Course Material (Part 1)

Strength of Materials - I (UG11T3204)

2nd Semester, Marine Engineering

UNIT I: Simple Stresses and Strains

Introduction​: When a body is subjected to an external force, it tends to undergo

deformation. The cohesive force or attraction between the molecules of the body
offers a resistance to deformation. This resistance to deformation can be called the
strength of the material.

Depending on the properties of the material and the amount of force exerted, the
deformation may stop when the load is removed or may continue to cause
permanent deformation or failure.

Elasticity

When the external force applied on a body is removed, the resistance offered by
the body also vanishes. The body may spring back to its original shape and size if
the external force is removed within a certain limit. This limit is known as the
Elastic Limit​ of the body.

The property of a material by virtue of which it can return to its original shape and
size after removing the external force is known as ​Elasticity​. A body is said to be
perfectly elastic if it can completely return to its original shape and size. If it
cannot completely return to its original form and some deformation remains even
after removal of load, it is called partially elastic.

If a material is loaded beyond its elastic limit, then even after removal of the load
the deformation caused by it remains. This permanent deformation is known as
Plastic Deformation​.

Stress

Stress is a measure of resistance to deformation offered by the molecules of a

material. The force of resistance to deformation per unit area of the body is known
as ​Stress​.
Mathematically, stress is denoted by σ.

σ = P/A

where P = Load or force acting on the body

A = Cross-sectional area of the body.

The S.I. Unit of stress is Pascal (Pa), which is also N/m​2​.

Stress may be Tensile or Compressive. When two equal and opposite forces pull at
a body and the body tends to undergo elongation, the stress involved is called
tensile stress​. When two equal and opposite force push on a body and the body
tends to undergo compression, the stress is called ​compressive stress​.

Normal stress - When force is applied perpendicular to the cross sectional area,
the stress produced is called normal stress (σ).

Shear stress - When force is applied parallel to the surface, the stress produced is
called shear stress (τ).
Strain

Strain is defined as the deformation undergone by a body per unit length, under the
action of an external force or load. Mathematically, strain is denoted by ε or e.

Strain = δL/L

where δL = Change in length of the body

L = Original length of the body

Strain is a dimensionless quantity.

Tensile strain = Increase in length / Original length

Compressive strain = Decrease in length / Original length

Volumetric strain = Change in volume / Original volume

Shear strain (𝜙) = Transverse displacement caused by shear force / Length of body
perpendicular to the plane of force application

Shear Strain (𝜙) = Δl / l

Hooke’s law

When a material is loaded within its elastic limit, the stress is directly proportional
to the strain. This is known as Hooke’s Law.

Mathematically, Stress ∝ Strain

Stress = E x Strain

Stress/Strain = E

Where E is the constant of proportionality called Young’s Modulus or Modulus of

Elasticity.
To understand the relation between stress and strain of a body under the action of
an external load, a stress-strain curve may be plotted with stress (σ) along the
y-axis and strain (ε) along x-axis.

This is the stress-strain

diagram of a ​ductile
material​. As seen from the
figure, up to point B the
graph is a straight line which
indicates that the stress in
the body is proportional to
the strain. Point B is the
Elastic Limit of the
material. The region A of the
graph obeys Hooke’s Law.
If the load is released during
this stage, the body will
again go back to its original dimensions. If the body is subjected to the load beyond
point B, yielding of the material starts. That is, some amount of permanent
deformation begins to occur. After crossing point B, releasing the load will not
cause the body to regain its original shape and size. The point where permanent
plastic deformation begins is called the ​Yield Point​.

This plastic deformation of the body continues as stress increases due to the load
up to a maximum limit at point C. This is known as the ​Ultimate Stress or
Ultimate Strength of the material. Beyond this point, the material cannot tolerate
any more load and even on removal of the load continues to deform (while stress
decreases) until finally ​fracture ​takes place.

This next figure shows the

comparison between the
stress-strain curves of a
ductile material and a brittle
material. As seen from the
figure, for brittle materials, there is not much plastic deformation before fracture
takes place. Once the elastic limit is crossed, the material fails quickly, without any
appreciable deformation.

This is the stress-strain

diagram for Mild Steel.
Mild steel is a ductile
material.

Modulus of Elasticity

Modulus of Elasticity or Young’s Modulus can be defined as the ratio of stress to

strain.

Young’s Modulus, E = Tensile Stress/ Tensile Strain

Or, E = Compressive Stress/ Compressive Strain

Modulus of Rigidity or Shear Modulus

Shear Modulus or Modulus of Rigidity can be defined as the ratio of shear stress to
shear strain. It is denoted by G.

Therefore, G = τ /𝜙
Factor of Safety

It is defined as the ratio of the ultimate stress to the permissible stress (or working
stress).

Factor of safety (FOS) = Ultimate stress / Permissible stress

Deformation of a body due to external force

If a body of length ‘l’ and cross-sectional area ‘A’ is subjected to a tensile stress
‘P’, then

σ = P/A

Strain, ε = σ / E = P / AE

Therefore, Deformation, δl = ε.l = Pl / AE

Deformation of a body due to self weight

Let us consider a bar hanging freely. The only force acting on the bar is its own
weight.

Let, Length of the bar = l

Cross-sectional area = A

Young’s Modulus of the material = E

Specific weight of the material = w

For a small section of the bar having length dx, at a distance x from the free end,

P = wAx

Therefore, the elongation of the small section dx due to the weight of the bar of
length x, below it, will be

Pl/AE = (wAx).dx / AE = wx.dx / E

So, the elongation of the entire bar of length l can be obtained by integrating the
above equation as
 l
δl = ∫ [wx.dx / E] = wl​2 ​/ 2E = Wl / 2AE (where W = wAl = total weight)
0

It is seen that the deformation of the bar under its own weight is equal to half of the
deformation under an external load of equal magnitude.

Principle of Superposition

The principle of superposition states that when there are numbers of loads acting
together on an elastic material, the resultant strain will be the sum of individual
strains caused by each load acting separately.

Types of problem

Both ends are free (to expand or shrink) determinate structure:

Total change in length is equal to the algebraic sum of change in length of each
section of its load P, length L, Area A, and Young’s modulus E. These parameters
may vary from section to section. The material is free to expand and shrink.

δL =δ1+ δ2+ δ3+ …..+ δn

Both ends are fixed (cannot expand or shrink) indeterminate structure:

Total change in length is zero because the ends are fixed which will not allow the
sections to expand or shrink. Load or stress is produced by expansion or shrinkage
of the section is taken by the ends. Therefore ends carry some load or stress.

In this example, section AB and BC are undergoing expansion while CD is

undergoing compression.
So, P​AB​ - P​BC =
​ P​1

and P​BC​ + P​CD​ = P​2

Sum of change in length of each section due to expansion is equal to the sum of
change in length of each section due to compression. The load P, length L, Area A,
and Young’s modulus E parameters may vary from section to section.

Expansion section = Compression section

δ1+ δ2+....+ δn = δ3+ δ4+ …..+ δn

Composite Material of Equal length:

Reinforced Columns, Supporting load, Suspended load, Composite structure of

equal length (example pipe inside a pipe) these problems can be solved with the
following expression.

The change length is the same for all materials in that structure. Example in
reinforced concrete column (RCC), steel and concrete length change equally,
similarly for supporting load, suspended load, and composite structure of equal
length. Therefore to solve these problems use the following expressions.

Change in length of concrete = change in length of steel

δl​c​= δl​s

Total load, P is

P = P​c​+ P​s

P​c​ = load taken by concrete and P​s​ = steel.

or, P = A​c​𝛔​c​+ A​s​𝛔​s

Thermal Stresses:

When there is an increase in temperature the material expands. If this expansion is

restricted, this will produce stress. This is known as thermal stress.

δl= lαt
Thermal stresses when the material is not allowed to expand:

ε = δl/l = αt

Therefore, stress 𝛔 = ε.E = αtE

If the supports at the ends of the bar yield by an amount Δ, then

δl= lαt - Δ

Volumetric Strain:

Change in volume to the original volume is known as volumetric strain.

Poisson ratio: It is the ratio of lateral strain to the linear strain. It is denoted by the
symbol µ or 1/m. The strain induced in a body in the directions perpendicular to
the direction of applied force is known as lateral strain.

Relationship between three elastic constants. (​Derivation in class notes)​

Bulk modulus and Young’s modulus:​ K = mE/ 3(m-2)

Shear modulus and Young’s modulus: ​G = mE/2(m+1)

UNIT III: Shearing Force and Bending Moment

Types of Beams, Loads, and Reactions

Type of beams

a. simply supported beam (simple beam)

b. cantilever beam (fixed end beam)

c. beam with an overhang

Type of loads

a. concentrated load (single force)

b. distributed load (measured by their intensity) :

i) uniformly distributed load (uniform load)

ii) linearly varying load

Shear Force and Bending Moment:

Shear force at the cross section of a beam is the unbalanced vertical force to the left
or right of the section.

Bending moment at a section of a beam is defined as the algebraic sum of moments

of the forces to the left or right of the section.
Sign Convention

The shear force tends to rotate the material clockwise is defined as positive.

The bending moment tends to compress the upper part of the beam and elongate
the lower part is defined as positive.

Cantilever with point load at free end:

Therefore, shear force at section XX will be as mentioned here

F​X​ = W

If there will not be any load between two points then shear force will be constant.

Bending moment at section XX will be written as

M​X ​= - W. x

If we recall sign conventions for shear force and bending moment, we can
conclude here that bending moment at section XX will be negative.

Bending moment at free end i.e. at B, value of distance x = 0

M​B​= 0

Bending moment at fixed end i.e. at A, value of distance x = L

M​A​= - W.L

Cantilever Beam with UDL:

The resultant force acting to the right portion of the section will be w*x and it will
be positive.

Therefore, shear force at section XX will be written as mentioned here

F​X​ = w*x

The above equation shows that shear force at section XX will follow the linear
equation and on the basis of value of x we can conclude the value of shear force at
critical points i.e. at point A and at point B.

Shear force at free end i.e. at point B, x=0

F​B ​= 0

Similarly, Shear force at fixed end i.e. at point A, x=L

F​A​ = w*L

Bending moment at section XX will be written as

M​X = - (Total uniformly distributed load) x (distance between section XX and

point of action of total uniformly distributed load)

M​X​ = - (w.​x​) x (​x​/2)

M​X​ = - w.​x​2​/2

Above equation indicates that the bending moment at section XX will follow the
parabolic equation.

Bending moment at free end i.e. at B, value of distance x = 0

M​B​= 0

Bending moment at fixed end i.e. at A, value of distance x = L

M​B​= - w.L​2​/2
Cantilever beam with UVL:

shear force at section XX will be written as mentioned here

F​X​ = Area of triangle BCX

F​X​ = (w​x/​ L) x ​x/​ 2

F​X​ = w​x2​​ /2L

As we can see from the above equation that shear force at section XX will follow
the parabolic equation and on the basis of value of x we can conclude the value of
shear force at critical points i.e. at point A and at point B.

Shear force at free end i.e. at point B, x=0

F​B =
​ 0

Similarly, Shear force at fixed end i.e. at point A, x=L

F​A ​= wL/2

Bending moment at section XX will be written as

M​X = - (Total load for length of x) * (distance between section XX and point of
action of total load for length of x)

M​X ​= - (Total load for length of x) * (distance between section XX and C.G of the
triangle )

M​X​ = - (w​x2​​ /2L) x (​x/​ 3)

M​X​ = - w​x3​​ /6L

Bending moment at free end i.e. at B, value of distance x = 0

M​B​= 0

Bending moment at fixed end i.e. at A, value of distance x = L

M​B​= - w.L​2​/6

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(Portion completed till 17-03-2020)