Wi-Fi

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"WIFI" redirects here. For the radio station, see WIFI (AM).

Wi-Fi

Wi-Fi Alliance

Introduced September 21, 1998; 21 years ago

Compatible Personal computers, gaming consoles, Smart

hardware Devices, televisions, printers, mobile phones

Part of a series on

Antennas

Common types[show]

Components[show]

Systems[hide]
 Antenna farm
 Amateur radio
  Cellular network
 Hotspot
 Municipal wireless network
 Radio
 Radio masts and towers
 Wi-Fi
 Wireless

Safety and regulation[show]

Radiation sources / regions[show]

Characteristics[show]

Techniques[show]

 v
 t
 e

Wi-Fi (/ˈwaɪfaɪ/)[1] is a family of wireless networking technologies, based on the IEEE

802.11 family of standards, which are commonly used for local area networking of devices
and Internet access. Wi- Fi is a trademark of the non-profit Wi-Fi Alliance, which restricts the
use of the term Wi-Fi Certified to products that successfully
complete interoperability certification testing.[2][3][4] As of 2010, the Wi-Fi Alliance consisted of
more than 375 companies from around the world. [5] As of 2009, Wi-Fi-integrated circuit chips
shipped approximately 580 million units yearly.[6] Devices that can use Wi-Fi technologies
include desktops and laptops, smartphones and tablets, smart TVs, printers, digital audio
players, digital cameras, cars and drones.
Wi-Fi uses multiple parts of the IEEE 802 protocol family, and is designed to interwork
seamlessly with its wired sibling Ethernet. Compatible devices can network
through wireless access points to each other as well as to wired devices and the Internet.
The different versions of Wi-Fi are specified by various IEEE 802.11 protocol standards,
with the different radio technologies determining radio bands, and the maximum ranges,
and speeds that may be achieved. Wi-Fi most commonly uses the 2.4 gigahertz
(120 mm) UHF and 5 gigahertz (60 mm) SHF ISM radio bands; these bands are subdivided
into multiple channels. Channels can be shared between networks but only one transmitter
can locally transmit on a channel at any moment in time.
Wi-Fi's wavebands have relatively high absorption and work best for line-of-sight use. Many
common obstructions such as walls, pillars, home appliances etc. may greatly reduce
range, but this also helps minimize interference between different networks in crowded
environments. An access point (or hotspot) often has a range of about 20 metres (66 feet)
indoors while some modern access points claim up to a 150-metre (490-foot) range
outdoors. Hotspot coverage can be as small as a single room with walls that block radio
waves, or as large as many square kilometers using many overlapping access points
with roaming permitted between them. Over time the speed and spectral efficiency of Wi-Fi
has increased. As of 2019, at close range, some versions of Wi-Fi, running on suitable
hardware, can achieve speeds of over 1 Gbit/s (gigabit per second).
Wi-Fi is potentially more vulnerable to attack than wired networks because anyone within
range of a network with a wireless network interface controller can attempt access. To
connect to a Wi-Fi network, a user typically needs the network name (the SSID) and a
password. The password is used to encrypt Wi-Fi packets so as to block eavesdroppers.
Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA) is intended to protect information moving across Wi-Fi
 networks and includes versions for personal and enterprise networks. Developing security
features of WPA have included stronger protections and new security practices.

Contents

 1History
 2Etymology and terminology
 3Certification
 4Versions
 5Uses
o 5.1Internet access
o 5.2City-wide
o 5.3Geolocation
 6Operational principles
o 6.1Waveband
o 6.2Communication stack
o 6.3Modes
 6.3.1Infrastructure
 6.3.2Ad hoc and Wi-Fi direct
o 6.4Multiple access points
 7Performance
o 7.1Transmitter power
o 7.2Antenna
o 7.3MIMO (multiple-input and multiple-output)
o 7.4Radio propagation
o 7.5Interference
o 7.6Throughput
 8Hardware
o 8.1Access point
o 8.2Wireless adapter
o 8.3Router
o 8.4Bridge
o 8.5Embedded systems
 9Network security
o 9.1Securing methods
o 9.2Data security risks
o 9.3Piggybacking
 10Health concerns
 11Alternatives
 12See also
 13References
 14Notes
 15Further reading

History[edit]
Main article: IEEE 802.11 §  History
In 1971, ALOHAnet connected the Great Hawaiian Islands with a UHF wireless packet
network. ALOHAnet and the ALOHA protocol were early forerunners to Ethernet, and later
the IEEE 802.11 protocols, respectively.
A 1985 ruling by the U.S. Federal Communications Commission released the ISM band for
unlicensed use.[7] These frequency bands are the same ones used by equipment such as
microwave ovens and are subject to interference. In 1991, NCR Corporation with AT&T
Corporation invented the precursor to 802.11, intended for use in cashier systems, under
the name WaveLAN.
The Australian radio-astronomer Dr John O'Sullivan with his colleagues Terence Percival,
Graham Daniels, Diet Ostry, and John Deane[8] developed a key patent used in Wi-Fi as a
by-product of a Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO)
research project, "a failed experiment to detect exploding mini black holes the size of an
atomic particle".[9] Dr O'Sullivan and his colleagues are credited with inventing Wi-Fi. [10][11] In
1992 and 1996, CSIRO obtained patents [12] for a method later used in Wi-Fi to "unsmear"
the signal.[13]
The first version of the 802.11 protocol was released in 1997, and provided up to 2 Mbit/s
link speeds. This was updated in 1999 with 802.11b to permit 11 Mbit/s link speeds, and
this proved popular.
In 1999, the Wi-Fi Alliance formed as a trade association to hold the Wi-Fi trademark under
which most products are sold.[14]
Wi-Fi uses a large number of patents held by many different organizations. [15] In April 2009,
14 technology companies agreed to pay CSIRO $1 billion for infringements on CSIRO
patents.[16] This led to Australia labeling Wi-Fi as an Australian invention, [17] though this has
been the subject of some controversy.[18][19] CSIRO won a further $220 million settlement for
Wi-Fi patent-infringements in 2012, with global firms in the United States required to pay
CSIRO licensing rights estimated at an additional $1 billion in royalties. [16][20][21] In 2016, the
wireless local area network Test Bed was chosen as Australia's contribution to the
exhibition A History of the World in 100 Objects held in the National Museum of Australia.[22]

Etymology and terminology[edit]

A Japanese sticker indicating to the public that a location is within range of a Wi-Fi network. A dot with curved lines
radiating from it is a common symbol for Wi-Fi, representing a point transmitting a signal. [23]

An example of a service set called "WiFi Wikipedia" consisting of two Basic Service Sets. Notebook_My is able to
automatically roam between the two BSSs, without the user having to explicitly connect to the second network.

The name Wi-Fi, commercially used at least as early as August 1999,[24] was coined by the
brand-consulting firm Interbrand. The Wi-Fi Alliance had hired Interbrand to create a name
that was "a little catchier than 'IEEE 802.11b Direct Sequence'." [25][26] Phil Belanger, a
founding member of the Wi-Fi Alliance who presided over the selection of the name "Wi-Fi",
has stated that Interbrand invented Wi-Fi as a pun on the word hi-fi (high fidelity), a term for
high-quality audio technology.[27]
The name Wi-Fi has no further meaning, and was never officially a shortened form of
"Wireless Fidelity".[28] Nevertheless, the Wi-Fi Alliance used the advertising slogan "The
Standard for Wireless Fidelity" for a short time after the brand name was created, [25][29][30] and
the Wi-Fi Alliance was also called the "Wireless Fidelity Alliance Inc" in some publications. [31]
Interbrand also created the Wi-Fi logo. The yin-yang Wi-Fi logo indicates the certification of
a product for interoperability.[29]
Non-Wi-Fi technologies intended for fixed points, such as Motorola Canopy, are usually
described as fixed wireless. Alternative wireless technologies include mobile phone
standards, such as 2G, 3G, 4G, and LTE.
The name is sometimes written as WiFi, Wifi, or wifi, but these are not approved by the Wi-
Fi Alliance. IEEE is a separate, but related, organization and their website has stated "WiFi
is a short name for Wireless Fidelity".[32][33]
To connect to a Wi-Fi LAN, a computer must be equipped with a wireless network interface
controller. The combination of a computer and an interface controller is called a station.
Stations are identified by one or more MAC addresses.
Wi-Fi nodes often operate in infrastructure mode where all communications go through a
base station. Ad-hoc mode refers to devices talking directly to each other without the need
to first talk to an access point.
A service set is the set of all the devices associated with a particular Wi-Fi network. Devices
in a service set need not be on the same wavebands or channels. A service set can be
local, independent, extended or mesh or a combination.
Each service set has an associated identifier, the 32-byte Service Set Identifier (SSID),
which identifies the particular network. The SSID is configured within the devices that are
considered part of the network.
A Basic Service Set (BSS) is a group of stations that all share the same wireless channel,
SSID, and other wireless settings that have wirelessly connected (usually to the same
access point).[34]:3.6 Each BSS is identified by a MAC address which is called the BSSID.

Certification[edit]
See also: Wi-Fi Alliance
The IEEE does not test equipment for compliance with their standards. The non-profit Wi-Fi
Alliance was formed in 1999 to fill this void—to establish and enforce standards for
interoperability and backward compatibility, and to promote wireless local-area-network
technology. As of 2010, the Wi-Fi Alliance consists of more than 375 companies and
includes 3Com (now owned by HPE/Hewlett-Packard Enterprise), Aironet (now owned
by Cisco), Harris Semiconductor (now owned by Intersil), Lucent (now owned
by Nokia), Nokia and Symbol Technologies (now owned by Zebra Technologies).[5][35][36] The
Wi-Fi Alliance enforces the use of the Wi-Fi brand to technologies based on the IEEE
802.11 standards from the IEEE. This includes wireless local area network (WLAN)
connections, device to device connectivity (such as Wi-Fi Peer to Peer aka Wi-Fi
Direct), Personal area network (PAN), local area network (LAN), and even some
limited wide area network (WAN) connections. Manufacturers with membership in the Wi-Fi
Alliance, whose products pass the certification process, gain the right to mark those
products with the Wi-Fi logo.
Specifically, the certification process requires conformance to the IEEE 802.11 radio
standards, the WPA and WPA2 security standards, and the EAP authentication standard.
Certification may optionally include tests of IEEE 802.11 draft standards, interaction with
cellular-phone technology in converged devices, and features relating to security set-up,
multimedia, and power-saving.[37]
Not every Wi-Fi device is submitted for certification. The lack of Wi-Fi certification does not
necessarily imply that a device is incompatible with other Wi-Fi devices. [38] The Wi-Fi
Alliance may or may not sanction derivative terms, such as Super Wi-Fi,[39] coined by the
US Federal Communications Commission (FCC) to describe proposed networking in the
UHF TV band in the US.[40]

Versions[edit]
Generation/IEEE
Maximum Linkrate Adopted Frequency
Standard

2.4/5 GHz
Wi-Fi 6 (802.11ax) 600–9608 Mbit/s 2019
1–6 GHz ISM

Wi-Fi 5 (802.11ac) 433–6933 Mbit/s 2014 5 GHz

Wi-Fi 4 (802.11n) 72–600 Mbit/s 2009 2.4/5 GHz
Wi-Fi 3 (802.11g) 3–54 Mbit/s 2003 2.4 GHz
Wi-Fi 2 (802.11a) 1.5 to 54 Mbit/s 1999 5 GHz
Wi-Fi 1 (802.11b) 1 to 11 Mbit/s 1999 2.4 GHz
(Wi-Fi 1, Wi-Fi 2, Wi-Fi 3 are unbranded[41] but have unofficial assignments[42])

Equipment frequently support multiple versions of Wi-Fi. To communicate, devices must

use a common Wi-Fi version. The versions differ between the radio wavebands they
operate on, the radio bandwidth they occupy, the maximum data rates they can support and
other details. Some versions permit the use of multiple antennas, which permits greater
speeds as well as reduced interference.
Historically, equipment has simply listed the versions of Wi-Fi using the name of the IEEE
standard that it supports. In 2018,[43] the Wi-Fi alliance standardized generational numbering
so that equipment can indicate that it supports Wi-Fi 4 (if the equipment supports 802.11n),
Wi-Fi 5 (802.11ac) and Wi-Fi 6 (802.11ax). These generations have a high degree of
backward compatibility with previous versions. The alliance have stated that the
generational level 4, 5, or 6 can be indicated in the user interface when connected, along
with the signal strength.[44]
The full list of versions of Wi-Fi is: 802.11a, 802.11b, 802.11g, 802.11n (Wi-Fi 4[44]),
802.11h, 802.11i, 802.11-2007, 802.11-2012, 802.11ac (Wi-Fi 5[44]), 802.11ad, 802.11af,
802.11-2016, 802.11ah, 802.11ai, 802.11aj, 802.11aq, 802.11ax (Wi-Fi 6[44]), 802.11ay.

Uses[edit]
Internet access[edit]
Wi-Fi technology may be used to provide local network and Internet access to devices that
are within Wi-Fi range of one or more routers that are connected to the Internet. The
coverage of one or more interconnected access points (hotspots) can extend from an area
as small as a few rooms to as large as many square kilometres. Coverage in the larger
area may require a group of access points with overlapping coverage. For example, public
outdoor Wi-Fi technology has been used successfully in wireless mesh networks in London.
An international example is Fon.
Wi-Fi provides service in private homes, businesses, as well as in public spaces. Wi-Fi
hotspots may be set up either free-of-charge or commercially, often using a captive
portal webpage for access. Organizations, enthusiasts, authorities and businesses, such as
airports, hotels, and restaurants, often provide free or paid-use hotspots to attract
customers, to provide services to promote business in selected areas.
Routers often incorporate a digital subscriber line modem or a cable modem and a Wi-Fi
access point, are frequently set up in homes and other buildings, to provide Internet access
and internetworking for the structure.
Similarly, battery-powered routers may include a cellular Internet radio modem and Wi-Fi
access point. When subscribed to a cellular data carrier, they allow nearby Wi-Fi stations to
access the Internet over 2G, 3G, or 4G networks using the tethering technique. Many
smartphones have a built-in capability of this sort, including those based
on Android, BlackBerry, Bada, iOS (iPhone), Windows Phone, and Symbian, though
carriers often disable the feature, or charge a separate fee to enable it, especially for
customers with unlimited data plans. "Internet packs" provide standalone facilities of this
type as well, without use of a smartphone; examples include the MiFi- and WiBro-branded
devices. Some laptops that have a cellular modem card can also act as mobile Internet Wi-
Fi access points.
Many traditional university campuses in the developed world provide at least partial Wi-Fi
coverage. Carnegie Mellon University built the first campus-wide wireless Internet network,
called Wireless Andrew, at its Pittsburgh campus in 1993 before Wi-Fi branding originated.
[45][46][47]
 By February 1997, the CMU Wi-Fi zone was fully operational. Many universities
collaborate in providing Wi-Fi access to students and staff through
the Eduroam international authentication infrastructure.
City-wide[edit]
Further information: Municipal wireless network

An outdoor Wi-Fi access point

In the early 2000s, many cities around the world announced plans to construct citywide Wi-
Fi networks. There are many successful examples; in 2004, Mysore (Mysuru) became
India's first Wi-Fi-enabled city. A company called WiFiyNet has set up hotspots in Mysore,
covering the complete city and a few nearby villages. [48]
In 2005, St. Cloud, Florida and Sunnyvale, California, became the first cities in the United
States to offer citywide free Wi-Fi (from MetroFi).[49] Minneapolis has generated $1.2 million
in profit annually for its provider.[50]
In May 2010, London mayor Boris Johnson pledged to have London-wide Wi-Fi by 2012.
[51]
 Several boroughs including Westminster and Islington [52][53] already had extensive outdoor
Wi-Fi coverage at that point.
Officials in South Korea's capital Seoul are moving to provide free Internet access at more
than 10,000 locations around the city, including outdoor public spaces, major streets and
densely populated residential areas. Seoul will grant leases to KT, LG Telecom, and SK
Telecom. The companies will invest $44 million in the project, which was to be completed in
2015.[54]
Geolocation[edit]
Wi-Fi positioning systems use the positions of Wi-Fi hotspots to identify a device's location.
[55]

Operational principles[edit]
Wi-Fi stations communicate by sending each other data packets: blocks of data individually
sent and delivered over radio. As with all radio, this is done by the modulating and
demodulation of carrier waves. Different versions of Wi-Fi use different techniques, 802.11b
uses DSSS on a single carrier, whereas 802.11a, Wi-Fi 4, 5 and 6 use multiple carriers on
slightly different frequencies within the channel (OFDM).[56][57]
As with other IEEE 802 LANs, stations come programmed with a globally unique 48-
bit MAC address (often printed on the equipment) so that each Wi-Fi station has a unique
address.[a] The MAC addresses are used to specify both the destination and the source of
each data packet. Wi-Fi establishes link-level connections, which can be defined using both
the destination and source addresses. On the reception of a transmission, the receiver uses
the destination address to determine whether the transmission is relevant to the station or
should be ignored. A network interface normally does not accept packets addressed to
other Wi-Fi stations.[b]
Due to the ubiquity of Wi-Fi and the ever-decreasing cost of the hardware needed to
support it, most manufacturers now build Wi-Fi interfaces directly into PC motherboards,
eliminating the need for installation of a separate network card.
Channels are used half duplex and can be time-shared by multiple networks. When
communication happens on the same channel, any information sent by one computer is
locally received by all, even if that information is intended for just one destination. [c] The
network interface card interrupts the CPU only when applicable packets are received: the
card ignores information not addressed to it.[d] Use of the same channel also means that the
data bandwidth is shared, such that, for example, available data bandwidth to each device
is halved when two stations are actively transmitting.
A collision happens when two stations attempt to transmit at the same time. They corrupt
transmitted data and require stations to re-transmit. The lost data and re-transmission
reduce throughput. In the worst case, where multiple active hosts connected with maximum
allowed cable length attempt to transmit many short frames, excessive collisions can
reduce throughput dramatically. A scheme known as carrier sense multiple access with
collision avoidance (CSMA/CA) governs the way the computers share the channel.
Waveband[edit]
Main article: List of WLAN channels

In the 2.4 GHz wavebands as well as others, transmitters straddle multiple channels. Overlapping channels can
suffer from interference unless this is a small portion of the total received power.
A keychain-size Wi-Fi detector

The 802.11 standard provides several distinct radio frequency ranges for use in Wi-Fi

communications: 900 MHz, 2.4 GHz, 5 GHz, 5.9 GHz, and 60 GHz bands.[58][34][59] Each range
is divided into a multitude of channels. Countries apply their own regulations to the
allowable channels, allowed users and maximum power levels within these frequency
ranges. The ISM band ranges are also often used. [60]
802.11b/g/n can use the 2.4 GHz ISM band, operating in the United States under Part
15 Rules and Regulations. In this frequency band equipment may occasionally
suffer interference from microwave ovens, cordless telephones, USB 3.0 hubs,
and Bluetooth devices.
Spectrum assignments and operational limitations are not consistent worldwide: Australia
and Europe allow for an additional two channels (12, 13) beyond the 11 permitted in the
United States for the 2.4  GHz band, while Japan has three more (12–14). In the US and
other countries, 802.11a and 802.11g devices may be operated without a license, as
allowed in Part 15 of the FCC Rules and Regulations.
802.11a/h/j/n/ac/ax can use the 5  GHz U-NII band, which, for much of the world, offers at
least 23 non-overlapping 20  MHz channels rather than the 2.4 GHz ISM frequency band,
where the channels are only 5 MHz wide. In general, lower frequencies have better range
but have less capacity. The 5 GHz bands are absorbed to a greater degree by common
building materials than the 2.4 GHz bands and usually give a shorter range.
As 802.11 specifications evolved to support higher throughput, the protocols have become
much more efficient in their use of bandwidth. Additionally, they have gained the ability
to aggregate (or 'bond') channels together to gain still more throughput where the
bandwidth is available. 802.11n allows for double radio spectrum/bandwidth (40 MHz- 8
channels) compared to 802.11a or 802.11g (20 MHz). 802.11n can also be set to limit itself
to 20 MHz bandwidth to prevent interference in dense communities. [61] In the 5 GHz band,
20 MHz, 40 MHz, 80 MHz, and 160 MHz bandwidth signals are permitted with some
restrictions, giving much faster connections.
Communication stack[edit]

Main articles: IEEE 802 and IEEE 802.11

Wi-Fi is part of the IEEE 802 protocol family. The data is organized into 802.11 frames that
are very similar to Ethernet frames at the data link layer, but with extra address fields. MAC
addresses are used as network addresses for routing over the LAN.[62]
Wi-Fi's MAC and physical layer (PHY) specifications are defined by IEEE 802.11 for
modulating and receiving one or more carrier waves to transmit the data in the infrared, and
2.4, 3.6, 5, or 60 GHz frequency bands. They are created and maintained by the IEEE
LAN/MAN Standards Committee (IEEE 802). The base version of the standard was
released in 1997, and has had many subsequent amendments. The standard and
amendments provide the basis for wireless network products using the Wi-Fi brand. While
each amendment is officially revoked when it is incorporated in the latest version of the
standard, the corporate world tends to market to the revisions because they concisely
denote capabilities of their products. [63] As a result, in the market place, each revision tends
to become its own standard.
In addition to 802.11 the IEEE 802 protocol family has specific provisions for Wi-Fi. These
are required because Ethernet's cable-based media are not usually shared, whereas with
wireless all transmissions are received by all stations within range that employ that radio
channel. While Ethernet has essentially negligible error rates, wireless communication
media are subject to significant interference. Therefore, accurate transmission is not
guaranteed so delivery is therefore a best-effort delivery mechanism. Because of this, for
Wi-Fi, the Logical Link Control (LLC) specified by IEEE 802.2 employs Wi-Fi's media
access control (MAC) protocols to manage retries without relying on higher levels of the
protocol stack.[64]
For internetworking purposes Wi-Fi is usually layered as a link layer (equivalent to the
physical and data link layers of the OSI model) below the internet layer of the Internet
Protocol. This means that nodes have an associated internet address and, with suitable
connectivity, this allows full Internet access.
Modes[edit]
Infrastructure[edit]

Depiction of a Wi-Fi network in infrastructure mode. The device sends information wirelessly to another device, both
connected to the local network, in order to print a document

In infrastructure mode, which is the most common mode used, all communications goes
through a base station. For communications within the network, this introduces an extra use
of the airwaves, but has the advantage that any two stations that can communicate with the
base station can also communicate through the base station, which enormously simplifies
the protocols.
Ad hoc and Wi-Fi direct[edit]
Wi-Fi also allows communications directly from one computer to another without an access
point intermediary. This is called ad hoc Wi-Fi transmission. Different types of ad hoc
network exist. In the simplest case network nodes must talk directly to each other. In more
complex protocols nodes may forward packets, and nodes keep track of how to reach other
nodes, even if they move around.
Ad-hoc mode was first described by Chai Keong Toh in his 1996 patent[65] of Wi-Fi ad-hoc
routing, implemented on Lucent WaveLAN 802.11a wireless on IBM ThinkPads over a size
nodes scenario spanning a region of over a mile. The success was recorded in Mobile
Computing magazine (1999)[66] and later published formally in IEEE Transactions on
Wireless Communications, 2002[67] and ACM SIGMETRICS Performance Evaluation
Review, 2001.[68]
This wireless ad hoc network mode has proven popular with multiplayer handheld game
consoles, such as the Nintendo DS, PlayStation Portable, digital cameras, and
other consumer electronics devices. Some devices can also share their Internet connection
using ad hoc, becoming hotspots or "virtual routers". [69]
Similarly, the Wi-Fi Alliance promotes the specification Wi-Fi Direct for file transfers and
media sharing through a new discovery- and security-methodology. [70] Wi-Fi Direct launched
in October 2010.[71]
Another mode of direct communication over Wi-Fi is Tunneled Direct Link Setup (TDLS),
which enables two devices on the same Wi-Fi network to communicate directly, instead of
via the access point.[72]
Multiple access points[edit]

Access points send out beacon frames to announce the presence of networks.

An Extended Service Set may be formed by deploying multiple access points that are
configured with the same SSID and security settings. Wi-Fi client devices typically connect
to the access point that can provide the strongest signal within that service set. [73]
Increasing the number of Wi-Fi access points for a network provides redundancy, better
range, support for fast roaming and increased overall network-capacity by using more
channels or by defining smaller cells. Except for the smallest implementations (such as
home or small office networks), Wi-Fi implementations have moved toward "thin" access
points, with more of the network intelligence housed in a centralized network appliance,
relegating individual access points to the role of "dumb" transceivers. Outdoor applications
may use mesh topologies.[citation needed]

Performance[edit]

Parabolic dishes transmit and receive the radio waves only in particular directions and can give much greater range
than omnidirection antennas
Yagi-Uda antennas, widely used for television reception, are relatively compact at Wi-Fi wavelengths

Antenna of wireless network interface controller Gigabyte GC-WB867D-I. Simple stick-like antennas like these have
unidrectional reception and relatively low range of 20m or so.

See also: Long-range Wi-Fi

Wi-Fi operational range depends on factors such as the frequency band, radio power
output, receiver sensitivity, antenna gain and antenna type as well as the modulation
technique. In addition, propagation characteristics of the signals can have a big impact.
At longer distances, and with greater signal absorption, speed is usually reduced.
Transmitter power[edit]
Compared to cell phones and similar technology, Wi-Fi transmitters are low power devices.
In general, the maximum amount of power that a Wi-Fi device can transmit is limited by
local regulations, such as FCC Part 15 in the US. Equivalent isotropically radiated
power (EIRP) in the European Union is limited to 20 dBm (100 mW).
To reach requirements for wireless LAN applications, Wi-Fi has higher power consumption
compared to some other standards designed to support wireless personal area network
(PAN) applications. For example, Bluetooth provides a much shorter propagation range
between 1 and 100m[74] and so in general have a lower power consumption. Other low-
power technologies such as ZigBee have fairly long range, but much lower data rate. The
high power consumption of Wi-Fi makes battery life in some mobile devices a concern.
Antenna[edit]
An access point compliant with either 802.11b or 802.11g, using the stock omnidirectional
antenna might have a range of 100 m (0.062 mi). The same radio with an external semi
parabolic antenna (15 dB gain) with a similarly equipped receiver at the far end might have
a range over 20 miles.
Higher gain rating (dBi) indicates further deviation (generally toward the horizontal) from a
theoretical, perfect isotropic radiator, and therefore the antenna can project or accept a
usable signal further in particular directions, as compared to a similar output power on a
more isotropic antenna.[75] For example, an 8 dBi antenna used with a 100 mW driver has a
similar horizontal range to a 6 dBi antenna being driven at 500 mW. Note that this assumes
that radiation in the vertical is lost; this may not be the case in some situations, especially in
large buildings or within a waveguide. In the above example, a directional waveguide could
cause the low power 6 dBi antenna to project much further in a single direction than the 8
dBi antenna, which is not in a waveguide, even if they are both driven at 100 mW.
On wireless routers with detachable antennas, it is possible to improve range by fitting
upgraded antennas that provide higher gain in particular directions. Outdoor ranges can be
improved to many kilometres through the use of high gain directional antennas at the router
and remote device(s).
MIMO (multiple-input and multiple-output)[edit]

This Netgear Wi-Fi router contains dual bands for transmitting the 802.11 standard across the 2.4 and 5 GHz
spectrums and supports MIMO.

A dual band cellular 4G+ Wi-Fi modem by Huawei

Main article: MIMO
Wi-Fi 4 and higher standards allow devices to have multiple antennas on transmitters and
receivers. Multiple antennas enable the equipment to exploit multipath propagation on the
same frequency bands giving much faster speeds and greater range.
Wi-Fi 4 can more than double the range over previous standards. [76]
The Wi-Fi 5 standard uses the 5 GHz band exclusively, and is capable of multi-station
WLAN throughput of at least 1 gigabit per second, and a single station throughput of at
least 500 Mbit/s. In the first quarter of 2016, The Wi-Fi Alliance certifies devices compliant
with the 802.11ac standard as "Wi-Fi CERTIFIED ac". This standard uses several signal
processing techniques such as multi-user MIMO and 4X4 Spatial Multiplexing streams, and
large channel bandwidth (160 MHz) to achieve the Gigabit throughput. According to a study
by IHS Technology, 70% of all access point sales revenue In the first quarter of 2016 came
from 802.11ac devices.[77]
Radio propagation[edit]
With Wi-Fi signals line-of-sight usually works best, but signals can transmit, absorb,
reflect, refract, and diffract through and around structures, both manmade and natural.
Due to the complex nature of radio propagation at typical Wi-Fi frequencies, particularly
around trees and buildings, algorithms can only approximately predict Wi-Fi signal strength
for any given area in relation to a transmitter. [78] This effect does not apply equally to long-
range Wi-Fi, since longer links typically operate from towers that transmit above the
surrounding foliage.
Mobile use of Wi-Fi over wider ranges is limited, for instance, to uses such as in an
automobile moving from one hotspot to another. Other wireless technologies are more
suitable for communicating with moving vehicles.
Distance records
Distance records (using non-standard devices) include 382 km (237 mi) in June 2007, held
by Ermanno Pietrosemoli and EsLaRed of Venezuela, transferring about 3 MB of data
between the mountain-tops of El Águila and Platillon.[79][80] The Swedish Space
Agency transferred data 420 km (260 mi), using 6 watt amplifiers to reach an
overhead stratospheric balloon.[81]
Interference[edit]

Network planning frequency allocations for North America and Europe. Using these types of frequency allocations
can help minimize co-channel and adjacent-channel interference.

Further information: Electromagnetic interference at 2.4 GHz §  Wi-Fi

Wi-Fi connections can be blocked or the Internet speed lowered by having other devices in
the same area. Wi-Fi protocols are designed to share the wavebands reasonably fairly, and
this often works with little to no disruption. To minimize collisions with Wi-Fi and non Wi-Fi
devices, Wi-Fi employs Carrier-sense multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA),
where transmitters listen before transmitting, and delay transmission of packets if they
detect that other devices are active on the channel, or if noise is detected from adjacent
channels or from non Wi-Fi sources. Nevertheless, Wi-Fi networks are still susceptible to
the hidden node and exposed node problem.[82]
A standard speed Wi-Fi signal occupies five channels in the 2.4 GHz band. Interference
can be caused by overlapping channels. Any two channel numbers that differ by five or
more, such as 2 and 7, do not overlap (no adjacent-channel interference). The oft-repeated
adage that channels 1, 6, and 11 are the only non-overlapping channels is, therefore, not
accurate. Channels 1, 6, and 11 are the only group of three non-overlapping channels in
North America. However, whether the overlap is significant depends on physical spacing.
Channels that are four apart interfere a negligible amount-much less than reusing channels
(which causes co-channel interference)-if transmitters are at least a few metres apart. [83] In
Europe and Japan where channel 13 is available, using Channels 1, 5, 9, and 13
for 802.11g and 802.11n is recommended.
However, many 2.4 GHz 802.11b and 802.11g access-points default to the same channel
on initial startup, contributing to congestion on certain channels. Wi-Fi pollution, or an
excessive number of access points in the area, can prevent access and interfere with other
devices' use of other access points as well as with decreased signal-to-noise ratio (SNR)
between access points. These issues can become a problem in high-density areas, such as
large apartment complexes or office buildings with many Wi-Fi access points. [84] Wi-Fi 6 has
greatly improved power control, and suffers less from interference in congested areas.
Other devices use the 2.4 GHz band: microwave ovens, ISM band devices, security
cameras, ZigBee devices, Bluetooth devices, video senders, cordless phones, baby
monitors,[85] and, in some countries, amateur radio, all of which can cause significant
additional interference. It is also an issue when municipalities [86] or other large entities (such
as universities) seek to provide large area coverage. On some 5 GHz bands interference
from radar systems can occur in some places. For base stations that support those bands
they employ Dynamic Frequency Selection which listens for radar, and if it is found, will not
permit a network on that band.
These bands can be used by low power transmitters without a license, and with few
restrictions. However, while unintended interference is common, users that have been
found to cause deliberate interference (particularly for attempting to locally monopolize
these bands for commercial purposes) have been issued large fines. [87]
Throughput[edit]

Graphical representation of Wi-Fi application specific (UDP) performance envelope 2.4 GHz band, with 802.11g

Graphical representation of Wi-Fi application specific (UDP) performance envelope 2.4 GHz band, with 802.11n
with 40 MHz
Various layer 2 variants of IEEE 802.11 have different characteristics. Across all flavours of
802.11, maximum achievable throughputs are either given based on measurements under
ideal conditions or in the layer 2 data rates. This, however, does not apply to typical
deployments in which data are transferred between two endpoints of which at least one is
typically connected to a wired infrastructure, and the other is connected to an infrastructure
via a wireless link.
This means that typically data frames pass an 802.11 (WLAN) medium and are being
converted to 802.3 (Ethernet) or vice versa.
Due to the difference in the frame (header) lengths of these two media, the packet size of
an application determines the speed of the data transfer. This means that an application
that uses small packets (e.g., VoIP) creates a data flow with a high overhead traffic
(low goodput).
Other factors that contribute to the overall application data rate are the speed with which
the application transmits the packets (i.e., the data rate) and the energy with which the
wireless signal is received. The latter is determined by distance and by the configured
output power of the communicating devices.[88][89]
The same references apply to the attached throughput graphs, which show measurements
of UDP throughput measurements. Each represents an average throughput of 25
measurements (the error bars are there, but barely visible due to the small variation), is with
a specific packet size (small or large), and with a specific data rate (10 kbit/s – 100 Mbit/s).
Markers for traffic profiles of common applications are included as well. This text and
measurements do not cover packet errors but information about this can be found at the
above references. The table below shows the maximum achievable (application specific)
UDP throughput in the same scenarios (same references again) with various different
WLAN (802.11) flavours. The measurement hosts have been 25 metres apart from each
other; loss is again ignored.

Hardware[edit]

An embedded RouterBoard 112 with U.FL-RSMA pigtail and R52 mini PCI Wi-Fi card widely used

by wireless Internet service providers (WISPs) in the Czech Republic

OSBRiDGE 3GN – 802.11n Access Point and UMTS/GSM Gateway in one device

Wi-Fi allows wireless deployment of local area networks (LANs). Also, spaces where cables
cannot be run, such as outdoor areas and historical buildings, can host wireless LANs.
However, building walls of certain materials, such as stone with high metal content, can
block Wi-Fi signals.
A Wi-Fi device is a short-range wireless device. Wi-Fi devices are fabricated on RF
CMOS integrated circuit (RF circuit) chips.[6][90]
Since the early 2000s, manufacturers are building wireless network adapters into most
laptops. The price of chipsets for Wi-Fi continues to drop, making it an economical
networking option included in ever more devices. [91]
Different competitive brands of access points and client network-interfaces can inter-
operate at a basic level of service. Products designated as "Wi-Fi Certified" by the Wi-Fi
Alliance are backward compatible. Unlike mobile phones, any standard Wi-Fi device works
anywhere in the world.
Access point[edit]

An AirPort wireless G Wi-Fi adapter from an Apple MacBook.

A wireless access point (WAP) connects a group of wireless devices to an adjacent wired
LAN. An access point resembles a network hub, relaying data between connected wireless
devices in addition to a (usually) single connected wired device, most often an Ethernet hub
or switch, allowing wireless devices to communicate with other wired devices.
Wireless adapter[edit]

Wireless network interface controller Gigabyte GC-WB867D-I.

Wireless adapters allow devices to connect to a wireless network. These adapters connect
to devices using various external or internal interconnects such as PCI, miniPCI,
USB, ExpressCard, Cardbus, and PC Card. As of 2010, most newer laptop computers
come equipped with built in internal adapters.
Router[edit]
Wireless routers integrate a Wireless Access Point, Ethernet switch, and internal router
firmware application that provides IP routing, NAT, and DNS forwarding through an
integrated WAN-interface. A wireless router allows wired and wireless Ethernet LAN
devices to connect to a (usually) single WAN device such as a cable modem, DSL
modem or optical modem. A wireless router allows all three devices, mainly the access
point and router, to be configured through one central utility. This utility is usually an
integrated web server that is accessible to wired and wireless LAN clients and often
optionally to WAN clients. This utility may also be an application that is run on a computer,
as is the case with as Apple's AirPort, which is managed with the AirPort
Utility on macOS and iOS.[92]
Bridge[edit]
Wireless network bridges can act to connect two networks to form a single network at
the data-link layer over Wi-Fi. The main standard is the wireless distribution system (WDS).
Wireless bridging can connect a wired network to a wireless network. A bridge differs from
an access point: an access point typically connects wireless devices to one wired network.
Two wireless bridge devices may be used to connect two wired networks over a wireless
link, useful in situations where a wired connection may be unavailable, such as between
two separate homes or for devices that have no wireless networking capability (but have
wired networking capability), such as consumer entertainment devices; alternatively, a
wireless bridge can be used to enable a device that supports a wired connection to operate
at a wireless networking standard that is faster than supported by the wireless network
connectivity feature (external dongle or inbuilt) supported by the device (e.g., enabling
Wireless-N speeds (up to the maximum supported speed on the wired Ethernet port on
both the bridge and connected devices including the wireless access point) for a device that
only supports Wireless-G). A dual-band wireless bridge can also be used to enable 5 GHz
wireless network operation on a device that only supports 2.4 GHz wireless and has a wired
Ethernet port.
Wireless range-extenders or wireless repeaters can extend the range of an existing
wireless network. Strategically placed range-extenders can elongate a signal area or allow
for the signal area to reach around barriers such as those pertaining in L-shaped corridors.
Wireless devices connected through repeaters suffer from an increased latency for each
hop, and there may be a reduction in the maximum available data throughput. In addition,
the effect of additional users using a network employing wireless range-extenders is to
consume the available bandwidth faster than would be the case whereby a single user
migrates around a network employing extenders. For this reason, wireless range-extenders
work best in networks supporting low traffic throughput requirements, such as for cases
whereby a single user with a Wi-Fi equipped tablet migrates around the combined extended
and non-extended portions of the total connected network. Also, a wireless device
connected to any of the repeaters in the chain has data throughput limited by the "weakest
link" in the chain between the connection origin and connection end. Networks using
wireless extenders are more prone to degradation from interference from neighboring
access points that border portions of the extended network and that happen to occupy the
same channel as the extended network.
Embedded systems[edit]

Embedded serial-to-Wi-Fi module

The security standard, Wi-Fi Protected Setup, allows embedded devices with limited
graphical user interface to connect to the Internet with ease. Wi-Fi Protected Setup has 2
configurations: The Push Button configuration and the PIN configuration. These embedded
devices are also called The Internet of Things and are low-power, battery-operated
embedded systems. A number of Wi-Fi manufacturers design chips and modules for
embedded Wi-Fi, such as GainSpan.[93]
Increasingly in the last few years (particularly as of 2007), embedded Wi-Fi modules have
become available that incorporate a real-time operating system and provide a simple
means of wirelessly enabling any device that can communicate via a serial port. [94] This
allows the design of simple monitoring devices. An example is a portable ECG device
monitoring a patient at home. This Wi-Fi-enabled device can communicate via the Internet.
[95]

These Wi-Fi modules are designed by OEMs so that implementers need only minimal Wi-Fi
knowledge to provide Wi-Fi connectivity for their products.
In June 2014, Texas Instruments introduced the first ARM Cortex-M4 microcontroller with
an onboard dedicated Wi-Fi MCU, the SimpleLink CC3200. It makes embedded systems
with Wi-Fi connectivity possible to build as single-chip devices, which reduces their cost
and minimum size, making it more practical to build wireless-networked controllers into
inexpensive ordinary objects.[96]

Network security[edit]
Main article: Wireless security
The main issue with wireless network security is its simplified access to the network
compared to traditional wired networks such as Ethernet. With wired networking, one must
either gain access to a building (physically connecting into the internal network), or break
through an external firewall. To access Wi-Fi, one must merely be within the range of the
Wi-Fi network. Most business networks protect sensitive data and systems by attempting to
disallow external access. Enabling wireless connectivity reduces security if the network
uses inadequate or no encryption.[97][98][99]
An attacker who has gained access to a Wi-Fi network router can initiate a DNS spoofing
attack against any other user of the network by forging a response before the queried DNS
server has a chance to reply.[100]
Securing methods[edit]
A common measure to deter unauthorized users involves hiding the access point's name by
disabling the SSID broadcast. While effective against the casual user, it is ineffective as a
security method because the SSID is broadcast in the clear in response to a client SSID
query. Another method is to only allow computers with known MAC addresses to join the
network,[101] but determined eavesdroppers may be able to join the network by spoofing an
authorized address.
Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) encryption was designed to protect against casual
snooping but it is no longer considered secure. Tools such as AirSnort or Aircrack-ng can
quickly recover WEP encryption keys.[102] Because of WEP's weakness the Wi-Fi Alliance
approved Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA) which uses TKIP. WPA was specifically designed
to work with older equipment usually through a firmware upgrade. Though more secure
than WEP, WPA has known vulnerabilities.
The more secure WPA2 using Advanced Encryption Standard was introduced in 2004 and
is supported by most new Wi-Fi devices. WPA2 is fully compatible with WPA. [103] In 2017, a
flaw in the WPA2 protocol was discovered, allowing a key replay attack, known as KRACK.
[104][105]

A flaw in a feature added to Wi-Fi in 2007, called Wi-Fi Protected Setup (WPS), let WPA
and WPA2 security be bypassed, and effectively broken in many situations. The only
remedy as of late 2011 was to turn off Wi-Fi Protected Setup, [106] which is not always
possible.
Virtual Private Networks can be used to improve the confidentiality of data carried through
Wi-Fi networks, especially public Wi-Fi networks. [107]
Data security risks[edit]
The older wireless encryption-standard, Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP), has
been shown easily breakable even when correctly configured. Wi-Fi Protected Access
(WPA and WPA2) encryption, which became available in devices in 2003, aimed to solve
this problem. Wi-Fi access points typically default to an encryption-free (open) mode.
Novice users benefit from a zero-configuration device that works out-of-the-box, but this
default does not enable any wireless security, providing open wireless access to a LAN. To
turn security on requires the user to configure the device, usually via a software graphical
user interface (GUI). On unencrypted Wi-Fi networks connecting devices can monitor and
record data (including personal information). Such networks can only be secured by using
other means of protection, such as a VPN or secure Hypertext Transfer
Protocol over Transport Layer Security (HTTPS).
Wi-Fi Protected Access encryption (WPA2) is considered secure, provided a
strong passphrase is used. In 2018, WPA3 was announced as a replacement for WPA2,
increasing security;[108] it rolled out on June 26.[109]
Piggybacking[edit]
Main article: Piggybacking (Internet access)
Further information: Legality of piggybacking
Further information: Wi-Fi Protected Setup §  Physical security issues
Piggybacking refers to access to a wireless Internet connection by bringing one's own
computer within the range of another's wireless connection, and using that service without
the subscriber's explicit permission or knowledge.
During the early popular adoption of 802.11, providing open access points for anyone within
range to use was encouraged[by whom?] to cultivate wireless community networks,[110] particularly
since people on average use only a fraction of their downstream bandwidth at any given
time.
Recreational logging and mapping of other people's access points has become known
as wardriving. Indeed, many access points are intentionally installed without security turned
on so that they can be used as a free service. Providing access to one's Internet connection
in this fashion may breach the Terms of Service or contract with the ISP. These activities do
not result in sanctions in most jurisdictions; however, legislation and case law differ
considerably across the world. A proposal to leave graffiti describing available services was
called warchalking.[111]
Piggybacking often occurs unintentionally – a technically unfamiliar user might not change
the default "unsecured" settings to their access point and operating systems can be
configured to connect automatically to any available wireless network. A user who happens
to start up a laptop in the vicinity of an access point may find the computer has joined the
network without any visible indication. Moreover, a user intending to join one network may
instead end up on another one if the latter has a stronger signal. In combination with
automatic discovery of other network resources (see DHCP and Zeroconf) this could
possibly lead wireless users to send sensitive data to the wrong middle-man when seeking
a destination (see man-in-the-middle attack). For example, a user could inadvertently use
an unsecure network to log into a website, thereby making the login credentials available to
anyone listening, if the website uses an unsecure protocol such as plain HTTP without TLS.
An unauthorized user can obtain security information (factory preset passphrase and/or Wi-
Fi Protected Setup PIN) from a label on a wireless access point can use this information (or
connect by the Wi-Fi Protected Setup pushbutton method) to commit unauthorized and/or
unlawful activities.
Health concerns[edit]
Further information: Wireless electronic devices and health
The World Health Organization (WHO) says, "no health effects are expected from exposure
to RF fields from base stations and wireless networks", but notes that they promote
research into effects from other RF sources. [112] Although the WHO's International Agency for
Research on Cancer (IARC) later classified radio-frequency electromagnetic fields (EMFs)
as "possibly carcinogenic to humans (Group 2B)"[113] (a category used when "a causal
association is considered credible, but when chance, bias or confounding cannot be ruled
out with reasonable confidence"),[114] this classification was based on risks associated with
wireless phone use rather than Wi-Fi networks.
The United Kingdom's Health Protection Agency reported in 2007 that exposure to Wi-Fi for
a year results in the "same amount of radiation from a 20-minute mobile phone call". [115]
A review of studies involving 725 people who claimed electromagnetic hypersensitivity,
"...suggests that 'electromagnetic hypersensitivity' is unrelated to the presence of an EMF,
although more research into this phenomenon is required." [116]

Alternatives[edit]
A number of other "wireless" technologies provide alternatives to Wi-Fi in some cases:

 Bluetooth, short distance network

 Bluetooth Low Energy, a low-power variant
 Zigbee, low-power, low data rate, and close proximity
 Cellular networks, as used by smartphones
 WiMax, provide wireless internet connection from outside individual homes
Some alternatives are "no new wires", re-using existing cable:

 G.hn over existing home wiring, such as phone and power lines

Several wired technologies for computer networking provide, in some cases, viable
alternatives—in particular:

 Ethernet over twisted pair

See also[edit]
 Gi-Fi—a term used by some trade press to refer to faster versions of the IEEE
802.11 standards
 Indoor positioning system
 Li-Fi
 List of WLAN channels
 Operating system Wi-Fi support
 San Francisco Digital Inclusion Strategy
 WiGig
 Wireless Broadband Alliance
 Wi-Fi Direct
 Hotspot (Wi-Fi)

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