Module 7 – CK and PCK as Professional Knowledge

Two aspects of teacher knowledge are critical to good teaching. These aspects
include content knowledge (CK) and pedagogical content knowledge (PCK). Content
knowledge refers to knowing the knowledge, skills, or attitudes you intend to teach.
Pedagogical content knowledge refers to knowing what mistakes or misconceptions
are likely and predictable as students learn, and which can be addressed by
anticipating likely problems.

The international discussion about CK and PCK may take place in relation to
particular subject areas as developed countries examine their own standings in
well-regarded international studies. With the globalization of world markets and the
continued testing of students from around the world (Schmidt, Houang & Cogan,
2011a) school authorities have undertaken an additional level of scrutiny as to the
success of a country’s education system and that country’s ability to develop a
competitive workforce. Most recently, the results of testing by organizations such as
the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Ontario’s
Education Quality and Accountability Office (EQAO), and the Fraser Institute
(Carlson, 2014; Cowley & Easton, 2015), have noted the declining trend of Canadian,
as well as American, mathematics students. This has raised questions as to the most
effective teaching strategies, and has sparked interest into the recruitment criteria
that colleges of education set for teachers, as well as the curriculum that is studied
in teacher education and professional development programs (Schmidt et al.,
2011a).

Shulman (1986), introduced the notion of pedagogical content knowledge for

teaching, and researchers from around the world (Blomeke et al., 2011; Krauss et al.,
2008; Hill, Blunk, et al., 2008) have begun to investigate the acquisition,
development, and interconnectedness of CK and PCK and how these relate to
instruction and student achievement. Additionally, the results of this testing have
focused discussion about the relative roles that a teacher’s content knowledge (CK)
and pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) have on their ability to improve student
achievement (Blomeke, Suhl & Kaiser, 2011; Tatto & Senk, 2011). Currently there
are differing views as to the degree to which CK and PCK influence instruction and
teachers’ ability to improve student achievement (Blomeke et al., 2011; Hill, Blunk,
et al., 2008; Krauss et al., 2008). One area of investigation is concerned with whether
the acquisition of robust PCK is contingent upon strong CK (Blomeke et al., 2011;
Hill, Blunk, et al., 2008; Krauss et al., 2008;). There is debate as to whether teachers
acquire PCK concurrently while taking undergraduate courses, through courses
taken while in teachers’ college, or through on-the-job experience (Schmidt, Houang
& Cogan, 2011b).

Other research (Marzano, Pickering, & Pollock, 2001) have stressed the need to be
aware of the outcome of some of our pedagogical strategies so that teachers can be
aware of the learning gains their PCK are likely to accumulate to the benefit of
students. Marzano et al. have identified nine high-impact strategies that have
demonstrable impact on learning. These are summarized in the table below:

Nine High-Impact Strategies

Marzano, R., Pickering, D., & Pollock, J. (2001). Classroom instruction that works:
Research-based strategies for increasing student achievement. Association for
Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD). Alexandria: VA.

High-Yield % Approach Classroom Strategies

Strategies Learning
Gain
Comparison/Identi 45  compare  mind maps, T-
fying Similarities  classify charts, Venn
and Differences  create diagrams,
metaphors classifying,
 create analogies,
analogies cause/effect links,
 make non- comparison
linguistic or organizers,
linguistic question/answer
representation relationships,
s affinity diagrams,
Frayer Model (i.e.,
concept map and
identify definition,
illustration,
examples, and
non-examples
Summarizing/ 34  eliminate  learn
Note-taking unnecessary summarization
information techniques
 keep  identify key
important concepts
information  make lists
 write/rewrite  make outlines
 analyze  create clusters
information  use narrative
 reword organizers
 make journal
summaries
 break down
assignments
 create reports
  use
quick/scribble
writing
 use/design
graphics
 make column
notes
 make affinity
diagrams
Reinforce effort 29  reward based  communicate and
and provide on high maintain high
recognition performance standards
standards  display finished
 use symbolic products
recognition  praise efforts
(not tangible  encourage sharing
rewards) ideas and
expression
 use learning
styles/
preferences
approaches
 conference
individually with
students
 create portfolios
 celebrate
academic
achievement
 maintain focus on
a positive
learning
environment
Practice (including 28  vary amount  retell
homework) of homework  recite
by age/grade  review
 keep parent  use reflective
involvement journals
on homework  keep parents
to a minimum informed about
 state the curriculum
purpose of  coordinate
practice and homework and
homework assignment load
 debrief  communicate
 practice with parents
regularly
Non-linguistic 27  create graphic  use visuals and
representations representation manipulatives
s  use problem-
 create models solving organizers
 create mental  use concept maps
pictures,  sketch to stretch
drawings,  make physical
pictographs models, cut outs,
 use foldables
kinesthetic  create
strategies storyboards
Cooperative 23  use small  readers’ theatre
learning heterogeneous  pass the pencil
groups  cube it
 assign roles  radio reading
and  project-based
responsibilitie learning
s in group  problem-based
work learning
 use  jigsaws
cooperative  debates
structures  group reports
Set objectives and 23  communicate  articulate/display
provide feedback learning goals learning goals
 be specific but  use KWL and
flexible KWML charts
 give feedback  use contract
that is clear, learning
timely,  conclude lessons
specific, and with
provides time metacognitive
for awareness of
improvement what was learned

Skill Practice for Module 7 – CK and PCK as Professional

Knowledge

Pre-Practice Teaching Concepts Modular Practice Components

 define CK (content knowledge)  assess their own CK and PCK
and PCK (pedagogical content in relation to target teaching
knowledge) responsibilities
 develop strategies for
enriching their PCK

1. This activity is designed to help you develop a sense of your own content
knowledge (CK) for a targeted body of curriculum. First, identify an area of
the curriculum that you would like to teach for a particular grade (e.g., all
subjects in Grade 6 or Grade 10 History). Using online sources, examine the
curriculum for that grade or secondary school subject area. In your
jurisdiction. Look at the learning expectations for each guideline that you
have chosen. Using the chart below, identify the content in that curriculum
for which you feel very comfortable, in need of some refresher learning, or in
need of new knowledge acquisition (because it is completely unknown to
you). List these ideas in short, point form (rather than as learning
expectations).

Curriculum Focus

Comfortable, familiar In need of refresher In need of new

content learning about this knowledge acquisition
content about this content

2. Now, for each of the three areas of the chart above, apply a mathematical
formula to calculate your CK for the targeted curriculum.
 Column 1 – Comfortable, familiar content

Comfortable/familiar content
__________________________________ (divided by)

Total number of content expectations

This will give you a fraction (e.g., 45/60), which can then be changed to a
percentage. Complete this calculation for each of the three columns. Once all
calculations are complete, you can state a CK ratio as follows.

EXAMPLE:
I know 45 of the 60 learning expectation content for this curriculum. I need a
refresher of 2 of the 60 content statements, and I need to acquire new learning on
13 of the 60 expectations. For this curriculum, my CK ratio is 45:2:13. Another way
to say this is that I know 75% of the intended curriculum, I am somewhat familiar
with 3.3% of the curriculum, and I need to learn the content of 21.6% of this
curriculum before I start teaching this unit.

3. Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) involves the development of a

professional perspective on teaching that creates a habit of mind whereby
teachers habitually consider new lessons by also thinking about likely
stumbling points for some students. Teachers with high PCK will anticipate
areas of difficulty for every lesson and plan strategies to avert these
difficulties so that learning can be successful for every student. High PCK
professionals recognize that learning is highly dependent on conceptual
language so these teachers will work to build up their students’
understanding of concepts as they present new curriculum. High PCK may
develop over many years of experience but can also be supported by
awareness of high-impact teaching strategies.

For the example curriculum expectations that are identified below, list areas of
potential difficulty that could be identified prior to the lesson and explain one or
more strategies you might use to preempt these difficulties before the students
start the lesson.

Example Curriculum Areas of Potential Strategies I might Use to

Expectations Learning Difficulty with Preempt Anticipated
This Expectation Difficulties
Grade 7 Health and
Physical Education

Identify factors that can

affect health-related
 fitness (e.g., heredity,
nutrition, developmental
stage, environmental
factors, social and
emotional factors, mental
health, cultural
teachings), and describe
how training principles
(e.g., frequency, intensity,
duration, type of activity)
can be applied to develop
fitness.
Grade 3 Science

Describe properties of
sound, including the fol-
lowing: sound travels;
sound can be absorbed or
reflected and can be
modified (e.g., pitch,
loudness).
Grade 11 Physics

Analyse the nature and

transformation of energy
in a mechanical system.

4. Henry, Bastian, and Fortner (Henry, G. T., Bastian, K.C., & Fortner, C.K. (2011).
Stayers and leavers: Early-career teacher effectiveness and attrition. Educational
Researcher 40 (6), 271-280) found that teachers tend to improve dramatically in
their awareness and use of effective strategies for instruction, in the first three years
in the profession of teaching. Following that, there is a period of normalization
where professional growth levels out and teachers tend to reuse the same strategies
for the remainder of their careers. This situation could be changed and we might
expect continuous professional growth if teachers were inclined to review their
pedagogical content knowledge habitually. This focus on professional growth would
be supported by skills for reviewing our PDK, and thereby renewing our
instructional strategies.

For this purpose, we can focus on the design of curriculum. Most school curriculum is
designed on a spiral model. That is, topics that are taught are layered in complexity over
several grades and units of study. The spiral curriculum concept can be conceptualized as
shown below. This spiral can be used to show that concepts such as addition are learned in
early grades (e.g., in Kindergarten with the knowledge of one to one correspondence and
counting) and revisited in several later grades with concepts such as adding whole
numbers, adding with carrying, adding decimal numbers, etc.)

If teachers are aware of the related concepts that are taught in previous grades and the
concepts yet to be taught after a particular course, they can focus their strategies on either
expanding on previous learning or preparing students to understand adjacent concepts in
future grades. This awareness will help teachers to expand their PDK.

To support PDK, some practice with tracing concepts over time and grades is provided
below. For each concept, examine the local curriculum across several grades and show how
the curriculum concept is developed and expanded.

Example: Mathematics concept – slope of a line

 Develop a chart to show where this concept is initially introduced in your local
curriculum, the initial concepts that are taught, and expanding concepts that are
taught in later grades.

Grade 8 Grade 9 Grade 10 Grade 11 Grade 12

Slope of a line Fundamental
theory of
calculus

 Examine the Grades 9 to 11 Mathematics curriculum documents in your

area. Complete the curriculum focus for each of Grades 9 to 11 for this
concept. Note: You might also find it helpful to examine local textbooks
because these will mirror the intended curriculum.

 Select any three other examples of curriculum that spirals across grades.
Develop a spiral diagram for each example to show how the concepts
 develop across selected grades. Record your observations in the table
below:

Starting Grade Grade ____ Grade ____ Grade ____ Final Grade
where the
concept is
addressed
Grade ____;
Concept:

Grade ____:
Concept:

Grade ____;
Concept:

Grade ____;
Concept:

MODULE 7 NOTES

Module 8 – Identifying and Co-Identifying Success Criteria

In Module 5, the use of success criteria to develop assessment strategies was
introduced and practice opportunities to generate success criteria to design
assessment rubrics were provided. In Module 7, opportunities to consider the
differences between content knowledge (CK) (knowing what will be taught) and
pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) (knowing how to teach the content in ways
that anticipate possible misconceptions, build on prior knowledge and skills, and
anticipate upcoming knowledge and skills), was explored. When teachers can use
success criteria to guide students’ learning, the students gradually move toward
becoming full partners in ensuring their learning success.

When teachers assess the learning expectations to consider how to approach their
teaching, they might do this for several reasons. First, teachers might assess an
expectation to determine the amount of time that is likely to be needed to lead
students toward successfully learning the entire scope of the expectation. While
some statements may address learning that can be achieved in a single instructional
time block, many others may involve several time slots to address all of the nuances
and examples implied or stated in the expectation. Second, teachers may assess an
expectation to identify available resources or those that may need to be designed or
acquired. Finally, teachers may assess an expectation to determine how and when
students can engage in self-evaluation of the implied or stated outcomes of each
expectation.

When teachers assess an expectation and break it down into components, we can
refer to this as deconstruction. Deconstruction can be done solely by the teacher,
or can include engagement with the students but it must always be done to ensure
that all aspects of the intended learning are achieved.

Many learning expectations will be written to include or imply content, process, and
products (see Module 3) but this may be unevenly done throughout a list of
expectations for any one unit of study. Being able to use a framework to determine
what is mandated by an expectation and where teachers may have options in
relation to each of these elements of instruction (usually process or products) is
helpful in the process of deconstruction for any instructional purpose.

Skill Practice for Module 8 – Identifying and Co-Identifying Success

Criteria

Pre-Practice Teaching Concepts Modular Practice Components

 overall expectations vs.  deconstruct product

specific learning expectations to identify
expectations success criteria
 review of concepts from  develop strategies for
Modules 3 and 5 engaging students in age
  deconstruction as a pre- appropriate identification
teaching professional skill of success criteria for a
variety of learning
expectations

1. For each of the following learning expectations, deconstruct each so that a

list of success criteria can be identified. As you list these criteria, be sure each
one has a measureable verb to start it. Bold each measureable verb.

Learning Expectations Success Criteria with Bolded

Measureable Verbs
 use current technology
when practising,
performing, composing,
and/or arranging music
(e.g., use audio-editing
software to create an
audio composition using
environmental sounds; use
software to notate a
simple eight-bar
composition; use
accompaniment software
to create the rhythm
section for a twelve-bar
blues progression)

 create and analyse simple

balance sheets and income
statements

 apply appropriate guidelines

and procedures for safe
participation in physical
activity (e.g., using
appropriate equipment and
facilities, wearing appropriate
attire, meeting expectations
regarding supervision,
understanding the importance
of proper posture in
 minimizing injury);

 identify an appropriate form

to suit the purpose and
audience for a media text they
plan to create (e.g., a
multimedia presentation
about their class or grade, to
be presented to parents during
graduation ceremonies) and
explain why it is an
appropriate choice

 assess the social, economic,

and environmental impacts of
automating systems

2. Form a group of 4 among your colleagues. In the group, brainstorm ways you
could engage students at a selected grade to co-construct success criteria for
an assigned task. Record your ideas below.

Focus Grade ________

Ideas for Co-constructing Success Criteria:

3. Once each group has generated a list, work together to develop a continuum
of strategies that could be used to co-construct success criteria from JK
through to Grade 12.

Continuum for Co-construction of Success Criteria

JK/SK
Grade 12

MODULE 8 NOTES