Chapter 3

Vectors
Coordinate Systems
 Used to describe the position of a point in
space

 Coordinate system consists of

 A fixed reference point called the origin
 Specific axes with scales and labels
 Instructions on how to label a point relative to the
origin and the axes
Cartesian Coordinate System
 Also called rectangular
coordinate system
 x- and y- axes intersect
at the origin
 Points are labeled (x,y)
Polar Coordinate System
 Origin and reference line
are noted

 Point is distance r from

the origin in the direction
of angle , counter
clockwise from reference
(x-axis) line

 Points are labeled (r,)

Polar to Cartesian Coordinates
 Based on forming
a right triangle
from r and 

 x = r cos 
 y = r sin 
Trigonometry Review
 Given various radius
vectors, find
 Length and angle
 x- and y-components
 Trigonometric functions:
sin, cos, tan
Cartesian to Polar Coordinates
 r is the hypotenuse and 
an angle
y
tan 
x
r  x2  y 2
  must be ccw from positive
x axis for these equations to
be valid
Example 3.1
 The Cartesian coordinates of a
point in the xy plane are (x,y) =
(-3.50, -2.50) m, as shown in
the figure. Find the polar
coordinates of this point. θ'

Solution: From Equation 3.4,

r  x 2  y 2  (3.50 m)2  (2.50 m)2  4.30 m

y 2.50 m
tan '    0.714 θ' =35.5° and θ = θ’ + 180°
x 3.50 m
  216
Vectors and Scalars
 A scalar quantity is completely specified by
a single value with an appropriate unit and
has no direction.

 A vector quantity is completely described by

a number and appropriate units plus a
direction.
Vector Example
 A particle travels from A to
B along the path shown by
the dotted red line
 This is the distance
traveled and is a scalar
 The displacement is the
solid line from A to B
 The displacement is
independent of the path
taken between the two
points
 Displacement is a vector
Vector Notation
 Text uses bold with arrow to denote a vector: A
 Also used for printing is simple bold print: A
 When dealing with just the magnitude of a
vector in print, an italic letter will be used: A or
| A|
 The magnitude of the vector has physical units
 The magnitude of a vector is always a positive
number
 When handwritten, use an arrow: A
Equality of Two Vectors
 Two vectors are equal
if they have the same
magnitude and the
same direction

 A  B if A = B and
they point along parallel
lines

 All of the vectors shown

are equal
Adding Vectors
 When adding vectors, their directions must
be taken into account
 Units must be the same
 Graphical Methods
 Use scale drawings
 Algebraic Methods
 More convenient
Adding Vectors Graphically
 Choose a scale
 Draw the first vector, A , with the appropriate length
and in the direction specified, with respect to a
coordinate system
 Draw the next vector with the appropriate length and
in the direction specified, with respect to a
coordinate system whose origin is the end of vector A
and parallel to the coordinate system used for A
Adding Vectors Graphically,
cont.
 Continue drawing the
vectors “tip-to-tail”

 The resultant is drawn

from the origin of A to
the end of the last
vector
 Measure the length of R
and its angle
 Use the scale factor to
convert length to actual
magnitude
Adding Vectors Graphically,
final
 When you have many
vectors, just keep
repeating the process
until all are included

 The resultant is still

drawn from the tail of
the first vector to the tip
of the last vector
Adding Vectors, Rules
 When two vectors are
added, the sum is
independent of the
order of the addition.

 This is the Commutative

Law of Addition
 A B  B A
Adding Vectors, Rules cont.
 When adding three or more vectors, their sum is
independent of the way in which the individual
vectors are grouped
 This is called the Associative Property of Addition
   
A  BC  A B C 
Adding Vectors, Rules final
 When adding vectors, all of the vectors must
have the same units
 All of the vectors must be of the same type of
quantity
 For example, you cannot add a displacement to a
velocity
Negative of a Vector
 The negative of a vector is defined as the
vector that, when added to the original vector,
gives a resultant of zero
 Represented as A

 
 A  A  0

 The negative of the vector will have the same

magnitude, but point in the opposite direction
Subtracting Vectors
 Special case of vector
addition
  
If A  B , then use A  B
 Continue with standard
vector addition
procedure
Multiplying or Dividing a
Vector by a Scalar
 The result of the multiplication or division of a vector
by a scalar is a vector
 The magnitude of the vector is multiplied or divided
by the scalar
 If the scalar is positive, the direction of the result is
the same as of the original vector
 If the scalar is negative, the direction of the result is
opposite that of the original vector
Component Method of Adding
Vectors
 Graphical addition is not recommended when
 High accuracy is required
 If you have a three-dimensional problem
 Component method is an alternative method
 It uses projections of vectors along coordinate
axes
Components of a Vector,
Introduction
 A component is a
projection of a vector
along an axis
 Any vector can be
completely described by
its components
 It is useful to use
rectangular
components
 These are the projections
of the vector along the x-
and y-axes
Vector Component
Terminology
 A x and A y are the component vectors of A
 They are vectors and follow all the rules for
vectors
 Ax and Ay are scalars, and will be referred to
as the components of A
Components of a Vector
 Assume you are given
a vector A
 It can be expressed in
terms of two other
vectors, A x and A y
 These three vectors
form a right triangle
 A  Ax  Ay
Components of a Vector, 2
 The y-component is
moved to the end of
the x-component
 This is due to the fact
that any vector can be
moved parallel to
itself without being
affected
 This completes the
triangle
Components of a Vector, 3
 The x-component of a vector is the projection along
the x-axis
Ax  A cos
 The y-component of a vector is the projection along
the y-axis
A y  A sin 
 This assumes the angle θ is measured with respect
to the x-axis
 If not, do not use these equations, use the sides of the
triangle directly
Components of a Vector, 4
 The components are the legs of the right triangle
whose hypotenuse is the length of A
1 Ay
A  Ax  A y and   tan
2 2

Ax
 May still have to find θ with respect to the positive x-axis
Components of a Vector, final
 The components can
be positive or negative
and will have the same
units as the original
vector

 The signs of the

components will
depend on the angle
Unit Vectors
 A unit vector is a dimensionless vector with
a magnitude of exactly 1.

 Unit vectors are used to specify a direction

and have no other physical significance
Unit Vectors, cont.
 The symbols
î , ĵ, and k̂
represent unit vectors
 They form a set of
mutually perpendicular
vectors in a right-
handed coordinate
system
 Remember, ˆi  ˆj  kˆ  1
Unit Vectors in Vector Notation
 Ax is the same as Ax î
and Ay is the same as
Ay ĵ etc.
 The complete vector
can be expressed as
A  Ax ˆi  Ay ˆj
Adding Vectors Using Unit
Vectors
 Using R  A  B
   
Then R  Ax ˆi  Ay ˆj  Bx ˆi  By ˆj 
R   Ax  Bx  ˆi   Ay  By  ˆj
R  Rx ˆi  Ry ˆj
 and so Rx = Ax + Bx and Ry = Ay + By
Ry
R  R R 2
x
2
y   tan 1

Rx
Adding Vectors with Unit
Vectors
 Note the relationships
among the components
of the resultant and the
components of the
original vectors
 R x = A x + Bx
 R y = A y + By
 Three-Dimensional Extension
 Using R  A  B
   
Then R  Ax ˆi  Ay ˆj  Azkˆ  Bx ˆi  By ˆj  Bzkˆ 
R   Ax  Bx  ˆi   Ay  By  ˆj   Az  Bz  kˆ
R  Rx ˆi  Ry ˆj  Rzkˆ
 and so Rx= Ax+Bx, Ry= Ay+By, and Rz =Ax+Bz
Rx Ry Ry
R  R R R
2
x
2
y
2
z   cos 1
 sin 1
 tan 1
, etc.
R R Rx
Example 3.5 – Taking a Hike
 A hiker begins a trip by first walking 25.0 km
southeast from her car. She stops and sets up her
tent for the night. On the second day, she walks
40.0 km in a direction 60.0° north of east, at which
point she discovers a forest ranger’s tower.
Example 3.5
 (A) Determine the components
of the hiker’s displacement for
each day.
A

Solution: We conceptualize the problem by drawing a

sketch as in the figure above. If we denote the
displacement vectors on the first and second days by A
and B respectively, and use the car as the origin of
coordinates, we obtain the vectors shown in the figure.
Drawing the resultant R , we can now categorize this
problem as an addition of two vectors.
Example 3.5
 We will analyze this
problem by using our new
knowledge of vector
components. Displacement A
has a magnitude of 25.0 km
and is directed 45.0° below
the positive x axis.

From Equations 3.8 and 3.9, its components are:

Ax  A cos( 45.0)  (25.0 km)(0.707) = 17.7 km
Ay  A sin( 45.0)  (25.0 km)( 0.707)  17.7 km
The negative value of Ay indicates that the hiker walks in the
negative y direction on the first day. The signs of Ax and Ay
also are evident from the figure above.
Example 3.5
 The second
displacement B has a
magnitude of 40.0 km
and is 60.0° north of
east.

Its components are:

Bx  B cos60.0  (40.0 km)(0.500) = 20.0 km
By  B sin 60.0  (40.0 km)(0.866)  34.6 km
Example 3.5
 (B) Determine the
components of the hiker’s
resultant displacement R R
for the trip. Find an
expression for R in terms of
unit vectors.

Solution: The resultant displacement for the trip R  A  B

has components given by Equation 3.15:
Rx = Ax + Bx = 17.7 km + 20.0 km = 37.7 km
Ry = Ay + By = -17.7 km + 34.6 km = 16.9 km
In unit-vector form, we can write the total displacement as
R = (37.7 ˆi + 16.9ˆj) km
Example 3.5
 Using Equations 3.16 and
3.17, we find that the
resultant vector has a
R
magnitude of 41.3 km and
is directed 24.1° north of
east.

Let us finalize. The units of R are km, which is reasonable for a

displacement. Looking at the graphical representation in the
figure above, we estimate that the final position of the hiker is at
about (38 km, 17 km) which is consistent with the components
of R in our final result. Also, both components of R are positive,
putting the final position in the first quadrant of the coordinate
system, which is also consistent with the figure.
 Examples
1. Given the vectors A = 2.00i + 6.00j and B = 3.00i - 2.00j,
a) draw the vector sum C = A + B and the vector difference D = A – B.
b) Calculate C and D, in terms of unit vectors.
c) Calculate C and D in terms of polar coordinates, with angles measured with respect to
the positive x-axis.
(a) See figure to the right.

(b,c)
C  A  B  2.00ˆi  6.00 ˆj  3.00 ˆi  2.00ˆj  5.00ˆi  4.00ˆj

4
C  25.0  16.0 at tan 1    6.40 at 38.7
 5

D  A  B  2.00ˆi  6.00ˆj  3.00ˆi  2.00ˆj  1.00ˆi  8.00ˆj

1.00 2  8.00 2 at tan 1  

8.00
D 
 1.00 

D  8.06 at 180 82.9  8.06 at 97.2