Number 5 May 2009

PREPARATION TECHNIQUES APPLIED TO A STEGOSAURIAN

DINOSAUR FROM PORTUGAL

Ricardo Araújo1,2, Octávio Mateus1,2, Aart Walen3 and Nicolai Christiansen1,3

1- Museu da Lourinhã, Rua João Luís de Moura, 2530-157 Lourinhã. [email protected] ; [email protected]
2- CICEGe, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, , 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal.
3- Creatures and Features, Rijndijk 17, NL-6686 MN, Doornenburg, Netherlands. [email protected] ; [email protected]

ABSTRACT

General vertebrate paleontological techniques that have been used in the Museum of Lourinhã (Portugal) are
presented here, in particular those applied to a stegosaurian dinosaur skeleton, Miragaia longicollum. A
monolith jacket technique using polyurethane foam and plaster is presented. Mechanical preparation
techniques combining the use of an electric grinder and airscribes proved effective during the initial phases
of preparation on well-preserved bone embedded in hard matrix. We also present a technique to mould
monoliths in the early stages of preparation, creating a thin silicone rubber mould in several contiguous
parts. To mould and cast monoliths before removing individual bones has proven valuable for the
preservation of taphonomic data and for display purposes. Polyurethane resin combined with plaster is
useful for small casts, while polyester resin applied in four layers is the preferred technique for larger casts.
The four layers are composed of: a first thin layer of polyester resin with bone colour; followed by another
layer of polyester resin of sediment colour and containing glass microspheres to make it thicker. The third
layer is composed of fibre glass chopped strands, and the fourth is composed of fibre glass mats embedded
in plain polyester resin. 3D scanning and digitization techniques where tested for the storage of osteological
information of individual bones and proved very promising.

RESUMO [in Portuguese]

As técnicas gerais de paleontologia de vertebrados que foram usadas no Museu da Lourinhã (Portugal) são
apresentadas aqui, em particular as aplicadas num dinossauro estegossauro Miragaia longicollum. É
apresentada uma técnica de revestimento de monólitos usando a espuma de poliuretano. Uma técnica de
preparação mecânica revelou-se eficaz, combinando o potencial de uma rebarbadora eléctrica e de uma
caneta percussora durante as fases iniciais da preparação do osso, quando envolvido em matriz dura. Foi
aplicado um procedimento geral para moldar e replicar que, combina gesso e resina de poliuretano. É
indicada uma técnica usando quatro camadas para a elaboração de réplicas de grandes dimensões. A
primeira camada é composta por resina de poliéster colorida; a segunda adiciona microsferas de vidro e
diferentes tonalidades à composição da primeira camada; a terceira é composta por fibras de vidro; e, a
quarta por mantas de fibra de vidro embebidas em poliéster. A moldagem de monólitos revelou-se uma
solução eficaz, preservando informação tafonómica e, ao mesmo tempo, útil para propósitos de exposição. O
digitalizador 3D mostrou ser útil para o armazenamento de informação osteológica.

How to cite this article: Araújo, R., Mateus, O., Walen, A. and Christiansen, N., 2009. Preparation techniques applied to a stegosaurian
dinosaur from Portugal. Journal of Paleontological Techniques, 5: 1-23.

www.jpaleontologicaltechniques.org ISSN: 1646-5806

 Araújo et al, 2009: TECHNIQUES APPLIED TO A STEGOSAURIAN

INTRODUCTION – was then hired in 2001. The subsequent work

was then developed by Nicolai Christiansen,
This paper describes the excavation, Ricardo Araújo, Rui Lino and Alexandra Tomás,
preparation, moulding, casting, and 3D in consultation with Aart Walen and Museum
scanning of a Late Jurassic dinosaur from research scientists.
Lourinhã, Portugal. This area is rich in dinosaurs Currently, Museum of Lourinhã has a modern
and other vertebrates (see Antunes and Mateus laboratory making use of techniques designed
2003, Mateus 2006, and references therein). on the basis of other preparation laboratories
Fossil collecting and preparation in Museum of and adapted to our own conditions (fig. 1). “The
Lourinhã commenced in 1984 when the first preparation techniques applied in the Museum
specimens of crocodiles and dinosaurs were of Lourinhã are presented here using, as a
collected. Initially, the equipment was study case, the entire process of preparation of
rudimentary little more than chisel and hammer the stegosaurian dinosaur specimen ML433 (fig.
was used. Out of curiosity, the first electric 2). This specimen was discovered in 2001 by Rui
(air)scribe was acquired in 1998. The increasing Soares, who initially discovered an exposed osteoderm
number of fossils collected also brought (fig. 2) and formally described as a new taxon:
awareness of the vital importance of Miragaia longicollum (Mateus et al. 2009).
preparation in the paleontological collections.
The first full time preparator – Dennis Roessler

Fig. 1 – Aspect of the paleontological preparation laboratory at Museu da Lourinhã.

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Fig. 2 – Artistic interpretation of the stegosaur dinosaur Miragaia longicollum and the preserved skeletal material of the specimen
ML433 (illustration by Simão Mateus). For osteological purposes see Mateus et al. (2009).

MATERIALS AND TOOLS

Jacketing:
The most important tools used during the - Polyurethane foam (2-component: isocyanate
process are listed below. Some of the casting and polyol); obtainable in chemical shops;
and moulding products can be obtained from - Plaster-of-Paris; obtainable at art store;
the same suppliers as those of fibber glass boat - Gauze (regular gauze used for medical
industries, ceramics industry, and art stores. A purposes – the use of this material is not
more complete list can be found in May et al. recommended; burlap is preferable);
(1994). - Burlap and canvas; obtainable at fabric shop;
- Cardboard;
Field: - Metal structure (for the monolith base).
- Hitachi® DH40FA jackhammer or hammer
drill (230V; power input: 950W; 6,7kg); Laboratorial mechanical preparation (fig. 3):
obtainable in a hardware shop; - Ciata® T-300/P air compressor (capacity:
- Hammer, chisel, and pickaxe (for each, four 284dm3, pressure: 9,8bar); obtainable at
different sorts and weights, at least); hardware shops;
obtainable in a hardware shop; - Paleotools® airscribes obtainable at
- Plexigum® 742 – 33% impregnator (base http://www.paleotools.com/:
ethylmethacrylate, at 33% solids in Paleo-ARO™ airscribe: long bushing; solid
ethanol:methoxypropanol 7:1; thermoplastic tungsten carbide pointed stylus with
acrylic resin; medium hard polymer; soluble 0,094inch diameter; 3,5inches long;
in acetone, alcohols, esters, aromatics – Micro-Jack®-6 airscribe: solid tungsten
acetone has been used preferably, due to its carbide stylus 0,063 inch diameter,
quick volatilization); obtainable at 1,5inches long, 0,5inch beyond bushing;
http://kremer-pigmente.de; Mighty-Jack™ airscribe: chisel stylus 1/4
- DeWalt® DW476 angle grinder; obtainable in inch diameter;
a hardware shop;

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- 3M® Series 6000 respirator; obtainable in a debyzoylperoxide or dibenzoil 50% w/w;

hardware shop; aluminium powder/silica spheres. Calcium
- DeWalt® DW817 electric grinder (230V; carbonate powder can be added in different
10A; power input: 720W; 1,7kg, wheel proportions); obtainable at chemical stores;
diameter: 115mm, frequency: 10.000min-1) - Formic acid (HCOOH); obtainable at chemical
and DeWalt® DW476 (same characteristics stores.
but different wheel diameter: 180mm);
obtainable in a hardware shop;
- Renfert® basic MOBIL No. 2914 sandblaster; Moulding:
obtainable at http://www.krantz- - Rhodorsil® RTV 863 N silicone; obtainable at
online.de/de/1.html; http://secure.silmid.com/;
- Bench grinder; obtainable in a hardware - Catalyst 863 N catalizer; obtainable at
shop; http://secure.silmid.com/;
- Rhodorsil® ADITIVO PC 12 (0,5 to 2,0%
w/w) thixotropic additive;
http://secure.silmid.com/
- Colour pigment powder; obtainable at a
ceramics supplier;
- Ladies stockings (also known as collants) or
anti-weed tissue (type of fabric used to avoid
growth of weeds);
- Metal brush;
- Paint thinner; obtainable in a chemical store;

Casting:
- Polyurethane resin SG 130/PUR11 (stiffening
Fig. 3 – Main equipments used for mechanical preparation: time: 20-40min; recommended temperature
A- airscribe Paleotools® Mighty-Jack™; B- airscribe of usage: 18-25ºC; aluminium powder and
Paleotools® Paleo-ARO™; C- airscibe Paleotools Micro- pigments can be added); obtainable in a
Jack®-6; D- electric grinder DeWalt® DW817; E-
sandblaster Renfert® basic MOBIL No. 2914; F- respirator chemical store;
3M® Series 6000; G- jackhammer Hitachi® DH40FA; H- air - Polyester resin (11-18% styrene; takes
compressor Ciata® T-300/P. about 20min to dry; hardener:
debyzoylperoxide or methylethylketon
peroxide); obtainable at most chemical
Chemicals: stores;
- Polymer acrylic resins of the brands Paraloid - Fibre glass chopped strands; obtainable at
(Acryloid) B72, Plexigum PM381 or most chemical stores;
equivalent, dissolvable in acetone. Plexigum - Glass microspheres; obtainable in a chemical
is a 2-Methylpropyl 2-methyl-2-propenoate store;
homopolymer. - Grey clay; obtainable in an art store;
- Epoxy glues: Ceys® or Araldite®, two- - Polyurethane UV- protection coat; obtainable
component epoxy; in a chemical store;
- Paleobond® PB002 penetrant/stabilizer; - Polyurethane and water based acrylic (e.g.
obtainable at http://www.paleobond.com/; Galeria®, Rembrandt®); obtainable in an
- Paleobond® bonding adhesives; obtainable artist store;
at http://www.paleobond.com/; - Peroxide hardener; sold with polyester;
- Paleobond® PB303 activator non-aerosol; - Polyurethane foam; obtainable in a chemical
obtainable at http://www.paleobond.com/; store;
- Paleobond® PB400 debonder solvent; - Screws, wooden and metal pieces;
obtainable at http://www.paleobond.com/; - Stanley-knife;
- Carbowax® 4000 C005 (polyethylene glycol, - Aluminium powder; obtainable in a chemical
storage temperature: 20ºC); obtainable at store;
http://www.dow.com/polyglycols/carbowax/; - Silica spheres; obtainable in a chemical
- Starbond® Thin EM-02; obtainable at store;
http://www.starbond.com/; - Fibre glass mats (300g/m2) and strands;
- Starbond® accelerator; obtainable at obtainable in a chemical store;
http://www.starbond.com/; - Calcium carbonate powder; obtainable in a
- “Polyester putty (11-18% w/w styren; takes chemical store;
about 20min to dry; hardener paste:

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- Colour pigment powder; obtainable in a Security and health:

chemical store; - First aid kit;
- Metal brush; - Protections for eyes (goggles) and ears;
- Paint thinner; obtainable in a chemical store; - Respiratory protection (gasmask);
- Plastic wrapper film; - Field boots;
- Brushes; obtainable at art shops. - Latex gloves;
- Lab coat.

Fig. 4 – Geographical location of Lourinhã and Miragaia after Carta Militar nº349.

FIELD EXCAVATION AND POLYURETHANE The excavation and collecting of ML433 was
JACKETING conducted by the Museum of Lourinhã during
two digging seasons in August 1999 and
ML433 was collected from the Miragaia Unit of another in August 2001. During the first
the Lourinhã Group (see Mateus et al. 2009, season, the quarry was opened (towards the
and references therein). The stegosaurian west) with the assistance of nine volunteers.
dinosaur remains were found (fig. 4) along a several isolated bones were extracted (fig. 5
secondary road linking the villages of Miragaia and 7), the main block containing limb bones,
and Sobral. The construction of this road was ribs, pectoral girdle and cervical vertebrae was
the cause of destruction of the posterior part of trenched but not removed until the following
the specimen. year.

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A B

C E

F G

Fig. 5 – Field techniques: A – site where the specimen was collected before excavation; B – first season of excavations; C –
isolating the main block; D – jacketing technique: applying the metal frame, the block was already protected with polyester and
plaster; E – applying polyurethane on the metal frame, once it hardens it attaches to the main block; F – aspect of the quarry
once the main block was removed; G – transporting the main block to the museum.

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The bone-bed is composed of compact matrix was very dense and the preserved bone
calcareous sandstone overlain by more than was generally more fragile than the surrounding
45cm of the sandstone with lignite lamina and rock. In the other hand, the cleavage between
carbonate nodules. The layer is subsequently rock and fossil was perfect, enhanced by its
overlain by 50 to 130 cm layers of mudstone, brittle characteristics.
some being fossiliferous (fig. 6). The
fossiliferous layer was hard to quarry, since the

Fig. 6 – Schematic stratigraphic log of the excavated area.

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During the second season, the block (then with of-Paris-only jackets when the blocks are heavy
approximate dimensions: 1,5m × 1,5m × 1m) or have irregular shapes. Also, whereas a
that had been isolated during the first season rotational cutter is mostly needed in order to
was recovered from the field using a jacketing open a traditional plaster-of-Paris field jacket, a
technique with expanded polyurethane (see polyurethane field jacket can be opened very
fig.5 D, E; 7). Initially, a layer of acrylic quickly and easily using a large knife or a saw.
impregnator was applied to the bones, followed The foam structure absorbs physical shock and
by aluminum foil or wet paper. This gives a strong cohesion to the block. In sum,
impregnator layer, applied with a small brush the advantages of combining polyurethane
(0,5cm diameter), not only prevents the surface jacketing with regular plaster-of-Paris jacketing
of the freshly exposed fossil to be effaced under are: 1) lighter weight (especially relevant in big
mechanical preparation, but also impregnates monoliths), 2) the foam adapts perfectly to the
and consolidates the interior of the fossil bone. block shape and fills open gaps, 3) the flexible
Special care should be take when the solvent is foam absorbs shocks and gives cohesion, 4) the
evaporating (normally 2-3minutes), since it original liquid net volume is smaller when
weakens the bone while it did not evaporate compared to the expanded foam, thus easier to
completely. The solvent used is acetone. transport and storage and 5) polyurethane
Subsequently, plaster-of-Paris with gauze was foam can be reused as packing material, for
applied on the foil, although burlap has example.
revealed to be more resistant and cheaper. The large quantities of polyurethane bits that
Wood boards and a metal frame were placed on the opening of the field jacket will produce can
top of the block, increasing rigidity and at the be recycled. They can be used either as packing
same time making the block easier to handle. material or as filling for casts. By pouring
After this, regular cardboard was placed all the freshly mixed polyurethane foam over and in
way around on the lateral parts of the block, between the bits will lock the two halves of a
serving as retaining walls to control the liquid cast firmly and will dramatically decrease the
polyurethane. As the liquid grows and solidifies amount of new polyurethane used to foam out
into foam, the wood structure gets embedded a cast.
within the polyurethane and firmly attaches to As disadvantages, the polyurethane is 1) more
the block. Once the cardboard is removed, the expensive, 2) less available, 3) toxic after
mushroom-like monolith can be flipped over setting if the reaction is not complete (the dust
securely, after the base is totally excavated. is irritating to the skin and eyes), 4) it is
The expansion of polyurethane liquid into foam combustible in its solid form, and 5) it is less
takes a few minutes and grows to between controllable and manageable than plaster-of
twenty to thirty times its original volume. Paris ( the liquid is harder to control than a
Attention must be paid when using putty consistency).
polyurethane: the air temperature and the Jacketing techniques are seldom reported;
proportions of the two different components Leiggi et al. (1994), Schulp et al. (2001),
used will lead to different reaction time and Watabe et al. (2004) are some of the rare
polyurethane foam proprieties. Hot air exceptions. Leigii et al. (1994, p. 75) described
temperatures induce a faster reaction and the traditional plaster jacketing technique.
distinct proportion of the two components will Schulp et al. (2001) is reported a technique
provide a more flexible, or more brittle foam. where a steel collar was welded around a large
The adhesion to the adjacent surfaces also block in order to remove it. One of the
changes with the proportions. Presence of water disadvantages of such a technique is that it
will enhance the expansion effect, one or two requires welding in the field, which necessarily
drops each 20cl are enough to produce this increases the logistics required. In Watabe et
effect). al. (2004) it is described a technique that
This polyurethane jacketing technique is although very safe for the block requires large
particularly effective in comparison with plaster- quantities of plaster-of Paris.

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Fig. 7 – Field map. Each square scales 1m2 in the field. Black – isolated elements; Grey – material composing the block.

LABORATORY TECHNIQUES: MECHANICAL allow the effective use of these tools are 1) the
PREPARATION contrast in colour between the matrix and fossil
bones (in this case, the bone is black and the
Both airscribes and an electric grinder (also matrix is whitish, making it easy to use such
known as angle grinder) were used during the heavy tools), and 2) the good preservation of
preparation of ML433. This revealed to be very the skeletal elements. Large quantities of matrix
effective in the initial stages of block can be removed quickly using the electric
preparation due to the extremely hard matrix grinder with minimal risk for the bone, but it is
composition. The use of a high-speed rotation only advisable for the early stages of
electric grinder instead of the traditional dismantling the block elements.
hammer and chisel reduces vibration and The use of the electric grinder releases a large
damage to the specimen. The conditions that quantity of rock dust, so working with dust

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extractors and in highly ventilated areas is matrix, thin slices start to split from the block,
recommended. Good dust proof masks, gloves, and the bone remains preserved. If it is not
plastic. possible to reach with the electric grinder or it
Several techniques can be applied at is too dangerous to use this tool, then the
different locations on the block relative to the airscribe can be used as an alternative.
position of the exposed bone: However, using the disk parallel to the matrix
might enhance risk, since unwanted pressure is
1) “groove and break” (fig. 8A) is used when developed. Nevertheless, most of the grinders
there is a high probability that what is being are designed for lateral pressures.
removed is exclusively composed of matrix. The One of the disadvantages of this technique is
grinder is used perpendicular to the matrix and that once a mistake is made, it is irredeemable,
1 to 3 cm furrows are cut, producing a series of unlike the case when using chisel and hammer,
parallel grooves. The remaining matrix can be as it is still possible to glue the pieces back
destroyed with the disk parallel to the matrix or together. On the other hand, the time spent
with the airscribe, depending how close the during preparation using the electric grinder is
exposed bone is. A long and pointed airscribe much reduced. Because this technique releases
stylus should be used when applying the large quantities of dust which obscures the
“groove and break” technique. bone it is important to keep the block as clean
2) “polishing”: with lateral movements on the as possible (with an air exhaust system,
matrix, slowly pulverizing the rock. This vacuum cleaner, or compressed air pistol).
technique is used when unexposed bone is In a second approach, when the block was
expected below the surface of the matrix (fig. dismantled and the bones individually
8B). It is still possible to use the electric grinder separated, lighter tools were used, namely:
very close to the bone, but expertise is required sandblaster and micro-airscribe. Both of these
when handling the grinder. This technique tools are widely used among fossil preparators,
should only be performed by experienced users. but during the preparation of ML433 they were
It is important to have a side bar on the grinder used in very specific circumstances (e.g. when
to enhance grip, maneuverability and security. dealing with fragile bones, such as the dermal
The grinder is held almost parallel to the matrix plates). Most of the bones have a perfect
and hands must be firmly supported against the cleavage between the bone and the matrix.
block. As the rotating disk gets closer to the

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Fig. 8 – Mechanical preparation techniques using angle grinder: A- “groove and break”, notice the perpendicular position of the
angle grinder relative to the matrix ; B- “polishing”, aspect of the matrix after applying the “polishing” technique”.

LABORATORY TECHNIQUES: ADHESIVES post mechanical preparation, in order to glue

AND CONSOLIDANTS separate pieces and fragments together.
Consolidants and adhesives were widely used.
Consolidants have been used during mechanical Acrylic polymer resins diluted in acetone were
preparation, impregnating the bones which mainly used were initially (brands: Plexigum® a
increased cohesion and strength to the bone. product of the German company Rohm,
And, adhesives were used most of the times Osteofix®, and Paraloid B-72), and
subsequently the cianoacrylates. Consolidant

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concentration normally used was 10%v/v. INSTRUMENT MAINTENANCE

Acrylic polymer dissolved in acetone was
applied to the surface of the bones, which Regular maintenance of the instruments is
served as an impregnator, and cyanoacrylates highly advisable: this increases average
were used as adhesives. Two-component epoxy longevity, effectiveness of the equipment, and
adhesives were applied when the areas to be it is more secure for the user.
glued were larger than 10 cm3, or when gaps In order to keep the electric grinder working
were present between the two surfaces. Epoxy properly, important routine tasks need to be
glues seem to be a better gap filler since it has carried out: 1) the interior of the engine should
have stronger binding proprieties, although it be sprayed daily through the ventilation slots
takes longer to dry (4-8h). However, with compressed air; and 2) every six months
cyanoacrilate adhesives were preferable than the rubber springs in the body of the grinder
epoxy glues, since it allows a more controlled should be replaced, reducing the risk of engine
handling. The epoxy glues tend to oxidize damage.
superficially and turn into an altered yellow The separate pieces of the airscribe were oiled
colour with time (two years or more), which and cleaned every day. A jet of compressed air
does not happen with acrylics. is particularly effective to clean each separate
Polyethylene glycol was used successfully, piece. The stylus must always be sharp. A non-
serving as a rigid reversible (soluble on water controlled experiment to test the effectiveness
and liquefiable by heat) base to prepare the of a sharp airscribe stylus versus a blunt one
very fragile skull bones and osteoderms. was performed: approximately three to four
times more matrix can be removed while
maintaining the stylus sharp. A bench grinder is
LABORATORY TECHNIQUES: ACID recommended to perform this task. Constant
PREPARATION cooling of the stylus while sharpening is crucial
to extend its longevity and maintain the
Formic (HCOOH) and hydrochloric acid (HCl) proprieties of the tungsten stylus. To cool down
were tried at different stages of preparation of the stylus, it is preferable to dip it in any kind of
the ML433 block and were not successful for oil rather than water, since oils are better heat
gross initial preparation. During gross conductors, but also because carbon can be
preparation, the rate of dissolution using formic incorporated. This procedure is recommended
acid was far lower when compared to the since hot temperatures reach while sharpening
effectiveness of mechanical preparation. the stylus can alter significantly the proprieties
Furthermore, it endangered the bone most of of the tungsten.
the times. However, during final detailed
preparation, such as removing sediment traces
from the bone surface, acid preparation proved MOULDING AND CASTING
useful. Formic and hydrochloric acids (5-10%)
were used. Moulding
Bath immersions of specimens for a period of 2 The partial preparation of the main block
to 5 of hours in acid proved to be very effective. revealed an exquisite set of bones and it was
In such cases, tri-calcium phosphate was used decided to mould the block at this stage.
as the buffer solution (see Braillon 1973, about Moulding a partially prepared block not only
the use of acids in fossil preparation). One preserves precious taphonomical data, but also
should test the efficiency of the bath immersion the cast is an informative way to show the
first only for a few minutes, in order to use different states of preparation for display
adequate proportions. Acid baths allow purposes (fig. 9). In order to reduce costs a
preparation in areas that are not reachable with compromise between moulding a partially
physical methods. prepared block and the bones one by one had
to be considered.

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Fig. 9 – Main block cast of Miragaia longicollum, after being painted and mounted. The cast was painted with regular water-
based colours. Note that the different pieces of the mould are not detectable, they were connected with screws, pieces of
plywood and fibre glass mats with polyester resin.

Regular silicone rubber (RTV – room- surface of the mould keeping the details and
temperature vulcanizing – which means it dries texture.
at ambient temperature) was used as a mould A general moulding procedure using silicone
both for the individual bones and for the block. rubber is described in Rigby and Clark (1965)
Polyurethane resin was used to cast the block and Goodwin and Chaney (1994). However,
(fig. 10). For individual bone casts both these techniques require a large quantity of
polyurethane resin (for small bones) and silicone, meaning more costs and risk for the
polyester resin (for larger bones) were used. bone, especially when moulding intricate-
Polyurethane resin is preferable for small casts shaped bones. The technique described in this
because it is easier to handle: not only it paper makes use of a relatively thin layer when
hardens faster, but also when mixed with compared with the techniques given in the
plaster it foams becoming adherent to the literature, and it is therefore more economic.
When compared with other materials (e.g.

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latex) silicone rubber, although more and supporting moulds should be attachable to
expensive, is easier to detach from the bone or each other. To achieve this, drill through the
cast and shrinks in a lesser degree (Goodwin bordering walls of the contacting areas of the
and Chaney 1994, p. 239). It is also flexible, supporting mould and use bolts and screws.
long-lasting and strong. Each piece was moulded separately by raising
ML433 block mould had to be made in three putty-like modeling clay walls, which separated
different parts, due to its large dimensions. A each part of the block to be moulded. A similar
large mould is not only harder to handle, but procedure as explained above was performed
also occupies lots of storage room. The mould accordingly (fig.10).

A B

C D

Fig. 10 – Moulding the main block: A – raising modeling clay retaining walls; B – aspect of the block after applying the first layer
of silicone; C – aspect of the mould once the second and third layers of silicone were applied; D – polyester resin supporting
mould.

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A B C

D E F

G H
Fig. 11 – General procedure for moulding: A – defining thoughtfully where the mould should be divided, clay is used to separate
the two parts of the mould; B – application of the first thin layer; C – in the second layer thixotropic additive is added, giving a
yoghurt viscosity to the silicone; D – ladies stockings can be applied directly on the mould or pieces of cotton cloths can be
embedded with silicone with a spatula before proceeding to its application on the previous layer of the mould; E – aspects of the
mould with all the silicone layers applied; F –plastic film should be applied before making the supporting mould; G – aspect of
the supporting mould once dried; H – on the other side, the final aspect of the silicone rubber.

As Fox (2003) noted, the first decisions (e.g. should be well impregnated and stabilized with
establishing the mould divisions and number of appropriate binding adhesives. Gaps should be
parts) and steps (e.g. filling voids, adhesives filled with polyurethane putty or epoxy glue.
used) when moulding are fundamental to avoid Holes, like neural channels in vertebrae, should
damage to the bone. A general procedure to be closed with regular clay or modelling clay.
mould a medium-sized bone (e.g. vertebra, fig. The first layer (the most important) is
11) is as follows: composed of: hardener (5-7,5% w/w),
Before start moulding, all the preparation work colouring powder and thixotropic additive (0,5
should be completely done. Thus, the bone to 2% w/w; 0,5% is recommended for the first

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 Araújo et al, 2009: TECHNIQUES APPLIED TO A STEGOSAURIAN

layer). The colouring powder is used to check It should be noted that one disadvantage of
the effectiveness of stirring: the more polyester resin is that it shrinks about 1% v/v.
homogeneous the colour, the better stirred the To solve that problem fibreglass mats
silicone is (fig.11B). Note that a temperature of impregnated with epoxy resin can be used
approximately 20ºC works best, however it instead.
varies between different types of silicone
rubber. Use a light colour pigment for the first Storing moulds
layer, so it can contrast with the bone and the Since this technique makes use of a very thin
subsequent layers. It is convenient to preheat layer of silicone rubber, some practical tricks
the silicone rubber (1 litre for about 1 to 2 should be carried out to prevent the
minutes in a microwave at maximum power; deformation of the mould, and therefore the
820-900W). The silicone should be slightly deformation of the next cast. For large bones
warmer than room temperature. Apply the (e.g. a bone from the appendicular skeleton)
second layer on top of the first when the latter the borders of the mould should be attached
is almost dried and still sticky (use a greater with screws to a rigid polyester support (fig.
percentage of the thixotropic additive, so it has 12). Fill the interior of the mould with toilet
a viscosity approximating yoghurt; maximum: paper – for example – in order to keep the
2% w/w). mould fitted as much as possible to the
Impregnate small (10×10cm) pieces of nylon polyester support mould. Store the mould in a
canvas (ladies’ stocking is a good material for safe, constant-temperature room.
that) using a spatula. Ladies’ stocking fabric can Effective storing moulds described in Jabo et al.
be used for intricate shapes. Alternatives are (2006) were made and applied in the
pieces of cotton cloth, or even pieces of anti- Smithsonian Vertebrate Paleontological
weed tissue. The silicone rubber can either be collection.
spread using a spatula or applied directly on the
tissue with caution. Apply the impregnated
tissue on the first two layers. Prominent areas
should be reinforced with more layers of
silicone or cotton cloth. Ladies’ stocking fabric is
flexible, resistant, porous and durable;
however, it is relatively hard to apply because it
is difficult to avoiding air bubbles (fig. 11D, E).
Cotton cloth is easier to handle but less flexible.
A fourth layer should be applied if the thickness
appears to be too thin (this decision has to be
made for each mould); the average thickness of
a mould should be 5mm maximum.

Supporting mould casting in polyester resin

Once the silicone mould is made, and prior to
its removal, a hard shell cover should be made Fig. 12 – Storing moulds: screws attach the silicone mould
to the rigid polyester resin supporting mould.
in order to give support and keep the general
shape. The technique corresponds to the
following protocol:
Casting in polyester resin
- Cover the mould with a plastic film;
- To make the mould support, fibre glass mats The technique consists of applying three layers
that, together make optimal use of the strength
impregnated with plain polyester resin are
used. It is also possible to use plaster-of- and flexibility of the polyester resin (fig. 13).
Furthermore, polyester resin offers special
Paris: a more environment-friendly solution
but much less resistant and durable when characteristics which makes it useful for
casting, not only it keeps all the detail from the
compared to a polyester resin mould support;
- After stirring the polyester resin and the mould, but it is also a very versatile material
since it is chemically compatible with fibre
corresponding accelerator, the fibre glass
glass, aluminium powder, calcium carbonate,
mats should be embedded. Use an
inexpensive brush and impregnate fibre glass glass microspheres, etcetera. When combined
in different proportions with these additives,
mat pieces sweeping it on both sides. Apply
the fibre glass mats onto the plastic film polyester resin can be adapted to many
different circumstances.
covering the mould; two to three layers
should be enough (max 10mm), if 300g/m2 For a polyester resin cast, the following
mat is used. procedure is generally applied:

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 Araújo et al, 2009: TECHNIQUES APPLIED TO A STEGOSAURIAN

- The first layer should be more liquid than the (1-4%w/w; lower concentrations when room
subsequent ones, giving the base coat the temperature is higher than 20ºC, and higher
shiny characteristics of fossil bone, but most concentrations when applying thick layers, or
importantly the surface details. Furthermore, in cold temperatures). In some instances
the right colour pigments mixture will have other additives can be used such as calcium
great relevance in the final appearance and carbonate powder, aluminium hydroxide
visual texture of the cast. To prepare it, one powder, or glass spheres that in different
should use: glass microspheres (e.g. quantities produce different characteristics;
Dacron®) working as a thixotropic powder
(25-100% v/v), plus the peroxide catalyser

A B
Fig. 13 – Casting: A – using a pouch as a pastry bag containing polyester resin; notice the piece of steel wire inside the mould,
providing a rigid structure to the cast. B – applying polyester resin; this layer serves as the base colour for the subsequent
painting (photos by Pedro Viegas).

- The main purpose of the second layer should normally enough (with 300g/m2 fibre glass
be to even out the surface. This layer makes mat);
use of the same components, but it should be - While the impregnated fibre glass mats are
a thicker, more viscous liquid. Thixotropic still hardening it is possible to cut them with
powder stone filler (e.g. calcium carbonate a Stanley-knife along the edge (1 to 2h after
powder or chalk) has been used; 10-50% the last layer);
w/w; - Wait a few hours to remove the cast from the
- Spread a layer of fibre glass chopped strands mould; it still should be a little flexible.
on top of the second layer while still moist to Waiting overnight is not advisable since the
structurally reinforce the first layers; cast would get too rigid;
- The fourth layer is made by plain polyester - In order to join the two parts of the cast
resin and fibre glass mats. The fibre glass together, one can screw pieces of plywood
mats are impregnated from both sides on the (5×5cm) on the inner surface of the cast with
working table (not on the cast) and then embedded fibre glass mats (5 or 10 wooden
applied directly onto the other three layers. pieces per meter). Additionally, if it is too
Tear pieces of fibre glass by hand instead of hard to hold both halves, one can use thin
cutting with scissors, so the fibres are metal strips with holes that are screwed
loosened. Once the polyester resin is applied, through the bone holding the two halves.
leave the mat and wait for 1 to 2 min until it This way, the two halves of the cast will be
becomes flexible. The mats should be applied firmly held.
at least 2cm over the edge of the cast. Two
to three layers of fibre glass mats are

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 Araújo et al, 2009: TECHNIQUES APPLIED TO A STEGOSAURIAN

paint is almost dry, and 3) gently painting

Filling with polyurethane the cast, highlighting the natural structure of
- Roll a piece of moist grey clay into a cylinder the bone. Applying two or three more layers
shape. Apply it on the space between the two should result in a great resemblance to the
halves of the cast, in order to avoid the original bone.
polyurethane foaming out. The polyurethane - If the cast is going to be exposed outdoors,
will be applied in the next step, and if it the polyurethane will require a UV-
comes out it is likely to ruin the detailed protection coat. Since the UV-protection is
surface of the cast. normally very shiny, add talc powder (5-10%
- Drill a 2cm wide hole through the cast. w/w) to its original composition. This
- Mix a small amount of polyurethane foam and procedure allows complete mounting of
pour it through the hole. This step should be skeletons in a quick and inexpensive way
done at least three times, since an excess of (fig. 14).
polyurethane can damage the detailed
surface of the cast. Wait 10 minutes and A few notes will be considered attending
remove the clay once the polyurethane foam polyurethane resin. Polyurethane resin was
has reacted entirely. firstly described for paleontological purposes by
Jansen (1961). It is preferable to use
Finishing the cast polyurethane resin to cast bones no larger than
- To fill the space that separates both halves of 20cm. This happens because polyurethane resin
the cast, tinted polyester putty has been is easier to handle and mix. If it is desired,
used successfully. It is also possible to use anyway, to use polyester resin for small bones
car body filler but it is difficult to tint the it is necessary to use special fillers and to
right colour and it is necessary to use much control the heat produced during
more colouring pigment powder. Preparing polymerization. Polyurethane resin, in the other
polyester putty requires: plain polyester hand, is much harder to handle for large
resin, thixotropic powder (1000g – 25-50% surface bones due to its rapid set time, leaving
v/v), gel coat (1000g 10-50% v/v), colour no possibility to spread it evenly on the bone. If
(pre-mixed with polyester or powder) , cobalt used for small bones with a mixture of plaster it
(2-10% w/w; it works as a catalyser), and has excellent results, giving the internal
peroxide hardener (2-3%). Mix the cobalt appearance of bone. The first two layers
before the hardener; determine the quality of the cast but also the
- Once the polyester putty is made, use a final appearance of the polyurethane resin. The
plastic or rubber pouch or bag as a pastry colour of the first layer should be chosen
bag (fig. 11A). Cut with scissors the corner carefully, reflecting the outer tonalities of the
(5mm) of the pouch. Spread some putty in bone; the second layer is the base colour. When
the pouch and squeeze it along the space the second layer is applied – while the first
separating the two halves of the mould; layer is still wet – it gives some heterogeneity
- Before it starts to harden use paint thinners in the final aspect of the cast. This situation is
(e.g. acetone) and a soaked brush on it. desired since fossil bone does not have a
Manipulate the putty with the brush, creating homogeneous colour.
detail on the cast surface as needed. Always
keep the brush well saturated; As noted, polyurethane resin has also been
- After it sets, remove excess polyester putty successfully applied but only for small casts or
with sandpaper. A hot air gun can be used so intricate structures. It is a two component
that the putty becomes viscous again, compound, and when mixed with dried regular
making it possible to scrape it off; plaster in equal proportions it foams. If 1 or 2
- To give different tonalities to the cast it can drops of water are added it will have a similar
be painted in layers with a water-based effect. The stirring should be as homogeneous
acrylic. The first layer takes away the shiny as possible, and for that purpose we
appearance of the polyester resin; the recommend a drill with a mixer attached.
second layer can be applied with a “dry Polyurethane resin is particularly effective when
brush” method. The “dry brush” method poured in single orifice moulds.
consists of: 1) spreading some water-based
acrylic on a board (whitish/yellowish ochre),
2) stirring the brush on the board so the
brush is coated with paint evenly, and the

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 Araújo et al, 2009: TECHNIQUES APPLIED TO A STEGOSAURIAN

Fig. 14 – Mounted skeleton of the stegosaurian dinosaur ML433.

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 Araújo et al, 2009: TECHNIQUES APPLIED TO A STEGOSAURIAN

Further notes on the casting procedure - If it is necessary to save the brushes they
To accomplish the casting procedure should be immersed in thinner and cleaned
successfully: with a spatula or metal brush long before
the polyester or polyurethane resin dries up
- Two people are preferred for this task; (polyurethane resin has a faster period of
casting and moulding is a complex and drying). In order to do that use a clean and
difficult task, thus the cooperation between plain surface, put the brush obliquely to the
two people reveals much more effective. surface and scrap vigorously several times
The division of the sub-tasks (e.g. stirring with the spatula until all the liquid polyester
up components, brushing, applying chop is removed. Then dip the brush in thinner
strands, etcetera) should be consistent for 12h. To reutilize brushes used in
during the entire process; moulding a brush with metallic bristles, and
- Use gas mask, latex gloves and a lab coat scrap vigorously the already hardened
(see “Health and protection issues” section). silicone off against a clean and plain
Either polyester and polyurethane resin are surface;
extremely noxious while polymerizing; - All of these components are easily
- Use an air filter (e.g. Plymovent®) or dust accessible. They are widely used for fibre
extractors in order to keep the air safe to glass boats industries, for example.
work;

Fig. 15 – ML433 digital cervical vertebra, all the anatomical structures can be easily understood using 3D scanning.

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 Araújo et al, 2009: TECHNIQUES APPLIED TO A STEGOSAURIAN

3D SCANNING SAFETY

In order to have anatomical information in Field and laboratory work raises some health
digital format, the 14th cervical vertebra of issues. Some suggestions are given here:
ML433 was digitalized using a laser non-contact - Keep a complete and updated first-aid kit
digitizer scanner Minolta Vivid VI-910 (fig. 15) always easy accessible.
with the assistance of the company - Users of heavy equipment, such as jack
Scorzio/B’Lizzard Ltd. The scanner combines hammers and angle grinders, should have
the 3D surface information, acquired by a laser adequate training and supervision, and
beamer, and real colour acquired using an always wear suitable eye, ear, hand, and
incorporated photographic camera. The respiratory protection. Adequate clothing
information obtained during each scan was a should be used as well.
polygon representing the bone surface from - Chiseling should be done with large-headed
that perspective. The vertebra had to be hammers. Classic geological hammers are
scanned in multiple perspectives in order to not suitable for chiseling.
gather information on all sides and surfaces of - Polyurethane should be handled with hand
the bone. Each individual scan was merged into and respiratory protection.
a single analysis that gathered all perspectives, - Acid baths should be conducted in a fume
providing a complete tri-dimensional digital hood, with skin, eye and respiratory
vertebra. protection.
The digital vertebra file can be exported to
several 3D file formats including *.stl, which DISCUSSION
allows rapid prototyping into real 3D. An
optimized polygonal version was saved into an Monolith
executable file permitting easy access and A way to improve the transport of the monolith
visualisation. is that it is possible slide wooden bars, shovels
The data in the post-processing stage covers a or other tools into the hollow iron structure.
large number of possible options. The basic These provide excellent grip for lifting and
options are essentially aligning and merging the transport such block. One could imagine having
unprocessed data into a complete, solid triangle especially constructed bars with wheels
mesh. The final step in the post-processing attached at their ends, that one could slide into
procedure is to export the completed mesh into the holes.
the 3D file format and resolution desired. Since polyurethane foam remains relatively
This technology has multiple uses:1) to brittle, on could strap a net over the outside of
produce objects appropriate for cost-effective the polyurethane in order to increase the
rapid prototyping; 2) to generate *.cnc rigidity of the block.
machining paths from the object; 3) to
generate 2D images of the object with optimal Mechanical preparation
lighting for use within publications or on web Some alternatives to the grinder do exist.
sites; and 4) to generate 3D objects with However, there are several disadvantages:
optimal lighting for use within web sites, for 1) lack of power for heavy duty work (e.g.
example. Dremel®), so if pressed too hard they might
Advantages: 1) the scanner is portable and stop or jump backwards - which is dangerous
compact, it is possible to use it outdoors both for the user and for the fossils;
(although uncontrolled daylight is not ideal for 2) cylindrical design (e.g. Dremel®), which
scanning); 2) because it is a non-contact makes them maneuverable, but provides a poor
scanner the output is quickly acquired, being grip.
more effective and ideal for sensitive objects; One of the advantages of using a grinder is that
3) the resolution of 307.000 points each 2,5 the rotational plan of the disk is follows the
seconds allows fast digitizing in very large length of the operator’s arm, i.e. it enables the
objects; and 4) the file with the scanned bone preparator to operate for longer periods of time
morphology is easy portable. without exhausting. Whereas the rotary cylinder
Disadvantages: the data processing requires design goes perpendicular to the arm of the
specialized skills that are time consuming or preparator, meaning wrist muscles are
costly. required.
The thickness and broadness of
conventional grinders at the attachment point
of the disk is one of the most limiting factors,
since it makes it impossible to reach some
places.

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 Araújo et al, 2009: TECHNIQUES APPLIED TO A STEGOSAURIAN

It would probably be possible to produce a tool what bones lay under others as the preparation
that was more adapted to vertebrate advances.
paleontological preparation than a traditional As for scanning bones completely after full
grinder. It should be more resistant to lateral preparation, it would be a huge leap ahead for
torsion on the disk as this sort of pressure is scientists to be able to visualize all bones of a
created when "polishing". So far, it has been skeleton in 3D digital format, instead of
only used regular rock cutting disks, but other comparing photos and notes like as it is done
types (e.g. like those used for polishing metal) now. It can cut down on travel costs to see
could also be used. If a special tool was created specimens and it would permit for accurate
it would probably be possible to create special comparison of already studied specimens.
disks that would be better adapted for the
different tasks. However, a traditional grinder
is relatively cheap (nowadays it can be bought ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
for 20€, two years warranty) and can be
acquired in almost any hardware shop. We are grateful to all those that helped in the
excavation, preparation and mounting of this
3D scanning specimen, in particular Rui Soares, Inês
The experimental 3D scanning work presented Fernandes, Rui Castanhinha, Dean Wright,
here projects to future possible pathways for Marisa Amaral, Rui Lino, Bruno Pereira, Dennis
the usage of this technology in aiding effectively Roessler, Alexandra Tomás and, Plamen
preparation. As hand-held 3D scanning devices Ivanov. We thank Pedro Canavilhas and his
become less expensive, it is likely that they will team, who were essential in the 3D technology
become integrated in routine laboratory and part. To Simão Mateus that provided the fig. 2,
field work. One could track the whole and to Pedro Viegas, Alan Lam and Jesper Milàn
preparation process and it would also be who kindly provided us some photographs. We
possible to create 3D field maps in this way. An are also grateful to Susannah Maidment, who
advantage is that it will enable to repeat the reviewed the manuscript.
process several times, in order to visualize the
advancement of work and to envisage clearly

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