the number 2a is greater than 2c. Accordingly, a > cand the number a? ~ c? in Equation (2) is positive ‘The algebraic steps leading to Equation (2) can be reversed to show that every point P whose coordinates satisfy an equation of this form with 0 < ¢ < q also satisfies the equa- tion PF; + PF, = 2a. A point therefore lies on the ellipse if and only if its coordinates Fico) of satisfy Equation 2), it b= 8 FIGURE 20.7. The 2 2 ation the form ee then or nn (2) anh the equation (s"/a) + (93/64) = 1. S+5e1 w er where 5?03) FIGURE 10.8 An ellipse with its major axis horizontal (Example 2), FIGURE 10.9 _Ancllipse with its major axis vertical (Example 3), 40.1. Conic Sections and Quadratic Equations 673, Equation (4) reveals that this ellipse is symmetric with respect to the origin and both ‘coordinate axes. It lies inside the rectangle bounded by the lines x = ta and y = b. It sosses the axes atthe points (+a, 0) and (0, +b). The tangents at these points are perpen- dicular tothe axes because dy be a ay ‘Obrained fam Equation) by impli diferemation is zero if = O and infinite if y = 0. The major axis of the ellipse in Equation (4) is the line segment of length 2a joining the points (+a, 0). The minor axis is the line segment of length 2 joining the points (0, £5). The mumber a itself is the semimajor axis, the number b the semiminor axis. ‘The number c, found from Equation (3) as, Var, © is the center-to-focus distance of the ellipse. EXAMPLE 2 Major Axis Horizontal The ellipse ae 6) Figure 10:8) has ‘Semimajor axis: V6 = 4, — Semiminoraxis: b= V9 =3 Center-to-focus distance: ¢ = V16— 9 = V7 Foci: (46,0) = (47.0) Vertices: (44,0) = (44,0) Center: (0,0) . EXAMPLE 3 Major Axis Vertical “The elipse 2,7 Ste © obtained by interchanging x and y in Equation (5), has its major axis vertical instead of horizontal (Figure 10.9). With a? still equal to 16 and 6? equal to 9, we have Seminajoraxis: a= V6 = 4, Semiminoraxis; b= V5 = 3 Cenersorfocus distames: = VI6=9 = V7 Foci: (0,-e) = (0,£V7) Vertices: (0, +a) = (0, +4) Center: (0,0) . ‘There is never any cause for confusion in analyzing Equations (5) and (6). We simply find the intercepts on the coordinate axes; then we know which way the major axis runs because its the longer of the two axes, The center always lies at the origin and the foci and vertices lie on the major axis.674 ‘Chapter 10: Cone Sections and Polar Coordinates FIGURE 10.10 Hyperbolas have two branches Fo points on the right-hand branch ofthe hyperbla shown here, PR, ~ PI 2a. For points onthe Left- Jhand branch, PF3 ~ PF) = 2a. We then eto = Standard-Form Equations for Ellipses Centered at the Origin ¥ Focton the warts: + ro) Center-to-focus distance: ¢ = Va? = Foci: (40,0) Vertes: (a, 0) ay Focionthe paris: += 1 (a> 6) Centerto-foeus distance: ¢ = VF =F Foci: (0, ¢) Vertioes: (0, a) In each case, a is the semimajor axis and 6 is the semiminor axis, Hyperbolas ‘DEFINITIONS Hyperbola, Foci ‘A hyperbola isthe set of points in a plane whose distances frm two fixed points in the plane have a constant difference. The two fixed points ar the foci ofthe hyperbola Ifthe foci are F\(~c, 0) and Fx(c, 0} (Figure 10.10) and the constant difference is 20, then a point (x,y) lies on the hyperbola ifand only if Viet oP ty? - Vem oF +9? = 420. ” ‘To simplify this equation, we move the second radical to the right-hand side, square, iso- late the remaining radical, and square again, obtaining eta @) ‘So far this looks just like the equation for an ellipse. But now a — cis negative because 2a, being the difference of two sides of triangle PF, Fa, is less than 2c, the third side. The algebraic steps leading to Equation (8) can be reversed to show that every point P whose coordinates satisfy an equation of this form with 0 < a < calso satisfies Equa- tion (7). point therefore lies on the hyperbola if and only if its coordinates satisfy Equa- tion (8). If we let b denote the positive square root of e? — a? b= Vea, 9) 5? and Equation (8) takes the more compact form aoptl (20)FIGURE 10.11 Points onthe focal axis of hyperbola 10.1 Conic Sections and Quadratic Equations 675, ‘The differences between Equation (10) and the equation for an ellipse (Equation 4) are the minus sign and the new relation © +B, From quien 9) Like the ellipse the hyperbola is symmetric with respect to the origin and coordinate axes, It crosses the 1-axis at the points (::a, 0). The tangents at these points are vertical because dy _ Bx Ont om Euston 10) de gy britplstdirenson is infinite when y = 0. The hyperbola has no y-intereepls; in fact, no part of the eurve lies between the lines x = —a and x = a. DEFINITIONS Focal Axis, Center, Vertices ‘The Line through the foci of a hyperbola is the focal axls, The point on the axis halfway between the foci is the byperbola’s center. The points where the focal axis and hyperbola cross are the vertices (Figure 10.11). Asymptotes of Hyperbolas and Graphing If we solve Equation (10) for y we obtain “é-) or, taking square roots, Asx +00, the factor VI — a/x? approaches 1, and the factor (b/a)x is dominant ‘Thus the lines are the two asymptotes of the hyperbola defined by Equation (10). The asymptotes give the guidance we need to graph hyperbolas quickly. The fastest way to find the ‘equations of the asymptotes is to replace the 1 in Equation (10) by 0 and solve the new equation for y:676 Chapter 10: Coni Sections and Polar Coordinates Staadardoem Baton or Hyperolas Comore athe Origha 2 7 x Foi on the x-axis: a po Foci on the y-axis: =1 Center-to-focus distance: Va? + BF Center-to-focus distance: c = Va? + b? Foci: (+c, 0) Foci: (0, +c) Vertices: (+a, 0) Vertices: (0, ta) pnp: 22a 0 or y= abs aympres: 2-00 o Note the diene nh syrpot equations (ain the Fst /b inthe seco, EXAMPLE 4 — Foci on the x-axis ‘The equation ey okey a is Equation (10) with a = 4.and b? = 5 (Figure 10.12). We have Conter-to-focus distance: ¢ = Va? +B = V445=3 Foci (40,0) = (43,0), Vertices: (+a, 0) = (42,0) Center: (0,0) z 4 Asymptoes: -% = 0 or y= + EXAMPLE 5 Foci on the y-axis FIGURE 10.12 The hyperbole and its 7 ‘The hyperbola asymptotes in Example 4 ‘obtained by interchanging x and y in Equation (11), has its vertices on the -axis instead of the x-axis (Figure 10.13). With a? stil equal to 4 and 87 equal to 3, we have Centerto-focus distance: e = Val +P = V445=3 Foci: (0, 4e) = (0,43), Vertices: (0, +a) = (0, +2) Center: (0,0) xz Asymptotes: 4-75 = 0 or . Reflective Properties ‘The chief applications of parabolas involve their use as reflectors of light and radio FIGURE 10.13 The ypertola andits _ waves, Rays originating at a parabola's focus are reflected out of the parabola parallel to asymptote in Example 5 the parabola’s axis (Figure 10.144 and Exercise 90). Moreover, the time any ray takes from the focus to a line parallel to the parabola’s directrix (thus perpendicular to its axis) isthe same for each of the rays, These properties are used by flashlight, headlight, and spotlight reflectors and by microwave broadcast antennas.FIGURE 10.15. Anelliptical mieror (shown bere in profile) reflects light ftom ‘one focus to the other * Primary minor FIGURE 10.16 Schematic drawing of a reflecting telescope 10.1 Conic Sections and Quadratic Equations. © 677 Parabolic rao op swatereletor Ongoing tight Parbolicliehe 7 parle to ais _Filarent pin sour) _ focus FIGURE 20.14 Parabolic reflectors can generate a bear of light parallel tothe parebola's axis from a source atthe focus; or they can receive rays parallel (othe axis and concentrate them at the Focus {fan ellipse is revolved about its major axis to generate a surface (the surface is called an ellipsoid) and the intetior is silvered to produce a mirror, light from one focus will be reflected to the other focus (Figure 10.15). Ellipsoids reflect sound the same way, and this property is used to construct whispering galleries, rooms in which a person standing at ‘one focus can hear a whisper from the other focus. (Statuary Hall in the ULS. Capitol build ight directed toward one focus of a hyperbolic mirror is reflected toward the other focus. This property of hyperbolas is combined with the reflective properties of parabolas and ellipses in designing some modem telescopes. In Figure 10.16 starlight reflects off primary parabolic mirror toward the mirror’s focus Fp. Its then reflected by a small hy~ perbolie mirror, whose focus is Fy = Fp, toward the second focus of the hyperbola, Fe = Pu. Since this focus is shared by an ellipse, the light is reflected by the elliptical ‘mirror tothe ellipse's second focus to be seen by an observer. Identifying Graphs Pay, x Loy ich the parabolas in Exercises 1~4 withthe following equations 67, yh= 8x, y? = Ae, * Then find the parabols's focus and directrix, i " Match each cone section in Exercises 5-8 with one ofthese equations: , 5+y * a9 rhe678 Chapter 10: Conic Sections and Polar Coordinates “Then find the conic section fei and verties. I the cane section is 8 hyperbola, find its asympioes as wel, 7 <> ¥. [Exercises 9-16 give equations of parabola. Find each parabola’ fo- cus and directrix, Then sketch the parabola, Include the focus and di- rectrix in your sketch ke Bpsae yh rey? Eltipses Exercises 17-24 give equation for ellipses. Pat ach equation in stan- lar form. Then sketch the ellipse, Include the foci n your sketc 17. 16x? + 25y? = 400 18. 7x? + 16y? = 112 19. 2? + y? =2 MW, 2? + y? 21. 3x? + 29? = 6 22 9x7 + 10)? = 90 23, 6x? + 9? 24, 169e2 + 25y? = 4205 Exercises 25 and 26 give information about the foci and vertices of ellipses centered atthe origin ofthe sy-plane. [n each case, find the ellipses standard-form equation fom the given information 25, Foci: (£V2,0) 26, Foes (0, +4) Vertices: (+2, 0) Vertices: (0, +5) Hyperbolas Exercises 27-34 give equations for hyperbolas. Pat each equation in standard form and find the hyperbolas asymptotes, Then sketch the hyperbola Include the asymplotes and foe’ in your sketch. Bw y= =8 30? BL Be? = 29? = 16 32 yaa 3 33. 8)? — 2? = 16 34, Gt? — 36) = 2304 xecises 35-38 give information about the fi, vertices, and asymp- totes of hyperbols centered at the origin of the 2p-plane, In each case, ‘nd the hyperbola’: standani-form equation from the information given, 36 Foo (V3) 36 Fact (22.0) Asymptotes: te Asymprotes: y= 24 97 Neses: (43,0), Vertes: (0,32) tampon peo am Shifting Conic Sections 39. The parabola y? = Rx is shifted down 2 units and right 1 unit 19 ‘generate the parabola (y + 2)? = &(x ~ 1). a. Find the new parabola’ verte, focus, and directx. ', Plotthe new vertex, focus, and directrix, and skeich nthe parabola, 40. The parabola x* = ~4y is shifed left | unit and up 3 units to generate the parabola ( +1)? = ~40) ~ 3) ‘& Find the new parabola's verter, focus, and iret. be, Plot the new vertex, focus, and directrix, and sketch in the parabola AL, The ellipse (42/16) + (y2/9) = 1 is shied 4 nits othe right and 3 units up to generat the ellipse 3 «4 16 ‘a Find he foci, vertices, and center ofthe new ellipse. i, Plot the new foci, vertices and center, and sketch in the new ellipse 42. The ellipse (22/9) + (y*/25) = 1 is shifted 3 units to the lft anc units down to generate te ellipse G+ OF o B a Find the foi, vertices, and center ofthe now ellipse D, Plot the new foe, vertoes, and center, and sketch inthe now «llipse. 43, The hyperbola (x#/16) ~ (92/9) = 1 is shied 2 units to the right to generate the hyperbole way yt 1 9 ‘a Find the center, foci, vertices, and asymptotes ofthe new hyperbola.B. Plot the new center, foe, vertices, and asympotes, and sketch in the hyperbola 4. The hyperbola (97/4) ~ (43/5) = 1 is shifted 2 units down to generate the hyperbola ore ‘Find the center, foci, verives, and asymplote ofthe new hyperbola », Plot the new center, foi, vertices, and asymptotes, and sketch in the hyperbola. Exercises 45-48 give equations for parabolas and tell how many units ‘up oF dawn and 10 the righ of left each parabola isto be shifted. Fic an equation forthe new parabola, an find the new verex, focus, ane directrix 45. y? = 4x, left, down3 41. x? = By, 46. 97 = = 125, Fight ,up3 Fight down 7 48 x? = 6y, left3,down 2 [Exercises 40-S2 give equations for ellipses and tell how many units wp ‘or dovin and to the right or lett exch ellipse is to be shifted. Find an ‘equation forthe new ellipse and find the new foci, vertices, and center. Teft 2, down 1 right 3.up4 right 2, up 3 52, H+ 35-1, left, downs Exercises 53-56 give equations for hyperbolas and tell how many units up or down and tothe right or left each hyperbola isto be shifted Find an equation forthe nev hyperbola, and find the new center, fos vertices, and asymptoes, 22% PE right2,up2 5.71, seh2,cownt "16 o ee 58. yp? a7 = 1, left, down t ay fish ap Find the center, foci, vertices, asympioes, and radius, as appropriate, of the conic sections in Exereises 37-48, sh tart y= 12 58. 2x7 + 2)? — 28 + I2y + Ld = 0 58.424 4y-3=0 60 y?—4y— 8-120 614 SbF ae = 82. 9x2 + Gy" + 36 = 0 6. 5! +2)? — 2x 4y 30.1. Conic Sections and Quadratic Equations 679) 64, a2 +9? + Be ay = 65,8 yh de + ay 22s Inequalities Sketch the regions in the xyplane whose coordinates satisfy the ie ‘equalities or pais of inequalities in Exercises 68-74 69. 9x3 + Mey? = 144 Met PEL and arty =4 Metta e4 ond 42 +9) = 36 TOF +9? = Ae +979) 50 Bay-eed 16. [9 Theory and Examples 75, Archimedes formula forthe volume region enclosed by the parabola parabolic solid The (4/07)? and the Tine yy = fis revolved about the axis to generate the solid shown ine. Show thatthe volume ofthe sold is 3/2 the volume of the corresponding cone, 76. Suspension bridge cables hang in parabolas The suspension bridge eabe shown here supports a uniform load of w pounds pe hor ‘zontal foot. It canbe shown that if H is the horizontal tension ofthe cable atthe origin, then the curve ofthe cable satisfies the equation a ‘Show thatthe cable hangs in a parabola by solving this differen tial equation subject to the initial condition that y = 0 when mn ot.680 n 78, 81 2. Show that the tangents tothe curve)? Find the volume of the slid generated by revolving the region en Chapter 10: Conic Sections and Polar Coordinates Find an equation forthe eicle through the points (1, 0), (0,1), and 2,2), Find an equation for the circle through the points (2, 3), (3, 2), and (~4,3) Find an equation forthe circle centered at (~2, 1) that passes through the point (1, 3). Is the point I.1, 2.8) inside, outside, or ‘on the circle? Find equations forthe tangents tothe cicle (x ~ 2)? +b (y= = 5 at the points where tho circle crosses the coordinate axes. (Hint Use implicit ferentiation.) [lines are drawn parallel to the coordinate axes through a point P| on the parabola y* = Ax, > 0, the parabola partitions the ree- ‘angular region bounded by these lines and the coordinate axes Into two smaller regions, 4 and. 4. Ifthe to smaller regions are revolved about the yan, show that they generate solids whose volumes have the ratio 4:1 Db, Whats the rato ofthe volumes yenerated by revolving the regions about the axis? ip from any point on the line “pare perpendicular Find the dimensions ofthe rectangle of largest area that ean be i seribed in the clipe x? + 4y? = 4 with its sides parallel tothe coordinate exes, What isthe aeaof the rectangle? close bythe ellipse 9x? + 4p” = 36 abour the (a) x-axis, (b) ans £88. The “triangular” region inthe fst quadrant bounded bythe axis, 88. 1. The circular waves in the phorograph he the line x about the x 44, and the hyperbola 9x? — 4y? = 36 is revolved sto generate a solid, Find the volume ofthe slid, 5. The region bounded on the left by the sani, onthe right by the hyperbola x? — y=, and above and below by the lines 1p = 43 is revolved about the ais to gonerate a Sold. Find the ‘volume ofthe slid Find the conto ofthe epion that is bounded below by the x-axis and above by the ellipse (57/9) + (93/16) = 1 ‘The curve y = V+ 1,0 =x = V2, which is part of the "upper branch of the hyperbola y — x= 1, is revolved about the axis to generate a surface, Find the area ofthe surface. were made by touching the surface of a ripple tank, fist at and then at B. AS the waves expanded, their point of intersection appeared to trace a hyper- bola, Did it eally do that? To find out, we can model the waves wit circles emered at 4 and 2. pu At time 1, the point P is r1(0) unis from 4 and r4(?) units from B. Since the rai of the circles increase ata constant rate, the rat at which the waves are traveling is dry _ dg ad ‘Conclude from this equation that ry ~ ra has a constant valu, so that P must lie on a hyperbola with Fei at 4 and B, 90. The reflective property of parabolas The figue here shows a typical point PU.» onthe parabola y® = 4pr. The line Lis tn gent to the parabola at P. The parabola focus ies at F(p, 0). The Fay L’ extending from P 10 the right parallel 10 the x-axis. We ‘how that light from F to P willbe reflected cut along L” by show ing tha eu x, Fstblish this equality by taking the Following steps 1 Show that tan B= 2p/y, 1, Show that tan & = w/t ~ p) ce. Use the identity ong = (me tn T+ tind tan 8 to show that tan = 2p/1mSince w and 8 are both acute, tan b= tan ec implies B = a D1, How the astronomer Kepler used string (0 draw parabolas Kepler's method fo drawing a parabola (with more modern tools) requires a string the length of a T square and a table whose edge ‘can serve as the parabols's directrix. Pin one end oF the sting to ‘the point where you wan the focus 1 be and the ther end to the upper end of the T square Then, holding the string aut apains the ‘T square witha pencil, slide the T square along the table’ edge. AS the T square moves, the pencil will ace a parabola, Way? Focus Divo 10.2. Classifying Conic Sections by Eccentricity 681 92, Construction of a hyperbola The following diagrams ap- peared (unlabeled) in Emest J; Eckert, “Constructions Without Words” Madhemaries Magazine, Vol. 66, No. 2, Apr. 1993, p. 113. Explain the constructions by finding the coordinates of the point. a Dia DUO ® » 93. The width of a parabola at the focus Show thatthe number 4p is the width of the parabola x? = 4py (p > 0) at the focus by showing thatthe line » ~ cuts the parabola at points that are 4p nits apart. 94, The asymptotes of (x?/a") ~ (y*/H") = 1. Show that the ver. tical distance between the line = (bale and the upper half ofthe right-hand branch y = (b/a) Vs — a? of the hyperbola (fa?) = (y | approaches 0 by showing that dim (Bx - BVF=e) ~ 8 tm (- VFA) =o Similar results hold for the remaining portions of the hyperbola and the lines y = (b/a)e Classifying Conic Sections by Eccentricity ‘We now show how to associate with each conic section a number called the conic section's eccentricity. The eccentricity reveals the con’ section's type (circle, ellipse, parabola, or hyperbola) and, in the case of ellipses and hyperbolas, describes the conic section's gen- cal proportions. Eccentricity Although the center-fo-focus distance ¢ does not appear in the equation {or an ellipse, we can still determine ¢ from the equation © Vo? — BF. If we fix a and vary cover the interval 0 = ¢ = a, the resulting ellipses will vary in shape (Figure 10.17). ‘They ate circles if'c = 0 (60 that a = b) and atten as ¢ increases. If ¢ = a, the foci and vertices overlap and the ellipse degenerates into a line segment. We use the ratio of ¢ to a to describe the various shapes the ellipse can take. We call this ratio the ellipse’ eccentricity682 chapter TABLE 10.2 Eccentriites of | planetary orbits Mercury 021 Satum 0.06 Venus 0.01 Uranus 0.05, | Eh Nm 60 Mars 0.09 Pluto 0.25 | Jupiter 0.08 [HusToRICAL BiogRapay Edmund Halley (1656-1742) FIGURE 10.48 The bit ofthe asteroid Icarus i highly eecentic, Earth obit is so nearly circular tat ts foi i inside the sun FIGURE 10.17 Theellipse changes ftom a cite toa line segment ase increases from Oto DEFINITION Eccentricity of an Ellipse ‘The eccentricity of the ellipse (x?/a?) + (»?/6?) La > dis ‘The planets in the solar system revolve around the sun in (approximate) elliptical or- bits with the sun at one focus. Most of the orbits are nearly circular, as ean be seen from the eccentricities in Table 10.2, Pluto has a fairly eccentric orbit, with e = 0.25, as does Mercury, with ¢ = 0.21. Other members of the solar system have orbits that are even ‘more eccentric. Icarus, an asteroid about 1 mile wide that revolves around the sun every 409 Earth days, has an orbital eccentricity of 0.83 (Figure 10.18). EXAMPLE 1 Halley's Comet ‘The orbit of Halley’s comet is an ellipse 36.18 astronomical units long by 9.12 astronomi- cal units wide, (One asironomica! unit [AU] is 149,597,870 km, the semimajor axis of Earth's orbit) Its eccentricity is B _ VG6is/aF — (9.12/27 _ V(I809F = 56F (1/2)86.18) Ee 18.09 Whereas a parabola has one focus and one directrix, each ellipse has two foci and two directrices, These are the lines perpendicular to the major axis at distances ae from the center. The parabola has the property that PF =1-PD a) for any point P on it, where Fis the focus and D is the point nearest Pon the directrix. For ‘an ellipse, i¢ can be shown that the equations that replace Equation (1) are PF, =e+PD, PP; = e+ PDs @ Hire, is the eccentricity, P is any point on the ellipse, Fy and F are the foci, and Dy and Dy are the points on the directrices nearest P (Figure 10.19), In both Equations (2) the directrix and focus rust correspond; that is if we use the distance from P to F, we must also use the distance from P to the directrix at the same end of the ellipse. The directrix x = —a/e corresponds to F,(~c, 0), and the directrix x = a/e corresponds to F3(¢, 0) ‘The eccentricity of a hyperbola is also e = c/a, only in this case c equals Va + 6° instead of Va? — 6°. In contrast to the eccentricity of an ellipse, the ecentricity of @hy- perbola is always greater than I 097.Dioxin FIGURE 10.19 The foci and directrices ‘of the ellipse (x?/a2) + (y7/B?) = 1 Directrx 1 corresponds to focus Fad lirwetrix 2 10 focus Fs Dire 2 FIGURE 10.20. ‘The foci and drectices ‘of the hyperbola (x"/a) — (9*/83) [No mater where Plies onthe hyperbola, “PDs 10.2 Classifying Conic Sections by Eccentricity 6 B3 DEFINITION Eccentricity of a Hyperbola ‘The eecentrieity of the hyperbola (x3/a) ~ (y/B?) Vero In both ellipse and hyperbola, the eccentricity is the ratio of the distance between the foci to the distance between the vertices (because ¢/a = 2c/20). Eccentricity = Fistance between vertices In an ellipse, the foci are closer together than the vertices and the ratio is less than 1. In a hyperbola, the foci are farther apart than the vertices and the ratio is greater than 1 EXAMPLE 2 Finding the Vertices of an Ellipse Locate the vertices ofan ellipse of eccentricity 0.8 whose foci leat the points (0, 7) Solution Since e = ca, the vertices are the points (0, £4) where ed: e" os = 815, or (0, £8.75) . EXAMPLE 3. Eccentricity of a Hyperbola Find the eccentricity ofthe hyperbola 9x? — 16)? = 144 Solution We divide both sides of the hyperbola’s equation by 14 to put it in standard form, obtaining xt _ 1 14a ~ Tag =! Co With a? = 16 and b? = 9, we find that c = Va? + B* = V'16 + 9 = 5,80 -e5 engi . AAs with the ellipse, it can be shown that the lines x = a/e act as directrices for the hhyperbota art that PR “PD; and —-PF3 = e* PD @) Here P is any point on the hyperbola, F and F are the foci, and D, and D; are the points nearest P on the directrices (Figure 10.20) To complete the picture, we define the eccentricity of a parabola to be e = 1. Equa tions (1) to (3) then have the common form PF = e+ PD.684 ‘Chapter 10: Conc Sections and Polar Coordinates DEFINITION Eccentricity of a Parabola ‘The eccentricity ofa parabola is ‘The “focus-directrix” equation PF’ = e+ PD unites the parabola, ellipse, and hyperbola in the following way. Suppose that the distance PF of a point P from a fixed point F (the focus) is « constant multiple ofits distance from a fixed line (the directrix). Tha is, suppose PF = ePD, @ ‘here ¢ is the constant of proportionality. Then the path traced by P is (a) aparabota ife (b) an ellipse of eccentricity ¢ ife < 1, and (©) a hyperbola of eccentricity e ife > 1 There are no coordinates in Equation (4) and when we try to translate it into coordinate form it translates in different ways, depending on the size of e. At least, that is what hap- pens in Cartesian coordinates. However, in polar coordinates, as we will seein Section 10.8, the equation PF = e+ PD translates into a single equation regardless of the value of e, an {equation so simple that it has been the equation of choice of astronomers and space scien tists for nearly 300 years. Given the focus and corresponding directrix of a hyperbola centered atthe origin and ‘with foci on the x-axis, we can use the dimensions shown in Figure 10.20 to find e. Know- ing e, we can derive a Cartesian equation for the hyperbola from the equation PF = e+ PD, as in the next example. We can find equations for ellipses centered at the origin and with foci on the x-axis in a similar way, using the dimensions shown in Figure 10.19. EXAMPLE 4 Cartesian Equation for a Hyperbola Find a Cartesian equation for the hyperbola centered atthe origin that has a focus at (3, 0) and the line x =~ 1 as the corresponding directrix. Solution We first use the dimensions shown in Figure 10.20 to find the hypetbola’s ec- centricity. The focus is (6.0) =G,0) so e=3. The directrix isthe line When combined with the equation e = c/a that defines eccentricity, these results give 80. 3 and e= V3.FIGURE 10.21 The hyperbola and directrix in Example 4 Ellipses In Exercises 1-8 find the eccentricity ofthe elipse, Then find and raph the elise foci and dretices. 1. 16r? + 25)? = 400 2 te + ty? = 112 Rd t ye? Ad ty ed Sat +a? =6 6. 9x2 + ty? = 90 7. 62 +98 = 54 & 169%? + 25y? = 4225 Exercises 9-12 give the foci or vertices and the eccentricities of e+ lipses centered at the origin of the zy-plane. In each case, find the cllipse’s standard-form equation 9. Foci: (0,43) 10. Foci: (48, 0) Evoentrcity: 0.5 Eccentricity: 0.2 U1, Vertices: (0, £70) 12. Vertices: (10,0) Becentrcty: 0.1 Becenticiy: 0.24 Exercises 13-16 give foci and corresponding directrices of elipses centred athe origin ofthe plane. In each ease, use the dimensions in Figure 10.19 to find the eccentricity of the ellipse. Then find the ellipses standard-form equation. 13, Foeus:_ (V5, 0) 14, Focus; (4,0) 9 1 Dire = Dinar: x = 8 otis 2 = i 15, Faw: (4.0) 16. Focus: (-V30) Directrix: x = -16 Directrix: x = -2V2 17, Draw an ellipse eccentricity 4/5. Explain your procedure 18, Draw the orbit of Pluto (eccenticity 0.25) to scale, Explain your procedure 19, The endpoints ofthe major and minor axes of an ellipse are (1. Ly 6,4), 7), and (=1,4), Sketch the ellipse, standard Torm, and find its foci, eecentrii 10.2 Classifying Conic Sections by Eccentricity 685 Knowing ¢, we can now derive the equation we want from the equation PF = e+ PD. In the notation of Figure 10.21, we have PF Equation) Vie=3P + OF 2? = Gr $9 by? = 3G? = 2+ 1) 6 1 . 20. Find an equation forthe ellipse of eccentricity 2/3 that has the line x = Dasa directx andthe point (4,0) as the corresponding focus. 21, What values ofthe constants a 5, and e make th ellipse abt yi tart ay te lie tangent to the x-axis at the origin and pass through the point (1,2)? Whatis the eccentricity ofthe ellipse? 22, The reflective property of ellipses An ellipse is revolved about ts major axis fo generate an ellipsoid. The ier surface of the elip- sod is silvered to make a miror. Show that a ray of ight emanating from ane focus will be reflected to the ther focus. Sound waves also follow such paths, and this property is used in constructing “whisper- ing galleries” (Hint: Place the ellipse in standard position in the x» plane and show thatthe lines fem a point Pon the elipse to the two oc make congrueat angles with the tangent to the ellipse at P) Hyperbolas In Exercises 23-30, find the eccentricity of the hyperbola. Then find and graph the hyperbole’: fei and directrices. 2 2 9x2 — 16)? = 146 ) 26 P-P=4 27, Bx — 292 ma ya 2. gy 2 30, Gtr? ~ 36y? = 2304 Exercises 31-34 give the eocentrictis and the vertices or foci of hy- perbolas centered a the origin ofthe x»plane. In each ease, find the hyperbola’ standard-form equation BM. Becentricty: 3 32, Eccentricity: 2 Vestices: (0, #1) Vertices: (22,0) 3%. Becentricity: 3 34, Recentricty: 1.25 Foci: (43,0) Foci: (0, £5)686 Chapter 10: Conic Sections and Polar Coordinates Exercises 35-38 give foci and corresponding diretrces of hyperbolas, centered at the origin ofthe xy-plane. In each ease, find the hyper- bola’s eccentricity. Then find the hyperbola standard-form equation 35, Foous: (4,0) 36. Focus: (10,0) Directrx: Direetrix: x = V2 37. Focus: (~2,0) 38. Focus: (6,0) Directv: Directs: x = -2 2 39, A hyperbola of eoentcty 3/2 has one focus at (1, ~3). The ‘corresponding directrix is the line y = 2. Find an equation for the lyperbala (E40. ‘The effect of ecenticity on a hyperbola’s shape | What hap- ‘ens tothe graph of a hyperola as its eccentricity increases? To find out, rewrite the equation (x?/a*) — (y?/b*) = 1 in terms of @ and ¢ instead of a and b. Graph the hyperbola for various values ‘fe and describe wht yo find. 41, The reflective property ofhyperbolas Show that aray of Hight dizected toward one focus ofa hyperbolic mieror, asin the accom panying figure, is reflected toward th other focus. (Hint Show thatthe tangent tote hyperbola at P bisects the angle mado by 2. A confocal ellipse and hyperbola Show that an ellipse and a hyperbola that have the same foci 4 and B, a inthe accompa- ying figure, cross at right angles at cheir point of intersection, (Hint: ray of light from focus 4 that met the hyperbola at P would be reflected from the hyperbola as if it came directly from 8 (Exercise 41). The same ray would be reflected ofF the el lipse to passthrough B (Exervse 22),) segments PF and PF.) Quadratic Equations and Rotations FIGURE 10.22 The focal axis ofthe hyperbola xy = 9 makes an angle of 3/4 -adans withthe posive xis. In this section, we examine the Cartesian graph of any equation Ad + Bay + Oy + Det By + P= ® in which 4, 8, and C are not all zero, and show that itis nearly always a conic section. The exceptions are the cases in which there is no graph at all or the graph consists of two parallel lines. is conventional to eal all graphs of Equation (1), curved or not, quadratic curves The Cross Product Term ‘You may have noticed that the term Bxy did not appear in the equations forthe conic sec- tions in Section 10.1. This happened because the axes ofthe conic sections ran parallel to (in fact, coincided with) the coordinate axes. “To see what happens when the parallelism is absent, let us write an equation fora hy 3 and foci at F\(—3, ~3) and F3(3,3) (Figure 10.22). The equation 2a becomes [PF ~ PF2| = 2G) = 6and Vee + 3 + & + 3P — Ve — 3 + (y 37 = 36. ‘When we transpose one radical, square, solve for the radical that still appears, and square again, the equation reduces to dy = 9, @ «8 case of Equation (1) in which the eross produet term is present. The asymptotes of the hyperbola in Equation (2) are the x- and y-axes, and the focal axis makes an angle of 77+Annoy) FIGURE 10.23 A counterclockwise rotation through angle @ about the origin FIGURE 10.24 The hyperbola in [Example I(x’ and y’ are the coordinates) 30.3. Quadratic Equations and Rotations 687 radians with the positive s-axis. As in this example, the cross product term is present in Equation (1) only when the axes of the conic are tilted. ‘To eliminate the xy-term from the equation of a conic, we rotate the coordinate axes to eliminate the “lt” in the axes of the conic, The equations for the rotations we use are de- rived in the following way. In the notation of Figure 10.23, which shows a counterclock- ‘wise rotation about the origin through an angle a, x= OM = OP cos (0 + @) y = MP = OP sin(@ + a) = OP cos@sina + OP sinB cos a: OP cos cosa ~ OP sin# sin a @ Since OP cos = OM! = x! OPsind = M'P =y', Equations (3) reduce to the following Equations for Rotating Coordinate Axes x= x" cosa ~ y' sina cs ' sina + y! cosa EXAMPLE 1 Finding an Equation for a Hyperbola ‘The x and y-axes are rotated through an angle of 7/4 radians about the origin. Find an {equation for the hyperbola 2xy = 9 in the new coordinates. Solution Since cos x/4 See Figure 10.24, . If we apply Equations (4) to the quadratic equation (1), we obtain a new quadratic equation Aid? + Blx'y! + Cy? + Diy + By + F 6GBB Chapter 10: Conic Sections and Polar Coordinates FIGURE 10.25 This triangle identifies 2a = cot 1/'V3) a8 9/3 (Example 2), FIGURE 10.26 The coni section in Example 2. ‘The new and old coefficients are related by the equations A = Acos’a + Beosasina + Csin'a e C = Asin? cos 2a + (C — A) sin2a ~ Bsinacosa + Coos’ a : ©) D’ = Deosa + Esina gE r ‘These equations show, among other things, that if we start with an equation for a curve in which the cross product term is present (B # 0), we can find a rotation angle a that produces an equation in which no cross product term appears (B' = 0).To find a, we set B” = 0 in the second equation in (6) and solve the resulting equation, Beos2a + (C = 4)sin2a Dsina + Ecosa for a, In practice, this means determining a from one of the two equations Angle of Rotation cot 2a EXAMPLE 2 Finding the Angle of Rotation The coordinate axes are to be rotated through an angle a to produce an equation for the curve Bay +y?- 10=0 that has no cross product term, Find a and the new equation. Identify the curve. axe + Solution The equation 2x? + V3xy +»? - 10=0 has 4=2,8 = V3, and C= 1. We substiute these values into Equation (7) to find a A=C 2-1 cot 2a = a a Va MS From the right triangle in Figure 10.25, we see that one appropriate choice of angle is 2a = m/3, 80 we take a = 7/6. Substituting « = 7/6, A= 2, B= V3, C=1 tnd F = “10 in Equations (6) ses a ae Equation (5) then gives Setelyt—oen op aka The cave isan lips wth foc onthe new yng 1026) 310.3 Quadratic Equations and Rotations 689 Possible Graphs of Quadratic Equations We nov return to the graph of the general quadratic equation, Since axes can always be rotated to eliminate the cross product term, there is no loss of generality in assuming that this has been done and that our equation has the form. Ax? + Gy? + De + By + F=0. ® Equation (8) represents (@) acircle if 4 = C # 0 (special cases: the graph isa point or there is no graph at all); (b) 8 parabota if Equation (8) is quadratic in one variable and linear in the other; (©) anellipse if A and Care both positive or both negative (special eases: circles, a single point, or no graph at al (@) a lyperbota if A and C have opposite signs (special case: a pair of intersecting lines); (©) asiraight tine ifA and Care zero and at least one of D and £ is different from zero; (© one or two straight lines if the left-hand side of Equation (8) can be factored into the product of two linear factors. ‘See Table 10.3 for examples. ‘TABLE 10.3 Examples of quadratic curves Ax! + Bry + Cy? + Dx + Ey + F = ABC DEF Equation Remarks Cirele 1 1 4 @tytaa A=GF<0 Parabola 1 -9 y= 9% Quadratic in y, linear nx Ellipse 4 9 36 ax? + oy? = 36 A, Chave same Sin, A GF <0 Hyperbola \ “1 -1 A, C have opposite signs One ine (sila v=o axis conic section) Intersecting lines 1 It ml 1 0 Factors to | (sila conic & NO +) =o, section) sox= y= -l Parallel tines 1 “3 2 Factors to (not a conic (x — I — 2) section) sox= 1x2 Point 1 1 ° The origin No graph 1 1 No graph ‘The Discriminant Test ‘We do not need to eliminate the xy-term from the equation Ax? + Bry + Cy? + De + Ey + P= 0 0690 Chapter 10: Conic Sections and Polar Coordinates to tell what kind of conic section the equation represents. If this is the only informat ‘want, we can apply the following test instead, As we have seen, if B # 0, then rotating the coordinate axes through an angle a that satisfies the equation cot 2a a0) will change Equation (9) into an equivalent form Ax? + Cy? + Dy +BY +P =0 ay without a eross product term. ‘Now, the graph of Equation (11) isa (real or degenerate) (a) parabola if A’ or C’ = 0; that is, if A'C* (b) ellipse if 4” and C’ have the same sign; that is, if A'C’ > 0; (©) hyperbola if 4° and C’ have opposite signs; that is, f.4°C” <0. It can also be verified from Equations (6) that for any rotation of axes, BP 44C = 8? = 44'C (22) ‘This means that the quantity 8? ~ 4.4C is not changed by a rotation, But when we rotate through the angle a given by Equation (10), B’ becomes zero, so BP 4c = ~44'C’ Since the curve is a parabola if 4°C’ = 0, an ellipse if A°C” > 0, and a hyperbola if A'C’ <0, the curve must be a parabola if B? — 44C = 0, an ellipse if B? — 44C <0, and a hyperbola if B — 44C > 0. The number B? — 44C is called the discriminant of Equation (9) ‘The Discriminant Test With the understanding that occasional degenerate cases may arise, the quadratic curve Ax? + Bry + Cy? + Dy + By + F (a) a parabola it 8? ~ 44c = 0, (b) an ellipse if B? ~ 44 < 0, (©) ahyperbola iB? ~ 44c > 0. EXAMPLE 3. Applying the Discriminant Test (@) 3x? ~ Gay + 3)? + 2 — 7 = O represents a parabola because BP — 44C = (~6)? ~ 4-3-3 = 36 ~ 36 =0 (b) 3° + xy + y? — 1 = O represents an ellipse because B- 4dC = (IP — 4-1-1 = -3 <0. (© ay — y? — 5y + 1 = O represents a hyperbola because B~ 44C = (IP ~ 4(0\(-1) = 1 > 0 .10.3. Quadratic Equations and Rotations 691 USING TECHNOLOGY How Calculators Use Rotations to Evaluate Sines and Cosines. ‘Some calculators use rotations to calculate sines and cosines of arbitrary angles. The pro- cedure goes something like this: The calculator has, stored, 1. ten angles or so, say ay = sin (10), ey = sin "(107 5 ayy = sin (10), a a oy be 2, twenty numbers, the sines and cosines of the angles a1, 42... 210 FIGURE 10.27 To caleulate the sine and cosine of an angle @ between 0 and 2, the csleulatar rotates the point (1, 0) to an appropriate location onthe unit stele and clsplays the resulting coordinates To calculate the sine and cosine of an arbitrary angle 8, we enter (in radians) into the calculator. The calculator subtracts or adds multiples of 27 to 6 to replace @ by the angle berween 0 and 2 that has the same sine and cosine as # (we continue to call the angle 0). The calculator then “writes” @ as a sum of multiples of ai (as many as possible without overshooting) plus multiples of a: (again, as many as possible), and so on, working its ‘way to eo. This gives 0% may + may +++ moat, ‘The calculator then rotates the point (1,0) through mr copies of a; (through a, m times in succession), plus mz copies of a2, and so on, finishing off with mio copies of ayo (Eigure 10.27). The coordinates of the final position of (1, 0) on the unit circle are the ‘values the calculator gives for (cos , sin) Using the Discriminant Rotating Coordinate Axes Use the discriminant 8 ~ 44C to decide whether the equations in In Exereises 17-26, rotate the coordinate axes to change the given Excrcses 1-16 present paraboas, ellipses, or hyperbolas ‘equation into an equation that has ao cross product (xy) term Then ie erie identify the graph of the equation. (The new equations will vary with : the size and direction ofthe rotation you use. TRay + 2792 ue m eee nya? InP taytytel 2 + 2VGay +? — Br + 8V3p at VB +t ty=0 Bele rev aray her Were dy byt + dey e220 7 ao 2k! 2Viny 4 2 Fs aga 6 eee Peaytaam 3. Var 42V2 Barty +3e—WlO 2 yt y? Me ate WF boy Fay ae Sy 163 a 8 hid ihe thal 6 ae + AVE canoe a eer 20. Find the sine and cosine of mangle in Qua | rough which the coordinate axes can be rotated to eliminate the cross product term from the equation ~ tay + V7; 2 x dey ty 12, 2" 13, x8 = By + By" + Gy 14, 2517 + lay + dy? ~ 3506 = 0 15, Gx! 4 Say + 2? + yO 16, 382 + 12xy + 12y? + 435 —9y + 72 =0 Do not carry out the retation. Lae? + Hoxy + 294 — Oe + 26,3707 — 17 = 0692 chapter 10: Coie Sections and Polar Coordinates 228, Find the sine and cosine of an angle in Quadrant I through which ‘the coordinate axes can be rotated to eliminate the cross product term from the equation 4x? = day + y? — 8V5x — 16VSy. Do not camry out the rotation, [Gi The conie sections in Exercises 17-26 were chosen to have rotation angles that were “nice” inthe sense that once we Knew cot 2a or tan 2a we could idemify 2 and find sn and cos fom familia t- anges in Exercises 29-34, use a calulator to find an angle «through hich the coordinate axes can be rotated to change the given equa jto a quadratic equation that has no exoss product term. Then fd sinat and cos two decimal laces and use Equations (6) 10 find the coefficients ofthe new equation to the nearest decimal place. In each ‘ase say whether the conic secon isn eps, a byperbola, ora parabola 2. Fy hat ban ye 30, 22 tay yt tae 31 Ay t4y? 5-0 32, 26? = Iay + I 33. 3x2 + Say + 29? — By — 34 2 + Ty + 92 + Me — 8 Theory and Examples 38. Wht effect does 90° rotation about the origin have onthe equa ‘ions ofthe flowing conic setions? Give the new equation in cach cae a. Theellipse (x'/a") + (9°/B4) = 1 (a > B) 1, The hyperbola (="/a2) = (7/6) = 1 . Thecilex? +y? =a? 4. The line» = me ¢. Theline y= me + b 36. What effect does 180° rotation about the origin have on the equations of the following cone sections? Give the new equation ineach case. - The ellipse ("fa") + (35%) = 1 (@ > 8) 1, The hyperbola 2/4") = (07/6) = | «. Thecitelex? + y? = a? 4. Theline y = me «The line y= me > 6 137. The Hyperbolaay = a The hyperbola ay = 1 is one of many Ihyperboas ofthe Form xy = o that appear in science and mathe- matics, 4 Rotate the coordinate axes through an angle of 45° to change ‘the equation x» = | nto an equation with no xterm. What isthe new equation? bb. Do the same forthe equation xy = @ ‘38, Find the eccentricity ofthe hyperbola xy 40. at Can anything be said about the graph of the equation x* + By + Gy? + De + Ey + F=0 if AC <0? Give reasons for your Degenerate conies Doss any nondegenerate conic section Ax + By + Cy? + Dr + Ey + F = Ohnveall ofthe folow- ing properties? a. It is symmetric with respect tothe origi, . Ttpasses through the point (1, 0) € His tangent othe Hine y = 1 atthe point (~ Give reasons for your answer. ‘Show that the equation x? + y= a? becomes x2 + y"® or every choice ofthe angle a inthe rotation equations (4). 42, Show that rotating the axes through an angle of 7/4 radians will lima te the xterm from Equation (1) whenever 4 43, a, Decide whether the equation 45, 46. 47. Pt dy ay + Get I HI represents an ellipse, « parabola ora hyperbola b. Show that the graph ofthe equation in part (asthe line Dy =e -3. 4 Decide wheter the conic section wits equation ox? + Gay +? reprosons a parabola, an ellipse a hyperbola. be Show thatthe graph ofthe equation in part a) isthe line yr nde +2. a, What kind of cone section isthe curve xp + 2x — y= 07 1, Solve the equation xy + 2 — y= 0 foryand sete the ccurveas the graph ofa rational function of x «. Find equations for the lines parallel tothe line y = ~2e tht Are normal to the curve. Add the lines o your sketch Prove or Find counterexamples to the fllowing statements about the graph of Ax? + Bay + Gy? + Dx + By + F a. IFAC > 0, the graph isan ellipse. , IFAC > 0, the graph is hyperbols. IFAC < 0, the graph i hyperbols A nice area formula for ellipses When 8° ~ 44C is negative, the equation War dy +40 AP + By + OPI represents an ellipse, Ihe ellipse’ semi-axes area and bits area ie-rab (a standard formula) Show tht the sea is also given by the formula 2m/V4AC ~ 8, (Hint: Rotate the coordinate axes to eliminate the y-term and apply Equation (12) tothe new equa tion) ‘Other invariants We describe the fac that B ~ 44°C equals BP — 4AC after rotation about the origin by saying that the dis- criminant af a quadratic equation is an marian ofthe equation.10.4 Conics and Parametric Equations; The Cycloid 693 Use Equations (6) to show that the numbers (a) A+ C and (b) 49, A proof that B'? ~ 44°C = BY ~ 44C Use Equations (6) to _D? + E* age also invariants, inthe sense that show that B — 44'C’ = B? ~ 44C for any rotation of axes See ae cee a about the origin, We can use these equalities to check against numerical errors when we rota aes. STEM Conics and Parametric Equations; The Cycloid FIGURE 10.28 The path defined by £= hy = 8,00 << ooisthe centre parabola y = x? (Example 1). (Curves in the Cartesian plane defined by parametric equations, and the calculation oftheir derivatives, were introduced in Section 3.5. There we studied parametrizations of lines, circles, and ellipses. In this section we discuss parametrization of parabolas, hyperbolas, eycloids, brachistocrones, and tautocrones. Parabolas and Hyperbolas In Section 3.5 we used the parametrization xeVA oy 6h 1>0 to describe the motion of a particle moving along the right branch of the parabola In the following example we obtain a parametrization of the entire parabola, not just its right branch. EXAMPLE 1 An Entire Parabola ‘The position P(x, ) of particle moving in the xy-plane is given by the equations and pa- rameter interval x= ySR, 0 0-, reaches (I, 0) at = 0, and ‘moves out into the first quadrant as # increases toward ar/2_ (Figure 10.29), . Cycloids ‘The problem with a pendulum clock whose bob swings in a circular are is that the fre= quency of the swing depends on the amplitude of the swing. The wider the swing, the longer it takes the bob to return (o center (its lowest position). “This does not happen ifthe bob can be made to swing in a cyeloid. In 1673, Christiaan “Huygens designed a pendnlum clock whose bob would swing ina eycloid, a curve we de- fine in Example 3. He hung the bob from a fine wire constrained by guards that caused it to draw up as it swung away from center (Figure 10.30), EXAMPLE 3 Parametrizing a Cycloid A wheel of radius a rolls along a horizontal straight line. Find parametric equations for the path traced by a point P on the wheel’ circumference. The path is called a eyeloid, Solution We take the line to be the x-axis, mark a point P on the whee, start dhe wheel ‘with P at the origin, and roll the wheel to the right. As parameter, we use the angle # through which the wheel turns, measured in radians. Figure 10.31 shows the wheel a short while later, when its base lies ar units from the origin, The wheels center C lies at (at, a) and the coordinates of P are x a+asind, at +acosd, y To express fin terms of f, we observe that 1 + @ = 3ar/2 in the figure, so that — ost es(8E=1)=-sing snd =n (28-1) = Tecate emi x= a(r—sint), y= a(1 — coss). a)i») a aa FIGURE 10.32 The eycloid x alt ~ sind, y = a(l = c0st, for 120. FIGURE 10.33, To study motion along an upside-down cyeloid under the influence of gravity, we turn Figure 10:32 upside down. This points the y-axis inthe direction ofthe gravitational force and rakes the downward y-coordinates positive, The equations and parameter interval for the eyelid are still = ali sina, y= all ~ cos), 10 ‘The arraw shows the direction of increasing 10.4 Conics and Parametric Equations; The Cycioid 695 Brachistochrones and Tautochrones If we tun Figure 1032 upside down, Equations (1) sil apply and the resulting curve (Figure 10.33) bas two interesting physical properties. Te first relates tothe origin O and the point B at the botiom of the frst arch, Among all smooth curves joining these points, the cycloid is the curve along which a ffietionless bead, subject only to the force of srravty, will slide from O to B the fastest. This makes the eycloid a brachistochrone (Cbrah-kss-toe-krone”), or shortest time curve for these points. The second property is that even if you start the bead partway down the curve toward B, it will til take the bead the same amount of time to reach B. This makes the cycloid a tautachrone (“tau-toe- krone”), or same-time curve for Oand B. Ae there any other brachistoehrones joining and B, or is the eyelid the only one? ‘We can formulate this a mathematical question inthe following way. Atthe start, the ke netic energy of the bead is zero, since its velocity is zero. The work done by gravity in roving the bead from (0,0) to any other point (x,y) in the plane is mgp, and this must equal the change in kinetic energy. That i 1 peu? — (oy? may = } ma? = 4 no} Thus, the velocity of the bead when it reaches (x,y) has to be v= V2«0, Thats, as ithe at ng iio a slong the bea path. ds _ Vi> Corfe ae a- (ayjas? © Vgy Vigy ‘The time Tit takes the bead to stide along a particular path y = f(x) from Oto Blam, 2a) ia [Le yay ue a fu VB ‘What curves.» = f(x), if'any, minimize the value ofthis integral? ‘A frst Sight, we might guess thatthe stright line joining O and B would give the shortest time, but porhaps not. There might be some advantage in having the bead fall vr- tically at frst to buildup its velocity faster. With «higher velocity, the bead could travel longer path and still reach B first, Indeed, this isthe right ide, The solution, from a branch of mathematies known as the calculus of variations, is that the original eycloi from O 10 Bis the one and only brachistochrone for O and B \While the solution of the brachistrochrone problem is beyond our present reach, we can sill show why the cyclo is a tautochrone, For the eycloid, Equation (2) takes the form Teyeria [ Vv ty Foam Eat [eat e ae - [Nien @696 Chapter 10: Conic Sections and Polar Coordinates “Thus, the amount of time it takes the ftictionless bead to slide down the eycloid to B after itis released from rest at Ois 7 Va/a. ‘Suppose that instead of starting the bead at O we str it at some lower point on the ey eloid, a point (xy, 90) corresponding to the parameter value fy > 0. The beads velocity at any later point (x) om the eyeloid is w= Vig =n) = Vigaleost = eos). y Accordingly, the time required for the bead to slide from (xq, ya) dawn to Bis " [@Q—2e0st) ,_ fa f* | 1—cosr Bgalcosin — cos)” = VEf, \ Gost — cone J, V2 h ST. [ {eee Ip NV (2 cos*(to/2) — 1) — (2 cos*(t/2) — 1) la f™ sin (1/2) de malas ong r ae 0s (1/2) I VE 08 (¢9/2) |, = 2/8 -sin-t0 + sin 2g (sin! 0 + sia 1) FIGURE 10.34 Beads released “This is procsely the time it takes the bead to slide to B from 0.1 takes the bead the same simultaneously on the cycloid st 0,4, and amount of time to reach B no matter where it starts. Beads starting simultaneously from O, C will reach B atthe same time. A, and C in Figure 10.34, for instance, will ll reach B atthe same time. This isthe reason that Huygens" pendulum clock is independent of the amplitude ofthe swing Gaim Parametric Equations for Conics Toa nsceh, y= tne —w/2<1 0, be- comes the positive y-axis (Figure 10.41), The two coordinate systems are then related by the following equa Equations Relating Polar and Cartesian Coordinates x= reos8, y= rsiné, 2? + 9’ ‘The first two of these equations uniquely determine the Cartesian coordinates x and y given the polar coordinates r and 6. On the other hand, if and y are given, the third equa- tion gives two possible choices for r (a positive and a negative value) For cach selection, there is a unique 6 (0, 277) satisfying the first two equations, each then giving a polar co- ordinate representation of the Cartesian point (x,y). The other polar coordinate representa- tions for the point can be determined from these two, as in Example 1.24 d=9 r= 6sin@ FIGURE 10.62 The circle in Example 5. 105 Polar Coordinates = 701 EXAMPLE 4 Equivalent Equations Polar equation Cartesian equivalent reos@ = 2 x=2 Pecos sin’ Peost@ — rina r= 1+ 2re0s0 yio ae? -dy-1=0 = cos 0 xt byte ae? + 2d + 29? = y th some curves, we are better off with polar coordinates; with others, we aren't. EXAMPLE 5 Converting Cartesian to Polar Find a polar equation for the circle x? + (y ~ 3 = 9 (Figure 10.42). Solution vty oy t9=9 Expand (y ~ 39 aL geo The S cancel 2 — 6rsin# = 0 ad r=0 or r—6sina=0 6sin@ ——_tncladesboihposibilies ‘We will say more about polar equations of conic sections in Section 10.8, . EXAMPLE 6 Converting Polar to Cartesian Replace the following polar equations by equivalent Cartesian equations, and identify their graphs (a) reos6 = -4 (b) 7? = 4reoso © = Feo = sind Solution We use the substitutions ros @ = x,rsind (a) rcosé = -4 ‘The Cartesian equation: reo = —4 xen4 ‘The graph: Vertical line through x = —4 onthe x-axis (b) P= Arcos The Cartesian equation: Complain he sare7O2 chapter 10: Conic Sections and Polar Coordinates r= ‘The Cartesian equation: ‘The graph: 2eosé = siné Line, slope m = 2, y-intercept 6 r(2c080 — sin 9) = 4 2rcos# ~ sind = 4 2e-y=4 yoden4 4 . ee Polar Coordinate Pairs 1. Which polar coordinate pairs labo the same point? 26.0) b (3.0) . (2,24/3) 4. 2,79/3) (3m LAW) & (-3,28) b, (2, -2/3) 2. Which polar coordinate pairs labo the same point?” a (-2,9/3) D2,-7/3) & 0) a otal © (-n9) £ Q,-20/3) & (-n0 +2) h, (-2,29/3) 43. Plot the flowing points (given in polar coordinates), Then find all the polar coordinates ofeach point (2.7/2) b.2.0) © (-2,9/2) (2.0) 4, Plot te flowing points (given in polar coordinates). Then find all the polar coordinates ofeach point. a 3.4/4) b. (3.2/4) © G-/4) a (-3, -7/4) Polar to Cartesian Coordinates 5, Find the Cartesian coordinates ofthe points in Exercise |. 6, Find the Cartesian coordinates of the following points (given in polar coordinates, = (Vii) 2.0) © (O./2) a. (-Vi,9/4) & (3, Sm/6) & (5,tan7!(4/3)), (17) b. (2V4,20/3) Graphing Polar Equations and Inequalities Graph the es of points whose polar coordinates sats the equations an inequities in Exercises 7-22, Lead Bosrs2 % r=) Wrsrs2 ML OS0Sa/6, F201 = 2n/, PS —2 0-5/3, -1srs3 15. @= 7/2, r=0 0s0sm 7 14.0= Ma/, r= 1 16.0 9/2, r=0 1.0595, 19, 3/4 S05 30/4, Or SI 1%, -a/4 5055/4, -1srs1 2. -a/2s0< 5/2, 15752 2.050=5/2, 1s|r/52 Polar to Cartesian Equations Replace the polar equations in Exercises 23-48 by equivalent Carte- sian equations. Then desert or identify the graph. 23. cos 24, rsin# = ~1 25. rsine = 0 26, reosd = 0 Ber = deseo 2B r= 3200) 28, ros + rsin® = 30, rsind = reosé a 32. P= 4rsin€ Br- so BM. Psin20 = 2 38. 7 = cot Bese 8 36. r= 4tanB sec 31. 7 = csc o"™ 3B rsin@ = Ine + Incos 3. + DPeos sind = 1 40, cos? = sind ar cos = ~6rsind Ber = Bsind 44 r= 3080) AB 1 = 2080+ 2sind 46. r= Des ~ sind sr rin(ne )=2 Cartesian to Polar Equations Replace the Cartesian equations in Exereses 49-62 by equivalent po- lar equations. a8=7 Shxr-y10.6 Graphing in Polar Coordinates 703 57. y? = ae SB toy + 1 64, Vertical and horizontal lines: a eee ae ee 4. Show that every vertical ine inthe ssplane has apolar GL (eB Fy FIP ed ie bP 4 Ly SP = 1 esuaton ofthe form = asec 8 Theory and Examples 6, Find all polar coordinates of the origin, ‘Find the analogous polar equation for horizontal Hines in the span. WAM Graphing in Polar Coordinates This section describes techniques for graphing equations in polar coordinates. Symmetry Figure 10.43 illustrates the standard polar coordinate tests for symmetry. y ino) ore 84 a) r-0) rene 8) Crmorite += () About ihe rans (©) About ihe yas (6) About he eign FIGURE 10.43 ‘Three tests for symmetry in polar coordinates. Symmetry Tests for Polar Graphs ‘Shmmetry about the x-axis: If the point (r, 6) lies on the graph, the point (7,0) or (=r, 7 ~ 0) lies on the graph (Figure 10.438). ‘Symmetry about the y-axis: IF the point (r, 8) lies on the graph, the point (7, ~ 9) or (~r, 6) lies on the graph (Figure 10.43b). ‘Symmetry about the origin: Ifthe point (7, @) lies on the graph, the point (Gr,8) or (r,0 + a7) lies on the graph (Figure 10.43c), Slope ‘The slope of a polar curve r = f(0) is given by dy/dr, not by r’ = df/dd. To see why, think of the graph of fas the graph ofthe parametric equations = reost = f(@)cos8, y= rsind = f(6) sind.704 chapter 10: Conic Sections and Polar Coordinates « FIGURE 10.44 The steps in graphing the cardioidy = 1 ~ cos (Example 1). The arrow shows the direction of increasing 8 Iff is a differentiable function of @, then so are x and y and, when did # 0, we can cal- culate dy/dv from the parametric formula ae one: Seeton 35, Eauton 2) de> d/o wie 0 (110): sin) ao i (F10) + 0056) 4 sna + s(0) 088 = FF _ rotates gases ~ f(0)sin 8 Slope of the Curve r = f(@) | | L(0)sin 0 + f(@) cose ia) f'(0)e080 — f(@) sind” | provided did8 Oat (r 0) the curve r = f(0) passes through the origin at 8 = 6p, then f(03) = 0, and the slope equation gives 10s) sin Oy FG) cos) ~ the graph of r = /(@) passes through the origin atthe value @ = @, the slope of the ‘curve there is tan p. The reason we say “slope at (0, @)” and not just “slope at the origin” is that a polar curve may pass through the origin (or any point) more than once, with dif- ferent slopes at different §-values. This is not the casein our first example, however. EXAMPLE 1A Cardioid Graph the curve r = 1 ~ cos, Solution The curve is symmetric about the x-axis because (7,8) on the graph = r= 1 — cos r= 1 cos (8) stoi) = (r,-#) on the graph, ‘As @ increases from 0 to 7, cos@ decreases from 1 to —1, and r = I~ cos increases from a minimum value of © to a maximum value of 2. As @ continues on from 7 t0 27, c05 0 increases from —1 back to 1 and r decreases from 2 back to 0. The curve starts to repeat when @ = 2rr because the cosine has period 27 ‘The curve leaves the origin with slope tan (0) = 0 and returns to the origin with slope tan (277) = 0. ‘We make a table of values from @ = 0 to. = zr, plot the points, draw a smooth curve through them with a horizontal tangent a the origin, and reflect the curve across the x-axis to complete the graph (Figure 10.44). The curve is called a cardioid because of its heart shape. Cardioid shapes appear in the cams that direct the even layering of thread on bob- bins and reels, and in the signal-strength pattern of certain radio antennas. .10.6 Graphing in Polar Coordinates 705, EXAMPLE 2 Graph the Curve r? = 4eos@. Solution The equation r? = 4 cas @ requires cas @ = 0, so we get the entire graph by running @ ftom —7/2 to 2/2. The curve is symmetric about the x-axis because Acoso (7,8) on the graph =r? = cos (-#) cos = con (-8) = (7, -0) on the graph. The curve is also symmetric about the origin because (y,4) on the graph => r? = 4cos@ =P cos = (7,0) on the graph ‘Together, these two symmetries imply symmetry about the y-axis, ‘The curve passes through the origin when @ = ~z/2.and 6 = 77/2. It has a vertical tangent both times because tan # is infinite. For each value of @ in the interval between ~7/2 and a/2, the formula r? gives two values of 7 eos r= £2Ve080. We make a short table of values, plot the corresponding points, and use information about symmetry and tangents to guide us in connecting the points with a smooth curve (Figure 10.49). . 0 [ewa oft at iM 4 at] av Pap! 2F | o 3 FIGURE 10.45 The graph of ? = 4 cos 6. The arrows show the direction ‘of increasing 0. The values of rn the table are rounded (Example 2, A Technique for Graphing One way to graph a polar equation r = /(6) is to make a table of (7, 8)-values, plot the corresponding points, and connect them in order of inereasing @. This ean work well if ‘enough points have been plotted to reveal all the loops and dimples in the graph. Another method of graphing that is usually quicker and more reliable isto 1. first graph r = f(0) inthe Cartesian r0-plane, 2. then use the Cartesian graph asa “table” and guide to sketch the polar coordinate graph.706 Chapter 10: Conie Sections and Polar Coordinates No square rots of egnive numbers ap = ps from ° een r= van \N #4 FIGURE 10.48 Toplotr = j(@) inthe Cartesian plane in (b), we first plot 1° = sin20 in the °9-plane in (a) and then ignore the values of @for which sin 28 is regative. The adi fom the sketch in (0) cover the polar graph ofthe lemniscats in (6) ovice (Example 3), ‘This method is better than simple point plotting because the first Cartesian graph, ceven when hastily drawn, shows ata glance where ris positive, negative, and nonexistent, as well as where ris increasing and decreasing, Here’s an example. EXAMPLE 3A Lemniscate Graph the curve sin 26, Solution Here we begin by plotting r? (not r) as a function of @ in the Cartesian Po-plane. See Figure 106a, We pass from there tothe graph of r= ++Vsin20 in the 0-plane (Figure 10.46b), and then draw the polar graph (Figure 10.46c). The graph in Figure 10.46b “covers” the final polar graph in Figure 10.46e twice, We could have man- aged with either loop alone, with the two upper halves, or with the two lover halves. The double covering does no harm, however, and we actually learn afte more abou the be tavior ofthe function this way. . Finding Points Where Polar Graphs Intersect ‘The fact that we can represent a point in different ways in polar coordinates makes extra ‘care necessary in deciding when @ point lies on the graph of a polar equation and in deter- ‘mining the points in which polar graphs intersect. The problem is that a point of intersec- tion may satisfy the equation of one curve with polar coordinates that are different from the ones with which it satisfies the equation of another curve. Thus, solving the equations of two curves simultaneously may not identify all their points of intersection, One sure \way to identify all the points of intersection is to graph the equations EXAMPLE 4 — Deceptive Polar Coordinates Show thatthe point (2, 7/2) lies on the curve r = 2.cos 20. Solution It may seem at first that the point (2, 7/2) does not lie on the curve because ‘substituting the given coordinates into the equation gives 2naa(Q) <2 Which is not a true equality. The magnitude is right, but the sign is wrong. This suggests looking for pair of coondinates forthe same given point in which rs negative, for exam ple, (=2, ~(a/2)). If we try these in the equation r = 2 eos 28, we find = 20082(-¥) = 21-1) = and the equation is satisfied. The point(2, 7/2) does lie on the curve. . EXAMPLE 5 Elusive Intersection Points Find the points of intersection of the curves r= 40080 andHistorical Biocrapiy Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) 10.6 Graphing in Polar Coordinates 707 Solution In Cartesian coordinates, we can always find the points where two curves cross by solving their equations simultaneously. In polar coordinates, the story i different. ‘Simultaneous solution may reveal some intersection points without revealing others. In this example, simultaneous solution reveals only two of the four intersection points. The others are found by graphing. (Also, see Exercise 49.) If we substitute cos @ = r2/4 in the equation 1 = cos@, we get r= 1-cos6=1- aa4- P+dr-4=0 r= -242V2 Quadratic formula ‘The value r = ~2 ~ 22 has too large an absolute value to belong to either curve. “The values of @ corresponding tor = -2 + 2V2are @ = cos (1 7) Fromr = 1 ~ cos = cos '(1- (2V2-2)) sara 2V3-2 = eos"!(3 ~ 2V3) = 280° Heil pre We have thus identified two intersection points: (7,6) = (2-V2 ~ 2, +80"). If we graph the equations r? = 4 cos @ andr = | — cos @ together (Figure 10.47), as ‘xe can now do by combining the graphs in Figures 10.44 and 10.45, we se thatthe curves also intersect atthe point (2, and the origin, Why werent the rales of these points revealed by the simultaneous solution? The answer i thatthe points (0, 0) and (2, 7) are not on the curves “simultaneously” They are not reached at the same value of @. On the ‘curve r = 1 ~ cos@, the point (2, 7) is reached when @ = 7. On the curve r? = 4 cos 8, itis reached when # = 0, where iti identified not by the coordinates (2,7), which do ‘not satisfy the equation, but by the coordinates (~2, 0), which do. Similarly, the cardioid reaches the origin when 8 = 0, but the curve r? = 4cos@ reaches the origin when O= a2. . FIGURE 10.67 The four points ofimrsection of the curves r= | ~ c08 and 7? = 40s @ Example 5). Only 4 and B were found by simultaneous solution. ‘The other two were disclosed by graphing.JOB Chapter 10: Conic Sections and Polar Coordinates USING TECHNOLOGY Graphing Potar Curves Parametrically For complicated polar curves we may need to use a graphing calelator or computer to graph the curve. If the device does not plot polar graphs directly, we ean conver: r= /(8) into parametric form using the equations = rsind = f(0) sine “Then we use the device to draw a parametrized curve inthe Cartesian xp-plane. It may be required to use the parameter rather than @ forthe graphing device. x= reos 6 = j(8) cas6, Symmetries and Polar Graphs 23, Dimpted masons density the symmsres ofthe carves in Exercises 1-12. Then sketch eae oe the carves 2 2 Lm 1+ cond r= 2-2eosd 24, Oval agons r= sind Aral sing ct osb b 5 r=2+ sind Brit 2sind ‘ sin (6/2) £08(@/2) Graphing Polar Inequalities coe me 25. Sketch the region defined by the inequalities 1 Inside one lea of the four-leaved rose r = cos 28 Inside the lemniseate r? = 2a cos20, a > 0 3. 4, 5, Inside one lop ofthe lenniscater? = 4 sin 20 6. Inside the st-leaved tse 7? = 2 sin 30 Areas Shared by Polar Regions Find the areas of the regions in Exercises 7-16, 7. Shared by the circles r = 2c0s 0 andr = 2 sin 8. Shared by the circles r= Jandy = 2-sin 9. Shared bythe circle r = 2 andthe cardioid r = 2(1 — cos) 10, Shared by the cards r = 2(1 + cos @) and r = 2(1 ~ 050) 11, Inside the lemniscate r? = 6e0820 and outside the circle v3 12, Inside the citcle += 30c05@ and outside the cardioid all + c086),a > 0 13, Inside the circle = ~2¢0s @ and outside the circle = 1 Inside the outer loop of the limagon r= 2cos@ +t (See Figure 1051.) 'b Inside the outer loop and outside the inner loop of the Timagon r = 2e0s@ + 1 15, Inside the eireler = 6 above the liner = 3ese@ 16, Inside the lemniscate r? = 60828 to the right of the line 3/2) sec a. Find the area ofthe shaded region in the accompanying figure. 1, It looks as ifthe graph ofr = tan 8, ~m/2 <0 < x/2, could be asymptotic tothe linesx = Land x = ~1. Is Give reasons for your answer 18, The area of the region that lies inside the cardioid curve 1 e080 + | and outside the circle r = e0s isnot if* — Lf eo0s wenn s Why not? What isthe area? Give reasons for your answersLengths of Polar Curves Find the lengths ofthe curves in Exercises 19-27 19, The spiral r= 6, 0505 V5 20, The spiral r = e8/V2, 0 21. The eardioidy = 1 + cos 22, Theeurver = asin'(6/2), 0505 m, a>0 28. The parboic segment r = 6/(1 + cos), 0 0 = x/2 24. The parabolic segment r= 2/(1 ~ cos), n/2=0= x 25. The curve r = cos’ (0/3), 05 05 a/4 26. Theeuver = V+ sind, 0502 rV 27, theeuver = Vi+ e528, 0= 0-2 2V2 28. Cireumferences of circles As usual, when faced with a new {formula itis « good idea to ty it on familiar objects to be sure it ives results consistnt with past experience. Use the length for: ‘mula in Equation (3) to caleulate the circumferences of the fol- Towing circles (a > 0} area br cod r= asin’ ‘Surface Area Find the areas ofthe surfaces generated by revolving the eurves in Ex ercises 29-32 about the indicated axes, 29, /eos26, 0= 0 m/4, y-axis 30. r= V20, 0505 w/2, saris 31. 7? = c0828, axis 32 r= 2acoss, a>0, paris Theory and Examples 33, The length of the eurver = f(@),a = 0 = B Assuming that the necessary derivatives are continuous, show how the substtu- sions x= f(@)c0s8, y= (0) sin8 LNG) -G)« t- [ee 34. Average v1 Jieommons te mega fhe ta coordinate rover the curve F = B, with respect 100 is given by the formula 10.7 Areas and Lengths in Polar Coordinates = 715, Use this formula to find the average value of r with respect to @ ‘over the following curves (a > 0) a The eardioid r = a1 ~ cos) b, Thecireler = @ © Thecittler = acos®, —m/2=0< n/2 38. r= f(@) vs. ¢ = 2f(0) Can anything be said about the relative lengths of the curves r= f(0),a= 0 = B, and r= 2/(0). a= @ = B? Give reasons for your anster. 36. r= f(0) ws. 7 = 24(0) The curves = f(0),a = 0 = Band = 2J(0),¢ = 0 = B, are revolved about the x-axis to generate surfaces. Can anything be said about the relative areas of these surfaces? Give reasons for your answer. Centroids of Fan-Shaped Regions Since the centoid ofa tangle is located on esch median, two-thirds of the way from the vertex tothe opposite base, the lever arm fr the moment about the x-axis of the thin (angular region in the accompa nying figure is about (2/3)rsin@. Similarly, the lever arm for the mo- ‘ment of the triangular negion about the y-axis is about (2/3)r€08 8 ‘These approximations improve as 48 —0 and lead to the following formulas forthe coordinates ofthe centroid of region AOB: swith Tits @ @to0 ~ B onal integrals 37. Find the centroid of the region enclosed by the cardioid r= all + c050) 38. Find the centoid of the semiciular region 0< r= a, os0sn716 ——Chepter 10: Conic Sections and Polar Coordinates Conic Sections in Polar Coordinates Pde) Polar coordinates are important in astronomy and astronautical engineering because the ellipses, parabolas, and hyperbolas along which satellites, moons, planets, and comets approximately move can all be described with a single relatively simple coordinate equa- tion. We develop that equation here. Lines ‘Suppose the perpendicular from the origin to line L meets L at the point Po(ry, 60), with r= 0 (Figure 10.56), Then, if P(r, 8) is any other point on L, the points P, Fa, and O are the vertices of a right triangle, from which we can read the relation ry = reos(@ ~ 64) FIGURE 10.56 We can obiain polar squaton fr line by eang the relation ro = rc0s(@ =) fom te right riangle OPP. 3) at " FIGURE 20.57 The standard polar ‘equation of this Tine converts tothe Cartesian equation x + V3} (Example 1), FIGURE 10.58 We can geta polar equation for this circle by applying the Law of Cosas to triangle OP, #. The Standard Polar Equation for Lines Ifthe point Po(rp, 6p) is the foot of the perpendicular from the origin to the line Land ry = 0, then an equation for L is eos (0 ~ 64) = ro @ EXAMPLE 1 Converting a Line's Polar Equation to Cartesian Form Use the identity cos (A ~ B) = cosA cos B + sin sin B (o find a Cartesian equation for the line in Figure 10.57. Solution roos (0 7 5) 2 Aesbos’ +snosn) =2 Circles ‘To find a polar equation for the circle of radius a centered at Po(ry, 64), we let P(r, 0) be a point on the circle and apply the Law of Cosines to triangle OP)P (Figure 10.58). This ives a? = r+ 2 — Qryrcos (8 ~ 64).10,8 Conic Sections in Polar Coordinates 717 the circle passes through the origin, then rp = a and this equation simplifies to a a? +r? ~ 2ar cos (0 ~ 0) 1? = 2ar cos (@ ~ 65) 1 = 2ac0s(6 ~ 6). IF the cirele's center lies on the positive x-axis, 6) = 0 and we get the further simplifica- tion r= 2acose (see Figure 10.59) If the center lies on the positive y-axis, @ = 17/2,cos (0 ~ m/2) = sin8, and the equation r = 2a.cos (@ — 6) becomes: r= 2asin (sce Figure 10.59b), 4 FIGURE 10.59 Polar equation ofa circle of radius a through the and (6) the postive oy Equations for circles through the origin centered on the negative x- and y-axes can be obtained by replacing r with —r in the ahove equations (Figure 10.60), = ta in FIGURE 10.60 Polar equation ofa cirle of radius a through the ‘origin with center on (a) the negative x-axis, and (b) the negative axis718 Chapter 10: Cone Sections and Polar Coordinates Dirsrn oe FIGURE 10.61 Ifa conic section is putin the postion with its focus placed a the origin and a directix perpendicular tothe intial ray and sight of the origin, we ean Find its polar equation from the conic's oeus directrix equation, EXAMPLE 2 Circles Through the Origin Center Polar Radius (polar coordinates) ‘equation 3 6.0) 1 = 6038 z (2.7/2) sino 42 (-1/2,0) —c0s 6 1 (1.7/2) rm -2sing Ellipses, Parabolas, and Hyperbolas ‘To find polar equations for ellipses, parabolas, and hyperbolas, we place one focus at the origin and the corresponding directrix to the right of the origin along the vertical line x = k (Figure 10.61). This makes PP and. PD =k Fi ‘The conie’s focus-tireetrix equation PF k= reoso. e+ PD then becomes r= elk ~ reos6), which can be solved for r to obtain Polar Equation for a Conic with Eccentricity & a T# ecosd” ® where x = > Os the vertical directrix. ‘This equation represents an ellipse if 0 < e < 1, parabola if e = 1, and a hyperbola if > 1. That is, ellipses, parabolas, and byperbolas all have the same basic equation ex- pressed in terms of eccentricity and location of the directrix. EXAMPLE 3. Polar Equations of Some Conics ane! S80 ellipse r= yep gece porbola = r= 74 2k hyperbola reo .10.8 Conic Sections in Polar Coordinates 719 ‘You may sce variations of Equation (2) from time to time, depending on the location of the directrix. Ifthe directrix isthe line x = —K to the left ofthe origin (the origin is still a focus), we replace Equation (2) by be T= cost ‘The denominator now has a (—) instead of a (+). If the directrix is either of the lines y= k or y = —k, the equations have sines in them instead of cosines, as shown in Figure 10.62, be Focus at origin Focus at origin Dineen x= & Cy o se te sind ein r Ye Disccuin y = k | ee Foowray, / ny Dineen y = © ® FIGURE 10.62 Equations for conic sections with cccentrcity € > 0, but different locations ofthe iretrx. The graphs here show a parabola, soe = 1 EXAMPLE 4 Polar Equation of a Hyperbola Find an equation forthe hyperbola with eccentricity 3/2 and directrix x = 2. Solutfon We use Equation (2) with £ = 2ande = 3/2: 20/2) 6 "1 Gpheos6 T¥ 300800 EXAMPLE 5 — Finding a Directrix Find the directrix ofthe parabola720 Chapter 10: Conic Sections and Polar Coordinates FIGURE 10.63 In anellipse with semimajor axis, the focus-dicetrix distance is k= (a/e) ~ ea, $0 ke = all ~ e?) Apel Peielion positon prion fo 3atr Dose au from sin) tm \ / Ve FIGURE 10.64 The orbit of Pluto (Example 6), Solution We divide the numerator and denominator by 10 to put the equation in stan- dard form: 572 T+ cos6 ‘This is the equation ee T+ ecosd with & = 5/2 ande = 1. The equation of the directrix is.x = 5/2 . From the ellipse diagram in Figure 10.63, we see that k is related to the eccentricity & and the semimajor axis a by the equation From this, we find that ke = a(1 — e2). Replacing he in Equation (2) by a(1 ~ e*) gives the standard polar equation for an ellipse Polar Equation for the Ellipse with Eccentricity e and Semimajor Axis a ail * @) Notice that when e = 0, Equation (3) hecomes r = a, which represents a circle. Equation (3) isthe starting point for calculating planetary oxbits. EXAMPLE 6 The Planet Pluto's Orbit Find a polar equation for an ellipse with semimajor axis 39.44 AU (astronomical units) and eccentricity 0.25. This isthe approximate size of Pluto's orbit around the sun. Solution We use Equation (3) with a = 39.44 and ¢ = 0.2510 find _ 3944(1 = (0.257) _ 1479 T=" T+ O25 cosd ~ 4+ cosd tits point of closest approach (perihelion) where 6 = 0, Pluto is 47.9 rae 29,58 AU from the sun. At its most distant point (aphelion) where @ = 7, Pluto is, 147.9 49.3 AU from the sun (Figure 10.64), .Lines Find polar and Cartesian equations for the lines in Exercises 1-4. 1 2 ‘Sketch the lines in Exercises 5-8 and find Cartesian equations for scre(e-d)evE armen) 8. reos(9+ 3) =2 1 reos (0 = 2) = Find a polar equation inthe form ros (0 ~ @) = ry for each of the lines in Exercises 9-12, 9. Vis + V2y=6 10, V3x y= = 2 -1 "i Circles Find polar equations forthe circles in Exercises 13-16 13. 4 10.8. Conic Sections in Polar Coordinates 721. Radins = V3 7 ‘Sketch the circles in Exercises 17-20, Give polar coordinates for their centers and identify thei ra 11 r= 4080 18, r= 6sino 19, r= ~2eos Mr = -8sino Find polar equations forthe circles in Exercises 21-28. Sketch each circle in the coordinate plane and label i¢ with both its Cartesian and, polar equations. Ue - OR +y2= 36 ee DP Hye s Bee a2S MH + TF 8+ 2e+y 26 = V6 ty? metry tyno wet byt Conic Sections from Eccentricities and Directrices [Exercises 29-36 give the eccentricities of conic sections with one fo- cus at the origin, along with the dreetix corresponding to that focus. Find a polar equation for each conic section. Weml, x=2 Ment, BL e=5, y=—6 32 e=2, se= 1 x Bee = 1/4, ee 35 = 1/ Way Parabolas and Ellipses ‘ketch the prabolas and ellipses in Exercises 37-44. Include the diree- ‘mx that corresponds tothe focus at the origin, Label the vertices with appropriate polar coordinates. Label the centers ofthe ellipses a Well Hata oe 3 Ty cos 38 TT cost = oe r= Ty Sead = esd _ 400 2 Mer TES sain -722 chapter 10: Coie Sections and Polar Coordinates Graphing Inequalities ‘Sketch the regions defined by the inequalities in Exercises 45 and 46, 45.0575 2000 46, Beas = r=0 Grapher Explorations Graph the tines and conic sections in Exercises 47-56, 47. r= 3s00(0 — 2/3) 48, 7 = 4500 (0 + 7/6) 49, r= 4sind 50, r= eos SL r= 8/(4 + cosa) 52. = 8/(4 + sind) 53. 1(l — sino) ‘54. 7 = 1/(1 + cos) SB. r= 11+ 2sind) 86, r= 1/1 + Deo) Theory and Examples 457, Perihelion and aphelion planet travels about its sun in an cllipse whose semimajor axis has length a, (See accompanying figure) ‘4 Show thar = o(1 ~ e) when the planets loses othe sun ad thatr = a(1 + e) when the planets farthest fom the sun 'b. Use the data inthe table in Exercise 58 to find how close each planet in our solar system comes to the sun and how far away cach planet gets fom the sun Aptition Pasittion ities {closest frm si tosun) Planet 58. Planetary In Example 6, we found a polar equation for ‘he orbit of Pluto. Use the data in the table below t Find polar ‘equations for he omits of the other planets Semimajor axis Planet (sironomical units) Pecentr Mercury 03871 0.2056 Venus 0.7233 0.0068 arth 1.000 oo? Mars sat 0.0034 Jupiter 5208 0.0484 Saturn 9.539 Uranus 19.8 ‘Neptune 30.06 Plo 304 Find Cartesian equations for the curves r= V3 8008, ', Sketch the curves together and label their points of intersection in both Cartesian and polar coordinates (60. Repeat Exercise $9 forr = 8cos@ and r= 2sec6. 61. Find a polar equation forthe parabola with foes (0,0) and direc trix reos (2. Find a potar equation for the parabola with focus (0,0) and dee itis rcos (0 — 7/2) = 2 63. a. The space engineer's formula for eccentricity The space ‘engineers formula fr the eccentricity ofan clita orbit is ‘where ris the distance From the space vehicle to the atracting focus of he ellipse along which it travels, Why does the formula work? 1. Drawing ellipses with string You havea sting with a knot leach end that can be pinned toa drawing board. The sting |S 10 in. long from the center of one knot tthe center ofthe other. How far part should the pins be to use the method. iMlutated in Figure 10.5 (Section 10.1) to draw an ellipse of ‘eccentricity (12? The resulting ellipse would resemble the cbt of Mercury. 64, Halley’s comet (See Section 1.2, Example 1) ‘4, Write an equation for the orbit of Halley's comet in a ‘ornate system in which the sun lies athe origin and the ‘other focus lies on the negative x-axis, scaled in astronomical by, How close does the comet come tothe sun in astronomicel ‘units? In kilometers? ‘e. What i the farthest the comet gts from the ua in astronomical units? In kilometers? In Exercises 65-68, find a polar equation for the given curve. In each case, sketch atypical eure, 65.28 +9? — Jay = 0 66, y? = ax + da? 67. xcosa + ysina =p (a,p.consant) 8. (2 + y?P + Dante? + 9) = ay? = 0 COMPUTER EXPLORATIONS 69, Use a CAS to plot the polar equation pete + ecosd for various values of kand e, —1 = @ = m. Answer the follow ing questions. 4, Take k = ~2, Describe what happens tothe plots as you take to be 3/4, 1, and 5/4, Repeat fork = 2.‘Take & = —1. Describe what happens othe pts as you take eto be 7/6, 5/4, 4/3, 3/2,2, 3,5, 10, and 20. Repeat for = 1/2,1/3,1/4, 1/10, and 1/20. «e. Now keep > 0 fixed and deseribe what happens as you take tobe ~1, -2, -3, ~4, and —5. Be sure to look at graphs for paraboas, ellipses, and hyperbola. 10.8 Conic Sections in Polar Coordinates 723, 10. Use a CAS to plot the polar ellipse alt = Te ecosd for various values ofa > Oand 0 < e< 1, —# = 05m. a. Take e = 9/10. Describe what happens tothe plots 2s you let equal 1, 3/2, 2,3, 5, and 10. Repeat with e = 1/4 bh. Take a = 2. Describe what happens as you tke e wo be 9/10, 8/10, 7/10, «1/10, 1/20, and 1/50, 1. What isa parabola? What are the Cartesian equations for parabo- las whose vertices leat the origin and whose Foi lie on the coor: dinate axes? How can you Find the focus and directrix of such 3 parabola from its equation? 2. What isan ellipse? What ae the Cartesian equations for ellipses ‘centered at the origin with foci on one of the coordinate axes? How ean you find the faci, vertices, and directrices of such an el= lipse trom its equation? ‘3. What iss liyperbola? Wha are the Cartesian equations for hyper- bolas centered at the erigin with foci on one of the coordinate axes? How can you Find the foc, vertices, and directrices of such an ellipse from its equation? 4. What i the eccentricity ofa cone section? How can you classify conic seetions by eccentricity’? How arc an ellipses shape and cc contricty elated? ', Explain the equation PF = e+ PD. 66. What is 8 quadratic curve in the xy-plane? Give examples of de- generate and nondegenerate quadratic curves, 7. How can you find a Cartesian coordinate system in which the new ‘equation fora conic section inthe plane has no x)-temn? Give an example. 8. How can you tell what kindof graph to expect from a quadratic ‘equation in and y? Give examples. fe 0 Questions to Guide Your Review 9. What are some typical parametrizations for cone sections? 10. What isa eycloid? What are typical parametric equations for ey- cloids? What physical properties account for the importance of eyeloids? 11, What are polar coordinates? What equations relat polar coordi- ‘ates to Cartesian coordinates? Why might you want to change rom one coordinate system to the other? 12, What consequence does the lack of uniqueness of polar coord nates have for graphing? Give an example, 13, How do you graph equations in polar coordinates? Include in your discussion symmetry, slope, behavior atthe origin, and the use of Cartesian graphs. Give examples. 14, How do you find the atea of a region 0 7(8) =r = r(0), = 9 = B, inthe polar coordinate plane? Give examples. 415, Under what conditions can you find the length of a curve (@), 0 = 6 = B, in the polar coordinate plane? Give an ex- ample of a typical ealelation, 16, Under what conditions ean you find the area ofthe surface gener ated by revolving a curve r= f(@),« = @ = B about the «- axis? The y-axis? Give examples of typical calculations 17, What are the standard equations for lines and conie sections in polar coordinates? Give examples. DRL rrectice exercises Graphing Conic Sections ‘Sketch the parabotas in Exercises 1-4, Include the focus snd directrix imeach sketch. aay 3B yha de Find the eccentricities ofthe ellipses and hyperbola in Exercises 5-8, ‘Sketch each conie section. Include the foci, vertices, and asymptotes (8 appropriate) in your sketch, 5. 6x? + Ty? = 112 23e GP ryrad 8 Sy? — 4? 0724 chapter 10: Conic Sections and Polar Coordinates Shifting Conic Sections Exercises 9-14 give equations for conic sections andl tell how many ‘units up or down and to he right or left och curve isto be shifted. Find ‘an equation forthe now conic section and find the new foe, vertices, ‘centers, and asymptote, as appropriate. Ifthe curve isa parabos, find the new directrix as wel 9. x= =12y, right2,up3 tet 1/2, down = 1 3, downs ot = ates ap 2 Sa, sigu2.up2Vi 1 E21, let io. doun 3s Identifying Conic Sections Identify the nie sections in Exercises 15-22 and find their foci, ver tices, centers, and asymprote (2s appropriate). I the curve is a parabola, Find its direc a wel, 15. 4x4? = 0 17. y= 2y + 16s 19, 907 16? + Sar ~ Oy 20, 252? + Gy? — 100r + Sty = 44 Be xt yt 2 w= 16, 42 ~ y+ ay 18-26 + By a2, a2 + y? + ae + ay Using the Discriminant What cone seein or degenerate cases do the equations in Exercises 23-28 represen? Give a reason for your answer in each case Wty ttetyt lao Wx bay HH ety FL 28.8 $3 $2? ety tds 26.2 + 2y-Yrtstysl 2.8 - nyt yao wt hy + ay =0 Rotating Conic Sections densify the cone sections in Exercises 29-32, Then rate the cootdi- rate axes to find a new equation forthe conic seton that has no cross Product term. (The new equations will vary with the size and direction ofthe rotations used) 29, 2 tay $2)? 15 =0 Be x2 + 2V3ay- y+ 4=0 30. 3x7 + Dey 4 3y? 32 at -dy ty = 9 Identifying Parametric Equations in the Plane Exercises 32-36 give prametic equations and parameter interval for the motion ofa price the plane. Iden the partic’ path by finding @ Cartesian equation for it. Graph the Cartesian equation and indicate the direction of motion and the portion traced by the particle 33, x= (1/2)tans, y= (1/2)sem —w/2<1 0 17, 4-2 -9F = ety ty tive x-axis tothe line through the circles” centers 20, a, Fin! the centroid of the region enclosed by the axis and the ceyeloid arch alt ~ sine), y Find the First moments about the coordinate axes ofthe curve 2/3,» x I cos: 054520 Vig OS1= V9. Polar Coordinates 21, a, Find an equation in polar coordinates for the curve Find the length of the curve from 1 = 0104 = 2a 22, Find the length of the curve r = 2sin'(0/3),0 = 8 = 3a, in the potar coordinate plane 23, Find the area of the surface generated by revolving the firs ‘quadrant portion of the cardioid r = 1 + 05 about the x-axis. (int: Use the identities 1 + cos 0 = 2cos*(0/2) and sind = 2 sin (0/2) c0s (0/2) t simplify the integral.) 24, Sketch the regions enclosed by the eurves r = 2a cos?(0/2) and r= 2asin®(0/2),@ > 0, in the polar coordinate plane and find the area ofthe portion of the plane they have in comimon. Exercises 25-28 give the eccentricities of conic sections with one ‘cus at he origin ofthe polar coordinate plane, along with the diec~ tex for that feus. Find a polar equation for each conie section Wear remd=2 Bem, reoad=—4 Mea 12 rsind=2 — Be= 1/3, rsind=—6 Theory and Examples 29. A rope with a ring in one end is looped over two pegs in a hori- ‘zontal line. The fre end, after being passed through the ring, has ‘8 weight suspended from itto make te rope hang taut. [Fhe rope a0. 31 2 3 Chapter 10 Additonal and Advanced Exercises. = 727 slips frely over the pegs and through the rng, the weight will de- soond as far as possible. Assume thatthe length of the rope i at least four times as great asthe distance between the pegs and that ‘the configuration ofthe rope is symmetric with respect to the line of the vertical part of the rope. ‘4 Find the angle 4 formed atthe bottom ofthe loop inthe secompanying figure. 1b. Show that foreach fixed position ofthe ring on the rope, the possible locations ofthe rng in space lie onan ellipse with foci a the pegs. «Justify the original symmetry assumption by combining the result in part (b) with the assumption thatthe rope and weight ‘ill ikea rest postion ef minimal potential energy. ‘Two radar stations lie 20 km apart along an east-west line. \ low-flying plane traveling from west to east is known (o have a speed of km/sec. AL = 0 a signal is sent from the station at (10,0), bounces off the plane, and is received at (10, 0) 30/e seconds later (c is the velocity of the signal). When £ = 10/0, another signal is sent out from the station at (~10, 0), reflects off the plane, and is once again received 30/c seconds later by the other station, Find the position ofthe plane when it reflects the second signal under the assumption that vy 3s much less than [A comet moves in a parabolic orbit with the sun at the foeus. ‘When the comet is 4 % 107 miles from the su, the line from the ‘comet tothe sun makes 60° angle withthe orbits axis, as sbown, here. How elose will the comet come to the sun? Come, Find the points on the parabola x = 21, closest othe point (0,3), Find the eccentricity of the ellipse? +2 4 y? = 1 10 the near~ ext hundredth,728 M 38. 36. a. 38. 3. Chapter 10: Conic Sections and Polar Coordinates Find the eccenticty ofthe hyperbola = 1 Is the curve Vix + Vy = I part of a conie seetion? If so, what kind of eonie section? ina, why nt? Show that the curve 25y ~ V2.y +2 = 0 is a hypesboa, Find the hyperbola cent, vertices, fo, ues, and asymptote Find a pola coordinate equation for 2 the parabola with focus atthe origin and vertex at (a, /4) 1 the ellipse with foci atthe origin and (2,0) and one vertex at 4.0: the hyperbola with one focus atthe origin, center at (2, 7/2), anda vertex atl 2). ‘Any_ tine through the origin will intersect the ellipse 17= 3/(2 + cos) ins points Py and P, Let d be the distance teween Py and the origin and fet ds be the distance between Pe andthe gin. Comput (1/a)) + (Ife). Generating a cardiokd with cleces Cardioids are speci epicycloids (Faerie 18). Show that if you roll ice of radi 4 about anther cele of radius in the polar coordinate plane, a in the accompanying figure the orginal point of contact P wil trace a cand (Hin: Seat by showing that angles OBC and PAD bo ave mensre@) Rolin cite Frias [Casi ( A bifold closet door A bifold closet door consists of two - ‘wide panels, hinge at point P. The outside bottom corner of one panel rests on a pivot at O (see the accompanying figure). The ‘outside bottom corner of the other panel, denoted by Q. slides ‘along a straight track, shown in the Figure asa portion ofthe x= ‘axis, Assume that as @ moves back and forth the bottom of the {door rubs agains! thick carpet, What shape will the door sweep ‘out onthe surface of the carpet? The Angle Between the Radius Vector and the ‘Tangent Line to a Polar Coordinate Curve | Cartesian coondinates, wien we want to discuss the dietion ofa curve ata point, we use the angle ¢ measured counterclockwise fom the positive _r-aisto the tangent lin, In polar coordinates i's more convenient to cal ‘ulate the angle from the radius vector to the tangent ine (Se the 2 ‘companying figure). The angle can then be calculate fom the relaton aot, a ‘which comes from applying the Exterior Angle Theorem fo the trian- sein the accompanying figure. ‘Suppose the equation ofthe curve is given inthe form r ‘where /(8) isa differentiable function of 6. Then = rsine @ Ke) eos and ith ate differentiable functions oF @ de ae = —rsino + cos, $ 3 2 pos «uno = oe cate cae ren ane tnd = and — 0) = ee ea ie tan (4)‘The numerator in the last expression in Equation (4) is found from Equations (2) and (3) tobe wy de we Similarly, the denominator is ae, de a a9 "a ‘When we substitute these into Equation (4), we obsain tan = arp ©) This isthe equation we use for Finding asa function of 41. Show by reference toa figure, thatthe ange B between the tangents 1 two curves ata point of imersecton may be found from the formula tangs ~ tanh tn B= tangata hs Mh When will the ewo curves intersect a right angles? 42, Find the value oftan For the curve r = sin'(@/4). 43, Find the angle between the radius vector tothe curve r= 2a sin 36 and ts angen when = 3/6 ‘Graph the ype spiral 8 = 1 What appears o happen toate pal winds in ra tec’ 1. Contin you nn in pr analyte 45, The cries r= V3cos@ and r= sin® intersect a the point (-V3/2, 2/3). Show that their tangents are perpendicular there. Shetch the cariidr = a1 + 080) and circle r = 3a cos in tne diagram ad find he ange between hr angets the point tT inersection hat ies in the fet quad 46, 4. Find the points of intersection of the parabolas and Chapter 10 Additional and Advanced Exercises 729 48. Find points on the cardioid r= a(1 + 60s) where the tangent line is (a) horizontal, €b) verte 49. Show that parabolas r= a/(I + cos@) and r = b/( ~ e080) are orthogonal at each point of intersection (ab + 0). 50, Find the angle at which the cardioid nay @ = 9/2. 51. Find the angle between the line r= 3sec 6 and the candid = 4(1 + cos @) at one of their intersections. 1 ~ 05) crosses the 52, Find the slope of the tangent line to the curve r = a tan (0/2) at = x2. 3, Find the angle at which the parabolas r= 1/(1 — cos) and r= L/(1 ~ sin) intersect in the frst quadrant ‘54, The equation r? = 2.se 26 represents a curve in polar eoordi- ‘8, Sketch the eure be, Find an equivalent Cartesian equation forthe curve, €. Find the angle at which the curve intersects the ray 8 = 7/4 55, Suppose thatthe angle from the radius vector to the tangent line ‘ofthe curve r = J(@) has the constant valve a, 1 Show thatthe area bounded by the curve and two rays om «is proportional or? ~ 2, where (rs, 81) and (7 ) are polar coordinates of the ends ofthe are ofthe curve between these rays. Find te factor of proportionality. , Show thatthe length of the are ofthe curve in part (a) is proportional to 72 ~ ri, and find the proportionality constant 6. Let Phe a point on the hyperbola sin 26 = 2a?. Show thatthe triangle formed by OP, the tangent at, and the inital Line is isosceles. Mathematica /Maple Module Radar Tracking of a Moving Object Part I: Convert from polar to Cartesian coordinates. Mathematica /Maple Module Parametric and Polar Equations witha Figure Skater Part I: Visualize position, velocity, and acceleration to analyze motion defined by parametric equations Part I: Find and analyze the equations of motion fora Figure skater tracing a pola pot.