402 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 42, NO.

4, AUGUST 1995

A Three-phase Active Power Filter Operating

with Fixed Switching Frequency for Reactive
Power and Current Harmonic Compensation
Luis A. Mor&, Member, IEEE, Juan W. Dixon, Member, IEEE, and Rogel R. Wallace

Abstract-The performance and dynamic characteristics of a The source impedance strongly affects filtering charac-
three-phase active power fdter operating with fixed switching teristics.
frequency is presented and analyzed in this paper. The proposed As both the harmonic and the fundamental current
scheme employs a PWM voltage-source inverter and has two
important characteristics. First, it operates with fixed switching components flow into the filter, the capacity of the filter
frequency, and second, it can compensate the reactive power and must be rated by taking into account both currents.
the current harmonic components of nonlinear loads. Reactive When the harmonic current components increase, the
power compensation is achieved without sensing and computing filter can be overloaded.
the reactive component of the load current, thus s i m p l i g the
control system. Current harmonic compensation is done in time Parallel resonance between the power system and the
domain. passive filter causes amplification of harmonic currents
The principles of operation of the proposed active power filter on the source side at a specific frequency.
along with the design criteria of the power and control circuit The passive filter may fall into series resonance with
components are discussed in detail. Finally, experimental results the power system, so that voltage distortion produces
obtained from a 5IVA prototype c o b the feasibility and the
features of the proposed system. excessive harmonic currents flowing into the passive
filter.
order to overcome these problems, active power filters
I. NITRODUCTOIN been researched and developed [l]. In recent years,

T HE proliferation of nonlinear loads such as static power various active power filter configurations with their respective
converters and arc fumaces results in a variety of unde- control strategies have been proposed, and have gradually been
sirable phenomena in the operation of power systems. The recognized as a viable solution to the problems created by
most important among these are harmonic contamination, high-power nonlinear loads [2]-[6].
increased reactive power demand and power system voltage The topology of the three-phase active power filter presented
fluctuations. Harmonic contamination has become a major in this paper is shown in Fig. 1. The proposed configuration is
concem for power system specialists due to its effects on based on a force-commutated pulse-width modulated voltage-
sensitive loads and on the power distribution system. Harmonic source inverter (PWM-VSI) connected to a dc capacitor.
current components increase power system losses, cause ex- Although there are a number of articles which deal with
cessive heating in rotating machinery, can create significant the analysis of active power filters using force-commutated
interference with communication circuits that shared common voltage-source inverters [ 11, [4]-[6], the three-phase active
right-of-ways with ac power lines, and can generate noise on power filters presented in this paper differs from previously
regulating and control circuits causing erroneous operation of discussed approaches in the following ways:
such equipment. Reactive power compensation is achieved without sens-
Conventionally, passive LC filters have been used to elim- ing and computing the reactive current component of the
inate line current harmonics and to increase the load power load, thus simplifying the control circuit.
factor. However, in practical applications these passive second Current control is achieved with constant switching
order filters present the following disadvantages: frequency producing a better switching pattern than
hysteresis current control [7]. This results in a reduction
Manuscript received June 6, 1995; revised July 27, 1994 and March 31, of inverter output high-frequency current harmonics and
1994. This work received support from the Fondo de Desarrollo Cientifico y
Tecnol6gico ‘‘FONDECYI”’ through the 92-0262 Project and the Direcci6n lower stresses on the semiconductor devices.
de Investigaci6n of the University of ConcepcMn, the International Copper Current compensation is done in time domain allowing
Association, and the Agency of Intemational Development through Project
no. 20.92.11, I.C.A. no. 416, and A.I.D. no. 11.196. fast time response.
L. MO& and R. Wallace are with the Department of ElectricalEngineering, In order to improve the active power filter performance,
University of Concepci6n. Concepci6n, Chile. a dc voltage control loop is implemented. The dc voltage
J. W. Dixon is with the Department of Electrical Engineering,Universidad
Cat6lica de Chile, Santiago, Chile. control loop keeps the voltage across the dc capaci-
IEEE Log Number 9412493. tor constant, increasing the inverter voltage gain and
02784046/95$04.00 0 1995 IEEE
MORAN et al.: THREE-PHASE ACTIVE POWER FILTER OPERATING WITH FIXED SWITCHING FREQUENCY 403

PWM VOLTAGE SOURCE INVERTER THREE PHASE

AC MAIN AC muis
-
XI
A

Tw\
ym 1 ; CURRENT
Ln* dnvs
cmuit

current I : Earrated I
Uwguk j
generated RfamKe :
voltage
................................
REFERENCE badcunent + GATING SIGNALS
7- : GENERATOR
GENERATOR

CONTROL UNIT
I I 'I
reference
voltage

Fig. 1. The active power filter configuration. ....................................... VOLTAGE CONlRoL UNIT

m
REFERENCE CURRENT GENERATOR

reducing the amplitude of high-frequency ac current

harmonics. Fig. 2. Block diagram of the active power filter control system.
5) The voltage and current control loops are simple and
easy to implement.
Moreover, compared to series active power filters [ 111, the required to compensate only harmonic distortion is obtained.
active power filter presented in this paper is connected in In order to provide the reactive power required by the load,
parallel with the load, thus compensating current waveform the current signal obtained from the second order band-pass
and not voltage as in series active filters. Also, shunt active filter, 4 1 , is synchronized with the respective phase-to-neutral
power filters are easy to protect against power system short source voltage (see Fig. 3), so that the inverter ac output
circuit currents. By using a fixed switching frequency, the current is forced to lead the respective inverter output voltage,
high-frequency ripple current generated by the proposed active thereby generating the required reactive power and absorbing
power filter can be easily removed from the power system. the real power necessary to maintain the dc voltage constant
The treatment presented in this paper includes a com- and to supply the switching losses. The real power absorbed
prehensive steady-state and transient analysis of the active by the inverter is controlled by adjusting the amplitude of the
power filter. Also, the design criteria of the power and the fundamental current reference waveform, 4 1 , obtained from
control circuit are reported. Finally, all the predicted results the reference current generator (see Fig. 2). The amplitude
are experimentally verified on a 5-kVA laboratory prototype. of this sinusoidal waveform is equal to the amplitude of the
fundamental component of the load current plus or minus the
11. hINCIPLES OF OPERATION error signal obtained from the dc voltage control unit. In this
The main section of the active power filter shown in Fig. 1 way, the current signal allows the inverter to supply the current
is a force-commutated voltage-source inverter connected to harmonic components, the reactive power required by the load,
a dc capacitor. Current harmonic compensation is achieved and to absorb the small amount of active power necessary to
by injecting equal but opposite current harmonic components cover the switching losses and to keep the dc voltage constant.
at the point of connection, thereby canceling the original By keeping the dc voltage constant, the inverter voltage gain
distortion and improving the power quality on the connected is increased and the amplitude of the high-frequency inverter
power system [2], [3]. current harmonic component is reduced.
The block diagram of the active filter control system is A constant switching frequency is achieved by comparing
shown in Fig. 2. It consists of a current control unit, a dc the current error signal with a triangular reference waveform.
voltage control unit, a current reference generator, and a gating This method can be explained by considering the bang-bang
signals generator. hysteresis technique plus the addition of a fixed frequency
The ac current generated by the inverter is forced to triangular waveform inside the imaginary hysteresis window
follow the reference signal obtained from the current reference [8]. The purpose of introducing the triangular waveform is to
generator. In this circuit, the distorted load current is filtered stabilize the converter switching frequency by forcing it to be
extracting the fundamental component, ill. The band-pass constant and equal to the frequency of the triangular reference
filter is tuned at the fundamental frequency (50 or 60 Hz), so signal. Since the current error signal is always kept within
that the gain attenuation introduced in the filter output signal the negative and positive peaks of the triangular waveform
is zero and the phase shift angle is 180'. Thus, the filter output (see Fig. 2), the system has an inherent overcurrent protection.
current is exactly equal to the fundamental component of the A large variation in the reference current will generate a
load current but phase shifted by 180'. If the load current is large error signal which can be higher than the amplitude of
added to the fundamental current component obtained from the the triangular waveform. In this case, there will not be an
second order band-pass filter, the reference current waveform intersection between the error and the triangular waveform,
404 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 42, NO. 4, AUGUST 1995

1.2

0.E

0.0

-0.6

-12

1.0, I

1.2

0.P

0.0

-0.6 -1.5 J
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500

-1.2 (b)

Fig. 3. The procedure for the generation of the current reference waveform.
(a) The load current, zload. its fundamental component, i l l , and the funda-
mental current component synchronized with the respective phase-to-neutral
source voltage, i l l s . (b) The synchronized fundamental current signal minus
the load current, z r l s - &a,d, and its fundamental component.

- 1 . 5 -I I
500 1000 1500 2000 ZSOO 3000 3500

thus the switching pattern will not change until the current
error signal is reduced and a new intersection occurs.
It is important to notice that the proposed control system is
stable and independent of the power system characteristics. If
the power system has a finite impedance, so that the source 1
voltages present harmonic components or are unbalanced, the
ripple voltage across the dc capacitor will increase, generating 0

a higher THD at the inverter output voltages. This problem

-1
can be solved by increasing the capacitance value of the ] v
500
v 1000
v v
1500
v
aooo
vasoo v v
SODO
v
xoo
~
electrolytic capacitor [9].
The stability of the active power filter is reflected by
its ability to keep the dc voltage close to the reference Fig. 4. Simulated results for steady state operating conditions. (a)
Phase-to-neutral source voltage, V,,, and respective load current, 4. (b)
value. Previous work has demonstrated that the stability of Inverter ac output current. (c) phase-to-neutral source voltage, V,,, and the
active power filters implemented with self-controlled dc bus respective ac mains line current, Is.(d) The voltage across the dc capacitor,
voltage-source inverters is independent of parameter values vdc, and the phase-to-neutral ac mains voltage, v,,,.
(synchronous link reactor and dc capacitor) [lo]. In this case,
the active power filter stability can be guaranteed by limiting
the small amount of maximum real power absorbed by the voltage. However, the inverter dc voltage is forced to remain
inverter. This can be done by fixing the maximum value of closed to the reference value by the closed loop control.
the voltage error signal, thus limiting the amplitude of the Figs. 4 and 5 show simulated current and voltage waveforms
fundamental component of the current reference waveform, for steady state and transient operating conditions. In both
cases the active power filter is compensating a six step
A nonideal band-pass filter will affect the generation of the controlled rectifier. Fig. 4 proves that the active power filter
reference current, specifically the detection of the fundamental compensates harmonic component and the reactive power
component peak value of the load current and the phase-shift effectively. Also, this figure illustrates how the inverter gain
angle between the current &-&,ad and the respective phase- voltage is improved with the addition of the dc voltage control
to-neutral voltage (see Fig. 3). This will modify the amount of loop [Gain = 0.85 (see Fig. 4(d))].
real and reactive power generated by the active power filter, In Fig. 5, a step change in the load power factor and current
affecting the ac source power factor value, and the inverter dc amplitude is simulated. The amplitude of the load current is
MORAN et ai.:THREE-PHASE ACTIVE POWER FILTER OPERATING WITH FIXED SWITCHING FREQUENCY 405

1.5 source inverters present the same power circuit topology, but
for this type of application, the criteria used to select the values
1
of L and C are different. For reactive power compensation,
0.5
the design of the synchronous link inductor, L, and the
0 dc capacitor, C , is performed based on harmonic distortion
-0.5
constraint. That is, L must reduce the amplitude of the current
harmonics generated by the inverter while C must keep the
-1
dc voltage ripple factor below a given value [9]. This design
- 1.0 criteria cannot be applied in the active power filter since it must
be able to generate distorted current waveforms. However, L
must be specified so that it keeps the high-frequency ripple of
the inverter ac output current smaller than a defined value.

A. Design of the Synchronous Link Reuctor

The design of the synchronous link reactor is performed
with the constraint that for a given switching frequency the
minimum slope of the inductor current is smaller than the
slope of the triangular waveform that defines the switching
frequency (see Fig. 2). In this way, the intersection between
the current error signal and the triangular waveform will
always exist.
The slope of the triangular waveform, A, is defined by

where is the amplitude of the triangular wavefonn, which

has to be equal to the maximum permitted amount of ripple
current, and ft is the frequency of the triangular waveform
(i.e., the inverter switching frequency). The maximum slope
of the inductor current is equal to

diL
--
- van+ 0.5 v d c
(2)
2
dt L .

1
Since the slope of the inductor current has to be smaller than
the slope of the triangular waveform, and the ripple current is
0 known, from (1) and ( 2 )

-1 ,^\

J Y V U V W Y V V V J
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500

(d)
B. Design of the DC Capacitor
Fig. 5. Simulated results for transient operating conditions. (a) The
phase-to-neutral source voltage, Van, and the respective load current, 1,. Transient changes in the instantaneous power absorbed by
(b) Inverter ac output current. (c) Phase-to-neutral source voltage, bLn,
and the respective ac mains line current, I,. (d) The voltage across the dc
the load generate voltage fluctuations across the dc capacitor
capacitor, Vd,, and the phase-to-neutral source voltage, \Ln. (see Fig. 5(d)). The amplitude of these voltage fluctuations
can be controlled effectively with an appropriate dc capacitor
value. It must be noticed that the dc voltage control loop
changed from 0.4-0.8 in p.u. while the phase shift angle, a , stabilizes the capacitor voltage after a few cycles, but is not fast
decreases from 45'-15'. These figures show that the active enough to limit the first voltage variations. The capacitor value
power filter is fast enough to respond to this severe change in obtained with this criteria is bigger than the value obtained
the load operating condition, keeping the source line current based on maximum dc voltage ripple constraint. For this
in phase with the respective phase-to-neutral voltage and with reason, the voltage across the dc capacitor presents a smaller
a low harmonic distortion. harmonic distortion factor.
The maximum overvoltage generated across the dc capacitor
111. POWERCIRCUITDESIGN is given by
The selection of the ac link reactor and the dc capacitor
values affects directly the performance of the active power v,,,, = /(oz'u) ic(t) dt f vdc (4)
filter. Static var compensators implemented with voltage- C (OlIw)
 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 42, NO. 4, AUGUST 1995

Synchronous XI = 0.12 pu S = 0.12 pu

Link Reactor
D c Capacitor Xc = 12 pu s = 1.59 pu
Fig. 6. The block diagram of the current control loop.

where V,,, is the maximum voltage across the dc capacitor,

V, is the steady-state dc voltage, and ic(t)is the instantaneous
dc bus current.
From (4)

1
lol,w)
(@2/w)
c =AV
-- ic(t) dt. (5)

Equation (5) gives the value of the dc capacitor, C, that

will maintain the dc voltage fluctuation below AV p.u. The
instantaneous value of the dc current is defined by the product
of the inverter line currents with the respective switching
functions. The mean value of the dc current that generates
the maximum overvoltage can be estimated by

ic(t)d t = Ii,, /(62/w) [sin ( w t )

(@l/w)
+ sin (ut + 120°)]d t . (6)

In this expression the inverter ac current is assumed to be

sinusoidal. These operating conditions represent the worst
case. Table I summarizes the design data for the synchronous
link reactor, the inverter power switches and the dc capacitor,
in p.u. with respect to the ac phase-to-neutral base values.
The design data presented in Table I are valid for an inverter
switching frequency equal to 1.5 kHz, a modulation index of
0.7, and a THD of the ac source current of 5%.
Power switches must be rated with 0.5-p.u. current and
2.5-p.u. peak forward blocking voltage.
@)
IV. CONTROLCIRCUIT
DESIGN Fig. 7. Steady-state experimental results. (a) The phase-to-neutral source
voltage, Van, 50 V/div, and the respective load current, 5 Ndiv. (b) The
The design procedure for the current and voltage loops is phase-to-neutral source voltage, Van,50 V/div, and the respective source
based on the respective time response requirements. Since the cment, 5 Ndiv.
transient response of the active power filter is determined by
the current control loop, its time response has to be fast enough plemented with voltage-source inverters, the ac output current
to follow the current reference waveform closely. On the other is defined by the inverter ac output voltage. The block diagram
hand, the time response of the dc voltage control loop does of the current control loop for each phase is shown in Fig. 6
need not to be fast and is selected to be at least ten times slower where
than the current loop time response. Thus, these two control
E phase-to-neutral source voltage,
systems can be decoupled and designed as two independent
Z(s) impedance of the synchronous reactor,
systems.
A PI controller is selected for the current and the voltage
XI, K , gain of the converter, and
control loops since it contributes to zero steady-state error in Gc(s) gain of the PI controller.
tracking the reference current and voltage signals, respectively. The values of K , and G,(s) are given in (7) and (8).

A. Design of the Current Control Loop

Each PWM' inverter current control loop consists of three
independent PI controllers. Since the active power filter is im-
MORAN et d.:THREE-PHASE ACTIVE POWER FILTER OPERATING WITH FIXED SWITCHING FREQUENCY 407

Fig. 8. Transient experimental results. (a) Phase-to-neutral voltage, 50 V/div, and load current, 5 Ndiv. (b) Phase-to-neutral voltage, 50 V/div, and the source
line current, 5 Ndiv. (c) Phase-to-neutral source voltage, 50 V/div, and the source current, 5 A/div. (d) The inverter output current, 5 Ndiv.

From Fig. 6 and using (8), the following expression is ob- Ki defines the damping factor of the control loop. If K p is too
tained: big, the error signal can exceed the amplitude of the triangular

K, ( K p + ): waveform, affecting the inverter switching frequency, and if

Ki is too small, the gain of the PI controller decreases, which
means that the generated current will not be able to follow the
reference current closely.
Simulated results have shown that the compensator transient
response is improved by adjusting the gain of the proportional
Rr + sL, part (K,) to equal one and the gain of the integrator ( K i ) to
1 equal the frequency of the triangular waveform.
- Rr + SLr E.
(9)
K, ( K p +): B. DC Voltage Control Loop
In order to eliminate the steady-state error in the dc voltage,
+ Rr + sL, a PI controller is used. The proportional gain and the integral
The characteristic equation of the current control loop is given gain are equal to 4.8 and 2000 rads, respectively (ten times
by slower than the current control loop). More details concerning
the design of this control loop are presented in [lo].
KPs +7
Ka
1+
s(Rr + sLr) = 0. (10)
V. EXPERIMENTAL
RESULTS
The analysis of the characteristic equation proves that the A 5-kVA laboratory prototype using IGBT switches was im-
current control loop is stable for all values of K, and Ki. Also, plemented and successfully tested in compensating a six-step
this analysis shows that K p determines the speed response and controlled rectifier. The inverter was operated at a 1.5-KHz
408 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 42, NO. 4, AUGUST 1995

switching frequency. Steady-state and transient results ob- components,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Applicat.. vol. IA-20, no. 3, pp. 625-630,
tained with this breadboard unit are depicted in Figs. 7 and May/June 1984.
[SI H. Akagi, A. Nabae, and S. Atoh, “Control strategy of active power
8. filters using multiple voltage-source PWM converters,”IEEE Trans. Ind.
Steady-state experimental results for a nonlinear compensa- Applicat., vol. IA-22, no. 3, pp. 460-465, May/June 1986.
tion are illustrated in Fig. 7. Fig. 7(a) shows the line-to-neutral [61 L. Malesani, L. Rossetto, and P. Tenti, “Active filters for reactive power
and harmonic compensation,” in Proc. IEEE PESC, June 1986, pp.
ac mains voltage with the respective load current (three-phase 321-330.
controlled rectifier). In Fig. 7(b), the phase-to-neutral source [7] R. Wu, S. Dewan, and G. Slemon, “A PWM ac to dc converter with
voltage with the respective source line current is illustrated. fixed switching frequency,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Applicat., vol. 26, no. 5 ,
pp. 880-885, Sept./Oct. 1990.
This figure shows that the active power filter eliminates low [8] M. Kazerani, P. D. Ziogas, and G. Joos, “A novel active current
frequency harmonic components effectively and is able to waveshaping technique for solid-state input power factor conditioners,”
IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 38, no. 1, pp. 72-78, Feb. 1991.
compensate the reactive power required by the load (phase [9] L. Mor&, P. D. Ziogas, and G. J d s , “Analysis and design of a
shift angle is almost zero). novel three-phase solid-state power factor compensator and harmonic
Transient results are shown in Fig. 8. A transient operating suppressor system,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Applicat., vol. 25, no. 4, pp.
609-619, July/Aug. 1989.
condition is obtained by generating a step change in the firing [lo] -, “Performance analysis of a PWM inverter var compensator,”
angle (from a = 45’ to a = 15’) of the three-phase controlled IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 38G391, July 1991.
rectifier. In particular, Fig. 8(a) shows the transient step change [11] F. Z. Peng, H. Akagi, and A. Nabae, “A new approach to harmonic
compensation in power systems,” in Con$ Rec. IEEE Ind. Applicat. Soc.
in the load current and in the power factor. In Fig. 8(b), the ac Annu. Meeting, 1988, pp. 874-880.
mains phase-to-neutral source voltage with the respective line
current is shown. This figure shows the effectiveness of the
active power filter, since it is able to keep the current in phase
with the respective phase-to-neutral voltage, thereby keeping Luis A. M o r h (S’78-M’82) was born in Con-
the ac source power factor equal to one, and eliminating low- cepci6n, Chile, in 1958. He received the electrical
frequency current harmonics. Fig. 8(c) shows that the line engineering degree from the University of Con-
cepci6n in 1982, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical
current reaches steady-state in almost two cycles. This result engineering from Concordia University, Montreal,
proves that the time response of the current loop control is fast. Canada, in 1990.
Finally, Fig. 8(d) shows the respective inverter output current. Since 1990, he has been with the Department of
Electrical Engineering, University of Concepcibn,
Comparison with simulated waveforms shown in Figs. 4 and where he is an Associate Professor. He is a con-
5 reveals a close agreement between predicted and experimen- sultant for several industrial projects. His research
tal waveforms. Moreover, agreement in waveforms validates area is in var compensation, active power filters,
and power distribution systems.
the analysis presented.

VI. CONCLUSION
In this paper, an active power filter that operates with fixed Juan W. Dixon (M’90)was born in Santiago,
switching frequency has been presented and analyzed. The Chile, in 1948. He received the elctrical engineering
proposed active power filter can compensate current harmonic degree from the University of Chile in 1977, and the
M.Eng. and Ph.D. degrees in electrical engineering
components and the reactive power required by the load. from McGill University, Montreal, Canada, in 1986
Reactive power compensation is achieved without sensing and 1988, respectively.
and computing the associated reactive power component, thus Since 1979, he has been an Associate Professor
in the Deparment of ElectricalEngineering, Catholic
simplifying the circuit topology. The performance of the active University of Chile, Santiago, teaching the subjects
power filter has been improved by including a dc voltage of power electronics and electrical machines. His
control loop that maintains the voltage across the dc capacitor research interests have included electric traction,
machine drives, frequency changers, high-power rectifiers, static var com-
constant. In this way, the inverter voltage gain is increased pensators, and active power filters.
and the high-frequency ripple current is reduced. The close
agreement between the analytical and the experimental results
proves the validity of the analysis and the feasibility of the
proposed system. Rogel R. Wallace was born in Santiago, Chile, in
1942. He received the electrical engineering degree
REFERENCES from the Universidad Tbnica Federico Santa Maria
in 1966, the Ph.D. degree from the Moscow Power
[ l ] W. M. Grady, M. J. Samotyj, and A. H. Noyola, “Survey of active Institute, U.S.S.R. (now Russia), in 1976.
power line conditioning methodologies,” Trans. Power Delivery. vol. 5 , He was a postdoctoral fellow in electrical ma-
no. 3, pp. 1536-1542, July 1990. chine design at the Moscow Power InstituteSince
[2] L. Gyugyi and E. C. Strycula, “Active ac power filters,” in Con$ Rec. 1980, he has been with the Department of Electri-
IEEE Ind. Applicat. Soc. Annu. Meeting, Oct. 1976, pp. 529-535. cal Engineering, University of Concepci6n, Chile,
[3] H. Kawahira, T. Nakamura, S. Nakazawa, and M. Nomura, “Active where he is a Professor. His teaching activities and
power filter,” in Proc. JIEE IPEC, Mar. 1983, pp. 981-992. research interests include electrical machine design,
[4] H. Akagi, Y. Kanazawa, and A. Nabae, “Instantaneousreactive power power electronics, variable frequency drives, and control system theory
compensators comprising switching devices without energy storage applied to electrical drives.