CHAPTER 10

MANAGEMENT OF
WORKING CAPITAL

LEARNING OUTCOMES

 Understanding the meaning, need and importance of

working capital for smooth functioning of an entity.
 Understanding the factors which determine the working capital.
 Learning the methods of estimating working capital.
 Understanding the various components of working capital
with its management.
 Understanding methods of receivable management.
 Learning the methods of evaluating receivables and
implementation of credit policy.
 Learning the importance and management of treasury
(cash) in an entity.
 Learning the various sources of working capital finance.
 Learning the importance of optimal inventory level and
management of payables.

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 10.2
FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT

This chapter is Divided into Six Units:

UNIT I: Introduction to Working Capital Management

UNIT II: Treasury and Cash Management
UNIT III: Management of Inventory
UNIT IV: Management of Receivables
UNIT V: Management of Payables
UNIT VI: Financing of Working Capital
 MANAGEMENT OF WORKING CAPITAL 10.3

UNIT-I
INTRODUCTION TO WORKING CAPITAL
MANAGEMENT
10.1 MEANING AND CONCEPT OF WORKING
CAPITAL
In accounting term working capital is the difference between current assets and
current liabilities. If we break down the components of working capital we will
found working capital as follows:
Working Capital = Current Assets – Current Liabilities

Current Assets: An asset is classified as current when:

(i) It is expected to be realised or intends to be sold or consumed in
normal operating cycle of the entity;
(ii) The asset is held primarily for the purpose of trading;
(iii) It is expected to be realised within twelve months after the reporting period;
(iv) It is non- restricted cash or cash equivalent.
Generally current assets of an entity, for the purpose of working capital
management can be grouped into the following main heads:
(a) Inventory (raw material, work in process and finished goods)
(b) Receivables (trade receivables and bills receivables)
(c) Cash or cash equivalents (short-term marketable securities)
(d) Prepaid expenses
Current Liabilities: A liability is classified as current when:
(i) It is expected to be settled in normal operating cycle of the entity.
(ii) The liability is held primarily for the purpose of trading
(iii) It is expected to be settled within twelve months after the reporting period
Generally current liabilities of an entity, for the purpose of working capital
management can be grouped into the following main heads:
(a) Payable (trade payables and bills receivables)
 10.4
FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT

(b) Outstanding payments (wages & salary etc.)

In general Working capital management is essentially managing Current Assets.

Management of working capital arises as a part of the process of such
management.
The concept of working capital can also be explained through two angles.

Working capital

On the basis of Value On the basis of Time

Gross Net Permanent Flactuating

(a) Value : From the value point of view, Working Capital can be defined as
Gross Working Capital or Net Working Capital.
Gross working capital refers to the firm’s investment in current assets.
Net working capital refers to the difference between current assets and current
liabilities.
A positive working capital indicates the company’s ability to pay its short-term
liabilities. On the other hand a negative working capital shows inability of an
entity to meet its short-term liabilities.
(b) Time: From the point of view of time, working capital can be divided into
two categories viz., Permanent and Fluctuating (temporary).
Permanent working capital refers to the base working capital, which is the
minimum level of investment in the current assets that is carried by the entity
at all times to carry its day to day activities.
Temporary working capital refers to that part of total working capital, which is
required by an entity in addition to the permanent working capital. It is also
called variable working capital which is used to finance the short term working
capital requirements which arises due to fluctuation in sales volume.
The following diagrams shows Permanent and Temporary or Fluctuating or
variable working capital:
 MANAGEMENT OF WORKING CAPITAL 10.5

Both kinds of working capital i.e. permanent and fluctuating (temporary) are
necessary to facilitate production and sales through the operating cycle.

10.2 SIGNIFICANCE OF WORKING CAPITAL

11.2.1 Importance of Adequate Working Capital
Management of working capital is an essential task of the finance manager. He
has to ensure that the amount of working capital available is neither too large
nor too small for its requirements.
A large amount of working capital would mean that the company has idle
funds. Since funds have a cost, the company has to pay huge amount as
interest on such funds.
If the firm has inadequate working capital, such firm runs the risk of
insolvency. Paucity of working capital may lead to a situation where the firm
may not be able to meet its liabilities.
The various studies conducted by the Bureau of Public Enterprises have shown
that one of the reasons for the poor performance of public sector undertakings
in our country has been the large amount of funds locked up in working
capital. This results in over capitalization. Over capitalization implies that a
company has too large funds for its requirements, resulting in a low rate of
return, a situation which implies a less than optimal use of resources. A firm,
therefore, has to be very careful in estimating its working capital
requirements.
Maintaining adequate working capital is not just important in the short-
term. Sufficient liquidity must be maintained in order to ensure the
survival of the
 10.6
FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT

business in the long-term as well. When businesses make investment decisions

they must not only consider the financial outlay involved with acquiring the
new machine or the new building, etc., but must also take account of the
additional current assets that are usually required with any expansion of
activity. For e.g.:-
 Increased production leads to holding of additional stocks of raw
materials and work-in-progress.
 An increased sale usually means that the level of debtors will increase.
 A general increase in the firm’s scale of operations tends to imply a need
for greater levels of working capital.
A question then arises what is an optimum amount of working capital for a
firm? We can say that a firm should neither have too high an amount of
working capital nor should the same be too low. It is the job of the finance
manager to estimate the requirements of working capital carefully and
determine the optimum level of investment in working capital.
10.2.2 Optimum Working Capital
If a company’s current assets do not exceed its current liabilities, then it may
run into trouble with creditors that want their money quickly.
Current ratio (current assets/current liabilities) (along with acid test ratio to
supplement it) has traditionally been considered the best indicator of the
working capital situation.
It is understood that a current ratio of 2 (two) for a manufacturing firm implies
that the firm has an optimum amount of working capital. This is supplemented
by Acid Test Ratio (Quick assets/Current liabilities) which should be at least 1
(one). Thus it is considered that there is a comfortable liquidity position if
liquid current assets are equal to current liabilities.
Bankers, financial institutions, financial analysts, investors and other people
interested in financial statements have, for years, considered the current ratio
at ‘two’ and the acid test ratio at ‘one’ as indicators of a good working
capital situation. As a thumb rule, this may be quite adequate.
However, it should be remembered that optimum working capital can be
determined only with reference to the particular circumstances of a specific
situation. Thus, in a company where the inventories are easily saleable and the
sundry debtors are as good as liquid cash, the current ratio may be lower than 2
and yet firm may be sound.
 MANAGEMENT OF WORKING CAPITAL 10.7

In nutshell, a firm should have adequate working capital to run its business
operations. Both excessive as well as inadequate working capital positions are
dangerous.

10.3 DETERMINANTS OF WORKING CAPITAL

Working capital management is concerned with:-
(a) Maintaining adequate working capital (management of the level of
individual current assets and the current liabilities) and
(b) Financing of the working capital.
For the point a) above, a Finance Manager needs to plan and compute the
working capital requirement for its business. And once the requirement has
been computed he needs to ensure that it is financed properly. This whole
exercise is nothing but Working Capital Management.
Sound financial and statistical techniques, supported by judgment should be
used to predict the quantum of working capital required at different times.
Some of the factors which need to be considered while planning for working
capital requirement are:-
1. Cash – Identify the cash balance which allows for the business to meet
day- to-day expenses, but reduces cash holding costs.
2. Inventory – Identify the level of inventory which allows for
uninterrupted production but reduces the investment in raw materials
and hence increases cash flow; the techniques like Just in Time (JIT) and
Economic order quantity (EOQ) are used for this.
3. Receivables – Identify the appropriate credit policy, i.e., credit terms
which will attract customers, such that any impact on cash flows and
the cash conversion cycle will be offset by increased revenue and hence
Return on Capital (or vice versa). The tools like Discounts and
allowances are used for this.
4. Short-term Financing Options – Inventory is ideally financed by credit
granted by the supplier; dependent on the cash conversion cycle, it
may however, be necessary to utilize a bank loan (or overdraft), or to
“convert debtors to cash” through “factoring” in order to finance
working capital requirements.
 10.8
FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT

5. Nature of Business - For e.g. in a business of restaurant, most of the

sales are in Cash. Therefore, need for working capital is very less.
6. Market and Demand Conditions - For e.g. if an item’s demand far
exceeds its production, the working capital requirement would be less as
investment in finished goods inventory would be very less.
7. Technology and Manufacturing Policies - For e.g. in some businesses
the demand for goods is seasonal, in that case a business may follow
a policy for steady production through out over the whole year or instead
may choose policy of production only during the demand season.
8. Operating Efficiency – A company can reduce the working capital
requirement by eliminating waste, improving coordination etc.
9. Price Level Changes – For e.g. rising prices necessitate the use of more
funds for maintaining an existing level of activity. For the same level of current
assets, higher cash outlays are required. Therefore, the effect of rising
prices is that a higher amount of working capital is required.

10.4 MANAGEMENT OF WORKING CAPITAL

The working capital of an entity can be termed as for example, life blood if an
entity is compared with a living body; lubricant/ fuel if is an entity is compared
with an engine. Working capital is required for smooth functioning of the
business of an entity as lack of this may interrupt the ordinary activities. Hence,
the working capital needs adequate attention and efficient management.
When we talk about the management it involves 3 Es i.e. Economy, Efficiency
and Effectiveness and all these three are required for the working capital
management.
The scope of working capital management can be grouped into two broad
areas (i) Profitability and Liquidity and (ii) Investment and Financing
Decision.

Scope of Working Capital Management

Liquidity and Profitability Investment and Financing

 MANAGEMENT OF WORKING CAPITAL 10.9

10.4.1 Liquidity and Profitability

For uninterrupted and smooth functioning of the day to day business of an
entity it is important to maintain liquidity of funds evenly. As we have
already learnt in previous chapters that each rupee of capital bears some
cost. So, while maintaining liquidity the cost aspect needs to be borne in mind.
Unnecessary tying up of funds in idle assets not only reduces the liquidity
but also reducing the opportunity to earn better return from a productive
asset. Hence, a trade-off is required between the liquidity and profitability
which increases the profitability without disturbing the day to day
functioning. This requires 3Es as discussed above i.e. economy in financing,
efficiency in utilisation and effectiveness in achieving the intended objectives.
The trade-off between the components of working capital can be summarised as
follows:

Component Advantages of Trade-off Advantages of

of Working higher side (between lower side
Capital (Profitability) Profitability and (Liquidity)
Liquidity)
Inventory Fewer stock-outs Use techniques Lower inventory
increase the like EOQ, JIT etc. requires less
profitability. to carry capital but
optimum level of endangered stock-
inventory. out and loss of
goodwill.
Receivables Higher Credit Evaluate the Cash sales provide
period attract credit policy; use liquidity but fails
customers and the services of to boost sales and
increase revenue debt revenue
management
(factoring)
agencies.
Pre- Reduces Cost-benefit Improves or
payment of uncertainty and analysis required maintains liquidity.
expenses profitable in
inflationary
environment.
Cash and Payables are Cash budgets Cash can be
Cash honoured in time, and other cash invested in
improves the management some other
 10.10
FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT

equivalents goodwill and techniques can be investment avenues

helpful in getting used
future discounts.
Payables Capital can be used Evaluate the Payables are
and in some other credit policy and honoured in time,
Expenses investment avenues related cost. improves the
goodwill and helpful
in getting future
discounts.

10.4.2 Investment and Financing

Working capital policy is a function of two decisions, first, investment in
working capital and the second is financing of the investment. Investment in
working capital is concerned with the level of investment in the current assets.
It gives the answer of ‘How much’ fund to be tied in to achieve the
organisation objectives (i.e. Effectiveness of fund). Financing decision
concerned with the arrangement of funds to finance the working capital. It gives
the answer ‘Where from’ fund to be sourced’ at lowest cost as possible (i.e.
Economy). Financing decision, we will discuss this in later unit of this chapter.
Investment of working capital: How much to be invested in current assets
as working capital is a matter of policy decision by an entity. It has to be
decided in the light of organisational objectives, trade policies and financial
(cost-benefit) considerations. There is not set rules for deciding the level of
investment in working capital. Some organisations due to its peculiarity
require more investment than others. For example, an infrastructure
development company requires more investment in its working capital as
there may be huge inventory in the form of work in process on the other
hand a company which is engaged in fast food business, comparatively
requires less investment. Hence, level of investment depends on the various
factors listed below:
(a) Nature of Industry: Construction companies, breweries etc. requires
large investment in working capital due long gestation period.
(b) Types of products: Consumer durable has large inventory as compared
to perishable products.
(c) Manufacturing Vs Trading Vs Service: A manufacturing entity has
to maintain three levels of inventory i.e. raw material, work-in-process
and
 MANAGEMENT OF WORKING CAPITAL 10.11

finished goods whereas a trading and a service entity has to maintain

inventory only in the form of trading stock and consumables respectively.
(d) Volume of sales: Where the sales are high, there is a possibility of high
receivables as well.
(e) Credit policy: An entity whose credit policy is liberal has not only high
level of receivables but requires more capital to fund raw material
purchases.
10.4.3 Approaches of working capital investment
Based on the organisational policy and risk-return trade off, working capital
investment decisions are categorised into three approaches i.e. aggressive,
conservative and moderate.
Approaches of Working Capital Investment

Agrressive Moderate Conservative

(a) Aggressive: Here investment in working capital is kept at minimal

investment in current assets which means the entity does hold lower level of
inventory, follow strict credit policy, keeps less cash balance etc. The
advantage of this approach is that lower level of fund is tied in the working
capital which results in lower financial costs but the flip side could be that the
organisation could not grow which leads to lower utilisation of fixed assets
and long term debts. In the long run firm stay behind the competitors.
(b) Conservative: In this approach of organisation use to invest high
capital in current assets. Organisations use to keep inventory level higher,
follows liberal credit policies, and cash balance as high as to meet any
current liabilities immediately. The advantage of this approach are higher
sales volume, increased demand due to liberal credit policy and increase
goodwill among the suppliers due to payment in short time. The disadvantages
are increase cost of capital, higher risk of bad debts, shortage of liquidity in
long run to longer operating cycles.
(c) Moderate: This approach is in between the above two approaches.
Under this approach a balance between the risk and return is maintained to
gain more by using the funds in very efficient manner.
 10.12
FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT

10.4.4 Current Assets to Fixed Assets Ratio

The finance manager is required to determine the optimum level of current
assets so that the shareholders’ value is maximized.
A firm needs fixed and current assets to support a particular level of output.
As the firm’s output and sales increases, the need for current assets also
increases. Generally, current assets do not increase in direct proportion to output;
current assets may increase at a decreasing rate with output. As the output
increases, the firm starts using its current asset more efficiently.
The level of the current assets can be measured by creating a relationship
between current assets and fixed assets. Dividing current assets by fixed assets
gives current assets/fixed assets ratio.
Assuming a constant level of fixed assets, a higher current assets/fixed assets ratio
indicates a conservative current assets policy and a lower current assets/fixed assets
ratio means an aggressive current assets policy assuming all factors to be constant.
A conservative policy implies greater liquidity and lower risk whereas an aggressive
policy indicates higher risk and poor liquidity. Moderate current assets policy
will fall in the middle of conservative and aggressive policies. The current
assets policy of most of the firms may fall between these two extreme
policies.
The following illustration explains the risk-return trade off of various
working capital management policies, viz., conservative, aggressive and
moderate.
ILLUSTRATION 1
A firm has the following data for the year ending 31st March, 2017:
 MANAGEMENT OF WORKING CAPITAL 10.13

(` )
Sales (1,00,000 @ ` 20) 20,00,000
Earnings before Interest and Taxes 2,00,000
Fixed Assets 5,00,000

The three possible current assets holdings of the firm are ` 5,00,000, ` 4,00,000 and
` 3,00,000. It is assumed that fixed assets level is constant and profits do not vary
with current assets levels. ANALYSE the effect of the three alternative current assets
policies.
SOULTUION
Effect of Alternative Working Capital Policies

Working Capital Policy Conservative Moderate Aggressive

(`) (`) (`)
Sales 20,00,000 20,00,000 20,00,000
Earnings before Interest and Taxes 2,00,000 2,00,000 2,00,000
(EBIT)
Current Assets 5,00,000 4,00,000 3,00,000
Fixed Assets 5,00,000 5,00,000 5,00,000
Total Assets 10,00,000 9,00,000 8,00,000
Return on Total Assets (EBIT÷ Total 20% 22.22% 25%
Assets)
Current Assets/Fixed Assets 1.00 0.80 0.60

The aforesaid calculation shows that the conservative policy provides greater
liquidity (solvency) to the firm, but lower return on total assets. On the other
hand, the aggressive policy gives higher return, but low liquidity and thus is
very risky. The moderate policy generates return higher than Conservative
policy but lower than aggressive policy. This is less risky than aggressive
policy but riskier than conservative policy.
In determining the optimum level of current assets, the firm should balance the
profitability – solvency tangle by minimizing total costs – Cost of liquidity and
cost of illiquidity.
 10.14
FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT

10.5 ESTIMATING WORKING CAPITAL NEEDS

Operating cycle is one of the most reliable methods of Computation of
Working Capital.
However, other methods like ratio of sales and ratio of fixed investment may
also be used to determine the Working Capital requirements. These methods
are briefly explained as follows:
(i) Current Assets Holding Period: To estimate working capital needs based
on the average holding period of current assets and relating them to
costs based on the company’s experience in the previous year. This
method is essentially based on the Operating Cycle Concept.
(ii) Ratio of Sales: To estimate working capital needs as a ratio of sales on
the assumption that current assets change with changes in sales.
(iii) Ratio of Fixed Investments: To estimate Working Capital requirements as
a percentage of fixed investments.
A number of factors will, however, be impacting the choice of method of
estimating Working Capital. Factors such as seasonal fluctuations, accurate
sales forecast, investment cost and variability in sales price would generally
be considered. The production cycle and credit and collection policies of the
firm will have an impact on Working Capital requirements. Therefore, they
should be given due weightage in projecting Working Capital requirements.

10.6 OPERATING OR WORKING CAPITAL CYCLE

A useful tool for managing working capital is the operating cycle.
The operating cycle analyzes the accounts receivable, inventory and accounts
payable cycles in terms of number of days. For example:
 Accounts receivables are analyzed by the average number of days it
takes to collect an account.
 Inventory is analyzed by the average number of days it takes to turn
over the sale of a product (from the point it comes in the store to
the point it is converted to cash or an account receivable).
 Accounts payables are analyzed by the average number of days it takes
to pay a supplier invoice.
 MANAGEMENT OF WORKING CAPITAL 10.15

Operating/Working Capital Cycle Definition

Working Capital cycle indicates the length of time between a company’s paying
for materials, entering into stock and receiving the cash from sales of finished
goods. It can be determined by adding the number of days required for each
stage in the cycle. For example, a company holds raw materials on an average
for 60 days, it gets credit from the supplier for 15 days, production process
needs 15 days, finished goods are held for 30 days and 30 days credit is
extended to debtors. The total of all these, 120 days, i.e., 60 – 15 + 15 + 30 +
30 days is the total working capital cycle.
Working Capital Cycle
Cash

Receivables Raw Material Labour Overhead

Stock WIP

Most businesses cannot finance the operating cycle (accounts receivable days +
inventory days) with accounts payable financing alone. Consequently, working
capital financing is needed. This shortfall is typically covered by the net profits
generated internally or by externally borrowed funds or by a combination of the
two.
The faster a business expands the more cash it will need for working capital
and investment. The cheapest and best sources of cash exist as working
capital right within business. Good management of working capital will generate
cash which will help improve profits and reduce risks. Bear in mind that the
cost of providing credit to customers and holding stocks can represent a
substantial proportion of a firm’s total profits.
Each component of working capital (namely inventory, receivables and
payables) has two dimensions Time and Money, when it comes to managing
working capital then time is money. If you can get money to move faster
around the cycle (e.g. collect monies due from debtors more quickly) or
reduce the amount of money tied up (e.g. reduce inventory levels relative to
sales), the business will generate
 10.16
FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT

more cash or it will need to borrow less money to fund working capital.
Similarly, if you can negotiate improved terms with suppliers e.g. get
longer credit or an increased credit limit; you are effectively creating free
finance to help fund future sales.

If you……………… Then ………………….

Collect receivables (debtors) faster You release cash from the cycle

Collect receivables (debtors) slower Your receivables soak up cash.

Get better credit (in terms of duration or You increase your cash resources.
amount) from suppliers.

Shift inventory (stocks) faster You free up cash.

Move inventory (stocks) slower. You consume more cash.

The determination of operating capital cycle helps in the forecast, control and
management of working capital. The length of operating cycle is the indicator
of performance of management. The net operating cycle represents the time
interval for which the firm has to negotiate for Working Capital from its
bankers. It enables to determine accurately the amount of working capital
needed for the continuous operation of business activities.
The duration of working capital cycle may vary depending on the nature of
the business.
In the form of an equation, the operating cycle process can be expressed as follows:
Operating Cycle = R + W + F + D – C
Where,
R = Raw material storage period
W= Work-in-progress holding period
F = Finished goods storage period
D= Receivables (Debtors) collection period.
C= Credit period allowed by suppliers (Creditors).
 MANAGEMENT OF WORKING CAPITAL 10.17

The various components of Operating Cycle may be calculated as shown

below:

Raw Material Averagestock of rawmaterial

(1)  Average Costof Raw Material Consumptionper day
Storage Period
Work-in-Progress Average Work - in-progress inventory
(2) = AverageCostof Production per day
holding period
Finished Goods Averagestock of finishedgoods
(3) = Average Costof GoodsSoldper day
storage period
Receivables
AverageReceivables
(4) (Debtors) collection = Average Credit Salesper
period day
(5) Credit period AveragePayables
allowed by = Average CreditPurchasesper
suppliers day
(Creditors)
10.6.1 Working Capital Based on Operating Cycle
One of the methods for forecasting working capital requirement is based on
the concept of operating cycle. The calculation of operating cycle and the
formula for estimating working capital on its basis has been demonstrated
with the help of following illustration:
ILLUSTRATION 2
From the following information of XYZ Ltd., you are required to CALCULATE:
(a) Net operating cycle period.
(b) Number of operating cycles in a year.
(`)
(i) Raw material inventory consumed during the year 6,00,000
(ii) Average stock of raw material 50,000
(iii) Work-in-progress inventory 5,00,000
(iv) Average work-in-progress inventory 30,000
(v) Finished goods inventory 8,00,000
(vi) Average finished goods stock held 40,000
(vii) Average collection period from debtors 45 days
 10.18
FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT

(viii) Average credit period availed 30 days

(ix) No. of days in a year 360 days

SOLUTION
(a) Calculation of Net Operating Cycle period of XYZ Ltd.
Raw Material storage period (R)=
Averagestock ofrawmaterial
AverageCostof RawMaterialConsumptionper day

` 50,000 ` 50,000
= = = 30 days
` 6,00,000÷360 days 1,667
Average Work - in-progressinventory
Work-in-progress holding period (W) =
AverageCostof Productionper day

` 30,000 `30,000
= =
` 5,00,000÷360 days 1,389

=22 days
Averagestock of finishedgoods
Finished Goods storage period (F) =
Average Costof GoodsSoldper day

`40,000 `40,000
= =
`8,00,000÷360 days 2,222
= 18 days
Receivables (Debtors) collection period (D) = 45
days Credit Period allowed by creditors (C) =
30 days
Net Operating Cycle = R + W + F+ D – C= 30 + 22 + 18 + 45 – 30 = 85 days
No. of daysinayear
(b) Number of Operating Cycles in a year =
OperatingCycleperiod
360 days
= = 4.23 times
85days
10.6.2 Estimation of Amount of Different Components of Current Assets and
Current Liabilities
The various constituents of current assets and current liabilities have a direct
bearing on the computation of working capital and the operating cycle. The
holding
 MANAGEMENT OF WORKING CAPITAL 10.19

period of various constituents of Current Assets and Current Liabilities cycle

may either contract or expand the net operating cycle period.
Shorter the operating cycle period, lower will be the requirement of working
capital and vice-versa.

Estimation of Current Assets

The estimates of various components of working capital may be made as follows:

(i) Raw Materials Inventory: The funds to be invested in raw materials

inventory may be estimated on the basis of production budget, the estimated
cost per unit and average holding period of raw material inventory by using
the following formula:
EstimatedProduction(units) x Estimated cost per unit x Average raw material storage period
12months / 365days *

(ii) Work-in-Progress Inventory: The funds to be invested in work-in-progress

can be estimated by the following formula:
EstimatedProduction(units) x Estimated WIP cost per unit x Average WIP holding period ×
12months / 365days *

(iii) Finished Goods: The funds to be invested in finished goods inventory

can be estimated with the help of following formula:
EstimatedProduction(units)

12months / 365days x Estimated cost of producton per unit x Average finished goods storage period
*

(iv) Receivables (Debtors): Funds to be invested in trade receivables

(debtors) may be estimated with the help of following formula:
EstimatedCredit sales(units)

12months / 365days x Estimated cost of sales (Excl. Dep.) per unit x Average receivable collection period
*

(v) Cash and Cash equivalents: Minimum desired Cash and Bank balance to
be maintained by the firm has to be added in the current assets for the
computation of working capital.
 10.20
FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT

Estimation of Current Liabilities

Current liabilities are deducted from the current assets to get working capital.
Hence, the amount of working capital is lowered to the extent of current
liabilities (other than bank credit) arising in the normal course of business. The
important current liabilities like trade payables, wages and overheads can be
estimated as follows:
(i) Trade Payables: Trade payable can be estimated on the basis of
material purchase budget and the credit purchase.
Estimatedcreditpurchase × Credit period allowed by suppliers
12months / 365days *

(ii) Direct Wages: It is estimated with the help of direct wages budget.
Estimatedlabourhours×wagesrateperhour × Average time lag in payment of wages
12months / 365days *

(iii) Overheads (other than depreciation and amortization):

EstimatedOverheads × Average time lag in payment of overheads
12months / 360 days *

*Number of days in a year may be taken as 365 or 360 days.

Estimation of Working Capital Requirements

Amount Amount Amount

I. Current Assets:
Inventories:
-Raw Materials ---
-Work-in-process ---
-Finished goods --- ---
Receivables:
-Trade debtors ---
-Bills --- ---
Minimum Cash Balance ---
Gross Working Capital --- ---
 MANAGEMENT OF WORKING CAPITAL 10.21

II. Current Liabilities:

Trade Payables ---
Bills Payables ---
Wages Payables ---
Payables for overheads --- ---
III. Excess of Current Assets over ---
Current Liabilities [I – II]
IV. Add: Safety Margin ---
V. Net Working Capital [III + IV] ---
The following illustration shows the process of working capital estimation:
ILLUSTRATION 3
On 1st January, the Managing Director of Naureen Ltd. wishes to know the amount of
working capital that will be required during the year. From the following information
PREPARE the working capital requirements forecast.
Production during the previous year was 60,000 units. It is planned that this level of
activity would be maintained during the present year.
The expected ratios of the cost to selling prices are Raw materials 60%, Direct
wages 10% and Overheads 20%.
Raw materials are expected to remain in store for an average of 2 months before
issue to production.
Each unit is expected to be in process for one month, the raw materials being fed
into the pipeline immediately and the labour and overhead costs accruing evenly
during the month.
Finished goods will stay in the warehouse awaiting dispatch to customers for
approximately 3 months.
Credit allowed by creditors is 2 months from the date of delivery of raw material.
Credit allowed to debtors is 3 months from the date of dispatch.
Selling price is ` 5 per unit.
There is a regular production and sales cycle.
Wages and overheads are paid on the 1st of each month for the previous month.
The company normally keeps cash in hand to the extent of ` 20,000.
 10.22
FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT

SOLUTION
Working Notes:
1. Raw material inventory: The cost of materials for the whole year is
60% of the Sales value.

Hence it is 60,000 units × ` 60

=`1,80,000 . The monthly consumption
5× 100
of raw material would be ` 15,000. Raw material requirements would be for
two months; hence raw materials in stock would be ` 30,000.
2. Work-in-process: (Students may give special attention to this point). It
is stated that each unit of production is expected to be in process for
one month).

(`)

(a) Raw materials in work-in-process (being one month’s 15,000

raw material requirements)

(b) Labour costs in work-in-process 1,250

(It is stated that it accrues evenly during the month.
Thus, on the first day of each month it would be
zero and on the last day of month the work-in-process
would include one month’s labour costs. On an
average therefore, it would be equivalent to ½ of
the month’s labour costs)
 10% of (60,000 × ` 5) 
12 months ×0.5 month
 
(c) Overheads 2,500
(For ½ month as explained above)

 20% of (60,000 × ` 5)  
12 months ×0.5 month
 

Total work-in-process 18,750

3. Finished goods inventory: (3 month’s cost of production)

 60% of (60,000 × ` 5)
Raw materials ×3 months 45,000

 
12 months
 
 MANAGEMENT OF WORKING CAPITAL 10.23

 10% of (60,000 × ` 5) 7,500

Labour  ×3 months
12 months
 
 20% of (60,000 × ` 5) 15,000
Overheads  ×3 months
12 months
 
67,500

4. Debtors: The total cost of sales = 2,70,000.

3
Therefore, debtors = `2,70,000 × = ` 67,500
12
Total Cost of Sales = RM + Wages + Overheads + Opening Finished
goods inventory – Closing finished goods inventory.
= `1,80,000 + `30,000 + `60,000 + `67,500 – `67,500 = `2,70,000.
5. Creditors: Suppliers allow a two months’ credit period. Hence, the average
amount of creditors would be two months consumption of raw materials
i.e.
 60% of (60,000 × ` 5)  
12 months ×2 months = ` 30,000.
 
 10% of (60,000 × ` 5) 
6. Direct Wages payable:  ×1 month
 = ` 2,500
12 months
 
 20% of (60,000 × ` 5) 
7. Overheads Payable:  ×1month
 = ` 5,000
12 months
 
Here it has been assumed that inventory level is uniform throughout the
year, therefore opening inventory equals closing inventory.
Statement of Working Capital Required:

(`) (`)
Current Assets:
Raw materials inventory (Refer to working note 1) 30,000
Working–in-process (Refer to working note 2) 18,750
Finished goods inventory (Refer to working note 67,500
3)
Debtors (Refer to working note 4) 67,500
 10.24
FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT

Cash 20,000 2,03,750

Current Liabilities:
Creditors (Refer to working note 5) 30,000
Direct wages payable (Refer to working note 6) 2,500
Overheads payable (Refer to working note 7) 5,000 (37,500)
Estimated working capital requirements 1,66,250

10.6.3 Working Capital Requirement Estimation based on Cash Cost

We have already seen that working capital is the difference between current
assets and current liabilities. To estimate requirements of working capital, we
have to forecast the amount required for each item of current assets and
current liabilities.
In practice another approach may also be useful in estimating working capital
requirements. This approach is based on the fact that in the case of current
assets, like sundry debtors and finished goods, etc., the exact amount of
funds blocked is less than the amount of such current assets. For example:
 If we have sundry debtors worth ` 1 lakh and our cost of production is
` 75,000, the actual amount of funds blocked in sundry debtors is ` 75,000
the cost of sundry debtors, the rest (` 25,000) is profit.
 Again some of the cost items also are non-cash costs; depreciation
is a non-cash cost item. Suppose out of ` 75,000, ` 5,000 is
depreciation; then it is obvious that the actual funds blocked in
terms of sundry debtors totalling ` 1 lakh is only ` 70,000. In other
words, ` 70,000 is the amount of funds required to finance sundry
debtors worth ` 1 lakh.
 Similarly, in the case of finished goods which are valued at cost, non-
cash costs may be excluded to work out the amount of funds
blocked.
Many experts, therefore, calculate the working capital requirements by working out
the cash costs of finished goods and sundry debtors. Under this approach,
the debtors are calculated not as a percentage of sales value but as a
percentage of cash costs. Similarly, finished goods are valued according to
cash costs.
ILLUSTRATION 4
The following annual figures relate to XYZ Co.,
 MANAGEMENT OF WORKING CAPITAL 10.25

(`)
Sales (at two months’ credit) 36,00,000
Materials consumed (suppliers extend two months’ credit) 9,00,000
Wages paid (1 month lag in payment) 7,20,000
Cash manufacturing expenses (expenses are paid one month in 9,60,000
arrear)
Administrative expenses (1 month lag in payment) 2,40,000
Sales promotion expenses (paid quarterly in advance) 1,20,000

The company sells its products on gross profit of 25%. Depreciation is considered as
a part of the cost of production. It keeps one month’s stock each of raw materials
and finished goods, and a cash balance of ` 1,00,000.
Assuming a 20% safety margin, COMPUTE the working capital requirements of the
company on cash cost basis. Ignore work-in-process.
SOLUTION
Statement of Working Capital requirements (cash cost basis)
(`) (`)
A. Current Asset
Inventory:
 ` 9, 00, 000 
Raw materials  ×1 month 75,000
12months
 
 `25, 80, 000 
Finished Goods  ×1 month 2,15,000
12months
 
 `29, 40, 000
Receivables (Debtors) 4,90,000

 ×2months
12months
 
Sales Promotion expenses paid in advance 30,000
 `1, 20, 000  
12 months ×3 months
 
Cash balance 1,00,000 9,10,000
Gross Working Capital 9,10,000
B. Current Liabilities:
Payables:
 10.26
FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT

 ` 9, 00, 000 
Creditors for materials  ×2 month 1,50,000
12months
 
 ` 7, 20, 000 
Wages outstanding  ×1 month 60,000
12months
 
Manufacturing expenses outstanding 80,000
 ` 9, 60, 000  
12months ×1 month
 
Administrative expenses outstanding 20,000 3,10,000
 ` 2, 40, 000  
12months ×1 month
 
Net working capital (A - B) 6,00,000
Add: Safety margin @ 20% 1,20,000
Total Working Capital requirements 7,20,000
Working Notes:

(i) Computation of Annual Cash Cost of Production (`)

Material consumed 9,00,000
Wages 7,20,000
Manufacturing expenses 9,60,000
Total cash cost of production 25,80,000
(ii) Computation of Annual Cash Cost of Sales: (`)
Cash cost of production as in (i) above 25,80,000
Administrative Expenses 2,40,000
Sales promotion expenses 1,20,000
Total cash cost of sales 29,40,000

Since, the cash manufacturing expenses is already given in the question

hence, the amount of depreciation need not to be computed. However,
if it were required to be then it could be computed as follows:
(`)
Sales 36,00,000
 MANAGEMENT OF WORKING CAPITAL 10.27

Less: Gross profit (25% of `36,00,000) (9,00,000)

Cost of Production (including depreciation) 27,00,000
Less: Cash Cost of Production (as calculated above) (25,80,000)
Depreciation (Balancing figure) 1,20,000

10.6.4 Effect of Double Shift Working on Working Capital Requirements

The greatest economy in introducing double shift is the greater use of fixed
assets. Though production increases but little or very marginal funds may be
required for additional assets.
But increase in the number of hours of production has an effect on the
working capital requirements. Let’s see the impact of double shift on
some of the components of working capital:-
 It is obvious that in double shift working, an increase in stocks will
be required as the production rises. However, it is quite possible
that the increase may not be proportionate to the rise in production
since the minimum level of stocks may not be very much higher.
Thus, it is quite likely that the level of stocks may not be required
to be doubled as the production goes up two-fold.
 The amount of materials in process will not change due to double
shift working since work started in the first shift will be completed
in the second; hence, capital tied up in materials in process will be the
same as with single shift working. As such the cost of work-in-
process will not change unless the second shift’s workers are paid
at a higher rate.
ILLUSTRATION 5
Samreen Enterprises has been operating its manufacturing facilities till 31.3.2017 on
a single shift working with the following cost structure:

Per unit (`)

Cost of Materials 6.00
Wages (out of which 40% fixed) 5.00
Overheads (out of which 80% fixed) 5.00
Profit 2.00
Selling Price 18.00
Sales during 2016-17 – ` 4,32,000.
 10.28
FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT

As at 31.3.2017 the company held:

(`)
Stock of raw materials (at cost) 36,000
Work-in-progress (valued at prime cost) 22,000
Finished goods (valued at total cost) 72,000
Sundry debtors 1,08,000
In view of increased market demand, it is proposed to double production by working
an extra shift. It is expected that a 10% discount will be available from suppliers of
raw materials in view of increased volume of business. Selling price will remain the
same. The credit period allowed to customers will remain unaltered. Credit availed of
from suppliers will continue to remain at the present level i.e., 2 months. Lag in
payment of wages and expenses will continue to remain half a month.
You are required to PREPARE the additional working capital requirements, if the
policy to increase output is implemented.
SOLUTION
This question can be solved using two approaches:
(i) To assess the impact of double shift for long term as a matter of production policy.
(ii) To assess the impact of double shift to mitigate the immediate demand
for next year only.
The first approach is more appropriate and fulfilling the requirement of the question.
Workings:
(1) Statement of cost at single shift and double shift working
24,000 units 48,000 Units
Per unit Total Per unit Total
(`) (`) (`) (`)
Raw materials 6.00 1,44,000 5.40 2,59,200
Wages - Variable 3.00 72,000 3.00 1,44,000
Fixed 2.00 48,000 1.00 48,000
Overheads - Variable 1.00 24,000 1.00 48,000
Fixed 4.00 96,000 2.00 96,000
Total cost 16.00 3,84,000 12.40 5,95,200
Profit 2.00 48,000 5.60 2,68,800
18.00 4,32,000 18.00 8,64,000
 MANAGEMENT OF WORKING CAPITAL 10.29

Sales ` 4,32,000
(2) Sales in units 2016-17 = = = 24,000 units
Unit selling price `18

(3) Stock of Raw Materials in units on 31.3.2017 Value of stock `

= unit
36,000 Cost per
= 6
= 6,000 units
(4) Stock of work-in-progress in units on 31.3.2017

Valueof work-in-progress ` 22,000

= PrimeCostper
= unit (`
=2,000units
6+` 5)

(5) Stock of finished goods in units 2016-17

Value of stock ` 72,000
= = = 4,500 units.
TotalCost per unit `16
(i) Assessment of impact of double shift for long term as a matter of
production policy:
Comparative Statement of Working Capital Requirement

Single Shift Double Shift

Unit Rate Amount Unit Rate Amount
(`) (`) (`) (`)
Current Assets
Inventories :
Raw Materials 6,000 6.00 36,000 12,000 5.40 64,800
Work-in-Progress 2,000 11.00 22,000 2,000 9.40 18,800
Finished Goods 4,500 16.00 72,000 9,000 12.40 1,11,600
Sundry Debtors 6,000 16.00 96,000 12,000 12.40 1,48,800
Total Current Assets: (A) 2,26,000 3,44,000
Current Liabilities
Creditors for Materials 4,000 6.00 24,000 8,000 5.40 43,200
Creditors for Wages 1,000 5.00 5,000 2,000 4.00 8,000
Creditors for Expenses 1,000 5.00 5,000 2,000 3.00 6,000
Total Current Liabilities: (B) 34,000 57,200
Working Capital: (A) – (B) 1,92,000 2,86,800
Additional Working Capital requirement = ` 2,86,800 – ` 1,92,000 = ` 94,800
 10.30
FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT

(ii) Assessment of the impact of double shift to mitigate the

immediate demand for next year only.
Workings:
(6) Calculation of no. of units to be sold:

No. of units to be Produced 48,000

Add: Opening stock of finished goods 4,500
Less: Closing stock of finished goods (9,000)
No. of units to be Sold 43,500
(7) Calculation of Material to be consumed and materials to be
purchased in units:

No. of units Produced 48,000

Add: Closing stock of WIP 2,000
Less: Opening stock of finished (2,000)
goods
Raw Materials to be consumed in 48,000
units
Add: Closing stock of Raw material 12,000
Less: Opening stock of Raw material (6,000)
Raw Materials to be purchased (in 54,000
units)
(8) Credit allowed by suppliers:
No. of unitstopurchased×Cost perunit 54, 000×` 5.40
12months ×2months = 12months ×2months

=`48,600
Comparative Statement of Working Capital Requirement
Single Shift Double Shift
Unit Rate Amount Unit Rate Amount
(`) (`) (`) (`)
Current Assets
Inventories:
Raw Materials 6,000 6.00 36,000 12,000 5.40 64,800
Work-in-Progress 2,000 11.00 22,000 2,000 9.40 18,800
Finished Goods 4,500 16.00 72,000 9,000 12.40 1,11,600
Sundry Debtors 6,000 16.00 96,000 12,000 12.40 1,48,800
Total Current Assets: (A) 2,26,000 3,44,000
 MANAGEMENT OF WORKING CAPITAL 10.31

Current Liabilities
Creditors for Materials 4,000 6.00 24,000 9,000 5.40 48,600
Creditors for Wages 1,000 5.00 5,000 2,000 4.00 8,000
Creditors for Expenses 1,000 5.00 5,000 2,000 3.00 6,000
Total Current Liabilities: (B) 34,000 62,600
Working Capital: (A) – (B) 1,92,000 2,81,400
Additional Working Capital requirement = ` 2,81,400 – ` 1,92,000 = ` 89,400
Notes:
(i) The quantity of material in process will not change due to double
shift working since work started in the first shift will be
completed in the second shift.
(ii) It is given in the question that the WIP is valued at prime cost
hence, it is assumed that the WIP is 100% complete in respect of
material and labour.
(iii) In absence of any information on proportion of credit sales to
total sales, debtors quantity has been doubled for double shift.
(iv) It is assumed that all purchases are on credit.
(v) The valuation of work-in-progress based on prime cost as per the
policy of the company is as under.

Single shift Double shift

(`) (`)
Materials 6.00 5.40
Wages – Variable 3.00 3.00
Fixed 2.00 1.00
11.00 9.40