Current, Electricity

UNIT 2 CURRENT, ELECTRICITY AND ITS and Its Effect

EFFECT
Structure
2.1 Introduction
Objectives

2.2 Magnetic Effect of Electric Current

2.3 Concept of Self and Mutual Inductance
2.4 Capacitance
2.5 DC Generator
2.6 AC Supply
2.7 AC Generator
2.8 Transformer
2.9 Inductive and Capacitive Reactance
2.10 Impedance
2.11 Resistive, Inductive and Capacitive Circuits
2.12 Series and Parallel Resonance
2.13 Power, Power Factor and Quality Factor
2.14 Summary
2.15 Answers to SAQs

2.1 INTRODUCTION
In the year 1820, Oersted found by his experiment that electric current shows magnetic
effect. This experiment gave rise to the concept of electro magnetism. In 1831, Faraday
discovered that time varying magnetic field can produce the electric field. Then he gave
very popular Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. He also gave the concept of
self and mutual inductance which is related to the concept of flux. In 1835, he made the
capacitor and found the capacitance of that. The unit of capacitance was on his name that
is Farad.
Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction became basis of electrical machines.
Transformers and generators are based on this principle.
At the latter stage of the unit, we give the idea of resistive, inductive and capacitive
circuit, calculation for their voltage, current and power. We also introduce three types of
powers – active power, reactive power and apparent power. Concept of series and
parallel resonances is also given in the unit with sufficient description and examples.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
• explain the magnetic effect of current,
• define the basic laws of magnetism,
• determine the relation for magnetic field for different magnetic structure like
straight conductor, solenoid, coil etc.,
• define the self and mutual inductance,
• establish the relation for different series and parallel arrangement of
inductors, 31
Electricity • define the concept of capacitance,
• explain the principle, working and construction of DC generator and
transformer,
• define the single phase AC and 3 phase AC supply along with important
terms related to them,
• explain the principle, working and construction of AC generator,
• distinguish between inductive and capacitive reactance,
• describe the effect of AC in resistive, inductive and capacitive circuits,
• explain the concept of series and parallel resonance,
• distinguish between apparent, active and reactive powers, and
• define the power factor and quality factor.

2.2 MAGNETIC EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT

In the year 1820, Oersted identified the magnetic field with electric current. Then he gave
the statement that “electric current produces the magnetic field”.
First we shall study some basic Laws related to magnetic effect of electric current.
2.2.1 Biot-Savart Law (Laplace Law)
This law gives the relation between magnetic flux density (B in wb/m2) and the electric
current I (in Amp). Consider the current carrying conductor shown in Figure 2.1. Let us
find the flux density B at any point P at a distance r from the small element dl.

I
P

dl

Figure 2.1 : Biot-Savart Law

Now flux density dB due to small element dl is given as

dB ∝ I

dB ∝ dl

dB ∝ sin θ

1
dB ∝
r2
I dl sin θ
So flux density dB is given by dB ∝
32 r2
 μ Current, Electricity
The proportionality constant in SI unit is . and Its Effect
4π
μ I dl sin θ
∴ dB = . wb/m 2 . . . (2.1)
4π r 2

where μ = permeability of medium in Henry/metre

μ0
=
μr
μ0 = absolute permeability = 4π × 10− 7 h/m
μr = relative permeability.
Flux density is vector quantity and its direction is perpendicular to both I dl and r.
uur μ I dl sin θ
dB = . aˆn wb/m 2
4π r 2

B
Magnetizing force or magnetic field intensity is defined as H = .
μ
uuur 1 I dl sin θ
∴ dH = . aˆn Amp/m . . . (2.2)
4π r2
2.2.2 Ampere’s Circuital Law for Static Magnetic Field
Ampere’s Circuital law is also known as the work law. According to this law “Total work
done for moving an unit north pole in a closed path is equal to current enclosed”.
Let us consider Figure 2.2.
Current Carrying
Coductor
I

Closed Path

Figure 2.2 : Ampere’s Circuital Law

So by Ampere’s circuital law :
Work done per unit pole = I
⇒ ∫ H . dl = I . . . (2.3)

B
But H =
μ

then ∫c B . dl = μ I . . . (2.4)

If there are N number of conductors carrying current I in same direction and placed in a
closed path then by Ampere’s circuital law :

∫ H . dl = NI

This is also known as Magnetomotive force or mmf.

So, mmf = NI (Amp-turn) . . . (2.5)
33
Electricity 2.2.3 Magnetic Field due to Long Straight Conductor
I

r P

Figure 2.3 : Ampere’s Circuital Law

Consider a point P at which H and B have to be found. P is at a distance ‘r’ from long
straight conductor. For applying Ampere’s Circuital law draw a circle of radius ‘r’ which
encloses the current carrying conductor. Then :
uur uur
∫ H . dl = I (by Ampere Circuital Law)

H . ∫ dl = I

H × 2π r = I
I
H= . . . (2.6)
2π r
So, flux density B,
B = μH
μI
or B= . . . (2.7)
2π r
2.2.4 Magnetic Field due to Parallel Conductors
Let the two conductors placed in parallel carry currents I1 and I2 amperes. Depending on
the direction of flow of current, two cases evolve.
(a) Current in same direction
(b) Current in opposite direction
Current in Same Direction
Let the currents be flowing in upward direction. The field strength in between the
two conductors P and Q is decreased due to the two fields there being in opposite
direction. Hence, the two conductors are attracted towards each other.
P Q
I1 I2

Figure 2.4 : Current in Same Direction

Current in Opposite Direction

When currents flow in opposite direction the field strength is increased in the
space between the two conductors due to two fields being in the same direction.
Because of the lateral repulsion of the lines of force, the two conductors
experience a mutual force of repulsion.

34
 P Q Current, Electricity
and Its Effect
I1 I2

Figure 2.5 : Current in Opposite Direction

2.2.5 Magnetic Field due to a Long Solenoid

Assumptions
(a) Magnetic field is constant throughout the length ‘l’ of the solenoid.
(b) Magnetic field outside the solenoid is negligible compared to inside the
solenoid.
Let No. of turns = N, and Length of solenoid = l

Figure 2.6 : Solenoid

By Ampere Circuital Law,

H × l = NI
NI
H = AT/m
l
μ NI
Flux Density, B= wb/m 2 . . . (2.8)
l
2.2.6 Magnetic Effect Due to Circular Coil
Let there be a circular coil having only one turn, and current flowing be I. Small element
dl of circular coil produces magnetic field dH at point P. The direction of dH is at right
angles to the line AP joining point P to the element ‘dl’. Now, dH can be resolved into
two components :
(a) The axial component dH ′ = dH sin θ
(b) The vertical component dH ″ = dH cos θ
dl
A

r


O x P
dH’

DH’’
B dH
Figure 2.7 : Magnetic Effect Due to Circular Coil

35
Electricity Now, the vertical component dH cos θ will be cancelled by an equal and opposite vertical
component of dH due to element dl at point B. Hence, the resultant magnetizing force at
P will be equal to the sum of all the axial components.
∴ H = ∑ dH ′ = ∑ dH sin θ ∫ dl
⎛ ⎞
I . dl . r r
=∑ ∫ dl ⎜Q sin θ = ⎟
4π (r 2 + x 2 )3/ 2 ⎜ 2 2 ⎟
r +x ⎠
⎝
2π r
I .r
= ∫
4π (r 2 + x 2 )3/ 2 0
dl

I . r . 2π r I r2
= =
4π (r 2 + x 2 )3/ 2 2 (r 2 + x 2 )3/ 2

I r3
= .
2r ( r 2 + x 2 )3/ 2

I sin 3 θ
∴ H = AT/m
2r
NI
or H = sin 3 θ AT/m (where N = Number of turns of coil) . . . (2.9)
2r

2.3 CONCEPT OF SELF AND MUTUAL INDUCTANCE

Concept of inductance was introduced by Faraday in 1831. Mutual inductance was the
important result of Faraday’s well known law of electromagnetic induction. Before
stating the mutual inductance, we shall develop the concept of self induction which has
already been discussed.
According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic inductance, whenever the magnetic flux
linked with the coil (due to current in the same coil) changes with time then emf is
induced in that coil. The magnitude of this induced emf is given by
dφ
νL = N . . . (2.10)
dt
where N = number of turns in the coil, and
φ = flux per turn (in weber)
From Eq. (2.10)
d ( N φ) d ψ
νL = = . . . (2.11)
dt dt
where Ψ = total flux linked with the coil (in weber)
But total flux ψ is directly proportional to the current i in the coil
∴ ψ∝i
or, ψ = Li . . . (2.12)
where L is the proportionality constant and known as the self inductance of coil. Unit of
inductance is Henry.
Put the value of ψ from Eq. (2.12) to Eq. (2.11)
di
νL = L . . . (2.13)
dt
In a similar manner, we can define the mutual inductance. Consider two isolated coils
shown in Figure 2.8, in which coil 1 is carrying the current i1.
36
 i1 Current, Electricity
and Its Effect

1 2

N1 N2

φ11

φ12

Figure 2.8 : Two Isolated Coils with Current i1

Let current i1 is alternating current and producing flux φ1 (per turn).

Then φ1 = φ11 + φ12 . . . (2.14)
where φ 11 = flux linked with coil 1 only (leakage flux), and
φ 12 = flux reaches to coil 2 (mutual or useful flux).
Now the emf is induced in both the coils. In coil 1, emf e1 is induced due to its self
inductance L1 and in coil 2 emf e2 is induced due to mutual inductance M between coils 1
and 2.
di1
e1 = L1 (by Eq. (2.13))
dt
Similarly, we can write the expression for e2
di1
e2 = M . . . (2.15)
dt
where M = mutual inductance between coils 1 and 2 (in henry)
e2 can also be written as :
d φ12
e2 = N 2 . . . (2.16)
dt
On equating Eqs. (2.15) and (2.16)
di1 d φ12
M = N2
dt dt
d φ12
⇒ M = N2
di1
Assuming the zero initial conditions
φ
M = N 2 12 . . . (2.17)
i1
Now consider the reverse case, in which we give the supply to the secondary coil and
determining the induced emf in primary coil (Figure (2.9)).
i2

e1 N1 N2

22

21

Figure 2.9 : Two Isolated Coils with Current i2

37
Electricity φ 2 = φ 21 + φ 22 . . . (2.18)
where φ 21 = mutual flux,
φ 22 = leakage flux, and
φ 2 = total flux produced by i2.
di2
So the induced emf e2 = L2 . . . (2.19)
dt
(Due to self inductance L2 of the coil).
Induced emf in coil 1 (due to mutual inductance M between the two coils)
di2
e1 = M
dt
d φ21
also e1 = N1
dt
di2 d φ 21
or M = N1
dt dt
d φ21
M = N1 . . . (2.20)
di2
Assuming the zero initial conditions
φ
M = N1 21 . . . (2.21)
i2
Multiply Eq. (2.17) and (2.21)
⎛ φ ⎞⎛ φ ⎞
M 2 = ⎜ N 2 12 ⎟ ⎜ N1 21 ⎟ . . . (2.22)
⎝ i ⎠⎝ i2 ⎠
Now we define the coefficient of coupling
φ φ
K = 12 = 21 . . . (2.23)
φ1 φ2
Useful flux
or K=
Total flux
≤1
Under ideal conditions, when there is no leakage, then K = 1 (i.e. 100% coupling between
two coils). In any practical case, K is always less than 1.
From Eq. (2.23)
φ12 = K φ1 and φ 21 = K φ2
Put these values of φ 21 and φ 12 in Eq. (2.22)

⎛ N K φ1 ⎞ ⎛ K φ2 ⎞
M2 = ⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎜ N1 ⎟
⎝ i1 ⎠⎝ i2 ⎠

⎛N φ ⎞⎛N φ ⎞
= K2 ⎜ 1 1 ⎟ ⎜ 2 2 ⎟
⎝ i1 ⎠ ⎝ i2 ⎠
2
= K L1 L 2
or M =±K L1 L2 . . . (2.24)
So M may be positive or negative depending upon the winding sense.
38
2.3.1 Inductances in Terms of Reluctance Current, Electricity
and Its Effect
Self Inductance
N

l
Figure 2.10 : Solenoid
Figure 2.10 shows the solenoid of length ‘l’ meter, cross-section of ‘A’ m2, have turns
‘N’ over it. If this solenoid carries a current I, then magnetizing force H is given by :
NI
H = AT/m . . . (2.25)
l
Flux linked per turn :
φ = BA = μ HA . . . (2.26)
[Q B = μ H ]
where μ = permeability.
From Eq. (2.12)
ψ = LI
ψ Nφ
or L= =
I I
Put value of φ from Eq. (2.26)
N (μ HA)
L=
I
Put value of H from Eq. (2.25)
N μ N IA
L=
lI

N 2 μA
=
l
N2
=
⎛ l ⎞
⎜ μA ⎟
⎝ ⎠

N2
= . . . (2.27)
S
where S = reluctance of magnetic circuit in AT/wb
l
= . . . (2.28)
μA
In practice, self inductance of short solenoid in given by
N2
L=K . . . (2.29)
S
where K = Nagoka’s constant which depends on the ratio of length to diameter of
solenoid. 39
Electricity By analogy, formula for M is,
N1 N 2
M = Henry . . . (2.30)
S
where N1 = no. of turns of coil 1
N2 = no. of turns of coil 2
l
S = reluctance =
μ0 μ1 A

2.3.2 Inductances in Series and Parallel

Inductances in Series
(a) Let the two coils be connected in series such that their fluxes are additive,
e1 e2
A B

e1’ e2’

Figure 2.11 : Series Inductors

di
Self induced emf in A = e1 = − L1
dt
di
Mutually induced emf in A due to change in B = e1′ = − M
dt
di
Self induced emf in B = e2 = − L2
dt
di
Mutually induced emf in B due to change in A = e2′ = − M
dt
di
Total induced emf = − ( L1 + L2 + 2M ) . . . (2.31)
dt
If L is the equivalent inductance then total induced emf in that single coil is
given as,
di
=−L . . . (2.32)
dt
From Eqs. (2.31) and (2.32) we get
L = ( L1 + L2 + 2 M ) . . . (2.33)
(b) When coils are so connected that their fluxes are in opposite direction,
e1 e2
A B

e1’ e2’
i

Figure 2.12 : Inductor in Series Opposition

40
 Current, Electricity
di di
Now, e1 = − L1 and e1′ = M and Its Effect
dt dt
di di
e2 = − L2 and e2′ = M
dt dt
di
Total induced emf = − ( L1 + L2 − 2M )
dt
∴ Equivalent inductance L = L1 + L2 − 2 M . . . (2.34)
Inductors in Parallel
L1

i1
A B
M
i
i2

L2
Figure 2.13 : Parallel Inductors

Let the two inductors connected in parallel be L1 and L2, and current flowing in
them be i1 and i2 respectively. Let the mutual inductance in between the two
be M.
Now, i = i1 + i2
Case 1
When the two fields assist each other, then

L1 L2 − M 2
L= . . . (2.35)
L1 + L2 − 2M

Case 2
When the two fields oppose each other, then

L1 L2 − M 2
L= . . . (2.36)
L1 + L2 + 2M

2.3.3 Energy Stored in an Inductor

Consider current through the coil of inductance L henry increases by di amperes in dt
seconds then

di
Induced emf = L Volts
dt
Energy absorbed by magnetic field during time dt second is
di
iL . . dt = Li . di joules
dt
Hence, total energy absorbed when current increases from O to I amperes is
I
1 ⎡ 2 ⎤I 1 2
L ∫ i . dt = L × i
2 ⎣ ⎦0 2
= LI
0

1
W = LI 2 . . . (2.37)
2 41
Electricity SAQ 1
(a) A coil having 150 turns and it is linked with the flux of 0.01 wb when
carrying the current of 10 Amp, calculate the self inductance of coil. Now if
the current in the coil is reversed in 0.01 second, calculate the induced emf
in the coil.
(b) A coil of 100 turns is wound on a toroidal magnetic core having reluctance
of 104 AT/wb. When the coil current is 5 amp and is increasing at the rate of
200 Amp/sec. Determine
(i) Self inductance of coil,
(ii) Energy stored, and
(iii) Self induced emf in coil.
(c) A coil of 50 turns having a mean diameter of 3 cm is placed co-axially at the
centre of solenoid 60 cm long wound with 2500 turns and carry a current of
2 amp. Determine mutual inductance of the arrangement.
(d) Find Leq for the arrangements shown in Figure 2.14.
1H

2H 4H
i

(a)

M=2H
5H

8H

i
(b)

Figure 2.14

2.4 CAPACITANCE
Capacitor
A capacitor essentially consists of two conducting surfaces separated by a layer of
an insulating medium called dielectric. The conducting surface may be in the form
of either circular plates or be of spherical or cylindrical shape. The purpose of
capacitor is to store electrical energy by electrostatic stress in the dielectric.
A B

Figure 2.15 : Capacitor

42
Capacitance Current, Electricity
and Its Effect
It is defined as, “ the amount of charge required to create a unit potential difference
between its plates”.
If we give Q coulomb of charge to one of the two plates of capacitor and if a p.d.
of V volts is established between the two, then its capacitance is,
Q Charge
C= = . . . (2.38)
V Potential Difference

2.4.1 Capacitance Between Two Parallel Plates

A parallel plate capacitor consisting of two plates M and N each of area A m2 separated
by thickness d metres of medium of relative permittivity εr. If charge + Q coulomb is
given to plate M, then flux passing through medium is ψ = Q coulomb.

ψ Q
Flux density in medium, D = = .
A A
M N

Q
ε

Figure 2.16 : Capacitor with Dielectric

V
Electric intensity E= and D = ε E
d
Q V
or =ε
A d
Q Aε
∴ =
V d
ε ε A
∴C= 0 r farad (in a medium of permittivity, ε = ε0 εr) and
d
ε A
C = 0 farad (in air as medium) . . . (2.39)
d
2.4.2 Capacitance in Series and Parallel
Capacitors in Series
Let, C1, C2, C3 = capacitance of each capacitor,
V1, V2, V3 = voltage gradient across each capacitor, and
C = equivalent capacitance.
In this case, charge on each capacitor is same but potential difference is different.
Q+ Q+ Q+

C1 C2 C3
V1 V2 V3

V
Figure 2.17 : Capacitors in Series
43
Electricity V = V1 + V2 + V3 (as capacitors are in series)
Q Q Q Q 1 1 1 1
or = + + ⇒ = + +
C C1 C2 C3 C C1 C2 C3

C1 C2 C3
⇒ C= . . . (2.40)
C1 C2 + C2 C3 + C3 C1
Capacitors in Parallel
In this case, potential difference is same but charge is different on each capacitor
∴ Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3

or CV = C1 V + C2 V + C3 V

or C = C1 + C2 + C3 . . . (2.41)

+Q1 C1

+Q2 C2

+Q3 C3

Figure 2.18 : Parallel Capacitors

Energy Stored in a Capacitor
Suppose the potential difference across a capacitor to be increased from V to
(V + dv) volts in dt seconds.
dv
We know i=C.
dt
Instantaneous value of power to capacitor is
dv
iv = vC . watts
dt
Energy supplied to capacitor during interval dt is
dv
vC = . dt = Cv . dv Joules
dt
Hence, total energy when potential difference is increased from O to V volts is
V
1 ⎡ 2 ⎤V 1
∫ Cv . dv = C V = CV 2 Joules
2 ⎣ ⎦O 2
O

1
∴ W = CV 2 . . . (2.42)
2
1 Q2
also W = .
2 C
Example 2.1
A long single layer solenoid has an effective diameter of 10 cm and is wound with
1000 turns/m. There is a small concentrated coil having its plane lying in the
centre cross-sectional plane of the solenoid. Calculate the mutual inductance
between two coils if the concentrated coil has 100 turns and an effective diameter
44 of 4 cm.
Solution Current, Electricity
and Its Effect
Figure 2.19 is shown as follows :

0.1 m 0.04

Figure 2.19
Let current I1 is flowing through the solenoid. Then the flux density B is given by
N1 I1
B = μ0 H = μ 0
l1
wb
= μ0 1000 I1 .
m2
So the flux linked with concentrated coil:
φ2 = BA2
The cross-sectional area of concentrated coil :
2
2
⎛ 4 × 10− 2 ⎞
A2 = π r = π ⎜ ⎟
⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
−4 2
= 12.568 × 10 m
∴ Flux φ2 = μ0 1.256 I1 wb
Mutual inductance between coil and solenoid
N 2 φ2 100 × μ0 × 1.256 I1
M = = = 125.6 μ0 Henry
I1 I1
Example 2.2
If a coil of 150 turns is linked with a flux of 0.01 wb when carrying a current of
1.0 Amp, calculate the inductance of coil. Now, if current is uniformly reversed in
0.1 sec, calculate the induced emf.
Solution
The self inductance of coil is
N φ 150 × 0.01
L= =
I 10
= 0.15 Henry
di
The induced emf e = − L
dt
(i − i )
=−L 2 1
dt
[− 10 − 10]
=−L
dt
= 30 volt.
Example 2.3
The equivalent inductance of two series connected coil (with mutual inductance
between them) is 0.8 or 0.2 Henry depending on the relative directions of currents
45
Electricity in the coil. If self inductance of one coil is 0.4 Henry then determine (i) Mutual
inductance; and (ii) coefficient of coupling.
Solution
For M-Positive :
Leq = L1 + L2 + 2M
0.8 = L1 + L2 + 2M . . . (i)
M

L1 L2

LLeq.
eq.

Figure 2.20
For M negative
Leq = L1 + L2 – 2M
0.2 = L1 + L2 – 2M . . . (ii)
From Eqs. (i) and (ii)
0.6
0.6 = 4M ⇒ M = = 0.15 Henry
4
But L1 = 0.4 Henry
∴ From Eq. (i)
⎛ 0.6 ⎞
0.8 = 0.4 + L2 + 2 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 4 ⎠
∴ L2 = 0.1 Henry
M
The coefficient of coupling k = = 0.75
L1 L2
Example 2.4
Three capacitors C1, C2 and C3 have capacitance 20 μf, 15μf, 30μf respectively.
Calculate :
(a) Charge on each capacitor when connected in parallel with 220 V
supply.
(b) Total capacitance with parallel connection.
(c) Voltage across each capacitor when connected in series and 220 V
supply is given to this series connection.
Solution
(a) Capacitors are in parallel :
C1

C2

C3

220V
Figure 2.21
46
 Charge Current, Electricity
and Its Effect
Q1 = C1 V = 20 × 10− 6 × 220 = 4400 × 10− 6 Coulomb

Q2 = C2 V = 15 × 10− 6 × 220 = 3300 × 10 − 6 C

Q3 = C3 V = 30 × 10 − 6 × 220 = 6600 × 10 − 6 C
(b) Total capacitance :
C = C1 + C2 + C3
= (20 + 15 + 30) × 10− 6
= 65 μF
(c) Since capacitors are in series so charge Q remains same for all capacitors.
C1 C2 C3

220V

Figure 2.22
Equivalent capacitance :
1 1 1 1
= + +
Ceq C1 C2 C3

1 1 1 1
= + + = 0.05 + 0.0666 + 0.0333
Ceq 20 15 30

Ceq = 6.667 μF
Total charge Q = Ceq × V
= 1466.74 μC
Q
Now, Voltage across C1 is V1 = = 73.337 volt
C1
Q
Voltage across C2 is V2 = = 97.78 volt
C2
Q
Voltage across C3 is V3 = = 48.89 volt
C3
Example 2.5
An air capacitor has two parallel plates 10 cm2 in area and 0.5 cm apart. When a
dielectric slab of area 10 cm2 and thickness 0.4 cm was inserted between the plates,
one of the plate has to be shifted by 0.4 cm to achieve the same value of
capacitance. What is the dielectric constant of slab?
Solution
Capacitance without dielectric slab :
ε A 8.85 × 10−12 × 10 × 10− 4
C1 = 0 =
d1 0.5 × 10− 2

8.85 × 10−12
=
5
47
Electricity Capacitance with dielectric slab :
ε ε A
C2 = 0 r
∑ d2

Air

0.5 cm

Figure 2.23

ε0 × 10 × 10− 4 ε0 8.85 × 10−12

C2 = = =
⎛ 0.5 ⎞ 5 5
⎜ + 0.4 ⎟ × 10− 2 +4 +4
ε
⎝ r ⎠ ε r ε r

But C1 = C2

8.85 × 10−12 8.85 × 10−12

∴ =
5 5
+4
εr
∴ εr = 5

εr Air

0.5 cm 0.4 cm

Figure 2.24
Example 2.6
Two capacitors C1 = 50 μF and C2 = 100 μF are connected in parallel across 250 V
supply. Find the total energy loss.

C1

C2

250V

Figure 2.25
Total capacitance C = C1 + C2
= 50 + 100 = 150 μF
1 2
Energy loss = Cv
2
1
= (150 × 10− 6 ) (250) 2 = 4.687 joules
48 2
SAQ 2 Current, Electricity
and Its Effect
(a) A capacitor is made of two plates with an area of 11 cm2 which are
separated by a mica sheet of 2 mm thick. If for mica εr = 6, find its
capacitance.
(b) Find the equivalent capacitance and charge across each capacitor for the
following arrangement.
C1 = 1 μF

C2 = 2 μF

C3 = 4 μF

200V

Figure 2.26

(c) A parallel plate capacitor having plates 100 cm2 area has three dielectric
1 mm each and of permittivities 3, 4, and 6. If peak voltage 2000 V is
applied to the plates, calculate :
(i) Voltage gradient across each dielectric, and
(ii) Energy stored in each electric.

2.5 DC GENERATOR
DC generator takes mechanical input (through prime mover or through another motor)
and gives electrical output to the external circuit (load). This mechanical input is given to
the shaft of DC generator, field circuit is excited by DC and then emf is induced in the
armature circuit. This emf is of alternating nature which is converted to DC by using
commutator and brush arrangement.
2.5.1 Principle
When a conductor is moving in the uniform magnetic field then emf is induced in the
conductor because it cuts the lines of force of magnetic field, as given by Faraday’s law
of electromagnetic induction. The polarity of this emf is decided by the Fleming’s right
hand rule. This is known as generator principle. The required field flux (magnetic field)
is produced either by permanent magnet (in small machines) or by field winding.

A D
N S Segment

B C Brushes

a b
M I
Mica

(a) (b)

Figure 2.27 : DC Generator Principle

49
Electricity Generated emf
Figure 2.27 shows the simple principle of generator action when coil ABCD
rotating in the uniform magnetic field created by permanent magnet. By Faraday’s
law of electromagnetic induction alternating emf is induced in the coil
⎛ dφ ⎞
⎜e = N ⎟ . By using slip rings and collecting brushes this emf is converted into
⎝ dt ⎠
direct voltage and fed to the external circuit (load).
Expression for Generated emf
Let Eg is the generated emf in the armature, according to Faraday’s law of
electromagnetic induction
dφ
Eg = N where N = No. of turns
dt
N = 1 for single conductor, then
dφ
Eg =
dt
Change in flux in one revolution = dφ
= φ P wb
where φ = flux per pole, P = No. of poles
If N = speed in revolution per minute.
The number of revolution/sec = N/60
∴ Time for one revolution dt = 60/N
d φ φ PN
So Eg = = volts/conductor
dt 60
If z = total no. of conductors then
P φ Nz
Eg =
60
if A is the no. of parallel paths then
P φ Nz
Eg = volts . . . (2.43)
60 A
For wave winding A = 2.
For lap winding A = P.
2.5.2 Voltage Current Expressions and Circuit for Different Types of
Generators
Separately Excited Generator
rd S
Prime
Mover Ia
N
Te
rf Eg Vt Load

If

Vf

Figure 2.28 : Separately Excited Generator

50
 Terminal voltage Vt = E g − I a ra Current, Electricity
and Its Effect
where Ia = armature current in Amp,
ra = armature circuit resistance in Ω,
Eg = generated emf in volts,
If = field current in Amp,
Vf = DC field supply voltage, and
rf = field resistance in Ω.
Vf
In field circuit If =
rf

If brush contact resistance is also included, which is approximately 1 to 2 volt,

then,
Vt = E g − I a ra − Vbr . . . (2.44)

where Vbr = drop in brushes.

If the above equation is multiplied by current Ia, then

Vt I a = E g I a − I a2 ra − Vbr I a . . . (2.45)

Electrical power output = Mechanical power converted into electrical in armature

circuit – Ohmic losses in armature – Brush contact loss.
Series Generator
rd rf
Prime
Mover Series
N Field

Te
Eg Vt Load

Figure 2.29 : Series Generator

Here Ia = I f = I L

For operation of these generator poles must have the residual magnetism. These
generator must start under loaded condition because at no load I a = I f = I L = 0
and machine will not start generation.
Shunt Generator

ra
Ish IL
Ia
rL
Eg rf Vt Load

Figure 2.30 : Shunt Generator 51

Electricity I a = I sh + I L
V V
I L = t , I sh = t , Vt = E g − I a ra
IL rf

Voltage Regulation
If is defined as change in terminal voltage when load is reduced from rated
load to no load, expressed as percentage of rated load voltage.
V −V
V . R. = 0 × 100% . . . (2.46)
V
2.5.3 Characteristics
Generator characteristics are volt ampere characteristics. Main characteristics are given
below.
Magnetization Curve (No Load Curve)
This is the curve between generated emf, Eg, and the field current, If, with constant
speed.
For Separately Excited Generator
The experiment set-up is shown in Figure 2.31. Switch is kept open for this
no load test. Field is excited by separated DC source and rotor is rotated by
another motor. Voltmeter reads the generated emf Ef. Now the field current
is varied by using rheostat and If is recorded by ammeter in field circuit.
Field
Ia S
A
A
If
V Vt Load
Ef

Vf

Figure 2.31 : Separately Excited Generator

Ef

a
If
0

Figure 2.32 : Magnetizing Curve for Separately Excited Generator

For large value of If, magnetic core becomes saturated, due to which the
curve is not straight line but it is bent as shown in Figure 2.32. This curve
also known as saturation curve. Voltage oa is due to residual magnetism of
the poles.
For Shunt Generator
No extra DC source is used for field excitation but the residual magnetism
produces the initial small field which induces the small emf in armature
which in turn produces more field because of the Ia (Ish = Ia in No load
condition). In Figure 2.33, switch S is kept open for magnetization curve and
by varying the field current (using the rheostat) the variation in generated
52
 emf Ef is recorded and the characteristic is drawn between Ef and Ish. The Current, Electricity
and Its Effect
shape is same as that of separately excited generator (Figure 2.34).
Ish S
A

V Vt Load
Field Ef
A

Figure 2.33
Ef

Ish
0
Figure 2.34 : Magnetizing Curve for Shunt Generator

For Series Generator

At no load condition in series generator, there will be no field current,
because Ia = If = IL = 0. So for getting the no load characteristic in series
generator, it is necessary to excite field separately as in case of separately
excited generator and by keeping Ia = 0. The shape of No load characteristic
is same as that of for separately excited and shunt generator.

If

ia
iL

Figure 2.35 : Series Generator

Ef

If
0
Figure 2.36 : Magnetizing Curve for Series Generator

Compound Generator 53
Electricity Compound generator characteristic is same as that of shunt generator.
Load Characteristic
This is the curve between load terminal voltage Vt and the field current with speed
and armature current kept constant.
For Separately Excited Generator
For obtaining this characteristic switch S is closed and load is connected to
the generator as shown in Figure 2.31. Then by varying the field current If,
corresponding terminal voltage Vt is recorded and then graph is plotted
between them. For the complete experiment, armature current and speed is
maintained constant. In each step, the load is varied and field current is
adjusted for rated If. This characteristic is parallel to the no load
characteristic oa = If corresponding to zero terminal voltage. This condition
is obtained when the terminals are short circuit so oa is the field current
required to circulate the rated armature current under short circuit condition.
Vt

If
0 a
Figure 2.37 : Load Characteristic
For Shunt Generator
Here the shape of the Load Curve is similar to that of separately excited
machine. Method for obtaining this is also same as that of for separately
excited machine. Since armature current in shunt generator is given by
Ia = IL = If while that in separately excited generator is given by Ia = IL so
the armature reaction is different for two machines. Due to which there is
slight difference in the characteristic.
For Series Generator
In this case also, the characteristic is similar to that of separately excited
generator.
External Characteristic
This is the curve between terminal voltage Vt and the load current IL for constant
speed and constant field current.
For Separately Excited Generator
The switch S is closed in Figure 2.31 and the load is connected to the
generator. Now the load resistance is varied in steps and the terminal voltage
Vt and the load current IL are recorded.
Curve I = internal characteristic
Curve II = external characteristic
Drop in characteristics is due to
(I) Armature reaction
(II) Armature resistance drop

54
 Vt Current, Electricity
Voltage Drop due to and Its Effect
Armature Reaction

Ia ra Drop II

IL
0

Figure 2.38 : External, Internal Characteristics for Separately Excited Generator

For Shunt Generator

The procedure for obtaining the external characteristic in shunt generator is
same as that of for separately excited generator. Here the drop in
characteristic (in terminal voltage) is due to :
(a) Armature reaction
(b) Armature resistance drop
(c) Due to I and II there is further reduction in field current If
which again reduces the terminal voltage due to this
commutative process characteristic turns back and has the
shape as shown in Figure 2.39.

Vt

IL
0

Figure 2.39 : External Characteristic for Shunt Generator

For Series Generator

In Figure 2.35, when load is connected to the series generator, current
IL = Ia = If starts flowing in the series circuit which causes the drop Vt across
the Load. As the load increases, load current increases so the drop Vt also
increases. That is why the series generators have rising external
characteristic as shown in Figure 2.40, while the separately excited and
shunt excited generators have the dropping characteristic.

Vt

External
Characteristic

IL
0

Figure 2.40 : External Characteristic for Series Generator

55
Electricity Armature Characteristic (Regulation Curve)
This is the curve between field current If and load current IL with constant Vt and
speed.
Shape of this characteristic is same for all types of generators. For obtaining this
characteristic, field current is adjusted to give the rated terminal voltage for all
values of load (including the no load condition when IL = 0). At each step the load
current is recorded.
If

IL
0

Figure 2.41 : Regulation Curve

This characteristic is normally used for determining the series turns in compound
generator.
Example 2.7
A 4-pole, DC Shunt generator has lap connected armature winding. It has
500 armature conductors and is rotating with 700 rpm. Determine the generated
emf if the field flux per pole is 3 mwb.
Solution
P φ NZ
The generated emf is given by E g = .
60 A
where P=4
φ = 3 × 10− 3 wb
N = 700 rpm
Z = 500
A = P = 4 (lap connection)
4 × 3 × 10− 3 × 700 × 500
∴ Eg =
60 × 4
= 17.5 volt
Example 2.8
A series generator has armature and field resistances 0.4 and 0.8 Ω respectively. It
generates 400 volts with voltage across the load as 350 volts. Determine the
armature current flowing in the circuit. Also, find the load and field current.
Solution
The series generator is shown in Figure 2.42.

ra=0.4 rf=0.8

Field
Ia

Eg Vt RL Load

Figure 2.42
56
 E g = Vt + I a (ra + r f ) Current, Electricity
and Its Effect
400 = 350 + Ia (0.4 + 0.8) = 350 + Ia (1.2)
400 − 350
∴ Ia = = 41.667 Amp
1.2
For Series Generator
Armature current = Field current = Load current
= 41.667 Amp.
SAQ 3
(a) A 4- pole, shunt generator with lap-connected armature having field and
armature resistance of 50 Ω and 0.1Ω respectively supplies 60 numbers of
40 watts lamps at 100 volt. Calculate the total armature current, current per
parallel path and generated emf. Assume a constant drop of 1 volt per brush.
(b) A 4-pole, long shunt, lap would generator supplies 25 kW at a terminal
voltage of 500 V. The armature resistance is 0.03, series field resistance is
0.04 Ω, and shunt field resistance is 200 Ω. The brush drop may be taken as
1 volt. Determine the emf generated.

2.6 AC SUPPLY
Alternating Quantity
Quantity which varies periodically with time is known as the alternating quantity.
It may be voltage or current. Some waveforms of alternating current are shown in
Figure 2.43.
sin ωt

0

/2 ωt
2

(a) Sine Wave

f (t)

T
0 t
T/ 2

(b) Triangular Wave

f (t)

0 t
T/2 T

(c) Square Wave

Figure 2.43 : Alternating Waveforms

57
Electricity 2.6.1 Basic Definitions of the Alternating Quantity
Here we take the example of sinusoidal form of alternating current.
i = IM sin ωt

IM

0 ωt

/2 2

Figure 2.44 : Sinusoidal Waveform

Cycle
It is the one complete set of positive and negative half of any alternating quantity.
Time Period
It is the time required in second to complete one cycle of any alternating quantity.
Frequency
Number of cycles per second is known as the frequency of alternating quantity. It
is the reciprocal of the time period and its unit is cycle per second or Hertz.
f = 1/T in Hertz
In India, the frequency of alternating supply is 50 Hertz, while in America and
Japan it is 60 Hertz.
Amplitude
It is the peak or maximum value of the alternating quantity. In Figure 2.44, Im
denotes the amplitude of the current wave.
Equation of Sinusoidal Alternating Quantity
The sinusoidal alternating current is written as
i = I m sin ωt . . . (2.47)
Similarly, we can write for voltage
v = Vm sin ωt . . . (2.48)
where i, ν = instantaneous value of current and voltage
Im, Vm = Maximum values
ω = 2πf [f = frequency in Hz]
2π
= [T = Time period in sec] . . . (2.49)
T
Phase
Phase of any alternating quantity shows the position of wave at any time after it
has passed through the zero position of reference.
Phase Angle
It is the angle of alternating quantity with respect to the reference position.
Phase Difference
When the maxima and minima of two sinusoidal alternating quantities (of same
frequency) do not occur at the same instant of time, then these two quantities are
said to have phase difference.
58
 Current, Electricity
and Its Effect

ωt

(a) Reference Waveform

ωt

(b) Lagging Waveform by Angle φ

ωt

(c) Leading Waveform by Angle φ

Figure 2.45

Lagging Current by Angle φ

If the current waveform of Figure 2.45(a) is assumed to be reference wave, then
Figure 2.46(a) shows the lagging current.
i

Im


ωt

Figure 2.46(a) : Reference Current Waveform

i = I m sin (ωt − φ) . . . (2.50)
This equation shows that current is lagging (or running behind) the reference wave
by an angle φ.
Leading Current by an Angle φ
Figure 2.46(b) shows the leading current by an angle φ by the reference wave of
Figure 2.45(a).
i = I m sin (ωt + φ) . . . (2.51)
59
Electricity i

Im

ωt

Figure 2.46(b) : Leading Current Waveform

2.6.2 Phasor Diagram

Phasor diagram or vector diagram shows the graphical representation of alternating
quantities in space and shows the phase relation between these quantities. In phasor
diagram, RMS values (Root Mean Square values) are represented with their angles. All
phasors represent the sine wave of same frequency.
Figures 2.47(a), (b) and (c) show the phasor diagrams of voltage and current phasors.
Horizontal line is taken as reference. Leading phasors are drawn with angle measured in
anticlockwise direction with the reference line while the lagging phasors are drawn with
angle measured in clockwise direction with reference line.
Voltage in reference and current is leading by an angle φ.

V = V ∠ 0o

I = I ∠φ
I

φ
V

Figure 2.47(a)

Voltage in reference and current is lagging by an angle φ.

V = V ∠ 0o

I = I ∠− φ

V
φ

Figure 2.47(b)

Voltage is not reference and current is leading by an angle φ as shown in Figure 2.47(c).

V


θ
Reference Line

Figure 2.47(c)

V = V ∠θ ; I = | I | ∠ (θ + φ)
60
2.6.3 Complex Representation of Voltage and Current Current, Electricity
and Its Effect
Alternating quantities are represented by complex number.
Rectangular or Cartesian Representation
Any alternating quantity can be represented in complex form with real and
imaginary part : Like
i = a + jb ⎫
⎬ . . . (2.52)
ν = c + jd ⎭
where a = real part, and
b = imaginary part.
Representation of Alternating Quantity on Complex Plane
In complex plane, x-axis represents the real axis (reference axis) and y-axis
represents the imaginary axis ( j-axis). Figure 2.48 shows the representation of
complex quantity on complex plane.
Im

a + jb
b
Re
0 a

Figure 2.48 : Complex Plane

Polar Representation
Any alternating quantity can be represented in polar form (magnitude – angle
form) as under
i = r1 ∠θ1 ⎫
⎬ . . . (2.53)
ν = r2 ∠θ2 ⎭

Rectangular to Polar Conversion

r1 = a 2 + b 2 ⎫
⎪
b ⎬ . . . (2.54)
and θ1 = tan −1 ⎪
a ⎭

Also r2 = c 2 + d 2 ⎫
⎪
d ⎬ . . . (2.55)
and θ2 = tan −1 ⎪
c ⎭
In this way, rectangular quantities a + jb and c + jd can be converted into
corresponding polar form, i.e.
r1 ∠ θ1 and r2 ∠ θ2
In Figure 2.49

r1 = OA = a 2 + b 2

and θ1 is the angle made of line OA from the horizontal axis.

61
Electricity A
r1
θ1
O
Figure 2.49

Polar to Rectangular Conversion

r1 ∠ θ1 can be written as :

r1 e j θ1 ,
Then by Euler’s theorem :
r1 e j θ1 = r1 [ cos θ1 + j sin θ1 ]
= r1 cos θ1 + j r1 sin θ1 . . . (2.56)
so a = r1 cos θ1
and b = r1 sin θ1
The j Operator
j operator is used to indicate the anticlockwise rotation of a phasor through
90o
j = −1 . . . (2.57)
Properties of Operator j
j = 90o anticlockwise rotation of a phasor = − 1

j2 = 180o anticlockwise rotation of a phasor = − 1

j3 = 270o anticlockwise rotation of a phasor = − j
j4 = 360o anticlockwise rotation of a phasor = 1
1
and = − j.
j

2.6.4 3-Phase AC Supply

A three-phase AC supply can be produced by a three-phase AC generator having
identical windings (or phases) displaced 120o electrical apart. When these windings are
rotated in a stationary magnetic field or when these windings are kept stationary and the
magnetic field is rotated, an emf is induced in each windings or phase. These emfs are of
same magnitude and frequency but are displaced from one another by 120o electrical.

c2 b1
ωs

a1 a2

b2 c1

(a) Three-phase AC Generator

62
 Current, Electricity
and Its Effect

(b) 3φ emf Waveform

Em(c1c2)

o
120
o
120 Em(a1a2)
o
120

Em(b1b2)

(c) Phasor Diagram

Figure 2.50 : Three Phase AC Supply

When the coils mounted on same axis are rotated in anticlockwise direction at ω rad/sec,
their magnitude and direction, at this instant, are given below :
(a) The emf induced in coil a1 a2 is zero, and is increasing in the positive
direction as shown by wave ea1 a2 .

(b) The coil b1 b2 is 120o (electrical) behind coil a1 a2. The emf induced in this
coil is negative and is becoming maximum negative as shown by wave
eb1 b2 .

(c) The coil c1 c2 is 120o (electrical) behind coil b1 b2 and it is 240o (electrical)
behind coil a1 a2. The emf induced in this coil is positive and is decreasing
as shown by wave ec1 c2 .

Equations
ea1 a2 = Em sin ωt

⎛ 2π ⎞ o
eb1 b2 = Em sin ⎜ ωt − ⎟ = Em sin (ωt − 120 ) . . . (2.58)
⎝ 3 ⎠

⎛ 4π ⎞ o
ec1 c2 = Em sin ⎜ ωt − ⎟ = Em sin (ωt − 240 )
⎝ 3 ⎠

2.7 AC GENERATOR

2.7.1 Principle
The AC generator or synchronous generator is the most commonly used machine for the
generation of electrical power all over the world.
Such a synchronous generator is also referred to as an ‘alternator’ since it generates
voltage. A synchronous generator like any other electrical rotating machine has two main 63
Electricity parts, i.e. the stator and the rotor. The part of machine in which voltage is induced is
called armature. In a synchronous generator the armature winding is placed on the stator
slots. The rotor carries the field poles which produce the required magnetic lines of force.
A generator is built utilizing the basic principle that emf is induced in a conductor when
it cuts magnetic line of forces.
The synchronous machine is a doubly excited machine, i.e. its field winding is excited by
DC supply and armature winding deals with AC.
The synchronous machine runs only on synchronous speed corresponding to frequency
of operation and is given by
2f 120 f
Ns = rps or N s = rpm . . . (2.59)
P p
where f = frequency in Hz,
P = number of poles,
rps = rotation per second, and
rpm = rotation per minute.
2.7.2 Construction
In synchronous machine field, winding is normally placed on rotor and armature winding
is placed on stator. This construction is more economical and provides better efficiency.
The advantages of having low power DC field winding on rotor and high power AC
armature winding on stator are
(a) Less number of slip rings and insulation requirement
If we use low power DC field winding on rotor then only two slip rings
(with less amount of insulation) are required. While in case of armature
placed on rotor at least three slip rings with heavy insulation are required.
So, providing field winding on rotor is more economical.
(b) It is easier to insulate stationary armature winding, since it has high voltage
rating.
(c) Stationary armature winding can be cooled easily in comparison to rotating
one.
(d) Since less number of slip rings are required, so there will be low slip ring
losses and, therefore, high efficiency can be achieved. Also the maintenance
required by slip ring will be less.
(e) Field winding is lighter in comparison to armature winding which reduces
the weight of rotating part so high speed can be achieved.
Because of the above mentioned advantages, field winding is placed on rotor and
armature winding on stator in synchronous machine.
Stator Construction
Stator of synchronous machine is made of laminated cast iron frame. Stator is
cylindrical in shape and has slots in its inner periphery (Figure 2.51).
Following types of laminations are used for making the stator :
Hot Rolled Steel
It reduces the core loss, but its laminations had many imperfection, like
variation in thickness between individual sheets. Hot rolled sheets leave a
thin insulating scale on the surface during their processing. So, now-a-days
they are not in much use.
Cold Rolled Steel
It is ideal for transformer core but its use is not so efficient in case of
synchronous machine because of high surface loss in pole face. But cold
64
 rolled process produces sheets with a bright finish which has no insulating Current, Electricity
property. and Its Effect

Isotropic Non-directional Cold Rolled Steel

Modern synchronous machines use this type of laminations. Electrical
characteristics of isotropic cold rolled steel are similar to hot rolled steel but
it has much improved mechanical characteristics like uniform thickness of
laminations, smoothness of surface, higher fatigue strength and lower
clamping pressure.
Cube Oriented Sheet Steel
Use of this type of steel is still limited because its use is very uneconomical.
It has minimum losses and magnetization along the direction of rolling and
at right angles to it, thus making it an ideal material for core.

Stator Frame
Stator Slots for
3-phase Armature
Windings

Stator Core (Laminated)

Foundation

Figure 2.51 : Stator of Synchronous Machine

Stator Winding (Armature Winding)

3-phase star connected armature winding with neutral earthed is used. Star
connection has the advantage that it eliminates all triple frequency harmonics from
the line voltage.
Types of Armature Windings
Armature windings of synchronous machine may be classified as under :
(a) Concentrated and distributed windings.
(b) Full pitched coil winding and short pitched coil winding.
(c) Single layer and double layer winding.
(d) Integral slot and fractional slot winding.
Winding Factor
Kw = K p × Kd . . . (2.60)

emf with distributed winding

where Kp = Pitch factor = ,
emf with concentrated winding

emf induced in a short-pitched coil

Kd = Distribution factor = , and
emf induced in a full-pitched coil

Kw < 1 .

Comparison of Cylindrical Rotor Alternator (Non-salient Pole Type or Turbo

Alternator) and the Salient Pole Alternator (Hydro or Water Wheel
Generator)

65
Electricity Stator frame Concentrated
Stator core a1 field winding
b’2 c’2

N c2 N b1

a’2 S S a’1

Distributed
S b2 N c1 armature
winding
c’1 b’1
Uniform a2

air gap

Cylindrical Rotor Type Salient-Pole Rotor Type

Figure 2.52 : Turbo Alternator Figure 2.53 : Hydro Alternator

Turbo Alternator Hydro Alternator

(Cylindrical Rotor Type) (Salient Polar Rotor Type)
Air gap is uniform because of the cylindrical Air gap is non-uniform.
rotor.
Reluctance and hence reactance is constant, Here direct axis reactance > quadrature axis
i.e. direct axis (polar axis) reluctance and reactance, i.e. Xd > Xq. Xd is about 60% more
reactance = quadrature axis (inter polar axis) than the Xq and direct axis reluctance is less
reluctance and reactance. than quadratic axis reluctance.
i.e. Xd = Xq (theoretically)
(Practically Xd is about 10% more than the Xq)

These are used for high speed operations. These are used for low and medium speed
(1500 to 3000 rqm) operations (150 to 600 rpm).
These machines are more stable Less stable as compared to turbo alternators.
Rotor normally has large axial length and Its rotor has larger diameter and smaller axial
small diameter. length.
Steam and gas turbines are used as the prime It uses the hydraulics turbines like pelton
mover, because they have their best wheel, Francis and Kaplan as the prime
characteristics at high speeds. mover.
The radial air gap flux density wave is more Wave has larger harmonic as compared to the
nearer to the sine wave. cylindrical rotor machine.
Since air gap is constant and Xd = Xq, analysis Analysis is complicated and two reaction
of these machine is simple. theory is used.
They are made in large sizes for larger They are smaller in size and lower in ratings.
ratings.

2.7.3 Length of Air Gap

Length of air gap between stator and rotor is very important design parameters, since it
affects the performance and stability of synchronous machine.
Advantages of Large Air Gap
Stability
A higher value of stability limit.
Regulation
Smaller value of inherent regulation.
Synchronization Power
Higher synchronization power that makes the machine less sensitive to load
vibrations.
Cooling
Better cooling at the gap surface.
66
 Noise Current, Electricity
and Its Effect
Reduction in the noise level.
Magnetic Pull
Smaller unbalanced magnetic pull.
Disadvantages of Large Air Gap
Field mmf
Larger value of field mmf is required.
Size
Bigger size of the machine with a larger diameter of the stator.
Magnetic Leakage
Increased magnetic leakage.
Weight of Copper
Greater weight of copper in the field winding.
Cost
Increased over all cost.
Example 2.9
Calculate the highest speed at which the alternator (AC generator) can be operated
for (a) 50 Hz, and (b) 60 Hz frequency.
Solution
Since it is not possible to have poles fewer than 2, so minimum value of P = 2
PN s
f =
120
120 × f
Synchronous speed, N s =
P
(a) Frequency is 50 Hz
120 × 50
Ns = = 3000 rpm
2
(b) Frequency is 60 Hz
120 × 60
Ns = = 3600 rpm
2
Example 2.10
A 3-phase 6-pole star connected alternator revolves at 1000 rpm. The stator has
90 slots and 8 conductors per slot. The flux per pole is 0.05 wb (sinusoidally
distributed). Calculate the voltage generated by the machine if winding factor
is 0.96.
Solution
PN s
f =
120
6 × 1000
= = 50 Hz
120
Total number of stator conductors
= Conductors per slot × Number of slots
67
Electricity = 8 × 90 = 720
Stator conductor per phase
720
Zp = = 240
3
Winding factor kw = 0.96
Generated voltage per phase
EP = 2.22 kw f φ ZP
= 2.22 × 0.96 × 50 × 0.05 × 240
= 1278.7 volt
Generated line voltage
= 3 E p = 3 × 1278.7

= 2214.7 volt
SAQ 4
(a) A 6-pole AC generator rotates at 1000 rpm. Calculate the frequency of
generated emf.
(b) The stator of 3-phase, 8 pole, 750 rpm alternator has 72 slots, each of which
contains 10 conductors. Calculate effective value of emf per phase if the
flux per pole is 0.1 wb [Kw = 0.96].

2.8 TRANSFORMER
Transformer is the static device which transfers electrical energy from one electric circuit
(primary circuit) to another electric circuit (secondary circuit) which are not electrically
connected, but magnetically coupled.
Transformer is the main part of ac transmission and distribution system. Almost the
entire world production of electrical energy is transformed twice, thrice or even more
before being utilized, by means of transformer.
Transformer does not change the frequency of electrical supply. It merely changes the
amplitude of the voltage from one electric circuit to another.
Transformer is a static device, so has no rotational losses and the efficiency as high as
99% can be obtained.
Transformer is not an energy conversion device, but it is an important component in most
of the energy conversion systems. It is the main reason behind the widespread use of AC
power systems. It makes possible generation, transmission and distribution of electrical
energy at their most economical and suitable voltages.

2.8.1 Principle
Transformer is based on the principle of electromagnetic induction. The need for the
transformer action is only the existence of time varying mutual flux linking the two
electric circuits. The induced emf in secondary due to alternating current in primary or
establishment of an alternating flux in the magnetic circuit is given by;
dψ
e1 = ψ = N1 φ = Total flux linked with the primary
dt

68
 dφ Current, Electricity
= N1 and Its Effect
dt
where N1 = Number of turns in primary, and
φ = Flux per turn.
Let φ = φm sin ωt
then e1 = N1 ω φm cos ωt
E1max = N1 ω φm = 2π f N1 φm
where f = supply frequency in Hz.
E1max
E1(rms) = = 2 π f N1 φm volts . . . (2.61)
2
= 4.44 f N1 φm Volts

Similarly E2 = 2 π f N 2 φm volts
E2 N 2
∴ Turn ratio = . . . (2.62)
E1 N1
S
I1

V ZL

Figure 2.54 : Air Cored Transformer

φ
i S

V ZL

Figure 2.55 : Iron Cored Transformer

For getting the minimum leakage of flux, to get the maximum efficiency, core is made of
soft iron rather than air (shown in Figures 2.54 and 2.55).
Advantages of Iron Core Transformer over Air Core Transformer
(a) Permeance of the magnetic circuit is increased so it increases the total flux
linked with the transformer.
(b) Magnetizing current (no load current) is reduced.
(c) Power factor of transformer is improved.
(d) Minimum leakage flux.
Classification of Transformers
Transformers can be classified on different basis like :
On the Basis of Construction
(a) Core type
(b) Shell type
On the Basis of Working
(a) Step down 69
Electricity (b) Step up
On the Basis of Application
(a) Power transformer
(b) Distribution transformer
On the Basis of Number of Phases
(a) Single phase
(b) Three phase
On the Basis of Number of Windings
(a) Single winding (auto transformer)
(b) Two winding (normal transformer)
(c) Three winding (with delta connected tertiary winding)
On the Basis of Cooling Method Used
(a) Air or natural cooled
(b) Oil immersed
Special Units
(a) Instrument Transformer (current and potential transformer)
(b) Bell transformer
(c) Welding transformer
(d) Pulse transformer
2.8.2 Construction
Following materials are used for transformer construction :
Conducting Material
For the windings of transformer Aluminum, Copper and Silver can be used.
Magnetic Material
Following magnetic materials are used for core of the transformer :
(a) Silicon steel
(b) Nickle iron
(c) Hot rolled grain oriented (HRGO)
(d) Cold rolled grain oriented (CRGO)
Insulating Material
Insulating material is used for insulating the windings with core. Also it is used
between the turns of windings, between low voltage and high voltage windings.
Following insulating materials are most commonly used :
(a) Press board
(b) Mica
(c) Double covered copper
(d) Double covered silk
(e) Asbestos
(f) Insulating oil (transformer oil)
On the basis of construction, transformer is classified as :
(a) Core type
70 (b) Shell type
 Comparison between Core and Shell Type Transformers Current, Electricity
and Its Effect
Core Type Shell Type Core

HV LV LV HV LV
HV
Limb LV
HV
LV

Figure 2.56 : Cross-section View of Figure 2.57 : Cross-section View of

Core Type Transformer Shell Type Transformer

Core Type Shell Type

In core type, windings surround a In shell type, steel core surrounds a major part
considerable part of steel core. of windings.
They require less iron and more copper. It requires more iron but less conductor
material.
The flux has a single path around the core. Flux is distributed because it has three limbs.

Core type transformer has concentric It has sandwiched winding.

winding.
Cooling and repairing of windings are Cooling and repairing are difficult.
easy.
It has larger value of leakage reactance. Leakage reactance is smaller because of better
linkage between LV and HV windings.

Various Forms of Core Cross-section

Generally circular coils are used for transformer windings. Hence ideally cores of
circular cross-section are desirable but it is very complicated to manufacture
circular cone. In practice for small transformers square cone and for large
transformers stepped core is used.
These cores are shown is Figure 2.58.

(a) Square Core (b) Three Shaped Core (c) Two Stepped Core
Figure 2.58 : Various Forms of Core

Example 2.11
A 10 kVA, 500/250 V, 50 Hz, single phase transformer has a net area of cross-
section 90 cm2 and maximum flux density is 1.2 wb/m2. Calculate the number of
turns on both primary and secondary.
Solution
Primary induced emf, E1 = V1 = 500 V
Secondary induced emf, E2 = V2 = 250 V
Supply frequency, f = 50 Hz
Maximum flux density, Bmax = 1.2 wb/m2
B

Net cross section area of the core, Ai = 90 cm2

71
Electricity = 0.009 m2
Maximum flux, φm = Bm × Ai
B

= (1.2) (0.009)
= 0.0108 wb
E1
Number of primary turns, N1 =
4.44 f φm
500
=
4.44 × 50 × 0.0108
= 208.54
E2
Number of secondary turns, N 2 =
4.44 f φm
250
=
4.44 × 50 × 0.0108
= 104.27
Example 2.12
A single-phase transformer has 400 primary and 1000 secondary turns. The net
cross-sectional area of the core is 60 cm2. If the primary winding be connected at
50 Hz supply at 500 V, calculate :
(a) The peak value of the flux density in the core.
(b) The voltage induced in the secondary winding.
Solution
Primary induced emf, E1 = 500 V
Supply frequency = 50 Hz
Primary turns, N1 = 400
Net cross section area, Ai = 60 cm2
= 0.006 m2
E1
Maximum value of flux, φm =
4.44 f N1
500
=
4.44 × 50 × 400
= 0.00563 wb
φ
(a) Peak value of flux density in the core, Bmax = max
Ai
= 0.3384 wb/m2
(b) Voltage induced in the secondary winding
⎛N ⎞ 1000
E2 = E1 ⎜ 2 ⎟ = 500 ×
⎝ N1 ⎠ 400
= 1250 volt.
SAQ 5
(a) A 25 kVA transformer has 500 turns on the primary and 40 turns on
secondary winding. Primary is connected to 3000 volt, 50 Hz mains.
72 Calculate :
 (i) Primary and secondary current at full load, Current, Electricity
and Its Effect
(ii) Secondary emf, and
(iii) Maximum flux in core.
Neglect magnetic leakage, resistance of winding and primary no load
current.
(b) A 200 kVA, 3300 / 240 volts, 50 Hz single phase transformer has 80 turns
on secondary winding. Assuming an ideal transformer calculate :
(i) Primary and secondary currents at full load,
(ii) Maximum value of flux, and
(iii) Number of primary turns.

2.9 INDUCTIVE AND CAPACITIVE REACTANCE

Reactance is the opposition offered to the flow of current due to the inductance and
capacitance in the circuit. This hindrance is represented by ‘X’ and has unit ohm (Ω).
Inductive Reactance
It is the opposition offered to flow of current due to inductance in the circuit. It is
represented by ‘XL’.
XL = ω L Ω
= 2π f L Ω . . . (2.63)
where f = frequency in Hz, and
ω = frequency in rad/sec.
As the frequency increases, inductive reactance increases.
Capacitive Reactance
It is the opposition offered to flow of current due to capacitance in the circuit. It is
represented by ‘XL’.
1
XL = Ω
ωC
1
= Ω . . . (2.64)
2π f C
As frequency increases, capacitive reactance decreases.

2.10 IMPEDANCE
It is the complex summation of resistance and reactance. Its unit is ohm (Ω) and it is
denoted by letter Z.
Z = R + jX

= R + j ( X L − XC )

⎛ 1 ⎞
= R + j ⎜ωL − ⎟
⎝ ωC ⎠

Magnitude Z = R2 + X 2 ⎫
⎪
⎬ . . . (2.65)
−1 X
Angle ∠ Z = tan = φ⎪
R ⎭
73
Electricity This is also the angle between voltage and current in the circuit (power factor angle).
Impedance Triangle
It is the right angle triangle in which φ is the angle between voltage and current in
the circuit and is given by the equation.

Z = R2 + X 2

X
φ = tan −1
R

Z
X

R
Figure 2.59 : Impedance Triangle

2.11 RESISTIVE, INDUCTIVE AND CAPACITIVE CIRCUITS

2.11.1 AC Through Pure Resistance

Let single phase AC voltage ν = Vm sin ωt is applied to the resistive circuit shown in
Figure 2.60.
R

v = Vm sin ωt
Figure 2.60 : Resistive Circuit
Then by Ohm’s law
v v Vm
i= = = sin ωt . . . (2.66)
z R R
= Im sin ωt
So voltage v and current i are in same phase the phasor diagram and waveforms are
shown in Figure 2.61.

ωt

(a) Phasor Diagram (b) Waveform

Figure 2.61
Angle between voltage and current φ = 0o, so power factor cos φ = 1 (unity).
Power Consumed
p = νi (instantaneous power)
= (Vm sin ωt) (Im sin ωt)
74 p = Vm Im sin2 ωt
 (1 − cos 2ωt ) Current, Electricity
= Vm I m and Its Effect
2
V I
Average power dissipated = m m watts .
2
2.11.2 AC Through Pure Inductance
Now consider the circuit shown in Figure 2.62.
L

v = Vm sin ωt
Figure 2.62
Voltage across inductor is given by
di
v=L
dt
1 1
∴ i=
L ∫ ν dt = L ∫ Vm sin ωt dt
V
= − m cos ωt
ωL
V ⎛ π⎞
= m sin ⎜ ωt − ⎟ . . . (2.67)
ωL ⎝ 2⎠
π
Here current i is lagging behind the voltage ν by .
2
Inductive reactance, XL = ωL Ω
V ⎛ π⎞
then i = m sin ⎜ ωt − ⎟
XL ⎝ 2⎠

⎛ π⎞
= I m sin ⎜ ωt − ⎟ . . . (2.68)
⎝ 2⎠
Angle between voltage and current φ = 90o (lagging)
p.f. = cos φ = cos 90o = 0.
The voltage, current phasor diagram and waveform are shown in Figure 2.63.
Average power (Pav = VI cos φ) consumed in pure inductive circuit is zero.

i
V
o ωt
90

(a) (b)
Figure 2.63

2.11.3 AC Through Pure Capacitance

Circuit of Figure 2.64 shows the pure capacitive circuit with applied voltage.
ν = Vm sin ωt.
75
Electricity C

v = Vm sin ωt
Figure 2.64

dν
Current i = C . . . (2.69)
dt

d
=C (Vm sin ωt )
dt
= ωC Vm cos ωt

Vm ⎛ π⎞
= sin ⎜ ωt + ⎟
1 ⎝ 2⎠
ωC

π
Here current I is leading the voltage v by .
2

1
Capacitive reactance, X C = Ω.
ωC

Vm ⎛ π⎞
∴ i= sin ⎜ ωt + ⎟
XC ⎝ 2⎠

⎛ π⎞
= I m sin ⎜ ωt + ⎟ . . . (2.70)
⎝ 2⎠

V
where Im = m
XC

Angle between voltage and current φ = 90o (leading).

∴ p.f. = cos φ = cos 90o = 0

Average power consumed by pure capacitive circuit is zero. The phasor diagram and
waveform voltage and current are shown in Figure 2.65.
i
I ωt
o
/2
90
V
(a) (b)
Figure 2.65

2.11.4 AC Through R-L-C Circuit

The series RLC circuit is shown in Figure 2.66.
R L C

76
 R L C Current, Electricity
and Its Effect

v = Vm sin ωt

Figure 2.66

KVL equation for the given circuit is

di 1
ν = Ri + L +
dt C ∫ i dt
Total impedance Z = R + j ( X L − X C )

where XL = Inductive reactance = ωL

1
XC = Capacitive reactance =
ωC
By ohm’s law, current I is given by
ν ν
i= =
Z R + jX

where X = X L − XC

Vm sin ωt
i=
X
R 2 + X 2 ∠ tan −1
R

Vm ⎛ X⎞
i= sin ⎜ ωt − tan −1 ⎟ . . . (2.71)
R2 + X 2 ⎝ R⎠

X
Angle between voltage and current φ = tan −1
R
This angle φ will be angle of lead if XC > XL (circuit is capacitive)
Angle φ will be angle of lag if XL > XC (circuit is inductive)
In this AC circuit there are three types of powers :
(a) Apparent power
(b) Active power
(c) Reactive power
These powers are explained in detail later.
Table 2.1 shows the summary of results obtained.

Table 2.1 : Supply Voltage ν = Vm sin ωt

Circuit Impedance Current i Power Factor Angle, Phasor
(Amp) Diagram 77
Electricity Z (Ω) (φ)
R o
Z = R Ωs V φ=0
i = m sin ωt I
V

V R
V = Vm sinwt

L V
Z = j XL = ωL Ω V o φ = 90o (lagging) 90
o

i = m sin (ωt − 90 ) I
ν XL
C I
Z = − j XC Ω V o φ = 90o (leading)
i = m sin (ωt + 90 )
o
90
V
ν = − j / ωC Xc
R L V
Z = R + j XL φ
V −1 X L
i = m sin (ωt − φ) φ = tan (lagging) I

ν Z R
0 < φ < 90o (lag)
R C I
Z = R – j XC V −1 X C
i = m sin (ωt + φ) φ = tan (leading) φ
V

ν Z R
0o < φ < 90o (lead)

R L C
Z=R+j V −1 X L − X C
(XL − XC) i = m sin (ωt ± φ) φ = tan
ν Z R

Solved Examples on Single Phase R-L-C Circuit

Example 2.13
In series R-L circuit, shown in Figure 2.67, find
(a) Impedance,
(b) Resultant current,
(c) Power factor and its nature, and
(d) Quality factor.

R = 10 L = 0.1H

o
220
0 ; 50Hz
Figure 2.67

Solution
The inductive reactance XL is given by
XL = ωL
= 2π fL
= 2π × 50 × 0.1 Ω
= 31.42 Ω
The impedance in rectangular form is given by
Z = R + j X L = 10 + j 31.42 Ω
In polar form Z = 32.97 ∠ 72.345o Ω
The resultant current is given by

78
 Current, Electricity
ν 220 ∠ 0o
i= = and Its Effect
Z 32.97 ∠ 72.345o

= 6.672 ∠ − 72.345o Amp.

The current is lagging (since the circuit is inductive).
The power factor angle, φ, is the angle between voltage current
φ = 72.345o (lagging)
∴ p.f. cos φ = cos (72.345o)
= 0.303 (lag)
Alternatively, the power factor can be determined by
R
cos φ =
Z
10
=
32.97
= 0.303 (lag)
1
Quality factor is given by Q = = 3.3 .
cos φ
Example 2.14
An inductive coil of resistance 32 Ω and reactance 15.7 Ω is connected in series
with a capacitor of reactance 79.5 Ω. The circuit is connected across 500 V AC
supply, determine
(a) Current,
(b) Phase difference between voltage and current,
(c) Magnitude of voltage across the inductive coil, and
(d) Total power absorbed.
Solution
R=32 x2=15.7 xc=79.5

v = 500V

Figure for Example 2.14

R = 32 Ω, X = XL – XC
= – 63.8 Ω (circuit in capacitive)
Impedance Z = R – jX = 32 – 63.8 j Ω

v 500 ∠ 0o
(a) Current i = =
Z 32 − 63.8 j

= 7 ∠ 63.36o Amp
(b) Angle between V and i
φ = 63.36 (leading)
(c) Impedance of coil, ZL = R + j XL = 32 + j 15.7
79
Electricity | Z L | = 35.6439 Ω

Voltage across coil = I ZL = 7 × 35.6439

= 249.5075 Volt
2 2
(d) Power absorbed = I R = 7 × 32 = 1568 watts
Example 2.15
In the capacitive circuit of Figure 2.69, find
(a) Impedance,
(b) Resultant current,
(c) Power factor,
(d) Power absorbed by the circuit, and
(e) Phasor relation between different voltages and currents.

VR VC

R=120Ω C=1μF
i

100V
50Hz
Figure 2.69

Solution
(a) The capacitive reactance is given by
1 1
XC = =
ωC 2π fC

1
=
2π × 50 × 1 × 10− 6

= 3182.68 Ω
So the impedance, Z = R − j X C

= 120 – j 3182.68 Ω
In polar form, Z = 3184.94 ∠ − 87.84o Ω
(b) Resultant current

v 100 ∠ 0o
i= =
Z 3184.94 ∠ − 87.84o

= 0.03139 ∠ 87.84o Amp (leading)

(c) Power factor, cos φ = cos 87.84o
= 0.0376 (lead)
(d) Power is absorbed by resistor only and that is also known as the active
power in the circuit
2
P=I R

80 = (0.03139)2 × 120
 = 0.1182 Watts Current, Electricity
and Its Effect
(e) Voltage drop across resistor :
VR = iR
= 0.03139 ∠ 87.84o × 120
= 3.7668 ∠ 87.84o Volt (in phase with current i)
Voltage drop across capacitor
Vc = i ( − j X c )
= 0.03139 ∠ 87.84 × 3182.68 ∠ − 90o
= 99.9 ∠ − 2.16o (lagging)
The phasor diagram is shown in Figure 2.70 and applied Voltage of
100 ∠ 0o is taken as reference.
VR

I
o
87.84
o V=100V
2.16
V=VR+VC

VC

Figure 2.70 : Phasor Diagram

SAQ 6
(a) The current in a circuit is given by (4.25 + j 12) Amp, when applied voltage
is (100 + j 50) volt, determine
(i) the complete expression for the impedance,
(ii) power consumed,
(iii) apparent power, and
(iv) phase angle between the current and voltage.
(b) A sinusoidal source of e (t) = 170 sin 377 t is applied to an R-L circuit. It is
found that the circuit absorbs 720 watts, when an effective current of
12 Amp flows.
(i) find the power factor of the circuit,
(ii) calculate the inductance in henry, and
(iii) compute the value of impedance.

2.12 SERIES AND PARALLEL RESONANCE

Resonance is that condition in any AC circuit at a particular frequency, when the applied
voltage and resultant current are in same phase. So, at resonance the power factor of the
AC circuit is unity and it behaves like a pure resistive circuit.

81
Electricity 2.12.1 Series Resonance
In series RLC circuit at a particular frequency when inductive reactance (XL = ωL)
⎛ 1 ⎞
becomes equal to the capacitive reactance ⎜ X C = ⎟ , then the circuit is said to be at
⎝ ωC ⎠
resonance
XL = XC . . . (2.72)
In the series RLC circuit of Figure 2.71, the circuit current I is given by

VR VL VC

R L C
I
V volts, f Hz

Figure 2.71 : Series Resonance Circuit

V
I= A
Z
where Z represents the equivalent impedance of the circuit.
1
Z = R + j ωL +
j ωC
1
= R + j ωL − j
ωC
or Z = R + j (X L − XC )
1
where X L = ωL and X C =
ωC
= R + jX
where (XL – XC) = X (Net Reactance)
V V
Thus I= = Amp
R + j ( X L − X C ) R + jX

VL

o
90
VR I
I
(across R) (across L)
I
o
90

VC (across C)

Figure 2.72 : Voltage and Current Phasor

And voltage drop across resistance, R is VR = IR (in phase with I)

Voltage drop across inductance, L is VL = I XL (leading I by 90o)
Voltage drop across capacitance, C is VC = I XC (leading I by 90o)
The phasor diagram of the variables of the entire circuit is shown in Figure 2.73.
82
 VL Current, Electricity
and Its Effect

V
(VL – Vc)

VR

VC

Figure 2.73 : Voltage Vector Diagram of RLC Series Circuit

Resonance condition is obtained when XL = XC in the series circuit (this is obtained by
either decreasing the supply frequency when XL would decrease and XC would increase or
by increasing the supply frequency making XL to increase and XC to decrease).
When XL = XC, Z = R + jO = R
V V
Also, I0 = = Amp [I0 = Current at resonance]
Z R
The p.f. (power factor) of the circuit becomes
R R
cos φ = = =1 . . . (2.73)
Z R
The expression of frequency of resonance can be obtained as follows :
Let ω0 or f0 be the frequency at which XL = XC.
1
i.e. ω0 L =
ω0 C
1 1
or ω02 = i.e. ω0 = rad/ sec
LC LC
1
i.e. f0 = Hz . . . (2.74)
2π LC
Voltage vector diagram at resonance is shown in Figure 2.74.
VL

I
V

VC

Figure 2.74 : Voltage Vector Diagram at Resonance (VL = Vc)

Impedance Curve
Figure 2.75 shows variation of impedance Z, inductive reactance XL and capacitive
reactance XC with frequency. At resonance XL = XC and Z = R.

X XL = ωL
Impedance

0 ω
ω0

Xc = I/ωL

Figure 2.75 : Impedance Curve

83
Electricity Angle Curve
Angle φ (between voltage and current) is given by
(X L − Xc )
φ = tan −1 . . . (2.75)
R
Here, φ is known as the power factor angle. Figure 2.76 shows the variation of φ
with frequency.
At frequencies below ω0 the capacitive reactance is greater than the inductive
reactace and the angle of the impedance is negative. If the resistance is low, the
angle changes more rapidly with frequency as shown in Figure 2.76. As ω
approaches zero the angle of Z approaches – 90.
φ
o
+90
Low R
High R

0 ω
ω0

o
-90

Figure 2.76 : Angle Curve

Admittance Curve
Admittance Y is reciprocal of impedance. Its variation with frequency is shown in
Figure 2.77.
1
Y = . . . (2.76)
Z
Admittance

Low R

High R
w0

Figure 2.77 : Admittance Curve

Resonance Curve
Figure 2.78 shows the variation of current with frequency. Current is maximum at
I
resonance frequency ω0. At rms value of current 0 , power becomes half of its
2
I
maximum value. So the points, corresponding to 0 on the resonance curve, are
2
known as the half power points. Frequency ω1 and ω2 corresponding to these two
points are known as the lower and upper half power frequency.

84
 I Current, Electricity
and Its Effect
I0

I0 /

2

ω (rad/sec)
ω1 ω0 ω2

Figure 2.78 : Resonance Curve

Band Width
The distance between upper and lower half power frequencies, measured in hertz
or in rad/sec, is called the banwidth BW.
BW = ω2 – ω1 in rad/sec. . . . (2.77)
or BW = f2 – f1 in Hz . . . (2.78)
The resonant frequency ω0 is geometric mean of ω1 and ω2.
ω0 = ω1 ω2 and f 0 = f1 f 2 . . . (2.79)

2.12.2 Parallel Resonance

Figure 2.79 represents a parallel resonating circuit where a coil is connected in parallel
with a capacitor C and the combination is connected across a AC voltage source of
variable frequency. Figure 2.80 represents the vector diagram of the given circuit.
IC C

Coil
IL

R L
I
V

AC .f Hz

Figure 2.79 : A Typical Parallel Resonating Circuit

IC

ILcosφ
V
φ
ILsinφ
IL

Figure 2.80 : Vector Diagram of the Parallel AC Circuit

Let IC = The current through the capacitor,

IL = The current through the coil,
I = Vector sum of IL and IC, i.e. the source current,
V = Supply voltage,
VR = Drop across R,
VL = Drop across L,
VC = Drop across C, 85
Electricity φ = p.f. angle of the coil (i.e. the angle of lag of IL with respect to V),
ZL = Coil impedance, and
XC = Capacitor impedance (or simple capacitor reactance).
V
Here IC = . . . (2.80)
XC
V V V
And IL = = =
ZL R 2 + X L2 R 2 + ( ωL ) 2

R
cos φ =
Z
At resonance the capacitive current must be equal to the inductive part of the coil current,
i.e. the imaginary components of IL and IC must cancel each other at resonance.
i.e. I C = I L sin φ
V V X
or = × L
XC ZL ZL
XL
where sin φ = ,
ZL

or Z L2 = X C X L

1 L L
Also Z L2 = × ω0 . L = , i.e. Z L = . . . (2.81)
ω0 C C C
[ω0 represents resonance frequency]
L
or R 2 + ω02 L2 =
C
L
or ω02 L2 = − R2
C
1 R2
i.e. ω02 = −
LC L2

1 R2 1 L
∴ ω0 = − = − R2 . . . (2.82)
LC L2 L C

1 L
i.e. f0 = − R2 . . . (2.83)
2π L C
If the resistance of the coil be neglected,
1 L 1
f0 = = . . . (2.84)
2π L C 2π LC

Again, at resonance, since the reactive components of IL and LC balance each other, the
only remaining part of the current is IL cos φ (= I)
I = I L cos φ
V V R
or, = . [ZΩ = equivalent impedance of parallel circuit.]
ZΩ Z L Z L

86
 L Current, Electricity
and Its Effect
Z L2L ⎡ L⎤
or, ZΩ = = C = ⎢Q Z L = ⎥ . . . (2.85)
R R CR ⎣ C⎦

Then, the equivalent impedance of the parallel resonating circuit is L/CR at resonance.
This impedance is called dynamic resistance of the parallel circuit. Normally R being
loss, this impedance is very high at resonance and then the current is much lower in the
parallel circuit. Then, this circuit is also called rejector circuit.
Different Curves at Parallel Resonance
Figure 2.81 shows admittance (Y), impedance (Z) and power factor angle (θ)
curves, which show the variation of Y, Z and (θ) with frequency.
(Y)
(Z)

o
Y Bc = ωC +90
Admittance

High R
Low R
Impedance

High R
G
0 ω
0 ω ω0
ω0

BL = I/ωL Low R
ω o
ω0 -90

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 2.81

BC = ωC and BL =1/ωL are the capacitive and inductive susceptance.

B B

Net susceptance B = BC – BL B B

= ωC – 1/ωL . . . (2.86)
at resonance B = 0.
Resonance Curve
Since admittance is minimum or impedance is maximum at resonance frequency
ωC, so current I is also minimum at parallel resonance.

I, Z
L
Impedance Z =
CR

ω
0 ω0
Lagging p.f. Leading p.f.

Figure 2.82 : Resonance Curve for Parallel Resonance

Properties of Resonance of parallel RLC circuit
(a) Power factor is unity.
(b) Current at resonance is [V / (L / CR)] and is in phase with the applied
voltage. The value of current at resonance is minimum.
87
Electricity (c) Net impedance at resonance of the parallel circuit is maximum and
equal to (L / CR) Ω.
(d) The admittance is minimum and the net susceptance is zero at
resonance.
(e) The resonance frequency of this circuit is given by

1 1 R2
f0 = −
2π LC L2

Example 2.16
Find the resonant frequency ω0 (or f0) for the given series RLC circuit

10Ω 2 Henry 20μF

v = Vm sin ωt = 50 sin ωt

Figure 2.83

Also find the expression for resonant current.

Solution
R = 10 Ω, L = 2 Henry, C = 20 μF
Under resonance :
XL = XC
1
ωL =
ωC
1
∴ ω0 =
LC

1
= = 0.158 × 103
−6
2 × 20 × 10

1
and f0 = = 25.16 Hz
2π LC

V
Current i is given by i =
Z
But at resonance Z = R or 10 Ω
V sin ωt 50 sin ωt
So i= m = = 5 sin ωt Amp
R 10
Example 2.17
Find the value of R, so that the condition for resonance is fulfilled

88
 Current, Electricity
and Its Effect

R 4

5j -3j

Figure 2.84

Solution
Admittance of first branch
1 R − 5j
Y1 = = mho (J )
R + 5 j R 2 + 25

Admittance of second branch

1 4 + 3j
Y2 = = mho (J )
4 − 3j 25
Total admittance of the circuit :
R − 5j 4 + 3j
Y = Y1 + Y2 = +
2 25
R + 25
According to condition of resonance the imaginary part of the admittance must be
zero
−5 3
i.e. + =0
2 25
R + 25

5 3
=
2 25
R + 25

⇒ R = 4.082 Ω
Example 2.18
A circuit shown in Figure 2.85 having a resistance of 5 Ω, an inductance of 0.4 H
and a variable capacitance in series is connected across a 110 V, 50 Hz supply.
Calculate :
(a) The value of capacitance to give resonance
(b) Current
(c) Voltage across the inductance
(d) Voltage across the capacitance
(e) Q-factor of the circuit.
Solution
Applied Voltage, V = 110 V
Resistance, R = 5 Ω
Inductance, L = 0.4 Henry
Resonant frequency, f0 = 50 Hz
1
As Resonant frequency f 0 =
2π LC
89
Electricity 5Ω 0.4 H C

110 V, 50 Hz
Figure 2.85

(a) At resonant frequency capacitance

1 1
C= =
4π2 f 02 L 4π2 × (50)2 × 0.4

= 2.53303 × 10− 5
= 25.3303 μF
V 110
(c) At resonant condition I = = .
R 5
= 22 A
(c) Voltage across inductance = I XL = 22 × 2π × 50 × 0.4
= 2764.60 V.
(d) Voltage across capacitance = Voltage across inductance
= 2764.60 V
ω0 L 2π f0 L
(e) Q-factor = =
R R
2π × 50 × 0.4
=
5
= 25.1327
Example 2.19
A 20 Ω resistor is connected in series with a coil, a capacitor and an ammeter
across a 25 V variable frequency supply. When the frequency is 400 Hz, the
current is at its maximum value of 0.5 A and potential difference across the
capacitor is 150 V. Calculate :
(a) Capacitance of capacitor, and
(b) Resistance and inductance of coil.

R=20
RL L C

IM=0.5A A VC=150V

25 V, 400 Hz

Figure 2.86
90
Solution Current, Electricity
and Its Effect
(a) Let capacitance = C farad
Resonant frequency, f0 = 400 Hz
1 1 1
Capacitive reactance, X C = = = Ω
ωC 2π × 400 × C 800π × C

Voltage across capacity = Im XC = 150 V

Im = 0.5 A
0.5
∴ = 150
800π C

0.5
C= = 1.3263 × 10− 6 F
800 × π × 150

or C = 1.3263 μF
(b) Let, RL and L be the resistance and inductance of coil respectively
V
Current, I m =
R + RL

25
0.5 = (Θ Applied voltage V = 25 V)
20 + RL

RL = 30 Ω

SAQ 7
(a) A series RLC circuit has a resonant frequency of 220.6 Hz and is fed from
125 V source. At resonance the voltage across inductance and capacitance is
4151 Volt. The resistance of circuit is 1.06 Ω. Find QLC of the circuit.
(b) A coil of inductance 0.75 H and resistance 40 Ω is a part of a series resonant
circuit having a resonant frequency of 55 Hz. If the supply is
250 V, 50 Hz. Find
(i) current,
(ii) power factor, and
(iii) voltage across the coil.
(c) Determine R1 and R2 which cause the circuit shown in Figure 2.87 to be
resonant at all frequencies.

Figure 2.87

91
Electricity
2.13 POWER, POWER FACTOR AND QUALITY FACTOR

2.13.1 Power
We know that power is defined as the time rate of change of energy and is given
by P.
dw
P= . . . (2.87)
dt
dw dq
× =v×i . . . (2.88)
dq dt

Energy is given by

w= ∫ P dt joules . . . (2.89)

Power in AC
Power in AC circuit is classified as apparent power, active power and reactive
power :
Apparent Power
Product of voltage and current. Its unit is volt-amp.
S = VI Volt-Amp
2
=I Z
where Z = impedance (ohm)
Active Power
It is given by P = VI cos θ Watt . . . (2.90)
It is the power, which is actually consume in any circuit. Its unit is watt.
Reactive Power
It is the power taken by the reactance and its unit is volt-amp reactive (VAr).
It is given by Q = VI sin θ Var.
It is not consumed in the circuit but it flows from source to load and then
load to source.
Power Triangle
All the three power S, P and Q can be represented in a triangle, called the power
triangle as shown in Figure 2.88.
P=V I cosθ

θ
S=VI S=VI Q=V I sinθ
S=VI Q=V I sinθ

θ
P=V I cosθ

(a) For Lagging or Inductive Load (b) For Leading or Capacitive Load

Figure 2.88 : Power Triangle

92 Power can also be represented in complex form.

 S = P + jQ . . . (2.91) Current, Electricity
and Its Effect

Magnitude S = P 2 + Q 2

2.13.2 Power Factor

It may be defined as

• Cosine of the angle of lead or lag

R Resistance
• The ratio =
Z Impedance

True Power Watts W

• The ratio = =
Apparent Power Volt amperes VA

2.13.3 Quality Factor (Q-factor)

Q-factor is the reciprocal of the power factor of coil. It is the figure of merit, i.e. it should
be as large as possible for any coil (combination of resistance and inductance).

Maximum energy stored

Q = 2π
Energy dissipated per cycle

1 Z
or Q= =
cos φ R

R 2 + X L2
=
R
If R is very less as compared to XL, then

X L ωL
Q= = .
R R
Example 2.19
In the given circuit, find the active, reactive and apparent power.
15Ω 0.2H

o
220∠0 ;60Hz

Figure for Example 2.19

Solution
The inductive reactance, XL = 2π fL
= 2π × 60 × 0.2
= 75.408 Ω
Impedance, Z = 15 + j 75.408 Ω
In polar form = 76.885 ∠ 78.749o Ω
Current in the Circuit
93
Electricity v 220 ∠ 0o
i= =
Z 76.885 ∠ 78.749o

= 2.861 ∠ − 78.749o Amp (lagging)

Power factor cos φ = cos 78.749o
= 0.195 (lag)
and sin φ = sin 78.749o
= 0.98
Active Power
P = VI cos φ
= 220 × 2.861 × 0.195
= 122.7 Watts
2
or P=I R
= 122.7 Watts
Reactive Power
Q = VI sin φ
= 220 × 2.861 × 0.98
= 616.83 volt-Amp reactive
2
or Q=I X
= 617.1 VA
Apparent Power
S = VI
= 220 × 2.861
= 629.42 Volt-amp

or S = P2 + Q2

= 629.2 Volt-amp.

2.14 SUMMARY
This unit gives the different applications of electric current, detailed discussion about the
self and mutual inductance and capacitance. Unit provides the magnetic effects of electric
current and relations are derived for long straight conductor, solenoid, parallel conductors
and coils. For developing the concept of magnetic effect of electric current two basic
laws – Biot-savart law and Ampere’s circuital law – are given. Biot-savart law gives the
ur uur
relation of magnetic flux density B or magnetizing force H in terms of electric current I.
Similarly, Amperes circuital law provides the relation for work done or mmf in terms of
current.
Also, concept of magnetic flux and inductance (self and mutual) are discussed in detail.
Equivalent inductance for parallel and series combination is derived. As inductor stores
energy in the form of magnetic field so the formula for it is (1/2 Li2 joules) also
determined in this unit.

94
Important applications of electricity has been discussed by introducing three important Current, Electricity
machines in this unit. The main stress is given to principle, construction, working and and Its Effect
important characteristics of DC generator, AC generator and transformer.
In the next section of the unit, we discuss the AC circuit with R, L and C with single
phase AC supply. We define inductive and capacitive reactance (XL and XC), impedance,
impedance triangle, power and power factor. Relation for current and its lagging and
leading effect for AC circuit are also determined. Series and parallel resonance along
with resonant characteristics are also presented at the end.
Sufficient examples and SAQs are given for better understanding of each topic.

2.15 ANSWERS TO SAQs

SAQ 1
(a) ψ = Li
Nφ = Li
N φ 150 × 0.01
L= = = 0.15 Henry
i 10
di
emf induced e=−L
dt

= − 0.15
[− 10 − 10] = 300 Volt
0.01
N2
(b) (i) Self inductance, L =
Reluctance
(100)2
=
104
= 1 Henry
1
(ii) Energy Stored, E = Li2
2
1
= × 1 × (5) 2 = 12.5 Joule
2
di
(iii) Induced emf = L
dt
= 1 × 200 = 200 Volt
(c) OOOOOOOO solenoid
OOOOOO
3 cm coil
OOOOOO
OOOOOOOO
60 cm
Coil turns = 50; Solenoid turns = 2500; and I = 2 Amp.
Flux density due to solenoid :
NI
B = μ0 H =
l
2500 × 2
= μ0 wb/m 2
60 × 10− 2
95
Electricity π
Area of coil, A1 = × (3 × 10− 2 ) 2
4
π
= × 9 × 10− 4 m2
4
Flux linked with coil, φ1 = BA1
μ × 2500 × 2 π
= 0 × × 9 × 10− 4 wb
−2 4
60 × 10
N 2 φ1
Mutual inductance, M =
I
N2 = 50
∴ M = 0.185 mH.
(d) (i)
1H

2H 4H
i

(a)

Coils are connected in series so

Leq = L1 + L2 + 2M
= 2 + 4 + 2(1) = 8 H
(ii)
2H
5H

8H
i

Figure for Answer to SAQ 1(d)

Coils are connected in series opposition so
Leq = L1 + L2 – 2M
= 5 + 8 – 2(2)
=9H
SAQ 2
ε ε A
(a) C = 0 r Farad
d
A = area of plate, d = distance between the plates
8.85 × 10−12 × 6 × 11 × 10− 4
C=
2 × 10− 3
= 29.2 pF
(b) Ceq = C1 + C2 + C3 = 7 μF
Total charge, Q = Ceq ν
− 12
= 7 × 10 × 200
− 10
= 14 × 10 Coulomb
96
 Charge across C1 = Q1 = C1 ν Current, Electricity
and Its Effect
−6 −4
= 10 × 200 = 2 × 10 C
Charge across C2 = Q2 = C2 ν
−6 −4
= 2 × 10 × 200 = 4 × 10 C
Charge across C3 = Q3 = C3 ν
−6
= 4 × 10 × 200
−4
= 8 × 10 C
(c) The composite capacitance is given by
ε0 A
C=
⎡d d d ⎤
⎢ 1 + 2 + 3⎥
⎢⎣ ε r1 εr 2 ε r3 ⎥⎦

8.85 × 10−12 × (100 × 10− 4 )

=
10− 3 10− 3 10− 3
+ +
3 4 6
= 11.8 × 10 −11
= 118 pF
Total charge, Q = CV
− 11 −8
= 11.8 × 10 × 2000 = 23.6 × 10 C
Flux density
Q 23.6 × 10− 8
D= = = 23.6 × 10− 6 C/m 2
A 100 × 10− 4

D
Potential gradient, E1 = = 8.9 kV/cm
ε0 ε r1

D
E2 = = 6.67 kV/cm
ε0 ε r2

D
E3 = = 4.44 kV/cm
ε 0 ε r3

SAQ 3
(a) Total lamp load
P1 = Number of lamps × Voltage of each lamp
= 60 × 40 = 2400 W
Terminal voltage, V = 100V
P1 2400
Load current, I L = = = 24 Amp
V 100
V 100
Shunt field current, I sh = = = 2 Amp
Rsh 50

(i) Total armature current, Ia = IL + Ish

= 24 + 2
= 26 Amp
97
Electricity I a 26
(ii) Current per path, I C = = = 6.5 A
A 4
(iii) Generated emf, Eg = V + Ia ra + Brush Drop
= 100 + 26 × 0.1 + 2 × 1
= 104.6 Volt
(b) Load, PL = 25 × 1000 = 25000 Watt
Load voltage, VL = 500 V
PL
Load current, I L = = 50 Amp
VL

V 500
Shunt field current, I sh = = = 2.5 Amp
Rsh 200

Armature current, Ia = IL + Ish

50 + 2.5 = 52.5 Amp
Generated emf, Eg = V + Ia ra + Is Rse + Brush Drop
= 500 + 52.5 × 0.03 + 52.5 × 0.04 + 1
= 504.675 volt
SAQ 4
(a) P = 6, N = 1000 rpm
PN 6 × 1000
Frequency of generated emf : f = = = 50 Hz
120 120
(b) Generated emf per phase
EP = 2.22 Kp Kd f φ Zp
= 2.22 kw f φ ZP [Kw = Kp kd]
Kw = winding factor
ZP = No of conductors/phase
Total No. of conductors = 72 × 10 = 720
720
Conductors per phase, Z P = = 240
3
PN 8 × 750
Frequency, f = = = 50 Hz
120 120
∴ EP = 2.22 (0.96) × 50 × 0.1 × 240
= 2557 volt
SAQ 5
25 × 1000
(a) (i) At full load, I1 = = 8.33 Amp
3000
I1 N 2
=
I 2 N1

N1 500
∴ I 2 = I1 × = × 8.33 = 104.15 Amp
N2 40
98
 N2 Current, Electricity
(ii) Secondary emf, E2 = × E1 and Its Effect
N1

40
= × 3000 = 240 V
500
(iii) Using relation, E1 = 4.44 N1 f φm
3000 = 4.44 × 500 × 50 × φm
φm = 0.027 wb
200 × 1000
(b) I1 = = 60.6 Amp
3300
200 × 1000
I2 = = 833.3 Amp
240
E2 = 4.44 N2 f φm
240 = 4.44 × 80 × 50 × φm
φm = 13.51 mwb
N1 E1
Now =
N 2 E2

⇒ N1 = 1100 turns

SAQ 6
(a)
Z

i
ν
Figure for Answer to SAQ 6(a)

Here ν = 100 + j 50 Volt

i = 4.25 + j 12 Amp
v
Impedance, Z = = 6.3247 − j 6.0933 Ω
i
Impedance is capacitive as reactive component is negative.
Power S = VI * = (P + jQ)
= (100 + j 50) (4.25 – j 12)
= 425 + j 212.5 – j 1200 + 600
= 1025 – j 987.5
= 1423.299 ∠ – 43.9325o
Active power, P = 1025 Watts = Power consumed
Reactive power, Q = 987.5 Var (Capacitive)
Apparent power = 1423.299 VA
Angle between current and voltage = 43.93o.
(b) Applied voltage = 170 sin 377 t
= 170 ∠ 0o Volts
99
Electricity Current, I = 12 Amp,
Power, P = 720 Watts
Current resistance = R Ω
2
P=I R
P 720
R= 2
= =5Ω
I (12) 2

But P = VI cos φ
P 720
P.f. cos φ = = = 0.35294
VI 170 × 12

φ = 69.33275o
V 170
Impedance = = = 14.1667 Ω
I 12
Reactance = XL
XL
tan θ =
Z
∴ XL = 37.556
=ωL
XL
∴ L= = 99.61 mH
ω
SAQ 7
(a)
R=1.06Ω L C

125V, 220.6 Hz
Figure for Answer to SAQ 7(a)

125 125
At resonance, I = = = 117.92 Amp
R 1.06
given that I XL = I × 2π fL = 4151 volt
4151 4151
∴ L= = = 0.0254 H
I × 2π f 117.92 × 2 × π × 220.6

1 1 1
f = ⇒ f2 = 2
⇒C=
2π LC 4π LC 2
4π L f 2

C = 20.5 × 10− 6 F

WL 2π f L
Quality factor, Q = = = 33.2
R R
100
(b) Current, Electricity
R=40Ω L=0.75 H C and Its Effect

250V, 50 Hz
Figure for Answer to SAQ 7(b)

Resonance frequency, f0 = 55 Hz
Let capacitance = C Farad
1 1
f0 = ⇒C =
2π LC (2π) f 02 L
2

∴ C = 11.165 μF
Applied voltage = 250 V, 50 HZ
XL = 2π fL
= 2π × 50 × 0.75 = 235.6194 Ω
1
Reactance of capacitance, X C =
2π fC

1
XC = = 285.096 Ω
2π × 50 × 11.165 × 10− 6

Total Impedance = (40) 2 + (235.6194 − 285.96) 2 = 63.6234 Ω

V 250
(i) Line current, I = = = 3.9294 Amp
Z 63.6234
R 40
(ii) Power factor = = = 0.6287 (leading)
Z 63.6234
(iii) Voltage across coil I XL = 3.9294 × 235.6194
= 925.8429 Volt.
(c) For the given parallel circuit, the resonant frequency is given by

1 ⎡ L − CR12 ⎤
ω0 = ⎢ 2⎥
LC ⎢⎣ L − CR2 ⎥⎦

L
Now ω0 can assume any value provided R12 = R22 =
C
L 2 × 10− 3
In present case, = = 25
C 80 × 10− 6

R1 = R2 = 5 Ω.

101