Chapter 2

Macromechanical Analysis of a Lamina

•Stress, Strain
•Stress–strain relationships for different types of materials
•Stress–strain relationships for a unidirectional/bidirectional lamina

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1.Stress and Strain:

Applied loads on an infinitesimal surface on y-z plane

Stress on an arbitrary surface

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Stress state at any point can be

represented by 9 components, writing
equations of equilibrium:

It means that just with 6 independent

components, one can show stress state at any
point:

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Symmetric stress tensor with 6 independent components:

Stress vector on plane P with normal vector of

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And, so on:

Tensor Shear Strain Eng. Shear Strain

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Symmetric Strain Tensor

or

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2.Stress & Strain Transformation:

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3.Stress-Strain Relations (Constitutive Equations or

Hook’s Law):

Stiffness Matrix Compliance Matrix

There are 36 constants relating stress to strain components which

reduce to 21 constants due to the symmetry of the stiffness
matrix [C].

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Question: Prove that stiffness and compliance matrix are symmetric?

Stress–strain relationships for different types of materials:

A. Anisotropic Materials
B. Monoclinic Materials
C. Orthotropic Materials
D. Transversely Isotropic Materials
E. Isotropic Materials

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A. Hook’s law for anisotropic (triclinic) materials:

21 independent constants

There are not any planes of symmetry for the material properties in this kind
of materials.

It’s clear that subjecting anisotropic materials to uniaxial stress makes the
body under both axial and shear strains (Coupling)

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B. Hook’s law for monoclinic materials:

13 independent constants

If there is one plane of material property symmetry (for example plane of

symmetry is z=0 or 1-2 plane). E.g Feldspar

Material symmetry implies that the material and its mirror image about the
plane of symmetry are identical

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• Apply tensile stress in 3-direction:

Using the Hooke’s law Equation and the
compliance matrix for the monoclinic
material, one gets:

Deformation of a cubic element made of monoclinic

material under uniaxial stress in 3-direction
(plane 1-2 is plane of symmetry)
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C. Hook’s law for orthotropic materials:

9 independent constants

If there are two orthogonal planes of material property symmetry for a

material, symmetry will exist relative to a third mutually orthogonal plane

A unidirectional lamina as a orthotropic material

with fibers, arranged in a rectangular array
array.. A
wooden bar, and rolled steel are other examples
examples..

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Note that, for orthotropic, there is no interaction between normal stresses

and shearing strains such as occurs in anisotropic materials (no coupling)

•Thus, the cube will not deform in

shape under any normal load applied
in the principal directions. This is
unlike the monoclinic material, in
which two out of the six faces of the
cube changed shape.

•A cube made of isotropic material

would not change its shape either;
however, the normal strains, ε1 and
ε2, will be different in an orthotropic
material and identical in an isotropic
material

Deformation of a cubic element

made of orthotropic material
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D. Hook’s law for transversely isotropic materials:

5 independent constants

If at every point of a material there is one plane in which the mechanical

properties are equal in all directions (or if one of 3 symmetry plane is
isotropic)

A unidirectional lamina as a transversely isotropic

material with fibers arranged in a square array (plane 2–3
is the plane of isotropy)

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E. Hook’s law for isotropic materials:

2 independent constants (E, v)

If there is an infinite number of planes of material property symmetry

Question: Why for isotropic material:

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Example: Show that there are 13 constants for monoclinic materials in

stress–strain relations?

Solution:

If direction 3 is perpendicular to the plane of symmetry. Now, in the

coordinate system 1–2–3, strain-stress relation with Cij = Cji is:

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Also, in the coordinate system 1′–2′–3′:

Because there is a plane of symmetry normal to direction 3, the stresses and

strains in the 1–2–3 and 1′–2′–3′ coordinate systems are related by

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1 4

2 5

Substituting eq.3 in eq.5:

6

Subtracting eq.6 from eq.4:

Because and are arbitrary:

Similarly, one can show that:

Thus, only 13 independent

elastic constants are
present in a monoclinic
material.

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Example: Show that there 9 constants for orthotropic materials in stress–

strain relations?

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4.Stiffnesses, compliances, & engineering constants for

orthotropic materials:

9 constants in these materials are:

3 elasticity (Young) moduli E1, E2 & E3 in 1, 2 & 3 directions (material axis)
3 shear moduli G12, G23 & G31 in the 1-2, 2-3 & 3-1 planes
3 Poisson’s ratio v12, v23 & v31

4-1

4-2

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Prove:
Apply uniaxial tensile stress
So:

The Young’s modulus in direction 1, E1, is defined as:

The Poisson’s ratio, ν12 & v13 are defined as:

Note: νij is defined as the ratio of the negative of the normal strain in
direction j to the normal strain in direction i, when the load is applied in the
normal direction i.

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Similarly for uniaxial tensile stresses in 2 & 3 directions…

Then apply

So:

The shear modulus in plane 2–3 is defined as:

And, similarly:

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Note: When an orthotropic material is stressed in principal material
coordinates (the 1, 2, and 3 coordinates), it does not exhibit either shear-
extension or shear-shear coupling.

Due to symmetry of stiffness & compliance matices (Sij=Sji), last 12 obtained

constants will be reduced to 9:

4-3 (Betti’s law)

Difference between e.g v12 & v21 for an orthotropic material:

where the direction of loading is denoted

with the pre
pre--superscript
superscript, the directions of
strain and deformation are denoted with
subscripts, and the deformations are:
subscripts

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if E1 > E2 as is the case for a lamina reinforced with fibers in the 1-direction,
then as we would expect because the lamina is stiffer in the 1
direction than in the 2-direction.

Also:

That is, the transverse deformation (and transverse strain) is the same when
the stress is applied in the 2-direction as when it is applied in the 1-direction.

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Obtaining stiffness matrix from compliance matrix for orthotropic
materials: Because these two matrices are mutually inverse, using matrix
algebra

4-4

where, 4-5

4-6

4-7

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5.Restrictions on engineering constants:

A. Isotropic Materials:

5-1

When an isotropic body is subjected to hydrostatic pressure( ):

Volumetric strain 5-2

5-4

Bulk modulus 5-3

K is positive. if it was
negative, a hydrostatic
pressure would cause
expansion of a cube of
isotropic material.

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B. Orthotropic Materials:
Based on the first law of thermodynamics,
thermodynamics the stiffness and the compliance
matrix must be positive definite (i.e, have positive principal values):

5-5

5-6

5-7

the positive nature of the stiffnessess leads to:

5-8

5-9
5-10

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5-7

5-11

5-12

In order to obtain a constraint on one Poisson's ratio, v21, in terms of two

others, v32 and v13, from Eq.(5-12):

5-13

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Applications & importance of these restrictions on engineering
constants for orthotropic materials

1. To optimize properties of a composite because they show that the nine

independent properties cannot be varied without influencing the limits of the
others.

2. To examine experimental data to see if they are physically consistent

within the framework of the mathematical elasticity model.

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Example 5-1: Dickerson and DiMartino test: They measured Poisson's ratios
for boron-epoxy composite materials as high as 1.97 for the negative of the
strain in the 2-direction over the strain in the 1-direction due to loading in the
1-direction (v12). The reported values of the Young's moduli for the two
directions are E1=11.86 X 106 psi (81.77 GPa) and E2=1.33 x 106 psi (9.17
GPa).

(For isotropic materials this ratio is nearly 1)

1.97 < 2.99: v12 is a reasonable number

even though our intuition based on
isotropic materials (v < 1/2) rejects such
a large number.

Also, the 'converse‘ (or minor) Poisson's ratio, v21' was

reported as 0.22. This value satisfies the reciprocal relations in
eq. (5-9).

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Example 5-2: Find the compliance and stiffness matrix for a graphite/epoxy
lamina. The material properties are given as

Solution:

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Solution (continue):

(or by using eq. 4-6)

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6. STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONS FOR PLANE STRESS IN AN

ORTHOTROPIC MATERIAL

Plane stress conditions for a thin plate Unidirectionally Reinforced Lamina

6-1

Note: A plane stress state on a lamina is not merely an idealization of

reality, but instead is a practical and achievable objective of how we must use
a lamina with fibers in its plane.

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A unidirectionally reinforced lamina mainly can withstand in plane loads especially
in its fibers direction. So, it would need 'help' carrying in-plane stress
perpendicular to its fibers, but that help can be provided by other (parallel) layers
that have their fibers in the direction of the stress using laminate

For orthotropic materials, imposing a state of plane stress results in implied

out--of
out of--plane strains of:

6-2

The normal strain, ε3, is not an independent strain because it is a function of

the other two normal strains, ε1 and ε2. Therefore, the normal strain, ε3, can
be omitted from the stress–strain relationship. Also, the shearing strains, γ23
and γ31, can be omitted because they are zero:

6-3

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Reduced stiffnesses for a plane stress state in the 1-2

plane which are determined by:
1. as the components of the inverted compliance matrix in
eq. (6.3) or
2. from the Cij directly by applying the condition to the
strain-stress relations to get an expression for and
6-4
simplifying the results to get:
6-5

6-6 6-7

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Relationship of Compliance and Stiffness Matrix to Engineering

Elastic Constants of a Lamina:

For a unidirectional lamina,

lamina these engineering elastics constants are:
E1= longitudinal Young’s modulus (in direction 1)
E2= transverse Young’s modulus (in direction 2)
V12= major Poisson’s ratio
G12= in-plane shear modulus (in plane 1–2)

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This
equation is
verified…
(Minor Poisson’s Ratio)

The unidirectional or bidirectional lamina is a specially orthotropic lamina

because normal stresses applied in the 1–2 direction do not result in any
shearing strains in the 1–2 plane because Q16 = Q26 = 0 = S16 = S26. Also,
the shearing stresses applied in the 1–2 plane do not result in any normal
strains in the 1 and 2 directions because Q16 = Q26 = 0 = S16 = S26.
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For plane stress on isotropic materials
materials:

6-8 6-9

Question: Obtain stiffness & compliance matrices for orthotropic & isotropic
materials under plane stress condition?

Question: Show that for an orthotropic material Q11 ≠ C11. Explain why.
Also, show Q66 = C66. Explain why

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Question: For a graphite/epoxy unidirectional lamina, find the following

1. Compliance matrix
2. Minor Poisson’s ratio
3. Reduced stiffness matrix
4. Strains in the 1–2 coordinate system

Use the properties of unidirectional graphite/epoxy lamina from next table.

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7. STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONS FOR A LAMINA OF ARBITRARY

ORIENTATION

1-2 coordinate system: local axes: material axes

1-direction: Longitudinal direction L
2-direction: Transverse direction T

x–y coordinate system: global axes: off-axes

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7-1

The transformation matrix

7-2

7-3

&

7-5

Reuter
Matrix
7-4
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7-3

7-6
7-5

The elements of the transformed reduced stiffness matrix are given by:

7-7

Note: The transformed reduced stiffness matrix has terms in all nine
positions in contrast to the presence of zeros in the reduced stiffness
matrix. However, there are still only four independent material constants
because the lamina is orthotropic
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7-8

7-9

Note:
- From Eqs. (6-3) & (6-4), for a unidirectional lamina loaded in the material axes
directions, no coupling occurs between the normal and shearing terms of strains
and stresses (specially orthotropic).
- However, for an angle lamina, from Eqs. (7-6) & (7-8), coupling takes place
between the normal and shearing terms of strains and stresses.
- Therefore, Equation (7-6) & (7-8) are stress–strain equations for what is called
a generally orthotropic lamina.
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Note:
- The only advantage associated with generally orthotropic as opposed to
anisotropic laminae is that generally orthotropic laminae are easier to
characterize experimentally
experimentally.
- In fact, there is no difference between solutions for generally orthotropic
laminae and those for anisotropic laminae whose stress-strain relations,
under conditions of plane stress, can be written as:

7-10 7-11

where the anisotropic compliances in terms of the engineering constants

are:

7-12

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Anisotropic elasticity relations:
1.Lekhnitskii
Lekhnitskii coefficients or mutual influence coefficients or shear
shear--extension
coupling coefficients:

7-13

7-14

2.Chentsov coefficients or shear--shear

shear coefficients (not for in-plane
loading):

7-15

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Reciprocal relation for Chentsov coeff. (like Betti’s law):

7-16

3. The out-of-plane shearing strains of an anisotropic lamina due to in-plane

shearing stress and normal stresses are:

7-17

Note: Neither of these shear strains arise in an orthotropic material unless it

is stressed in coordinates other than the principal material coordinates.

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The apparent engineering constants for an orthotropic lamina that is stressed

in non-principal x-y coordinates (from Eqs. 7-9 & 7-11 & 7-12):

7-18

Question: Obtain Eqs. (7-18)?

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From Eqs. (7-18):

Normalized Moduli for Boron-Epoxy

Normalized Moduli for Glass-Epoxy

These results were summarized by Jones as a simple theorem: the

extremum (largest and smallest) material properties do not necessarily
occur in principal material (1-2) coordinates: Vxy or Gxy
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Visual interpretation:
Why Gxy>G12 & E1>E45 for a composite material with fiber modulus much
greater than matrix modulus?

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Know more…
 Auxetic (Negative Poisson’s Ratio) Structures

Chiral

Re-entrant

 Higher Poisson’s Ratio

Dickerson & Di Martino

have published data for
cross-plied boron-epoxy
composites in which the
Poisson's ratios range
from 0.024 to 0.878 in
the orthotropic case and
from -0.414 to 1.97 for a
+/-25 ° laminate

Variation of Poisson's ratio with orientation

for the woven roving laminate panel
P. D. Craig & J. Summerscalest Experiments
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Example 7-1: Find the following for a 60° angle lamina of graphite/epoxy.
Use the properties of unidirectional graphite/epoxy lamina from the last
table.
1. Transformed compliance matrix
2. Transformed reduced stiffness matrix
If the applied stress is σx=2 MPa, σy=–3 MPa, and τxy=4 MPa, also find
3. Global strains
4. Local strains
5. Local stresses
6. Principal stresses
7. Maximum shear stress
8. Principal strains
9. Maximum shear strain

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Solution:
1: From example 5-2, then using Eq.(7-9):

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2: by inverting Transformed compliance matrix or using Eq.(7-7):

3: from Eq.(7-8):

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4: using Eq.(7-4):

5: using Eq.(7-1):

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6:

7:

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8:

Note: The principal normal strains do not occur

along the material axes. This should also be
clear from the nonzero shear strain in the local
axes. In addition, the axes of principal normal
stresses and principal normal strains do not
9: match, unlike in isotropic materials.

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Example 7-2: A uniaxial load is applied to a 10° ply. The linear stress–strain
curve along the line of load is related as σx = 123εx, where the stress is
measured in GPa and strain in m/m. Given E1 = 180 GPa, E2 = 10 GPa and
ν12 = 0.25, find the value of
(1) shear modulus, G12
(2) modulus Ex for a 60° ply.

Solution:

‫ﺣﻞ ﻣﻮﺟﻮد اﺳﺖ‬

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8. Strength and Failure Criteria for An Orthotropic Lamina

• A successful design of a structure requires efficient and safe use of

materials.
• Theories need to be developed to compare the state of stress in a
material to failure criteria.
• It should be noted that failure theories are only stated and their
application is validated by experiments.
• The first step in such a definition is the establishment of allowable
stresses or strengths in the principal material directions.

• For a lamina stressed in its own plane, there are five fundamental
strengths::
strengths

Xt = axial or longitudinal strength in tension

Xc=
Xc = axial or longitudinal strength in compression
Yt = transverse strength in tension
Yc = transverse strength in compression
S = shear strength

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Or

 Experimental Determination of Strength and Stiffness:

Stiffness

Strength

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Measuring E1 & V12 & X:
Uniaxial tension loading in the 1-direction

ASTM D 638 tension test specimen

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Measuring E2 & V21 & Y:
Uniaxial tension loading in the 2-direction

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Measuring G12:
Uniaxial tension loading at 45° to the 1-direction

 G12

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Measuring G12 & S:
Torsion tube test

Sandwich cross-
cross-beam test Rail shear test
(By Shockey and described by (By Whitney, Stansbarger, & Howell)
Waddoups) “It’s widely used in aerospace
industry”

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 Maximum Stress Failure Theory:

Maximum normal stress theory by Rankine
Like theories for isotropic materials
Maximum shearing stress theory by Tresca

o The stresses acting on a lamina are resolved into the normal

and shear stresses in the local axes
axes..
o Failure is predicted in a lamina, if any of the normal or shear
stresses in the local axes of a lamina is equal to or exceeds the
corresponding ultimate strengths of the unidirectional lamina
lamina..
o Given the stresses or strains in the global axes of a lamina,
one can find the stresses in the material axes by using
Equation (7-1)
o Theses 5 criteria act independently and don’t interact with 8-1
the others
others..

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Example 8-1: Find the max. value of S>0 if a stress of σx=2S, σy=–3S, and
τxy =4S is applied to the 60° lamina of graphite/epoxy. Use maximum stress
failure theory and the properties of a unidirectional graphite/epoxy lamina
given in Table of page 95.

Solution: (7-1)

Table p.95

(8-1)

• The preceding inequalities also show that the angle lamina will fail in shear.
• The maximum stress that can be applied before failure is:

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Strength Ratio:
• In a failure theory such as the maximum stress failure theory of Section, it can be
determined whether a lamina has failed if any of the inequalities of Equation (8-1) are
violated.
• However, this does not give the information about how much the load can be increased
if the lamina is safe or how much the load should be decreased if the lamina has failed.

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Examples 8-2: Assume that one is applying a load of σx=2MPa, σy=−3MPa,

τxy=4MPa to a 60° angle lamina of graphite/epoxy. Find the strength ratio
using the maximum stress failure theory.

Solution:
If the strength ratio is R, then the maximum stress that can be applied is
σx=2R, σy=−3R, τxy=4R
Following Example 8-1 for finding the local stresses gives
σ1=0.1714×10 R, σ2=−0.2714×10 R, τ12=−0.4165×10 R
Using the maximum stress failure theory as given by Equation (8-1) yields
R=16.33
Thus, the load that can be applied just before failure is
σx=16.33×2=32.66 MPa, σy=16.33×(−3)=-48.99 MPa, τxy=16.33×4=65.32 MPa
Note that all the components of the stress vector must be multiplied by the strength
ratio
If SR > 1: then the lamina is safe and the applied stress can be increased by a factor of
SR.
If SR < 1: the lamina is unsafe and the applied stress needs to be reduced by a factor of
SR.
SR = 1: implies the failure load.
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Failure Envelopes:
A failure envelope is a three
three--dimensional plot of the combinations of the normal and
shear stresses that can be applied to an angle lamina just before failure
failure.

Drawing three dimensional graphs can be time consuming

consuming:: developing failure envelopes
for constant shear stress τxy (2 normal stresses σx and σy as the two axes)
axes):: Then, if the
applied stress is within the failure envelope, the lamina is safe
safe;; otherwise, it has failed
failed..
Failure envelope for the 60° lamina of
graphite/epoxy for a constant shear stress of τxy
= 24 Mpa (Example p.145, Kaw)

Failure Criteria for Metals

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 Maximum Strain Failure Theory:

o This theory is based on the maximum normal strain

theory by StSt.. Venant and the maximum shear stress
theory by Tresca as applied to isotropic materials
materials..
o The strains applied to a lamina are resolved to
strains in the local axes
o Failure is predicted in a lamina, if any of the normal
or shearing strains in the local axes of a lamina equal
or exceed the corresponding ultimate strains of the
unidirectional lamina
8-2

Note: In fact, if the Poisson’s ratio is zero in the unidirectional lamina, the
Note:
two failure theories will give identical results.

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Example 8-3: Find the maximum value of S>0 if a stress, σx=2S, σy=–3S,
and τxy=4S, is applied to a 60° graphite/epoxy lamina. Use maximum strain
failure theory. Use the properties of the graphite/epoxy unidirectional lamina
given in Table p.95

Solution:
Considering “[S]” and “local stresses” from example 2.6 (Kaw) and example
8-1 (here):

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Assume a linear relationship between all the stresses and strains until failure;
then the ultimate failure strains are

Using the inequalities (8-2) and recognizing that S>0:

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o The maximum value of S before failure is 16.33 MPa. The same maximum
value of S = 16.33 MPa is also found using maximum stress failure theory.
o There is no difference between the two values because the mode of failure
is shear. However, if the mode of failure were other than shear, a difference in
the prediction of failure loads would have been present due to the Poisson’s
ratio effect, which couples the normal strains and stresses in the local axes.
o Neither the maximum stress failure theory nor the maximum strain failure
theory has any coupling among the five possible modes of failure.
oThe following theories are based on the interaction failure theory:
Tsai-Hill
Tsai-Wu

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 Tsai–Hill Failure Theory

-This theory is based on the distortion energy failure theory of Von Von--Mises
Mises’’ distortional
energy yield criterion for isotropic materials as applied to anisotropic materials.

-The strain energy in a body consists of two parts:

1. Due to a change in volume and is called the dilation energy
2. Due to a change in shape and is called the distortion energy

-It is assumed that failure in the material takes place only when the distortion energy is
greater than the failure distortion energy of the material.

“Hill” adopted the Von-Mises’ distortional energy yield criterion to anisotropic materials.
“Tsai” adopted it to a unidirectional lamina. Based on the distortion energy theory, he
proposed that a lamina has failed if below inequality is violated:

8-3

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The components G1, G2, G3, G4, G5, and G6 of the strength criterion depend on the
failure strengths and are found as follows:

1. Apply to a unidirectional lamina; then, the lamina will fail. Thus, Equation
(8-3) reduces to
8-4

2. Apply to a unidirectional lamina; then, the lamina will fail. Thus, Equation
(8-3) reduces to
8-5

3. Apply to a unidirectional lamina and, assuming that the normal tensile

failure strength is same in directions (2) and (3), the lamina will fail. Thus, Equation (8-
3) reduces to
8-6

4. Apply to a unidirectional lamina; then, the lamina will fail. Thus, Equation
(8-3) reduces to
8-7

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From Equation (8-4) to Equation (8-7):

8-8

Because the unidirectional lamina is assumed to be under plane stress (σ3=τ31=τ23=0),

then Equation (8-3) reduces through Equation (8-8) to:

8-9

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Example 8-4: Find the maximum value of S > 0 if a stress of σx = 2S, σy =
–3S, and τxy =4S is applied to a 60° graphite/epoxy lamina. Use Tsai–Hill
failure theory. Use the unidirectional graphite/epoxy lamina properties given
in Table slide 95.

Solution:
From example 8-1:

Using the Tsai–Hill failure theory from Equation (8-9):

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Remarks:
1. Unlike the maximum strain and maximum stress failure theories, the Tsai–
Hill failure theory considers the interaction among the three unidirectional
lamina strength parameters.
2. The Tsai–Hill failure theory does not distinguish between the compressive
and tensile strengths in its equations. This can result in underestimation of
the maximum loads that can be applied when compared to other failure
theories. For the load of σx = 2 MPa, σy =–3 MPa, and τxy = 4 MPa, as found
in Example 8-2, Example 8-3, and Example 8-4, the strength ratios are given
by
SR = 16
16..33 (maximum stress failure theory)
SR = 16
16..33 (maximum strain failure theory)
SR = 10
10..94 (Tsai
(Tsai–
–Hill failure theory)
Tsai–Hill failure theory underestimates the failure stress because the transverse tensile
strength of a unidirectional lamina is generally much less than its transverse
compressive strength and the compressive strengths are not used in the Tsai–Hill failure
theory, but it can be modified to use corresponding tensile or compressive strengths in
the failure theory as follows

8-10

8-9

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Where:

For Example 8-4, the modified Tsai–Hill failure theory given by Equation (2.10) now
gives:

the strength ratio is SR = 16

16..06 (modified Tsai
Tsai–
–Hill failure theory)

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3. The Tsai–Hill failure theory is a unified theory and thus does not give the
mode of failure like the maximum stress and maximum strain failure theories
do. However, one can make a reasonable guess of the failure mode by
calculating and . The maximum of these three
values gives the associated mode of failure.
In the modified Tsai
Tsai––Hill failure theory
theory, calculate the maximum of |σ1/X1|,
|σ2/Y|, and |τ12/S| for the associated mode of failure.

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 Tsai–Wu Failure Theory

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Problems Chapter 2:

1. Derive Equation (7-6).

2. Prove

3. Derive Equation (7-8).

4. Prove

5. Plot the apparent engineering constants Ex, Ey, Gxy, Vxy, & as
functions of θ from θ=0 to θ=90 for high-modulus graphite-epoxy, an
orthotropic material with E1=30 X 10^6 psi (207 GPa), E2=0.75 x 10^6
psi (5.2 GPa), G12 =0.375 x 10^6 psi (2.59 GPa), and V12 =0.25.

6. Find the engineering constants of a 60° graphite/epoxy lamina. Use the

properties of a unidirectional graphite/epoxy lamina from Table of slide 95.

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7. A 60° angle graphite/epoxy lamina is subjected only to a shear stress τxy

= 2 MPa in the global axes. What would be the value of the strains measured
by the strain gage rosette — that is, what would be the normal strains
measured by strain gages A, B, and C? Use the properties of unidirectional
graphite/epoxy lamina from table of slide 95.

8. What are the values of stiffness matrix elements C11 and C12 in terms of
the Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio for an isotropic material?

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9. Consider an orthotropic material with the stiffness matrix given by

Find:
a. The stresses in the principal directions of symmetry if the strains in the
principal directions of symmetry at a point in the material are ε1 = 1 μm/m,
ε2 = 3 μm/m, ε3 = 2 μm/m; γ23 = 0, γ31 = 5 μm/m, γ12 = 6 μm/m
b. The compliance matrix [S]
c. The engineering constants E1, E2, E3, ν12, ν23, ν31, G12, G23, G31

10. Find the strains in the 1–2 coordinate system (local axes) in a
unidirectional boron/epoxy lamina, if the stresses in the 1–2 coordinate
system applied to are σ1 = 4 MPa, σ2 = 2 MPa, and τ12 = –3 MPa. Use the
properties of a unidirectional boron/epoxy lamina from Table of slide 95.

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10.Find the reduced stiffness [Q] and the compliance [S] matrices for a
unidirectional lamina of boron/epoxy. Use the properties of a unidirectional
boron/epoxy lamina from Table page 95

11. The reduced stiffness matrix [Q] is given for a unidirectional lamina is
given as follows:

What are the four engineering constants, E1, E2, ν12, and G12, of the lamina?

12. Find the off-axis shear strength and mode of failure of a 60° boron/epoxy
lamina. Use the properties of a unidirectional boron/epoxy lamina from Table
page 95. Apply the maximum stress failure and maximum strain failure
theories.

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13. Find the maximum biaxial stress, σx = –σ, σy = –σ, σ > 0, that one can
apply to a 60° lamina of graphite/epoxy. Use the properties of a
unidirectional graphite/epoxy lamina from Table of page 95. Use maximum
strain failure theories.

Islamic Azad University, Najafabad Branch 141

 ‫ ﺗﺤﻠﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﮑﺮﻭﻣﮑﺎﻧﻴﮑﻲ ﻳﮏ ﺗﮏ ﻻﻳﻪ‬:‫ﻓﺼﻞ ﺳﻮﻡ‬
Micromechanical Analysis of a Lamina

• Concepts of volume and weight fraction

• Elastic moduli for the composite

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1.Introduction, Definition:
• Macromechanics of a lamina discussed about the “apparent” properties of a
lamina.
• In previous chapter, a large enough piece of the lamina was considered so
that the fact that the lamina is made of two or more constituent materials
cannot be detected.
• In previous chapter, we were able to say that a unidirectional lamina (boron
fibers in epoxy) has certain stiffnesses and strengths that we measured in
various directions. but, we didn’t find out how can the stiffnesses & strengths
of a boron-epoxy composite material be varied by changing the proportion of
boron fibers to epoxy matrix?

Basic Question of Micromechanics

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Unlike in isotropic materials, experimental evaluation of parameters for

unidirectional lamina is quite costly and time consuming because they are
functions of several variables like:
• The individual constituents of the composite material
• Fiber volume fraction
• Packing geometry
• Processing
• Etc

Thus

“The need and motivation for developing analytical models to find these
parameters are very important”

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Some important definitions:

• Volume fraction
fraction::

Consider a composite consisting of fiber and matrix:

fiber volume fraction 1-1

1-2 1-4
matrix volume fraction

1-3

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• Mass fraction (weight fraction)
fraction)::

mass fraction of the fibers 1-5

mass fraction of the matrix 1-6 1-8

1-7

1-11

1-12
1-9 1-10

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Table 3-1

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Table 3-2

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Example 1: A glass/epoxy lamina consists of a 70% fiber volume fraction.

Use properties of glass and epoxy from Table 3.1 & Table 3.2, respectively, to
determine the:
1. Density of lamina
2. Mass fractions of the glass and epoxy
3. Volume of composite lamina if the mass of the lamina is 4 kg
4. Volume and mass of glass and epoxy in part (3)

Solution:

1. Table 3-1

Table 3-2

1-11

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2.

0.7=0.8294

3.

4.

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2.Evaluation of the Four Elastic Moduli:

there are four elastic moduli of a unidirectional lamina:

• Longitudinal Young’s modulus, E1

• Transverse Young’s modulus, E2
• Major Poisson’s ratio, ν12
• In-plane shear modulus, G12

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The objective of all micromechanics approaches is to determine the elastic

moduli or stiffnesses or compliances of a composite material in terms of the
elastic moduli of the constituent materials:

Three approaches to determine the four elastic moduli:

1- Strength of materials approach

2-Semi-empirical models

3-Elasticity approach

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3.Strength of materials approach:

-From a unidirectional lamina, take a

representative volume element that
consists of the fiber surrounded by the
matrix.
-The fiber, matrix, and the composite
are assumed to be of the same width,
h, but of thicknesses tf , tm, and tc,
respectively.
-The area of the fiber, the matrix, & the
composite:

3-1

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The following assumptions are made in the strength of materials approach

model:

• The bond between fibers and matrix is perfect.

• The elastic moduli, diameters, and space between fibers are uniform.
• The fibers are continuous and parallel.
• The fibers and matrix follow Hook’s law (linearly elastic).
• The fibers possess uniform strength.
• The composite is free of voids.

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3.1. Longitudinal Young’s Modulus

3-2

3-3

Assuming that the fibers, matrix, and composite follow Hooke’s law and
that the fibers and the matrix are isotropic, the stress–strain relationship
for each component and the composite is:

3-4

(3-3) & (3-4) in (3-2)

3-5 3-6

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3-7 The rule of mixtures

(3-3) & (3-4)

3-8

Fraction of load of composite carried by

fibers as a function of fiber volume fraction
for constant fiber to matrix moduli ratio.

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Example 2: Find the longitudinal elastic modulus of a unidirectional

glass/epoxy lamina with a 70% fiber volume fraction. Use the properties of
glass and epoxy from Table 3.1 and Table 3.2, respectively. Also, find the
ratio of the load taken by the fibers to that of the composite.

Solution:

From Table 3.1 & 3.2:

From Eq. (3-7):

From Eq. (3-8):

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Longitudinal Young’s modulus as function of fiber volume fraction and comparison with
experimental data points for a typical glass/polyester lamina. (Experimental data points
reproduced with permission of ASM International.)

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3.2. Transverse Young’s Modulus

3-9

3-10

3-11

by using Hooke’s law

3-12

(3-11) & (3-12) in (3-10) & using (3-9)

3-13

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Example 3: Find the transverse Young’s modulus of a glass/epoxy lamina

with a fiber volume fraction of 70%. Use the properties of glass and epoxy
from Table 3.1 and Table 3.2, respectively.

Solution:

Transverse Young’s modulus as a function

of fiber volume fraction for constant fiber
to matrix moduli ratio.

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Theoretical values of transverse Young’s modulus as a function of fiber

volume fraction for a Boron/Epoxy unidirectional lamina (Ef = 414 GPa,
νf = 0.2, Em = 4.14 GPa, νm = 0.35) and comparison with
experimental values.

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3.3. Major Poisson’s Ratio

The major Poisson’s ratio is defined

as the negative of the ratio of the
normal strain in the transverse
direction to the normal strain in the
longitudinal direction, when a
normal load is applied in the
longitudinal direction…

Assume a composite is loaded in the

direction parallel to the fibers.

3-14

The deformations in the

transverse direction of the
composite

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3-15

(3-15) in (3-14)
3-16

3-17 3-18

3-19

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3.4. In-Plane Shear Modulus

3-20

The resulting shear deformations

3-21

3-22

(3-20)
(3-21)
(3-22)

assumption

3-23

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Example 4: Find the major and minor Poisson’s ratio and the in-plane shear
modulus of a glass/epoxy lamina with a 70% fiber volume fraction. Use the
properties of glass and epoxy from Table 3.1 and Table 3.2, respectively.

Solution:

From Table 3.1 & 3.2:

From Eq. 3-19:

(3-23)

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Theoretical values of in-plane shear modulus as a function of fiber volume fraction and
comparison with experimental values for a unidirectional glass/epoxy lamina (Gf = 30.19
GPa, Gm= 1.83 GPa).
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Problems Chapter 3:

1. A hybrid lamina uses glass and graphite fibers in a matrix of epoxy for its
construction. The fiber volume fractions of glass and graphite are 40 and
20%, respectively. The specific gravity of glass, graphite, and epoxy is 2.6,
1.8, and 1.2, respectively. Find
a. Mass fractions
b. Density of the composite

2.Determine the expression for the modulus of a composite material that

consists of matrix material reinforced by a slab of constant thickness in the
direction in which the modulus is desired as in below Figure

3. A resin hybrid lamina is made by reinforcing graphite

fibers in two matrices: resin A and resin B. The fiber
weight fraction is 40%; for resin A and resin B, the
weight fraction is 30% each. If the specific gravity of
graphite, resin A, and resin B is 1.2, 2.6, and 1.7,
respectively, find
a. Fiber volume fraction b. Density of composite
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4. Show that ,if the fibers are much stiffer than the matrix — that
is, Gf >> Gm

5. A unidirectional glass/epoxy lamina with a fiber volume fraction of 70% is

replaced by a graphite/epoxy lamina with the same longitudinal Young’s
modulus. Find the fiber volume fraction required in the graphite/epoxy
lamina. Use properties of glass, graphite, and epoxy from Table 3.1 and Table
3.2.

6. Sometimes, the properties of a fiber are determined from the measured

properties of a unidirectional lamina. As an example, find the experimentally
determined value of the Poisson’s ratio of an isotropic fiber from the following
measured properties of a unidirectional lamina:
a. Major Poisson’s ratio of composite = 0.27
b. Poisson’s ratio of the matrix = 0.35
c. Fiber volume fraction = 0.65

Islamic Azad University, Najafabad Branch 168

 ‫ ﺗﺤﻠﻴﻞ ﻣﺎﮐﺮﻭﻣﮑﺎﻧﻴﮑﻲ ﻳﮏ ﭼﻨﺪ ﻻﻳﻪ‬:‫ﻓﺼﻞ ﭼﻬﺎﺭﻡ‬
Macromechanical Analysis of a Laminate

• Code for laminate stacking sequence

• Relationships of mechanical loads applied to a laminate to strains and
stresses in each lamina.

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1. Introduction:

The two basic questions of laminate analysis are:

1. what are the conditions that the laminae must meet to be a laminate?
2. how Will a laminate respond to loading, i.e., imposed forces and
moments?

The main reason for lamination is to combine laminae to create a laminate

for achieving the largest possible bending stiffness for the materials used.

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2. Laminate Code:

[0/–45/90/60/30]: It consists of five plies, each of

which has a different angle to the reference x-axis. A
slash separates each lamina. The code also implies that
each ply is made of the same material and is of the
same thickness. Sometimes, may
also denote this laminate, where the subscript T stands
for a total laminate.

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3. Classical Lamination Theory (CLT):

3.1. 1D Linearly Elastic & Isotropic Beam Stress–Strain Relation

4-1

Distance z, from the centroidal line

4-2

the radius of curvature of the beam

4-3

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4-4

curvature of the beam

This shows that, under a combined uniaxial and bending load, the
strain varies linearly through the thickness of the beam

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3.2. Strain-Displacement Equations

Consider a plate under in-plane loads such as shear and axial forces, and
bending and twisting moments:

u0,v0,w0: displacements in the x, y & z

directions, respectively, at the mid-plane.

u, v, w: the displacements at any point in the

X, y, & z directions, respectively.

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Assumptions:
Assumptions:
• Each lamina is orthotropic.
• Each lamina is homogeneous.
• A line straight and perpendicular to the middle surface remains straight and
perpendicular to the middle surface during deformation

• The laminate is thin and is loaded only in its plane (plane stress)

• Displacements are continuous and small throughout the laminate

, where h is the laminate thickness

• Each lamina is elastic

• No slip occurs between the lamina interfaces

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At any point other than the mid-plane, the two displacements in the x–y
plane will depend on the axial location of the point and the slope of the
laminate mid-plane with the x and y directions:

4-5

the displacement u in the x-direction is:

4-6

Similarly, taking a cross-section in the y–z plane would give the displacement
in the y-direction as:

4-7

4-8

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All these Eqs. Can be written in matrix form as:

4-9 4-10

This eq. shows:

• the linear relationship of the strains in a
laminate to the curvatures of the laminate.
the definitions of the the mid-plane curvatures • the strains are independent of the x and y
mid-plane strains coordinates.
• Also, note the similarity between
Equation (4.10) and Equation (4.4), which
was developed for the one dimensional
beam.

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Example 4.1: A 0.010 in. thick laminate is subjected to in-plane loads. If the
midplane strains and curvatures are given as follows, find the global strains
at the top surface of the laminate?

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3.3. Strain and Stress in a Laminate:

If the strains are known at any point along the thickness of the laminate, the
stress–strain eq. calculates the global stresses in each lamina

4-11

The reduced transformed stiffness matrix, corresponds to that of the ply

located at the point along the thickness of the laminate…

(4-10) in (4-11)
4-12

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It’s clear from eq

eq.. (4-12
12)):
the stresses vary linearly only through the thickness of each lamina.
The stresses, however, may jump from lamina to lamina because the
transformed reduced-stiffness matrix changes from ply to ply because this
matrix depends on the material and orientation of the ply.

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3.4. Force and Moment Resultants Related to Midplane Strains &
Curvatures (how to find the midplane strains and curvatures if the loads applied to
the laminate are known)

Consider a laminate made of n plies:

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The z-coordinate of each ply k surface (top and bottom) is given by

Ply 1:

Ply k: (k = 2, 3,…n – 2, n – 1):

4-13

Ply n:

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Integrating the global stresses in each lamina gives the resultant forces per
unit length in the x–y plane through the laminate thickness as

4-14

Similarly, integrating the global stresses in each lamina gives the resulting
moments per unit length in the x–y plane through the laminate thickness as

4-15

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Which gives

4-16

(4-12) in (4-16)

4-17

4-18

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Due to independency of midplane strains and plate curvatures to z coordinate

& to be constant of the transformed reduced stiffness matrix for each ply:

4-19

4-20

Knowing that:

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It gives:

4-21

4-22

Extensional Matrix
relating the resultant in-plane
forces to the in-plane strains

Coupling Matrix
coupling the force and moment 4-23
terms to the midplane strains and
midplane curvatures.

Bending Stiffness Matrix

relating the resultant bending
moments to the plate curvatures
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Combining these eqs. gives 6 simultaneous linear eqs. & six unknown as:

4-24

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Steps for analyzing a laminated composite subjected to the applied

forces and moments:

1.Find the value of the reduced stiffness matrix [Q] for each ply using its four
elastic moduli, E1, E2, v12 & G12 (Eq.6-7 chap.2)

2. Find the value of the transformed reduced stiffness matrix for each ply
using the [Q] matrix calculated in step 1 and the angle of the ply (Eq.7-7
Chap.2).

3. Knowing the thickness, tk, of each ply, find the coordinate of the top and
bottom surface, hi, i = 1…, n, of each ply, using Eqs. (4-13).

4. Use the matrices from step 2 and the location of each ply from step 3 to
find the three stiffness matrices [A], [B], and [D] from Eqs. (4-23).

5. Substitute the stiffness matrix values found in step 4 and the applied
forces and moments in Eq. (4-24).

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6. Solve the six simultaneous Eqs. (4-24) to find the midplane strains and
curvatures.

7. Now that the location of each ply is known, find the global strains in each
ply using Eq. (4-10).

8. For finding the global stresses, use the stress–strain (Eq. 7-6 chap.2).

9. For finding the local strains, use the transformation (Eq. 7-4 chap.2).

10. For finding the local stresses, use the transformation (Eq. 7-1 chap.2).

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Example 4.2: Find the three stiffness matrices [A], [B], and [D] for a three-
ply [0/30/–45] graphite/epoxy laminate. Use the unidirectional properties
from Table of slide 95 of graphite/epoxy. Assume that each lamina has a
thickness of 5 mm.

Solution:

the reduced stiffness matrix for the 0° graphite/epoxy ply is:

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the transformed reduced stiffness matrix for each of the three plies is (Eq.
7-7 chap.2):

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the locations of the ply surfaces are (Eq. 4-13):

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Example 4.3: For previous example if the laminate is subjected to a load of
Nx = Ny = 1000 N/m, find:
(a) Mid-plane strains and curvatures
(b) Global and local stresses on top surface of 30° ply
(c) Percentage of load, Nx, taken by each ply

Solution:

Solving this system of

eqs. gives

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The strains at the top surface of the 30° ply (z=h1=-0.0025 m) (Eq. 4-10):

The global stresses from Eq. 7-6 chap.2:

The local strains (Eq. 7-4 chap.2) and local stresses (Eq. 7-1 chap.2) in the
30° ply at the top surface:

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Global Strains (m/m)

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Global Stresses (Pa)

Local Strains (m/m)

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Local Stresses (Pa)

The portion of the load, Nx, taken by each ply can be calculated by
integrating the stress, σxx, through the thickness of each ply. However,
because the stress varies linearly through each ply, the portion of the load,
Nx, taken is simply the product of the stress, σxx, at the middle of each ply
and the thickness of the ply:

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The sum total of the loads shared by each ply is 1000 N/m, (223.2+ 531.5 +
245.2), which is the applied load in the x-direction, Nx.

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Problems of Chap.4:

1.Condense (summarize) the following expanded laminate codes:

a. [0/45/–45/90]
b. [0/45/–45/–45/45/0]
c. [0/90/60/60/90/0]
d. [0/45/60/45/0]
e. [45/–45/45/–45/–45/45/–45/45]

2.Expand the following laminate codes:

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3. A laminate of 0.015 in. thickness under a complex load gives the following
midplane strains and curvatures:

Find the global strains at the top, middle and bottom surface of the laminate.

4. Show that, for a symmetric laminate, the coupling stiffness matrix is equal
to zero.

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5. The global stresses in a three-ply laminate are given at the top and bottom
surface of each ply. Each ply is 0.005 in. thick. Find the resultant forces and
moments on the laminate if it has a top cross section of 4 in. × 4 in.

6. Demonstrate that the force per unit width on a two-layered laminate with
orthotropic laminae of equal thickness oriented at +alpha and -alpha to the
applied force is

What are A11, A12 & B16 in terms of the transformed reduced stiffnesses
of a lamina and the lamina thickness, t?

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