Unit 2

Two-body problems:
CONTENTS

PROPERTIES OF THE NUCLEON-NUCLEON FORCE

DEUTERON

Spin and Parity

Magnetic Dipole Moment

Electric Quadrupole Moment

NUCLEON – NUCLEON SCATTERING

PROPERTIES OF THE NUCLEAR FORCE

 PROPERTIES OF THE NUCLEON-NUCLEON FORCE

At short distances
nuclear force is stronger than the Coulomb force

→Nuclear force
can overcome the Coulomb repulsion of protons in the nucleus

At long distances,
of the order of atomic sizes,
nuclear force is negligibly feeble;
the interactions among nuclei in a molecule
can be understood based only on the Coulomb force

Some particles are immune from the nuclear force

for example,
electrons does not feel the nuclear force at all.
Nucleon-nucleon force is nearly independent
of whether the nucleons
are neutrons or protons
→ charge independence

Nucleon-nucleon force depends

on whether
the spins of the nucleons are
parallel or antiparallel

The nucleon-nucleon force

includes a repulsive term,
which keeps the nucleons
at a certain average separation.
 DEUTERON

Deuteron (2H nucleus)

consists of a neutron and a proton

A neutral atom of 2H is called deuterium

It is the simplest bound state of nucleons
→ gives us an ideal system for
studying the nucleon-nucleon interaction.

Deuteron for nuclear physicists,

↔
Hydrogen atom for atomic physicists Unfortunately,
there are no excited states
Measured Balmer series of the deuteron
of electromagnetic transitions
between the excited states of hydrogen It is such a weakly bound system
→ led to an understanding that the only
of the structure of hydrogen “excited states” are
unbound systems
Question consisting of a free proton and
Should the electromagnetic transitions neutron.
between the excited states of deuteron
lead to an understanding of its structure?
 Binding Energy

Binding energy of the deuteron

is precisely a measured quantity, which
can be determined in different ways.

Binding energy can be determined

directly by bringing a proton and a neutron
together to form 2H and
measuring the energy of the γ-ray photon that
is emitted:
1H + n → 2H + γ

The deduced binding energy,

which is equal to the observed energy
of the photon less a small recoil correction, is
2.224589 ± 0.000002 MeV,
in excellent agreement
with the mass spectroscopic value
Another method uses the reverse reaction,
called photodissociation,
γ +2H →1H + n
in which a γ -ray photon breaks apart a deuteron

Minimum γ -ray energy that

accomplishes this process is equal to
the binding energy

The observed value is 2.224 ± 0.002 MeV,

in good agreement with
the mass spectroscopic value.

deuteron is therefore very weakly bound

compared with typical nuclei
as the normal average B/A is around 8 Mev
 Analysis of the deuteron

Assumption :
Nucleon-nucleon potential
is represented as a 3D square well

V ( r) = - Vo for r < R
= 0 for r > R

r = separation between the

proton and neutron
R can be considered a measure
of the diameter of the deuteron

Assumption :
The lowest energy state of the deuteron,
just like the lowest energy
state of the hydrogen atom, has l = 0.

If the radial part of ψ(r) is defined as u (r), then

Expression similar to 1-D potential (-ħ2/2m)(d2u/dr2) + V(r)u(r) = Eu(r)
well
Solution for r < R
u (r) = A sin k1r +B cosk1r
with k1 = √2m (E + V0)/ħ2

For r>R
u (r) = Ce-k2r + Dek2r
with k2 = √2mE/ħ2

To keep the wave function finite for r → infinity

D = 0, and
to keep it finite for r → 0
rms charge radius of the deuteron ~
B = 0.
2.1 fm
Vo is calculated and it is about
Applying the continuity conditions
35 MeV.
on u and du/dr at r = R,
we obtain
→ quite a reasonable estimate
k1cot k1R = -k2
of the strength of the
nucleon-nucleon potential,
→
gives a relationship between Vo and R.
From Figure
→ deuteron is close to the top of the well.
If the nucleon-nucleon force
were just a bit weaker, the
deuteron bound state would not exist

Bound state exists, because

the formation of deuterium from hydrogen
is the first step not only in the
proton-proton cycle of fusion
by which our sun makes its energy,
but also
in the formation of stable matter from
the earliest hydrogen that
filled the early universe.

The deuteron wave function is

 Spin and Parity

The total angular momentum I of the deuteron

should have three components:
the individual spins sn and sp
of the neutron and proton (each equal to 1/2), and
the orbital angular momentum l
of the nucleons as they move about
their common center of mass:
I = sn + sp + l

When Schrodinger equation is solved for the deuteron,

it is assumed l = 0 in analogy with
the lowest bound state (the 1s state)
in atomic hydrogen.

The measured spin of the deuteron is I = 1

Since the neutron and proton spins can
be either parallel
(for a total of 1) or
Antiparallel
(for a total of zero),
there are four ways to couple
sn, sp, and l to get a total I of 1:

(a) sn and sp parallel with l = 0,

(b) sn and sp antiparallel with l= 1,
(c) sn and sp parallel with l = 1,
(d) sn and sp parallel with l = 2.

I = nuclear spin
j = total angular momentum of a single nucleon
A single valence particle determines all of the nuclear properties;
→I=j
Since J = L + S, and the value of J can take every integer from |L-S| to L + S. and L must be
even.
Another property of the deuteron
that can determined is its parity (even or odd),
the behavior of its wave function when r → -r.

By studying the reactions involving deuterons and

the property of the photon emitted during
the formation of deuterons,
it is know that its parity is even.

Parity associated with orbital motion is (- l)l,

even parity for l = 0 (s states) and
l = 2 (d states) and
odd parity for l = 1 (p states).

The observed even parity allows

to eliminate the combinations of spins
that include l = 1, leaving
l = 0 and l = 2 as possibilities.

Spin and parity of the deuteron are

therefore consistent with l = 0
as per assumption,
but one cannot exclude the possibility of l = 2
 Magnetic Dipole Moment

If l = 0,
there should be no orbital contribution
to the magnetic moment

Total magnetic moment

→ combination of the neutron and
proton magnetic moments
μ = μn + μp
= gsnμNsn/ħ + gspμNsn/ħ
gsn = -3.826084
gsp= 5.585691

Observed magnetic moment → z component of μ

spin have their maximum value +ħ/2
μ = μN (gsn + gsp)/2
= 0.879804 μN

Observed value is 0.8574376 ± 0.0000004 μN,

in good but not quite exact

agreement with the calculated value
Observed discrepancy
 contributions from the mesons
exchanged between the neutron and proton
 due to a small mixture of d state (d = 2)
in the deuteron wave function
Ψ = asΨ(l = 0) + adΨ(l = 2)

Calculating the magnetic moment from this wave function gives

μ = a2s μ(l = 0) + a2d μ(l = 2)
μ (l = 0) is the calculated value
μ (l = 2) = (3 – gsp –gsn)μN
is the value calculated for a d state

The observed value is consistent

with a2s = 0.96, a2d = 0.04;
that is, the deuteron is 96% l = 0 and
only 4% l= 2.

The assumption of the pure l = 0 state,

which we made in calculating
is thus pretty good but not quite exact.
 Electric Quadrupole Moment
Bare neutron and proton have
no electric quadrupole moment

Measured nonzero value for the quadrupole moment

→ due to the orbital motion.

Thus the pure d = 0 wave function

would have a vanishing quadrupole moment.

The observed quadrupole moment is

Q = 0.00288 ± 0.00002 b

small by comparison with many other nuclei,

certainly not zero.
 NUCLEON – NUCLEON SCATTERING

No excited states in deuteron

→ possible only study the dynamics of the
nucleon-nucleon interaction
in the configuration of the deuteron:
l = 0, parallel spins, 2-fm separation.

Excited states, if they were present,

might have different l values or spin orientations.

To study the nucleon-nucleon interaction

in different configurations,
one can perform nucleon-nucleon scattering experiments

An incident beam of nucleons is scattered from a target of nucleons.

If the target is a nucleus with many nucleons,

then there will be several target nucleons
within the range of the nuclear potential
of the incident nucleon
In this case
the observed scattering of a single nucleon
will include the complicated effects of
multiple encounters,
making it very difficult to
extract the properties of the interaction
between individual nucleons.

Therefore a target of hydrogen is selected

so that incident particles can scatter
from the individual protons.

It is still possible to have multiple scattering, but

in this case it must occur through scattering
first from one proton, then
from another that is quite far from the first
on the scale of nuclear dimensions
If the probability
for a single encounter is small,
the probability for multiple encounters
will be negligible.

This is very different from

the case of scattering from a heavier nucleus,
in which each single encounter with a
target nucleus consists of many nucleon-nucleon interactions

The diffraction pattern produced

by an obstacle is very similar
to that produced by a slit of the same size.

Nuclear scattering more

resembles diffraction by the obstacle

There are three features of the optical diffraction

that are analogous to the scattering of nucleons:
1. Incident wave is represented by a plane wave, while
far from the obstacle
the scattered wave fronts are spherical.
The total energy content
of any expanding spherical wave front
cannot vary; thus
its intensity (per unit area) must
decrease like r -2 and its amplitude
must decrease like r -1

2. Along the surface of any spherical scattered wave front,

the diffraction is responsible for
a variation in intensity of the radiation.
The intensity thus depends on
angular coordinates 0 and φ

3. A radiation detector placed

at any point far from the obstacle would record
both incident and scattered waves.
Assumption: Interaction is represented by a square-well potential
l=0

Consider an incident nucleon

striking a target nucleon
just at its surface;
the impact parameter
is of the order of R = 1 fm

Impact factor : The perpendicular distance

from the center of the target nucleon Thus v << ħ/mR and
to the line of flight of the incident nucleon corresponding KE is
T = mv2/2
If the incident particle has velocity v, << ħ2/2mR2
its angular momentum << ħ2c2/2mc2R2
relative to the target is mvR << (200 MeV. fm)2/2(1000Mev)(1 fm)2
<< 20 MeV
The relative angular momentum
between the nucleons If the incident energy is far below 20 MeV,
must be quantized in units of ħ the l= 0 assumption is justified.
mvR = lħ
If mvR << ħ Only low-energy scattering is considered,
only l = 0 interactions are likely to occur for which the l = 0 assumption is valid.
The solution to the square-well problem for r < R is
u (r) = A sin k1r + B cos k1r

For r > R, the wave function is

u (r) = C′sin k2r + D′cos k2r
with k = √2mE/ħ2.

It is convenient to rewrite above equation as

u (r) = C sin(k2r + δ)
where
C′ = C cos δ and D′ = C sin δ [δ = phase shift]

The boundary conditions on u and du/dr at r = R give

C sin (k2R+ δ) = A sink1R
and
k2C cos (k2R + δ) = k1A sink1R
Dividing
k2 cot (k2R + δ) = k1 cot k1r

For given E (which we control through the energy of the incident particle),
Vo, and R, we can in principle solve for δ
As Vo → 0
no scattering occurs
k1 → k2 , and
δ → 0.
→ free particle solution.
The effect of Vo on the wave function is
indicated in

The wave function at r > R

has the same form as the free particle, but
it has experienced a phase shift δ.

The nodes (zeros) of the wave function

are “pulled” toward the origin
by the attractive potential.

A repulsive potential would “push”

the nodes away from the origin and
would give a negative phase shift.
Square-well problem
→relates to more general scattering theory

The incident wave is a

plane wave traveling in the z direction
Ψincident = Aeikz

Let the target be located at the origin.

Multiplying by the time-dependent factor gives
Ψ(z, t) = Aei(kz – ωt)

which always moves in the +z direction

toward the target for z < 0 and
away from it for z > 0
It is mathematically easier to work with spherical waves
eikr/r and e-ikr/r
and multiplying with e-iωt
shows that
eikr is a outgoing wave and
e-ikr is a incoming wave
For l = 0
ψincident = (A/2ik)[eikr/r – e-ikr/r]

The minus sign between the two terms

keeps ψ finite for r → 0, and
using the coefficient A for both terms
sets the amplitudes of the incoming and
outgoing waves to be equal

Assumptions : Scattering does not create or destroy particles, and

thus the scattering cannot change the amplitudes of the
eikr and e-ikr terms

All that can result from the scattering

is a change in phase
of the outgoing wave
ψincident = (A/2ik)[ei(kr +β)/r – e-ikr/r]
β = change in phase
Radial part of ψ(r) is u(r)/r and
u (r) = C sin(k2r + δ)
The current of scattered particles
per unit area
ψ(r) = C/r sin (kr + δ0)
extended to three dimensions
= C/r [(ei(kr +δ0) – e-i(kr + δ0))/2i]
= Ce-iδ0/2i [ei(kr +2δ0) /r – e-ikr/r]
jscattered = (ħ/2mi)[ψ*∂ψ/∂r - ψ∂ψ * /∂r]
Comparing with ψincident
= (ħ|A|2/mkr2)sin2δ0
β = 2δ0
A = kCe-iδ0
and the incident current
jincident = ħk|A|2/m
Evaluation of the probability for scattering:
Amplitude of the scattered wave
The scattered current is uniformly
is required
distributed over a sphere of radius r
ψ represents all waves
An element of area r2dΩ
in the region r > R,
on that sphere subtends a solid angle
dΩ = r2 sinθdθdϕ
To find the amplitude of
at the scattering center
only the scattered wave
one must subtract away the incident amplitude:
ψscattered = ψ – ψincident
= (A/2ik) [e2iδ0 -1] eikr/r
The differential cross section dσ/dΩ In general,
is the probability per unit solid angle dσ/dΩ varies with direction
that over the surface of the sphere;
an incident particle is scattered
into the solid angle dΩ In the special case of l = 0 scattering,
dσ/dΩ is constant and
The probability dσ that comes out of the integral
an incident particle is scattered into dΩ σ = 4π dσ/dΩ
is the ratio of the scattered current = 4πsin2δ0/k2
through dΩ to the incident current
Thus l = 0 phase shift
dσ = (jscattered )(r2 dΩ)/(jincident) is directly related to the
probability for scattering to occur
Therefore
dσ/dΩ = sin2δ0/k2

The total cross section σ is the total probability

to be scattered in any direction
σ = ∫ (dσ/dΩ) dΩ
k2 cot (k2R + δ) = k1 cot k1r

Let us assume the

incident energy is small, say E < 10 keV

k1 = √2m(V0 + E)/ħ2 = 0.92fm-1

Using R = 2 fm from
with V0 = 35 MeV
the study of the 2H bound state gives
from the analysis of the deuteron bound state
α = 0.2 fm-l.
Thus
k2 = √2mE/ħ2 < 0.016fm-1
k22 << α2 and
k2R << 1, giving
Let -α = k1 cot k1r
σ = (4π/α2)][1 + αR]
or -α = k2 cot (k2R + δ)
= 4.6 b
b = barn
Reformatting
1b = 10-28m2
sin2δ0 = [cosk2R + (α/k2)sink2R]/[1 + α2/k22]
This result suggests that the
cross section should be constant at
or
low energy and
σ = [4π/ (k22 + α2)][cosk2R + (α/k2)sink2R]
should have a value close to 4-5 b.
 Experimental cross sections for scattering
of neutrons by protons.

The cross section is constant

at low energy, and
it decreases with E at large
but the low-energy cross section,
20.4 b, is not in agreement
with the calculated value of 4-5 b.

S = 1 combination → triplet state Discrepancy?

S = 0 combination → singlet state
Proton and neutron spins : each ½
Out of four possible
relative spin orientations, Total spin S = sp + sn,
three are associated with the triplet state can have magnitude either 0 or 1.
one with the singlet state.
S = 1 combination has three orientations
As the incident corresponding to z components
nucleon approaches the target, +1,0, -1)
probability of being in a triplet state is ¾
probability of being in a singlet state is ¼ S = 0 combination has only a single orientation.
If the scattering cross section
is different for the singlet and triplet states, then
σ = 3σt/4 + σs/4
where
σt = cross sections for scattering in the triplet states
σs = cross sections for scattering in the singlet states

σ = (4π/α2)][1 + αR] If the neutron-proton force

did not depend on the
In deriving this equation relative direction of the spins,
parameters obtained from the deuteron, then
which is in a S = 1 state is used deuteron bound
states with S = 0 and S = 1
σt = 4.6 b at essentially the same energy.
σ = 20.4 b
S = 0 bound state not found
Therefore, σs = 67.8 b → the force must be spin dependent
→ calculation indicates that there
is an enormous difference between
the cross-sections in the singlet and
triplet states-
→ the nuclear force must be spin dependent .
 PROPERTIES OF THE NUCLEAR FORCE

The Interaction between Two Nucleons Consists to Lowest Order of an Attractive Central
Potential

The Nucleon - Nucleon Interaction is Strongly Spin Dependent

The lnternucleon Potential Includes a Noncentral Term, known as

a Tensor Potential

The Nucleon -Nucleon Force Is Charge Symmetric

The Nucleon - Nucleon Force Is Nearly Charge Independent

The Nucleon - Nucleon Interaction Becomes Repulsive at

Short Distances
 PROPERTIES OF THE NUCLEAR FORCE

The Interaction between Two Nucleons Consists to Lowest Order of an Attractive Central
Potential

Potential used is in a square-well form, which

simplifies the calculations and
reproduces the observed data fairly well.

Other more realistic forms will not change the conclusion

In fact, the effective range approximation is

The central term is represented as Vc(r).
virtually independent of the shape
assumed for the potential.
The experimental program to study Vc(r)
would be to measure the
The common characteristic of these potentials
energy dependence of
is that they depend only
nucleon-nucleon parameters such as
on the internucleon distance r.
scattering phase shifts, and
then to try to choose the
form for V(r) that
best reproduces those parameters.
The Nucleon - Nucleon Interaction is Strongly Spin Dependent

This observation follows from the failure

to observe a singlet bound state
of the deuteron and
also from the measured differences between
the singlet and triplet cross sections.
The nuclear force must satisfy
certain symmetries, which
Question?
restrict the possible forms that
the potential could have.
What is the form of an
additional term that must be added
Examples of these symmetries are
to the potential to account for this effect?
parity (r → - r) etc
Obviously the term must depend
on the spins of the two nucleons,
s1 and s2, but
not all possible combinations of
s1 and s2 are permitted.
The lnternucleon Potential Includes a Noncentral Term, Known as
a Tensor Potential

Evidence for the tensor force

comes primarily from the
observed quadrupole moment
of the ground state of the deuteron.

An s-state (l = 0) wave function

is spherically symmetric;
the electric quadrupole moment vanishes.

Wave functions with mixed l states

must result from non-central potentials.

This tensor force must be of the form V(r),

instead of V(r).
The Nucleon -Nucleon Force Is Charge Symmetric

This means that the proton-proton interaction

is identical to the neutron-neutron interaction,
after the Coulomb force in the proton-proton
system is corrected.

Here “charge” refers to the character

of the nucleon (proton or neutron)
and not to electric charge.

Equality of the pp and nn scattering lengths and

effective ranges
support this statement.
The Nucleon - Nucleon Force Is Nearly Charge Independent

This means that the

three nuclear forces
nn, pp, and pn are identical,
after correcting for the pp Coulomb force.

Charge independence
is thus a stronger requirement
than charge symmetry.

The Nucleon - Nucleon Interaction Becomes Repulsive at

Short Distances

This conclusion follows from

qualitative considerations of the nuclear density:
as more nucleons are added,
the nucleus grows in such a way that
its central density remains roughly constant, and
thus something is keeping the nucleons
from crowding too closely together.
Problem: Suppose the neutron and proton in a deuteron interact through a square well
potential of width b = 1.9*10-15m and depth Vo = 40 MeV in l = 0 state. Calculate the
probabilty that a proton moves within the range of the neutron.
Use the approximation that mn = mp = M; kb = π/2