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man SYSTEMS ANALYSIS AND DESIGN METHODS 6th Edition Whitten Bentley Dittman

Seven Fact-Finding Methods Documenting and Analyzing Requirements

• Sampling of existing documentation, forms, • Documenting the draft requirements with various tools:
– Use cases
and databases.
– Decision tables
• Research and site visits. – Requirements tables
• Observation of the work environment. • Analyzing requirements to resolve problems of:
– Missing requirements
• Questionnaires. – Conflicting requirements
• Interviews. – Infeasible requirements
– Overlapping requirements
• Prototyping. – Ambiguous requirements
• Joint requirements planning (JRP). • Formalizing requirements
– Requirements definition document
– Communicated to stakeholders or steering body
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Sample Requirements Definition Outline Requirements Management

Requirements management - the process of

managing change to the requirements.

• Over the lifetime of the project it is very common for

new requirements to emerge and existing requirements
to change.
• Studies have shown that over the life of a project as
much as 50 percent or more of the requirements will
change before the system is put into production.

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Sampling of Existing Documentation, Forms, and Files Why to Sample Completed Rather than Blank Forms

Sampling – the process of collecting a representative • Can determine the type of data going into each blank
sample of documents, forms, and records. • Can determine the size of data going into each blank
– Organization chart • Can determine which blanks are not used or not
– Memos and other documents that describe the always used
problem
• Can see data
– Standard operating procedures for current system relationships
– Completed forms
– Manual and computerized screens and reports
– Samples of databases
– Flowcharts and other system documentation
– And more

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Sampling of Existing Documentation, Forms, and Files Sampling Techniques

• Determining the sample size: Randomization – a sampling technique

– Sample Size = 0.25 x (Certainty factor/Acceptable error) 2 characterized by having no predetermined
– Sample Size = 0.25(1.645/0.10) 2 = 68 Certainty factor from pattern or plan for selecting sample data.
certainty table.
– Sample Size =0.10(1 – 0.10)(1.645/0.10) 2 = 25 10% acceptable error.
Stratification – a systematic sampling technique that
Or if analyst
knows 1 in 10
attempts to reduce the variance of the estimates by
varies from norm. spreading out the sampling—for example, choosing
documents or records by formula—and by avoiding
very high or low estimates.

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Observation Observation Guidelines

Observation – a fact -finding technique wherein the • Determine the who, what, where, when, why, and how of the
systems analyst either participates in or watches a observation.
person perform activities to learn about the system. • Obtain permission from appropriate supervisors or managers.
Advantages? • Inform those who will be observed of the purpose of the
Disadvantages? observation.
• Keep a low profile.
Work sampling - a fact -finding technique that • Take notes during or immediately following the observation.
involves a large number of observations taken at • Review observation notes with appropriate individuals.
random intervals. • Don't interrupt the individuals at work.
• Don't focus heavily on trivial activities.
• Don't make assumptions.

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Questionnaires Types of Fixed -Format Questions

Questionnaire – a special-purpose document that allows the • Multiple-choice questions

analyst to collect information and opinions from respondents.
– Advantages?
• Rating questions
– Disadvantages? • Ranking questions

Free-format questionnaire – a questionnaire designed to offer Rank the following transactions according to the amount of time you spend
processing them.
the respondent greater latitude in the answer. A question is ___ % new customer orders
asked, and the respondent records the answer in the space ___ % order cancellations The implementation of quality discounts would
provided after the question. ___ % order modifications cause an increase in customer orders.
___ % payments • Strongly agree
• Agree
Fixed-format questionnaire – a questionnaire containing • No opinion
questions that require selecting an answer from predefined • Disagree
Is the current accounts receivable
• Strongly disagree
available responses. report that you receive useful?
• Yes
• No
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Developing a Questionnaire Interviews

1. Determine what facts and opinions must be collected Interview - a fact-finding technique whereby the
and from whom you should get them. systems analysts collect information from individuals
2. Based on the facts and opinions sought, determine through face-to-face interaction.
whether free- or fixed-format questions will produce – Can be used to:
the best answers. • Find facts
• Verify facts The personal interview is
3. Write the questions. • Clarify facts generally recognized as the
most important and most often
4. Test the questions on a small sample of respondents. • Generate enthusiasm
used fact-finding technique.
• Get the end-user involved
5. Duplicate and distribute the questionnaire.
• Identify requirements
• Solicit ideas and opinions
– Advantages?
– Disadvantages?

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Types of Interviews and Questions Procedure to Conduct an Interview

Unstructured interview– an interview that is conducted with 1. Select Interviewees

only a general goal or subject in mind and with few, if any, – End users
specific questions. The interviewer counts on the interviewee to – Learn about individual prior to the interview
provide a framework and direct the conversation.
2. Prepare for the Interview
– An interview guide is a checklist of specific questions
Structured interview – an interview in which the interviewer the interviewer will ask the interviewee.
has a specific set of questions to ask of the interviewee. – See Figure 6-3
3. Conduct the Interview
Open-ended question – question that allows the interviewee to
– Summarize the problem
respond in any way that seems appropriate.
– Offer an incentive for participation
– Ask the interviewee for assistance
Closed-ended question – a question that restricts answers to
either specific choices or short, direct responses. 4. Follow Up on the Interview
– Memo that summarizes the interview
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Sample Interview Guide Sample Interview Guide (concluded)

(continued)
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Interview Questions Interviewing Do’s and Don’ts

• Types of Questions to Avoid

Do Avoid
– Loaded questions
– Leading questions • Be courteous • Continuing an interview
• Listen carefully unnecessarily.
– Biased questions
• Maintain control • Assuming an answer is finished
• Interview Question Guidelines • Probe or leading nowhere.
• Observe mannerisms and • Revealing verbal and nonverbal
– Use clear and concise language. clues.
nonverbal communication
– Don’t include your opinion as part of the question. • Be patient • Using jargon
• Revealing your personal
– Avoid long or complex questions. • Keep interviewee at ease
• Maintain self-control biases.
– Avoid threatening questions. • Talking instead of listening.
– Don’t use “you” when you mean a group of people. • Assuming anything about the
topic and the interviewee.
• Tape recording -- a sign of poor
listening skills.

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Communicating With the User Body Language and Proxemics

• Guidelines for Communicating Body language – the nonverbal information we

– Approach the Session with a Positive Attitude communicate.
– Set the Other Person at Ease – Facial disclosure
– Let Them Know You Are Listening – Eye contact
– Ask Questions – Posture
– Don’t Assume Anything
– Take Notes Proxemics – the relationship between people and the
space around them.
“ To hear is to recognize that someone is – Intimate zone—closer than 1.5 feet
speaking, to listen is to understand what – Personal zone—from 1.5 feet to 4 feet
the speaker wants to communicate.” – Social zone —from 4 feet to 12 feet
(Gildersleeve – 1978)
– Public zone —beyond 12 feet

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Discovery Prototyping Joint Requirements Planning

Discovery prototyping – the act of building a small- Joint requirements planning (JRP) – a process
scale, representative or working model of the users’ whereby highly structured group meetings are
requirements in order to discover or verify those conducted for the purpose of analyzing problems and
requirements. defining requirements.
– Advantages? – JRP is a subset of a more comprehensive joint
– Disadvantages? application development or JAD technique that
encompasses the entire systems development
process.

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JRP Participants Steps to Plan a JRP Session

• Sponsor 1. Selecting a location

• Facilitator – Away from workplace when possible
• Users and Managers – Requires several rooms
– Equipped with tables, chairs, whiteboard, overhead
• Scribes projectors
• IT Staff – Needed computer equipment
– See Figure 6-4
2. Selecting the participants
– Each needs release from regular duties
3. Preparing the agenda
– Briefing documentation
– Agenda distributed before each session
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Typical room layout for JRP session Guidelines for Conducting a JRP Session

• Do not unreasonably deviate from the agenda

• Stay on schedule
• Ensure that the scribe is able to take notes
• Avoid the use of technical jargon
• Apply conflict resolution skills
• Allow for ample breaks
• Encourage group consensus
• Encourage user and management participation without
allowing individuals to dominate the session
• Make sure that attendees abide by the established
ground rules for the session
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Brainstorming Brainstorming Guidelines

• Sometimes, one of the goals of a JRP session is to • Isolate the appropriate people in a place that will be free
generate possible ideas to solve a problem. from distractions and interruptions.
– Brainstorming is a common approach that is used for • Make sure everyone understands the purpose of the
meeting.
this purpose.
• Appoint one person to record ideas.
• Remind everyone of brainstorming rules.
Brainstorming – a technique for generating ideas by • Within a specified time period, team members call out
encouraging participants to offer as many ideas as their ideas as quickly as they can think of them.
possible in a short period of time without any analysis • After the group has run out of ideas and all ideas have
until all the ideas have been exhausted. been recorded, then and only then should the ideas be
analyzed and evaluated.
• Refine, combine, and improve the ideas that were
generated earlier.

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Benefits of JRP A Fact-Finding Strategy

• JRP actively involves users and management in the 1. Learn from existing documents, forms, reports, and
development project (encouraging them to take files.
“ownership” in the project). 2. If appropriate, observe the system in action.
• JRP reduces the amount of time required to develop 3. Given all the facts that already collected, design and
systems. distribute questionnaires to clear up things that aren’t
• When JRP incorporates prototyping as a means for fully understood.
confirming requirements and obtaining design 4. Conduct interviews (or group work sessions).
approvals, the benefits of prototyping are realized 5. (Optional). Build discovery prototypes for any
functional requirements that are not understood or for
requirements that need to be validated.
6. Follow up to verify facts.

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Chapter 6 - Requirements Discovery 8