Partially Ordered Set (POSET)

Consider a relation R on a set S satisfying the following properties:

1. R is reflexive, i.e., xRx for every x ∈ S.

2. R is antisymmetric, i.e., if xRy and yRx, then x = y.
3. R is transitive, i.e., xRy and yRz, then xRz.

Then R is called a partial order relation, and the set S together with partial order is called a
partially order set or POSET and is denoted by (S, ≤).

Let's analyze if this subset of A*A in

Example {(p,p),(q,q),(r,r),(p,r),(q,r)} is partially ordered or not.
For this, we will

1. Check if it is reflexive
2. Check if it is anti-symmetric
3. Check if it is transitive

• Step 1: The subset is reflexive as it contains the pairs, (p,p), (q,q) and (r,r).
• Step 2: It is anti-symmetric as (p,r) and (q,r) do not have their symmetric pairs (r,p) or
(r,q) in it. In addition, it also contains the pairs (p,p), (q,q), (r,r) in which the elements
are equal to each other.
• Step 3: The subset contains (p,p) and (p,r). Therefore according to the definition of a
transitive relation, it must contain (p,r), which, you can see, is already present in it.
Hence it is transitive.

Since all the three conditions are satisfied, we could now call the subset as a partially
ordered set.
A partially ordered set is abbreviated as POSET(Partially Ordered Set).

Elements of POSET:
1. Maximal Element: An element a ∈ A is called a maximal element of A if there is no
element in c in A such that a ≤ c.
2. Minimal Element: An element b ∈ A is called a minimal element of A if there is no
element in c in A such that c ≤ b.

Note: There can be more than one maximal or more than one minimal element.

Example: Determine all the maximal and minimal elements of the poset whose Hasse
diagram is shown in fig:
Solution: The maximal elements are b and f.

The minimal elements are d and e.

Comparable Elements:
Consider an ordered set A. Two elements a and b of set A are called comparable if

a≤b or b≤a
R R

Non-Comparable Elements:
Consider an ordered set A. Two elements a and b of set A are called non-comparable if
neither a ≤ b nor b ≤ a.

Example: Consider A = {1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 15, 30} is ordered by divisibility. Determine all the
comparable and non-comparable pairs of elements of A.

Solution: The comparable pairs of elements of A are:

{1, 2}, {1, 3}, {1, 5}, {1, 6}, {1, 10}, {1, 15}, {1, 30}
{2, 6}, {2, 10}, {2, 30}
{3, 6}, {3, 15}, {3, 30}
{5, 10}, {5, 15}, {5, 30}
{6, 30}, {10, 30}, {15, 30}

The non-comparable pair of elements of A are:

{2, 3}, {2, 5}, {2, 15}
{3, 5}, {3, 10}, {5, 6}, {6, 10}, {6, 15}, {10, 15}

Linearly Ordered Set:

Consider an ordered set A. The set A is called linearly ordered set or totally ordered set, if
every pair of elements in A is comparable.

Example: The set of positive integers I+ with the usual order ≤ is a linearly ordered set.
Hasse Diagrams
It is a useful tool, which completely describes the associated partial order. Therefore, it is also
called an ordering diagram. It is very easy to convert a directed graph of a relation on a set A
to an equivalent Hasse diagram. Therefore, while drawing a Hasse diagram following points
must be remembered.

1. The vertices in the Hasse diagram are denoted by points rather than by circles.
2. Since a partial order is reflexive, hence each vertex of A must be related to itself, so
the edges from a vertex to itself are deleted in Hasse diagram.
3. Since a partial order is transitive, hence whenever aRb, bRc, we have aRc. Eliminate
all edges that are implied by the transitive property in Hasse diagram, i.e., Delete edge
from a to c but retain the other two edges.
4. If a vertex 'a' is connected to vertex 'b' by an edge, i.e., aRb, then the vertex 'b' appears
above vertex 'a'. Therefore, the arrow may be omitted from the edges in the Hasse
diagram.

The Hasse diagram is much simpler than the directed graph of the partial order.

Example: Consider the set A = {4, 5, 6, 7}. Let R be the relation ≤ on A. Draw the directed
graph and the Hasse diagram of R.

Solution: The relation ≤ on the set A is given by

R = {{4, 5}, {4, 6}, {4, 7}, {5, 6}, {5, 7}, {6, 7}, {4, 4}, {5, 5}, {6, 6}, {7, 7}}

The directed graph of the relation R is as shown in fig:

To draw the Hasse diagram of partial order, apply the following points:
 1. Delete all edges implied by reflexive property i.e.
(4, 4), (5, 5), (6, 6), (7, 7)
2. Delete all edges implied by transitive property i.e.
(4, 7), (5, 7), (4, 6)
3. Replace the circles representing the vertices by dots.
4. Omit the arrows.

The Hasse diagram is as shown in fig:

Upper Bound: Consider B be a subset of a partially ordered set A. An element x ∈ A is

called an upper bound of B if y ≤ x for every y ∈ B.

Lower Bound: Consider B be a subset of a partially ordered set A. An element z ∈ A is

called a lower bound of B if z ≤ x for every x ∈ B.

Example: Consider the poset A = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g} be ordered shown in fig.

Also let B = {c, d, e}. Determine the upper and lower bound of B.
Solution: The upper bound of B is e, f, and g because every element of B is '≤' e, f, and g.

The lower bounds of B are a and b because a and b are '≤' every elements of B.

Example: Determine the least upper bound and greatest lower bound of B = {a, b, c} if they
exist, of the poset whose Hasse diagram is shown in fig:

Solution: The least upper bound is c.

The greatest lower bound is k.

Lattices:
Let L be a non-empty set closed under two binary operations called meet and join, denoted by
∧ and ∨. Then L is called a lattice if the following axioms hold where a, b, c are elements in
L:

1) Commutative Law: -
(a) a ∧ b = b ∧ a (b) a ∨ b = b ∨ a

2) Associative Law:-
(a) (a ∧ b)∧ c = a ∧(b∧ c) (b) (a ∨ b) ∨ c = a ∨ (b ∨ c)

3) Absorption Law: -
(a) a ∧ ( a ∨ b) = a (b) a ∨ ( a ∧ b) = a

Duality:
The dual of any statement in a lattice (L,∧ ,∨ ) is defined to be a statement that is obtained by
interchanging ∧ an ∨.

For example, the dual of a ∧ (b ∨ a) = a ∨ a is a ∨ (b ∧ a )= a ∧ a

Bounded Lattices:
A lattice L is called a bounded lattice if it has greatest element 1 and a least element 0.

Example:

1. The power set P(S) of the set S under the operations of intersection and union is a
bounded lattice since ∅ is the least element of P(S) and the set S is the greatest
element of P(S).
2. The set of +ve integer I+ under the usual order of ≤ is not a bounded lattice since it has
a least element 1 but the greatest element does not exist.

Properties of Bounded Lattices:

If L is a bounded lattice, then for any element a ∈ L, we have the following identities:

1. a∨1=1
2. a ∧1= a
3. a ∨0=a
4. a ∧0=0

Theorem: Prove that every finite lattice L = {a1,a2,a3....an} is bounded.

Proof: We have given the finite lattice:

L = {a1,a2,a3....an}

Thus, the greatest element of Lattices L is a1∨ a2∨ a3∨....∨an.

Also, the least element of lattice L is a1∧ a2∧a3∧....∧an.

Since, the greatest and least elements exist for every finite lattice. Hence, L is bounded.

Sub-Lattices:
Consider a non-empty subset L1 of a lattice L. Then L1 is called a sub-lattice of L if L1 itself
is a lattice i.e., the operation of L i.e., a ∨ b ∈ L1 and a ∧ b ∈ L1 whenever a ∈ L1 and b ∈ L1.

Example: Consider the lattice of all +ve integers I+ under the operation of divisibility. The
lattice Dn of all divisors of n > 1 is a sub-lattice of I+.

Determine all the sub-lattices of D30 that contain at least four elements,
D30={1,2,3,5,6,10,15,30}.

Solution: The sub-lattices of D30 that contain at least four elements are as follows:

1. {1, 2, 6, 30} 2. {1, 2, 3, 30}

3. {1, 5, 15, 30} 4. {1, 3, 6, 30}
5. {1, 5, 10, 30} 6. {1, 3, 15, 30}
7. {2, 6, 10, 30}
Isomorphic Lattices:
Two lattices L1 and L2 are called isomorphic lattices if there is a bijection from L1 to L2 i.e., f:
L1⟶ L2, such that f (a ∧ b) =f(a)∧ f(b) and f (a ∨ b) = f (a) ∨ f (b)

Example: Determine whether the lattices shown in fig are isomorphic.

Solution: The lattices shown in fig are isomorphic. Consider the mapping f = {(a, 1), (b, 2),
(c, 3), (d, 4)}.For example f (b ∧ c) = f (a) = 1. Also, we have f (b) ∧ f(c) = 2 ∧ 3 = 1

Distributive Lattice:
A lattice L is called distributive lattice if for any elements a, b and c of L,it satisfies following
distributive properties:

1. a ∧ (b ∨ c) = (a ∧ b) ∨ (a ∧ c)
2. a ∨ (b ∧ c) = (a ∨ b) ∧ (a ∨ c)

If the lattice L does not satisfies the above properties, it is called a non-distributive lattice.

Example:

1. The power set P (S) of the set S under the operation of intersection and union is a
distributive function. Since,
a ∩ (b ∪ c) = (a ∩ b) ∪ (a ∩ c)
and, also a ∪ (b ∩ c) = (a ∪ b) ∩ (a ∪c) for any sets a, b and c of P(S).
2. The lattice shown in fig II is a distributive. Since, it satisfies the distributive properties
for all ordered triples which are taken from 1, 2, 3, and 4.
Complements and complemented lattices:
Let L be a bounded lattice with lower bound o and upper bound I. Let a be an element if L.
An element x in L is called a complement of a if a ∨ x = I and a ∧ x = 0

A lattice L is said to be complemented if L is bounded and every element in L has a

complement.

Example: Determine the complement of a and c in fig:

Solution: The complement of a is d. Since, a ∨ d = 1 and a ∧ d = 0

The complement of c does not exist. Since, there does not exist any element c such that c ∨
c'=1 and c ∧ c'= 0.

Combinatorics: Combinatorics is the branch of Mathematics dealing with the study of

finite or countable discrete structures. It includes the enumeration or counting of objects
having certain properties.

Counting Thheory:
Counting mainly encompasses fundamental counting rule, the permutation rule, and the
combination rule. In daily lives, many a times one needs to find out the number of all
possible outcomes for a series of events. For instance, How many different 10 lettered PAN
numbers can be generated such that the first five letters are capital alphabets, the next four are
digits and the last is again a capital letter. For solving these problems, mathematical theory of
counting are used.
Basic Counting Principles
1. Sum Rule Principle: Assume some event E can occur in m ways and a second event
F can occur in n ways, and suppose both events cannot occur simultaneously. Then E
or F can occur in m + n ways.

In general, if there are n events and no two events occurs in same time then the event can
occur in n1+n2..........n ways.

Example 1: If 8 male professor and 5 female professor teaching DMS then the student can
choose professor in 8+5=13 ways..

Example 2 – In how many ways can a person choose a project from three lists of projects of
sizes 10, 15, and 19 respectively?
Solution – The person has a choice of choosing a project from either of the three lists. So the
person can choose from either 10 projects or 15 projects or 19 projects. Since choosing from
one list is not the same as choosing another list, the total number of ways of choosing a
project by the sum-rule is 10 + 15 + 19 = 44.

2. Product Rule Principle: Suppose there is an event E which can occur in m ways and,
independent of this event, there is a second event F which can occur in n ways. Then
combinations of E and F can occur in mn ways.

In general, if there are n events occurring independently then all events can occur in the order
indicated as n1 x n2 x n3.........n ways.

Example 1: In class, there are 4 boys and 10 girls if a boy and a girl have to be chosen for the
class monitor, the students can choose class monitor in 4 x 10 = 40 ways.

Example 2 – In how many ways can 3 winning prizes be given to the top 3 players in a game
played by 12 players?

Solution – We have to distribute 3 prizes among 12 players. This task can be divided into 3
subtasks of assigning a single prize to a certain player.
Giving out the first prize can be done in 12 different ways. After giving out the first prize,
two prizes remain and 11 players remain. Similarly, the second prize and third prize can be
given in 11 ways and 10 ways. The total number of ways by the product rule is 12 * 11 * 10
= 1320

Permutation and Combinations:

Permutation:
Any arrangement of a set of n objects in a given order is called Permutation of Object. Any
arrangement of any r ≤ n of these objects in a given order is called an r-permutation or a
permutation of n object taken r at a time.
It is denoted by P (n, r)

P (n, r) =

A permutation is an arrangement of some elements in which order matters. In other words

a Permutation is an ordered Combination of elements.

Examples

• From a set S ={x, y, z} by taking two at a time, all permutations are −

xy,yx,xz,zx,yz,zy
• We have to form a permutation of three digit numbers from a set of
numbers S={1,2,3}. Different three digit numbers will be formed when we arrange
the digits. The permutation will be = 123, 132, 213, 231, 312, 321

Some Problems

Problem 1 − From a bunch of 6 different cards, how many ways we can permute it?
Solution − As we are taking 6 cards at a time from a deck of 6 cards, the permutation will
be 6P6=6!=720
Problem 2 − In how many ways can the letters of the word 'READER' be arranged?
Solution − There are 6 letters word (2 E, 1 A, 1D and 2R.) in the word 'READER'.
The permutation will be =6!/[(2!)(1!)(1!)(2!)]=180.

Permutation with Restrictions:

The number of permutations of n different objects taken r at a time in which p particular
objects do not occur is

The number of permutations of n different objects taken r at a time in which p particular

objects are present is

Example: How many 6-digit numbers can be formed by using the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,
8 if every number is to start with '30' with no digit repeated?

Solution: All the numbers begin with '30.'So, we have to choose 4-digits from the remaining
7-digits.
 ∴ Total number of numbers that begins with '30' is

7P4 = =840.

Circular Permutations:
A permutation which is done around a circle is called Circular Permutation.

Example: In how many ways can get these letters a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j arranged in a circle?

Solution: (10 - 1) = 9! = 362880

Combination:
A Combination is a selection of some or all, objects from a set of given objects, where the
order of the objects does not matter. The number of combinations of n objects, taken r at a
time represented by nCr or C (n, r).

Proof: The number of permutations of n different things, taken r at a time is given by

As there is no matter about the order of arrangement of the objects, therefore, to every
combination of r things, there are r! arrangements i.e.,

Example: A farmer purchased 3 cows, 2 pigs, and 4 hens from a man who has 6 cows, 5
pigs, and 8 hens. Find the number m of choices that the farmer has.

The farmer can choose the cows in C (6, 3) ways, the pigs in C (5, 2) ways, and the hens in C
(8, 4) ways. Thus the number m of choices follows:

Pigeonhole Principle

In 1834, German mathematician, Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet, stated a principle which he
called the drawer principle. Now, it is known as the pigeonhole principle.
Pigeonhole Principle states that if there are fewer pigeon holes than total number of
pigeons and each pigeon is put in a pigeon hole, then there must be at least one pigeon hole
with more than one pigeon. If n pigeons are put into m pigeonholes where n > m, there's a
hole with more than one pigeon.

Examples

• Ten men are in a room and they are taking part in handshakes. If each person shakes
hands at least once and no man shakes the same man’s hand more than once then two
men took part in the same number of handshakes.
• There must be at least two people in a class of 30 whose names start with the same
alphabet.

Example1: Find the minimum number of students in a class to be sure that three of them are
born in the same month.

Solution: Here n = 12 months are the Pigeonholes

And k + 1 = 3
K=2

Example2: Show that at least two people must have their birthday in the same month if 13
people are assembled in a room.
Solution: We assigned each person the month of the year on which he was born. Since there
are 12 months in a year.

So, according to the pigeonhole principle, there must be at least two people assigned to the
same month.

The Inclusion-Exclusion principle

The Inclusion-exclusion principle computes the cardinal number of the union of multiple
non-disjoint sets. For two sets A and B, the principle states −
|A∪B|=|A|+|B|−|A∩B|
For three sets A, B and C, the principle states −
|A∪B∪C|=|A|+|B|+|C|−|A∩B|−|A∩C|−|B∩C|+|A∩B∩C|
Problem 1
How many integers from 1 to 50 are multiples of 2 or 3 but not both?
Solution
From 1 to 100, there are 50/2=25 numbers which are multiples of 2.
There are 50/3=16 numbers which are multiples of 3.
There are 50/6=8 numbers which are multiples of both 2 and 3.
So, |A|=25, |B|=16 and |A∩B|=8.
|A∪B|=|A|+|B|−|A∩B|=25+16−8=33
.

Example: Let U be the set of positive integer not exceeding 1000. Then |U|= 1000 Find |S|
where S is the set of such integer which is not divisible by 3, 5 or 7?

Solution: Let A be the subset of integer which is divisible by 3

Let B be the subset of integer which is divisible by 5
Let C be the subset of integer which is divisible by 7

Then S = Ac ∩ Bc∩ Cc since each element of S is not divisible by 3, 5, or 7.

By Integer division,

|A|= 1000/3 = 333

|B|= 1000/5 = 200
|C| = 1000/7 = 142
|A∩B|=1000/15=66
|B∩C|=1000/21=47
|C∩A|=1000/35=28
|A∩B∩C|=1000/105=9

Thus by Inclusion-Exclusion Principle

 |S|=1000-(333+200+142)+(66+47+28)-9
|S|=1000-675+141-9=457

Recurrence Relations
Definition

A recurrence relation is an equation that recursively defines a sequence where the next term
is a function of the previous terms

A recurrence relation is a functional relation between the independent variable x, dependent

variable f(x) and the differences of various order of f (x). A recurrence relation is also called
a difference equation, and we will use these two terms interchangeably.

Example1: The equation f (x + 3h) + 3f (x + 2h) + 6f (x + h) + 9f (x) = 0 is a recurrence

relation.

It can also be written as

ar+3 + 3ar+2 + 6ar+1 + 9ar = 0

yk+3 + 3yk+2 + 6yk+1 + 9yk = 0

Example2: The Fibonacci sequence is defined by the recurrence relation ar = ar-2 + ar-1,
r≥2,with the initial conditions a0=1 and a1=1.

Order of the Recurrence Relation:

The order of the recurrence relation or difference equation is defined to be the difference
between the highest and lowest subscripts of f(x) or ar=yk.

Example1: The equation 13ar+20ar-1=0 is a first order recurrence relation.

Example2: The equation 8f (x) + 4f (x + 1) + 8f (x+2) = k (x)

Degree of the Difference Equation:

The degree of a difference equation is defined to be the highest power of f (x) or ar=yk

Example1: The equation y3k+3+2y2k+2+2yk+1=0 has the degree 3, as the highest power of yk is
3.

Example2: The equation a4r+3a3r-1+6a2r-2+4ar-3 =0 has the degree 4, as the highest power of
ar is 4.

Example3: The equation yk+3 +2yk+2 +4yk+1+2yk= k(x) has the degree 1, because the highest
power of yk is 1 and its order is 3.

Example4: The equation f (x+2h) - 4f(x+h) +2f(x) = 0 has the degree1 and its order is 2.
Linear Recurrence Relations with Constant Coefficients
A Recurrence Relations is called linear if its degree is one.

The general form of linear recurrence relation with constant coefficient is

C0 yn+r+C1 yn+r-1+C2 yn+r-2+⋯+Cr yn=R (n)

Where C0,C1,C2......Cn are constant and R (n) is same function of independent variable n.

A solution of a recurrence relation in any function which satisfies the given equation.

How to solve linear recurrence relation

Suppose, a two ordered linear recurrence relation is − Fn=A Fn−1+B Fn−2 where A and B
are real numbers.
The characteristic equation for the above recurrence relation is −
x2−Ax−B=0
Three cases may occur while finding the roots −
Case 1 − If this equation factors as (x−x1)(x−x1)=0 and it produces two distinct real
roots x1 and x2, then Fn=ax1n+bx2n is the solution. [Here, a and b are constants]
Case 2 − If this equation factors as (x−x1)2=0 and it produces single real root x1,
then Fn=axn1+bnxn1 is the solution.
Case 3 − If the equation produces two distinct complex roots, x1 and x2 in polar
form x1=r∠θ and x2=r∠(−θ), then Fn=rn(acos(nθ)+bsin(nθ) is the solution.
Problem 1
Solve the recurrence relation Fn = 5Fn−1−6Fn−2 where F0=1 and F1=4
Solution
The characteristic equation of the recurrence relation is −
x2−5x+6=0,
So, (x−3)(x−2)=0
Hence, the roots are −
x1=3 and x2=2
The roots are real and distinct. So, this is in the form of case 1
Hence, the solution is −
Fn=axn1+bxn2
Here, Fn=a3n+b2n (As x1=3 and x2=2)
Therefore,
1=F0=a30+b20=a+b
4=F1=a31+b21=3a+2b
Solving these two equations, we get a=2 and b=−1
Hence, the final solution is −
Fn=2.3n+(−1).2n=2.3n−2n

Linear Homogeneous Recurrence Relations with Constant

Coefficients:
The equation is said to be linear homogeneous difference equation if and only if R (n) = 0
and it will be of order n.

The equation is said to be linear non-homogeneous difference equation if R (n) ≠ 0.

Example1: Solve the difference equation ar-3ar-1+2ar-2=0.

Solution: The characteristics equation is given by

s2-3s+2=0 or (s-1)(s-2)=0
⇒ s = 1, 2

Therefore, the homogeneous solution of the equation is given by

ar=C1r+C2.2r.

Example2: Solve the difference equation 9yK+2-6yK+1+yK=0.

Solution: The characteristics equation is

9s2-6s+1=0 or (3s-1)2=0

⇒s= and

Therefore, the homogeneous solution of the equation is given by

yK=(C1+C2 k).

Particular Solution
(a) Homogeneous Linear Difference Equations and Particular Solution:

We can find the particular solution of the difference equation when the equation is of
homogeneous linear type by putting the values of the initial conditions in the homogeneous
solutions.
Example1: Solve the difference equation 2ar-5ar-1+2ar-2=0 and find particular solutions such
that a0=0 and a1=1.

Solution: The characteristics equation is 2s2-5s+2=0

(2s-1)(s-2)=0

s= and 2.

Therefore, the homogeneous solution of the equation is given by

ar(h)= C1 +C2 .2r..........equation (i)

Putting r=0 and r=1 in equation (i), we get

a0=C1+C2=0...........equation (a)

a1= C1+2C2=1...........equation.(b)

Solving eq (a) and (b), we have

C1=- and C2=

Hence, the particular solution is

Example2: Solve the difference equation ar-4ar-1+4ar-2=0 and find particular solutions such
that a0=0 and a1=6.

Solution: The characteristics equation is

s2-4s+4=0 or (s-2)2=0 s = 2, 2

Therefore, the homogeneous solution of the equation is given by

ar(n)=(C1+C2 r).2r.............. equation (i)

Putting r = 0 and r = 1 in equation (i), we get

a0=(C1+0).20 = 1 ∴C1=1
a1=(C1+C2).2=6 ∴C1+C2=3⇒C2=2

Hence, the particular solution is

ar(P)=(1+2r).2r.

(b) Non-Homogeneous Linear Difference Equations and Particular Solution:

Form of R (n) General form to be assumed

Z, here z is constant A

Zr, here z is constant Zr

P (r), a polynomial of degree n A0 rn+A1 rn-1+⋯..An

Zr. P (r), here P(r) is a polynomial of the nth degree in r. Z is a constant. [A0 rn+A1 rn-1+⋯..An].Zr
There are two methods to find the particular solution of a non-homogeneous linear difference
equation. These are as follows:

1. Undetermined coefficients method

2. E and ∆ operator method.

1. Undetermined Coefficients Method: This method is used to find a particular solution of

non-homogeneous linear difference equations, whose R.H.S term R (n) consist of terms of
special forms.

In this method, firstly we assume the general form of the particular solutions according to the
type of R (n) containing some unknown constant coefficients, which have to be determined.
Then according to the difference equation, we will determine the exact solution.

The general form of a particular solution to be assumed for the special forms of R (n), to find
the exact solution is shown in the table.

Example1: Find the particular solution of the difference equation ar+2-

3ar+1+2ar=Zr ........equation (i)

Where Z is some constant.

Solution: The general form of solution is = A. Zr

Now putting this solution on L.H.S of equation (i), we get

= A Zr+2-3AZr+1+2AZr=(Z2-3Z+2) A Zr.........equation (ii)

Equating equation (ii) with R.H.S of equation (i), we get

(Z2-3Z+2)A=1

A= (Z≠1, Z≠2)

Therefore, the particular solution is

Example2: Find the particular solution of the difference equation ar+2-
5ar+1+6ar=5r .............equation (i)

Solution: Let us assume the general form of the solution= A. 5r.

Now to find the value of A, put this solution on L.H.S of the equation (i), then this becomes
= A. 5r+2-5.A5r+1+6.A5r
= 25A. 5r-25A.5r+6A.5r
= 6A.5r ............equation (ii)

Equating equation (ii) to R.H.S of equation (i), we get

A=

Therefore, the particular solution of the difference equation is = .5r.

Example3: Find the particular solution of the difference equation

ar+ 2+ar+1+ar=r.2r..........equation (i)

Solution: Let us assume the general form of the solution = (A0+A1r). 2^r

Now, put these solutions in the L.H.S of the equation (i), we get
= 2r+2 [A0+A1 (r+2)]+2r+1 [A0+A1 (r+1)]+2r (A0+A1 r)
= 4. 2r (A0+A1 r+2A1 )+2.2r (A0+A1 r+A1 )+2r (A0+A1 r)
= r. 2r (7A1 )+2r (7A0+10A1)............equation (ii)

Equating equation (ii) with R.H.S of equation (i), we get

7A1=1 ∴ A1=

7A0+10A1=0 ∴ A0=

Therefore, the particular solution is

2. E and ∆ operator Method:

Definition of Operator E: The operator of E on f(x) means that give an increment to the
value of x in the function. The operation of E is, put (x+h) in the function wherever there is x.
Here h is increment quantity. So Ef(x) = f(x+h)

Here, E is operated on f(x), therefore, E is a symbol known as shift operator.

Definition of Operator∆: The operation ∆ is an operation of two steps.

Firstly, x in the function is incremented by a constant and then former is subtracted from the
later i.e.,
∆f(x)=f(x+h)-f(x)

Total Solution
The total solution or the general solution of a non-homogeneous linear difference equation
with constant coefficients is the sum of the homogeneous solution and a particular solution. If
no initial conditions are given, obtain n linear equations in n unknowns and solve them, if
possible to get total solutions.

If y(h) denotes the homogeneous solution of the recurrence relation and y(p) indicates the
particular solution of the recurrence relation then, the total solution or the general solution y
of the recurrence relation is given by
y =y(h)+y(p).

Example: Solve the difference equation

ar-4ar-1+4ar-2=3r+2r...........equation (i)

Solution: The homogeneous solution of this equation is obtained by putting R.H.S equal to
zero i.e.,
ar-4ar-1+4ar-2=0

The homogeneous solution is ar(h)= (C1+C2 r).2r

The equation (i) can be written as (E2-4E+4) ar=3r+2r

The particular solution is given as

Generating Functions
Generating Functions represents sequences where each term of a sequence is expressed as
a coefficient of a variable x in a formal power series.

Let us consider, the sequence a0, a1, a2....ar of real numbers. For some interval of real numbers
containing zero values at t is given, the function G(t) is defined by the series
G(t)= a0, a1t+a2 t2+⋯+ar tr+............equation (i)

This function G(t) is called the generating function of the sequence ar.

Now, for the constant sequence 1, 1, 1, 1.....the generating function is

t can be expressed as

G(t) =(1-t)-1=1+t+t2 +t3+t4+⋯[By binomial expansion]

Comparing, this with equation (i), we get

a0=1,a1=1,a2=1 and so on.

For, the constant sequence 1,2,3,4,5,..the generating function is

G(t) = because it can be expressed as

G(t) =(1-t) =1+2t+3t2 +4t3+⋯+(r+1) tr
-2

Comparing, this with equation (i), we get

a0=1,a1=2,a2=3,a3=4 and so on.

The generating function of Zr,(Z≠0 and Z is a constant)is given by

G(t)= 1+Zt+Z2 t2+Z3 t3+⋯+Zr tr

G(t)= [Assume |Zt|<1]

So, G(t)= generates Zr,Z≠0

Also,If a(1)r has the generating function G1(t) and a(2)r has the generating function G2(t), then
λ1 a(1)r+λ2 a(2)r has the generating function λ1 G1(t)+ λ2 G2(t). Here λ1 and λ2 are constants.

Application Areas:

Generating functions can be used for the following purposes -

o For solving recurrence relations

o For proving some of the combinatorial identities
o For finding asymptotic formulae for terms of sequences

Example: Solve the recurrence relation ar+2-3ar+1+2ar=0

By the method of generating functions with the initial conditions a0=2 and a1=3.

Solution: Let us assume that

Multiply equation (i) by tr and summing from r = 0 to ∞, we have

(a2+a3 t+a4 t2+⋯)-3(a1+a2 t+a3 t2+⋯)+2(a0+a1 t+a2 t2+⋯)=0

[∴ G(t)=a0+a1 t+a2 t2+⋯]
 +2G(t)=0............equation (ii)

Now, put a0=2 and a1=3 in equation (ii) and solving, we get

Put t=1 on both sides of equation (iii) to find A. Hence

-1=- A ∴A=1

Put t= on both sides of equation (iii) to find B. Hence

= B ∴B=1

Thus G (t) = .Hence,ar=1+2r.