COLOR

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ELECTRONIC
 Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2012

http://archive.org/details/colorforelectronicOOwhit
COLOR FOR THE
ELECTRONIC AGE
Ian V. White

COLOR
FOR
THE
ELECTRONIC
AGE

A Xerox Press Book

Watson-Guptill Publications/New York
Copyright © 1990 Jan V. White

First published in 1990 in New York by Watson-Guptill Publications,

a division of Billboard Publications, Inc.,
1515 Broadway New York, NY 10036

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

White, Jan V., 1928-

Color tor the electronic age / Jan V. White.
p. cm.
"A Xerox Press Book."
Includes bibliographical references.
ISBN 0-8230-0732-4
1 Desktop publishing. 2. Electronic publishing. 3. Color
— printing — Data processing. I, Title.

Z286.D47W49 1990
686.2'254466— dc20 89-77555
CIP

Distributed in the United Kingdom by Phaidon Press Ltd.,

Littiegate House, St Ebbe's St., Oxford

Distnbuted in Europe, the Far East, Southeast and Central Asia,

and South America by Rotovision S.A.,
9 Route Suisse, CH-1295 Mies, Switzerland.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced

or used in any form or by any means — graphic, electronic, or mechanical,
including photocopying, recording, taping, or information storage and
retrieval systems — without written permission of the publisher

IVIanufactured in Malaysia

First printing, 1990

23456789 10/95 94
Contents

Introduction

2. The Basics 12

How color is used and how people see it

3. Presentations and publications 30

Using color for continuity and identity

Charts and graphs 46

Using color to explain and to persuade

5. Type 106

Using color to highlight meaning

6. Black-and-white pictures 136

Adding color for meaning or dramatic effect

7. Color photographs 164

Using color to expose hidden values

Appendix 186

How to specify color

Glossary 195

Bibliography 201

Index 205
 a

Preface

Words are usually considered the language of communication. But

this is far too narrow and constricting. Communication in print and in
presentations is as much a visual process as it is a verbal one. Even

the simplest word-ideas need to be translated into type in order to be

transmitted to the reader. Type is words made visible. It is impossible
to separatethoughts-in-words from typography. Type can help or
hinder the deciphering and comprehension of those thoughts. It
follows, therefore, that typography is a form of communication in
itself. You could even call it a dialect of the language of
communication.

All theother means by which we communicate in print or visual

presentations are also dialects. Pictures are a dialect that speaks to
the emotions. Infographics are a dialect that explains facts by verbal/
visual means. Charts and graphs are a dialect that renders statistics
readily comprehensible. So, too, is color a dialect whose object is
thought to be embellishment and decoration. It is the purpose of this
book to show how color can be more than that.

There are many excellent books on color, but, to my knowledge, this

is the first attempt at treating it as a dialect of functional
communication. The idea had been mulling for a long time, and I

merely needed a chance to make it happen. Such an opportunity

arose when Richard M. Lunde, David Kwiatkouski, and Carmen Y.
Howes of the Xerox Corporation approached me with their need —
study of color as value-added. This, surely is just another way of
saying functional communication. Xerox Press under Ken
Felderstein's inspiring leadership made the project possible. It only
took a year's work and thirty-eight years' preparation.

I asked myRohn Engh, head of Photo Source International,

friend
whether he knew where could find photographs that could use as
I I

examples, realizing that was intending to do them violence by

I

showing them in a variety of mechanically produced versions. He

understood both the need and the danger, yet offered his own for the
experiment. hope he will not be mad at me. They are credited
I

where they occur. Blame my own questionable photographic skills

for the uncredited ones.

The most difficult color manipulations as well as a number of the

chart and graph variations were produced by Colortec of Norwalk,
Connecticut. My thanks to Misty Gruber, Steve Abramson, and Dave
Zwang for their vital help. Thanks also to Carl Rosen for his sensitive
editing.

I believe myself to be mild and even-tempered. Perhaps sweet-

natured would be more apt as description. have always thought that I

the placid manatee and I float in tranquility. Nonetheless, my sons

tell me that I am and a camel's ill temper
a bear with a tiger's claws
when am working on a book. simply cannot understand why they
I I

say such a thing. Yet when Toby Alex, Gregory, and Christopher
agree, there must be something to it, and when Caroline, my
daughter-in-law, gently concurs, my delusions evaporate. Therefore,
to redress the ills I have visited upon her, dedicate this book to my
I

long-suffering Clare.
1 INTRODUCTION
Contrary to what we hear, this is not the Age of Information. It would
be more accurate to call it the Age of Information Chaos. How much
better, were it the Age of Knowledge.

How to turn information into knowledge? Well, color can help if it is

used intelligently. It is only a detail, true, yet its importance is
growing, for technology is making color available in printed media at
an ever-increasing rate and at an ever-decreasing cost. Therefore, this
book is about how:

Color can help give visual order to information chaos.

Please note that I said, "color can help." Color cannot do it alone. It
is merely one of the means at our disposal. It is a technique, a tool, a
language. Color is one part of a coordinated effort to communicate in
print. Added to typography (as tone of voice), infographics, charts,
graphs, symbolism, and verbal/visual presentation, it is one of the
means to an end: comprehension; knowledge.

Color should not be used just because it is available. Potentially, it

can do more than merely make reports, letters, and charts eye-
catching. We must be discriminating and avoid acting like children
with a new box of crayons. Color should not be used to dazzle but to
enlighten and thus to add value.

Color can sharpen the delivery of a message. Color can code

elements, so their ranking and relationships are more easily
comprehended. Organized information is always more easily
assimilated than disorganized information. Further, color coding
helps people to remember information longer.

Color can increase the velocity of comprehension. By using it

producer (writer, editor, designer, publisher) has done
effectively, the
much of the work of analyzing for the viewer/reader.
Color can help to establish identity and character. Color produces
strong associations and is vividly remembered. Consistency in hue,

applied with discipline, is a vital element in building both

recognition and character within a document and in a series of
related documents. It is a vital factor in defining corporate identity.

Color can enliven the product. Color applied with taste and care can
beautify. It is more valuable, though, when used to bring out inherent
beauty than when it is a cosmetic added to the surface.

This book is not about using color to make pages pretty.

Not that there is anything wrong with prettiness. Certainly, nobody is

advocating ugliness. In some situations, prettiness is the desired goal.

And, without question, prettiness charms the viewer, sets a pleasant
mood, and often makes the product look nicer. Such a quality can
indeed make the product more valuable.

Unfortunately, color is too often mistaken for decoration. Dressing up

the page too often camouflages the underlying message. It might

appear pretty, but such beauty is indeed skin-deep and too often
merely phony.
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10 INTRODUCTION
This book is about the functional use of color. It is about color as a
tool:how it can be used to focus attention, explain relationships,
analyze data; how it can help the viewer/reader understand
information faster and more vividly; and how it can make printed
matter easier to absorb, helping turn information into knowledge.
This is value worth adding. Prettiness is a side issue, a by-product, a

lagniappe.

Personal idiosyncrasies also affect our choices and reactions. The

editor of the first magazine worked on loved blue. Guess what color
I

I had to use any time a second color became available? (He also
wore brown shoes with blue suits. This was in the 1950s, when
Doing Your Own Thing had not yet been invented.) Such subjective
attitudes should remain personal and should never be allowed to
impinge on professional decision making. Color in a publication
context is a medium of communication to be chosen and used with
deliberation, not emotion.

Though color is a universal language that speaks to the emotions, we

speak both instinctively and culturally. Our responses are based on
it

training and environment, which is why color is a complex subject

that must be approached with respect and concern. Many studies
have been done on color topics ranging from the physics of light to
the use of color in psychological therapy, but this is not one of them.
This book does not pretend to be a scientific treatise. It approaches
the use of color from a strictly practical angle, based on common
sense and accumulated experience.

The introduction thus plunges right into generally accepted tips or

insights on color itself. Then follows the application of color in the
product as a whole: in words; in pictures; in illustrations; and in
charts and graphs.

Because so much color material is produced as business

documentation, where hard copy is blended with overhead
presentations, color on the screen is discussed in chapter 3. There

are some fundamental differences between color in print and on

screen that must be understood.

In all cases, however, color is thought of as a material assigned to

fulfill specific tasks. Using color to fulfill a wider purpose brings the
highest return on the investment in color capability.

INTRODUCTION 11
2. THE BASICS
How color is used and
how people see it
 You probably learned to think about colors from paints. At school
you found that a dollop of red added to a brushful of blue makes
purple and red mixed with a glob of yellow makes orange. At least
that is what it looked like on the painting you proudly brought home.

There is nothing wrong with this view of color. It is perfectly logical

and valid. It is the Brewster, Prang, or color wheel theory of color. It
is based on three primary colors: red, yellow, and blue.

A secondary color results from mixing two of the primary colors in

equal amounts: red plus yellow makes orange; yellow plus blue
makes green; blue plus red makes purple.
A tertiary color is created by combining one primary color with one
secondary color: red plus orange makes red-orange; orange plus
yellow makes yellow-orange; yellow plus green makes yellow-green;
green plus blue makes blue-green; blue plus purple makes blue-
purple; purple plus red makes red-purple. When these colors are
placed around a wheel, a sequence is derived that follows the
sequence of colors seen in a rainbow.

Combining these twelve colors in various proportions and adding

black or white allows an unlimited palette to be devised.

This, however, is a piece of background knowledge that you might as

well shelve, unless you intend to paint. It is mentioned here simply

because it is something almost everyone knows. Yet it is likely to

confuse you, because it has little to do with color as used on the
printed page or on the screen. "Shelving it" is perhaps the wrong
phrase. Things on shelves are too visible. It might be better to store
everything that you learned about color at school in a safe-deposit
box, lock it up, and lose the key. You will still be able to get at it
when you need it, if you pay the bank the cost of a new key.

It is vital that you understand the terminology

The following terms refer to color, whether in print or on the screen.
The terms are the same whether produced traditionally or
electronically.

Hue: The name of a color, such as brown, blue, green. People can
distinguish thousands of subtle variations. We pick colors on the
basis ofhue because we "like them." Hue, however, is less important
than value and chroma in handling color well.

Value: The darkness or lightness of a hue.

Shade is the darkness of a hue produced by adding black.

Tint is the lightness of a hue produced by adding white.

Hues — even the pure ones — vary widely in value. Yellow is very

light, violet is very dark. Successful color relationships depend more

on the careful handling of values than of hues.

Chroma: The intensity or vividness of a color, its brightness or dullness. The

brighter it is,the more "saturated" it is said to be. The strongest
chroma is very colorful. The weakest chroma looks like a neutral gray.

(Hue, value, and chroma are terms used in the Munsell system. See
page 189.)
 Visibility: The purer the hue, the more visible it is both at a distance and, in
terms of noticeability, close up. The subtler the value in shade or tint,
the more difficult it is to discern.

Contrast: The greater the contrast, the stronger the visibility. Black on yellow
and black on white are the strongest contrasts.

Here is the color wheel, which is in general use. There are all sorts of
variations worked out for measuring scientific balances of color
depending on whether it is studied as light waves, pigments in
suspension, or what have you. The color wheel is the practical
compromise we work with in the less-than-precise world of print and
presentation.

14 THE BASICS
 Monochromatic color schemes use one basic hue to give unity to the
product. Variations in lightness or darkness are used, but essentially
these are red or green color schemes.

Complementary color schemes use hues that lie directly opposite

each other on the color wheel. (They are called complementary
because they contain all the colors of the spectrum between them.) It

is usually wise to use the quiet color as the dominant color and the

brighter color as an accent.

(I) Analogous color schemes use hues that lie close together on the
color wheel. Since the colors are related, they are harmonious.
Nonetheless, one color should be picked as the dominant color with
the others supporting it.

Contrasting color schemes use hues that have three colors between
them on the color wheel. Though they are called contrasting, they
need not clash or create unpleasant combinations. The brightest

(3 colors should be used as an accent to a design, the less bright ones as

background.

Achromatic color schemes use no colored hues (achromatic means

without color). These schemes are based entirely on black, white,
and grays.

Mm Black-plus color schemes use a palette limited to grays plus one hue.
Grays blend with any color. Bright colors go well with light gray, pale
ones with dark gray, dull colors go well with black. Contrast is the
key to balance.

I And white is a color. So is black.

THE BASICS 15
It is vital that you understand the magic and trickery of color.
Color is always seen in its surroundings. What it is near and
how much of it there is affects how it looks.

No book on color would be complete without showing some of the

psychological tricks that colors play on perception. Since this is a
book on the practical aspects of using color, these apparent magic
tricks must be seen as characteristics of the material merely to be
aware of. They are traps to watch out for.

A brilliant, pure color

on a background of its

own shade appears very

different from the same
color seen against a
background of its
complementary.

The blue-gray in the left

panel is seen against a

dark color it therefore

appears lighter than the
one in the right-hand
panel, whose border is
paler. Yet the blue-gray
is the same in both.

16 THE BASICS
 Much of the success of
using color depends on
proportion and
relationships. The large
area of darker
background makes the
little yellow square jump
off the page. Reverse the
colors, and the contrast
is much less successful.
Change the proportions,
and there is hardly any
motion.

The illusion of size is

affected by a color's
strength. In both of
these squares, the red
overpowers the black.
This is why the inner red
square looks larger than
the black one. They are,
of course, both the same

THE BASICS 17
 When pure
complementary colors
are placed next to each
other, they have an
upsetting effect on the
color receptors in the
human eye, and visual
vibration ensues. Purple
and green clash. They
can be brought into
harmony by mixing a
little of each with the

other.

'V.c

When two contrasting

colors abut, they appear
to intensify along the
edge where they meet.
The phenomenon of
"simultaneous contrast"
was already studied by
Leonardo da Vinci. It is
no esoteric trick, but a
disturbing effect to be
guarded against.
Running a sliver of
white (or black) to
separate two colors
placed next to each
other gets rid of the
problem.

The illusion of depth

and layering on the
surface of the paper
depends on color. The
line of white type seems
to advance, especially
in contrast to a line of

black type, which seems

to recede.

18 THE BASICS
whatever color you may choose to use, you must apply it
so that it works for you: It should make sense, clarify ideas,
and add value to vwhat you show and tell.

First, analyze the information to find how color can be used to code
it; for instance, if there are tasks the viewer is to perform, make them
vivid with color.

Anything on a page that is not ordinary black-on-white text is looked

at first. A
is inevitably the first element to attract the eye;
picture
color is be the next. Therefore, it is logical to assign color to
likely to
the most important information, so it is sure to be noticed. It will
probably motivate the reader to penetrate deeper into the text.

The importance brought into evidence by color is also a cogent

rationale for running the item larger, bolder. This not only increases
the tone of voice, withwhich you are shouting, "Hey, look at me,"
but also makes the color element more legible. Color contrasts less
with white paper than black does. To compensate for the decreased
contrast, increase the inked area by size.

Draw attention by using colors that have high-value and high-

—
chroma bright ones. Common-sense places for using such colors
are danger signals, reminders, on-screen cursors, and similar
elements. Bright red seems to be most successful, perhaps, because it
is an established signal in American culture. But avoid confusing the

viewer by reducing the brightness of those bright elements with a

background that is too colorful. You should neither pull your punches
nor create competition for them. Decide what is vitally important,
then let it stand out that way. Plan the hierarchy of brightness so that
it becomes a clear language. Be consistent with it, so that it can

perform its intended function.

Viewers sense color relationships very clearly. Be consistent in the

use of color groupings. Do not use colors denoting commands in one
chapter to denote menu choices in another. It only confuses.

When color coding is established, use the same colors throughout

the product and during the entire life cycle of the information unit.

It is confusing to change colors from one technique to another; for

example, hard-copy printout as compared to slides; on-screen as

compared to traditional offset; overheads as compared to
architectural signage. Coordination of means demands coordination
of hues. You must plan carefully to ensure their similarity.

Do not confuse the viewer/reader with too many color codes. Under
normal conditions, two colors in addition to black are easily
understood and remembered. As the number of colors increases, the
work's effectiveness decreases, because it requires effort to remember
so many different colors.

To ensure understanding under all conditions, duplicate color coding

with coded shape. Such redundancy makes the original intelligible
when it is translated into other media or even into black-and-white
copies. A distinct albeit minor — —
advantage of color/shape
redundancy is that it helps those with color-impaired vision. Further,
if documents are likely to be examined under less-than-ideal lighting
conditions, paralleling colors with typographic variations as well as
icons helps overcome the lack of contrast and makes the ideas clear.
So, if you make a bar red, give it a scraggly outline and texture as
well. Ifthe main graph line is in blue, make it fatter than the others
so that it stands out by shape as well as hue.
Color has characteristics you need to be aware of.
You must get past ^liking'' a certain hue^ if you are to control color
and use it cleverly for a certain purpose.

Color is a language like any other, requiring both a provider and a

recipient, a speaker and a hearer, an informer and an interpreter.

Your understanding has to be on the same wavelength (pun intended)
as that of your viewer.

In a publication on computers, a picture of an elephant may be

incongruous and startling (even if it illustrates a story on memory,

which is a cliche). It would be so common in a natural-history
magazine that few would pay it much attention (unless it is
remarkable for a specific reason).

Here are some observations for you to consider. Some may be

appropriate to your needs, others less so. Never mind. They are cited
with one purpose only: to make you aware that color used
functionally in print or in presentationsis not an artistic, subjective,

or intuitive medium but one that must be controlled intellectually.

Black is a color, and is so white. They can be used actively as part of

a color scheme, not merely to organize and propel information.

White space is a vital element on a page. It gives both pattern and

clarity. Moats between elements on a page identify related groupings
of images and words. Manipulating white space yields varieties of
character for your product. Its generous use gives your product a
feeling of elegance and value. By contrast, its tightness gives your
product a feeling of value by making it look fully packed. White
space must not be seen merely as a neutral background, lying fallow.
Used deliberately, it makes colors work better in all respects.
Color can help communicate nuances of meaning. Like type, color
can scream as well as whisper. If it screams too loudly, the subtleties
of meaning are swamped by the visual noise.

Use bright colors in small areas, pale or dull colors in large areas.

20 THE BASICS
Warm colors are brighter, more dynamic, more active, and thus
more "attractive" than cool colors. They are used at their best in
small areas contrasted to cool backgrounds.

Warm colors appear closer to the viewer than cool ones. Therefore,
canny users of color assign red, yellow, or orange to elements that
are supposed to be in the foreground. They assign blue, green, or
violet to objects in the background. If elements in the foreground are
intended to overlap those in the background, the effect of depth and
separation is emphasized by the right use of color, and understanding
is thus enhanced.

Light or pale colors tend tomake an object appear larger than it is.
Dark colors make appear smaller. Therefore, canny users of color
it

expand the elements

assign pastel tints of yellow, white, or red to
they need to make important. They play down others by hiding them
in shades of blue, gray, brown, or purple.

Maximum visibility is a characteristic of yellow. Next in visibility

come orange, vermilion (an orange-red), and yellow-green. These are
precisely the colors of the blaring, aggressive, fluorescent paints you
see on posters. They work.

Bright colors are in vogue. Colorfulness in itself is fashionable. It is

thought to appeal to the young. It so happens that oldsters, whose
physical ability to distinguish colors is less acute, also derive value
from the trend. The question remains. Which color combinations
appeal to all segments of the public?

By contrast, "hospital green" is fast going out of style. It had

originally been chosen not only as being restful and relaxing but also
because it makes people look healthier, since it is a good background

to skin colors. (The fact that it is the complementary color to that of

blood and thus ideal in operating rooms is somewhat grisly. Surgeons
like it.) As anything else made common by overuse, its physiological
virtues have been undercut by negative psychological undertones:
hospital green is now synonymous with institutions and is therefore
being covered over with more domestic hues.

Eight percent of men and 1 percent of women are color-impaired.

Green and red are the usual problem colors. It is wise to use them
only in their midrange values, where they are good and strong and
therefore more likely to be distinguished. Blue, incidentally, is the
universally recognizable color.

Color does not add much colorfulness to a page unless it is used

strongly. A little blue dot or a purple rule do not add all that much
(unless they are very carefully composed). It is wiser to be a bit more
generous than this. If such generosity also supports meaning, then
even a comparatively small area of color can pack a punch. But if the
color area is hardly visible, you are wasting its potential.

Light blue does not photocopy well. There is even a nonreproducing

blue that does not show up in the camera used in the traditional
Avoid using pale blue on such pieces as
offset-printing processes.
forms, which will probably be reproduced by photocopying.

THE BASICS 21
Color does not just look nice. It also has cultural connotations.
You must bear them in mind
when picking the colors you intend to use.

Picking colors both personal and impersonal. On the one hand,

is

you reveal your own

personality by the colors you choose for your
own wardrobe. says something about you. On the other hand, such
It

individual taste should play little or no part in your deliberate

decisions affecting the professional work you perform.

Is it possible to divorce personal preference from professional

demands? Probably not completely. Individual and accultured

connotations are too deeply rooted. It is vital to realize, however, that
what one person interprets one way may be interpreted by another
very differently. The sign of mourning in Western cultures is black. It
is white in China. Which is right?

So which is the right color for an application? It is impossible to say,

because the choice depends on the applications as well as the
audience for whom the message is intended.

Perhaps we are asking the wrong questions. Instead, it would be

better to become aware ofhow people react to various colors, how
they interpret them, and how popular some colors are as compared
to others.Then a color choice can be made based on some degree of
reason and confidence rather than personal "liking." It is a fact,
though, that people judge value by first-glance emotion. Their initial
reaction to an object is a response strongly based on its color.

Innumerable surveys have been made, and studying and

understanding reaction to color is an important science, because
purveyors of goods and services rely on these reactions to succeed in
the marketplace. There are some useful pointers, for instance:

Sugar is never packaged in green, because green carries connotations

of sourness. It is packaged in blue, because blue is a color we
associate with sweetness.

"Green is a deadly color for theater posters. We never use it unless

we're doing an Irish show. It has been tested as a very unappealing
color to people in the street. A big favorite is red and there's a great
feeling for red and black together," says Frank Verlizzo, designer for
Serino/Coyne, a theatrical advertising agency {Sky, November 1988).

Black on yellow was selected most frequently as most legible, though

yellow was less popular with respondents than red, blue, and green,
in a survey of political posters taken by W. Gary Howard of the

University of West Florida, Pensacola. (It is probably the ease of

legibility of yellow on black that accounts for yellow's preference.
Black on blue and red with green were the combinations found to be
least legible and least liked.)

22 THE BASICS
Blue was the overwhelming favorite as a color in the same survey.
The tests also proved that its popularity was not based on political
symbolism, where blue is the color of conservatism. Blue connotes
calm, authority, respect; sky, water, cold. Blue means reliability and
corporate strength to financial people, but it means death to doctors
and cooling water to people working around nuclear reactors.

Warm colors represent action, closeness; leisure activity, recreation,

fun.

Cool colors represent status, remoteness, background information;

tragic or romantic situations, efficiency, work.

Bright hues, especiallywarm ones like yellow and orange, are active
and seem They are also seen as being
to help mental activity.
cheerful. This is why
they are gaining favor in schools. (Dull, cool
colors have the opposite effect and create quiet and a relaxing
mood.)

Simple colors are preferred by the lower socioeconomic strata,

whereas the upper crust prefer dirty off-colors.

High chroma colors represent tension, melodrama, comedy.

Gray is neutral, a fine background, and its subtlety makes it symbolic

of success. But those who prefer bright colors find it boring.

Red connotes stop, danger, fire, heat.

Yellow connotes caution, slow, testing. It is the most visible of all

it makes people jittery and nervous.

colors, so a lot of

Orange is informal, cheerful, liked (though not necessarily preferred)

l)v one and all.

Green connotes ok, go, all-clear, nature, safety, security.

Brown is informal and not a power color for men's or women's suits.

Black is associated with witchcraft, but is also seen as powerful,

sophisticated, and authoritarian.

White connotes refinement, purity, honesty. (Candidus in Latin

means both "white" and "honest." Romans nominated for office wore
the toga Candida [white toga], as a symbol of their probity; hence the
word candidate.)*

nings see Henry Dreyfuss, The Symbol Sourcebook (New

THE BASICS 23
Some colors carry symbolism that is generally understood.
Some comes from the way the color is used,
some from the way it is referred to in speech.

International signage is establishing a universally understood system

of traffic symbols. We are all being taught an accultured response to
them. changing from green to amber to red means
Traffic signals
"yes, wait, no" or "go, slow, stop." There is good reason to expand
the application of these universally understood symbols to nontraffic
situations. To make stopping visually active, run it in red in —
whatever context it may be. The color will positively reinforce the
thought. To emphasize the acceptability of an action, run it in green.
Green subliminally connotes safety to proceed.

Red road signs means NO.

Q Blue road signs mean OK.

Red overrules blue.

m Green is the symbol for health services.

Yellow means warning.

5^ Black is plain information.

Warmth is red, coldness is blue. Hence the design of

the dashboard symbol for the car heater.

A carpet would not be festive or be perceived as

honoring a very important person were it not red.

24 THE BASICS
 Colors played an important part inmedieval heraldry. The palette was
restricted to available materials. Each color (tincture) had its symbolic
meaning. Blazon is the language used to describe the "accidents,"
which were the colors, furs, and metals that composed the heraldic
shield. A complex symbolic, systematized language of shape, color,
and meaning was developed over the years. Like corporate identity
programs, it was strictly codified and enforced. Here are the nine
colors with their heraldic names, meanings, and conventional black-
and-white representations (tricking).

Gules Purpure
(Fortitude and magnanimity) (Sovereignty and )ustice)

Tenne Sanguine, murray

(Worthy ambition) (Not hasty in battle but victorious)

Argent Sable
(Cold, peace, and sincerity) (Silver, generosity, and vi/isdom) (Constancy and grief)

Like colors, shapes had their symbolic meanings. It might be wise to

avoid using some of the following "abatements dishonorable" on a
coat of arms, for reasons stated.

THE BASICS 25
 The ancient Greek king would not be kingly, were his
robe not purple

A zebra is black and white. So is a penguin. Present

them in hues, and you create a startling, attention-
getting paradox.

Taxicabs are most taxicabbish when they are yellow.

(Originally the color was pickedto make them visible.
It worked.)

Christmas is green and red.

Halloween is orange and black.

Easter is purple and yellow.

^Wkj St. Valentine's Day is red and pink.

The Fourth of July is red, white, and blue.

26 THE BASICS
Red = embarrassment Yellow = jaundice

The expression of a human face, coupled with its

appropriate color, is a form of cartooning that is clearly
understood.

Baby boys are blue, and baby girls are pink. Presents
bought before babies are born must be neutral: pale
yellow or white —or there will be trouble.

When a color has implications that everyone is likely to understand,

itcan help to reinforce an idea. The route to comprehension is
shortened. Many of these understandings originate in common
speech, which alludes to color in terms that are meaningful, even if
they are not to be taken literally. To be "in the red" is very different
from being "in the black." (Yes, these phrases have clear origins: They
come from the colors of ink used in ledger books.) How about being
"in the pink"? Or "blue-sky"? Never mind their origins. They are
idioms.

When is an idiom a cliche? A good question. Idioms become cliches

when they are overused or applied without imagination.

Nonetheless, their underlying message is commonly understood. This
is why, perhaps, a cliche is sometimes precisely what may be needed

to catapult an obvious point off the page into the viewer's mind.
When a cliche is used in a fresh way, it rises to being an idiom.
General speech — both verbal and visual —
is thus enriched.

Every human activity, profession, and interest has its own specialized
jargon.Use them all as potential idea-accelerators, but only when
you can be reasonably certain that your visual shorthand will be
understood by the audience.

THE BASICS 27
 —

It is vital that you understand the technical difference

between four-color process and two-color printing

whether produced traditionally or electronically.

Four-color-process colors are used in printing to simulate any

and all other colors. The four colors (black, process yellow, process
blue [cyan], and process red [magenta] have been developed to
)

complement and balance each other. They are printed separately and
on top of each other in varying proportions. The resultant variety of
colors is created by the variety of proportions of the four process
colors combined with the whiteness of the paper.

..W^^^"^

The paper is touched four times, once by each of Individually, the four colors are not very handsome. The magenta
the four process colors. {A press is considerably looks brashly pink when screened down from its solid state. The
more complicated than this diagram.) yellow is invisible on white paper except in large panels, where it
looks crude and vulgar. The cyan is a pale turquoise and the only
color that can be used successfully by itself. Ttiis is done so often that
it looks common and cheap. It is surprising that such unlikely hues

added together can form the visual miracles that they do. The
operative words are "added together." Individually they are unhappy.
In combination they can sing with joy.

In pictures: Just as a normal black-and-white halftone is

photographed through a grid of fine lines to convert its continuous
tone into an array of dots of various sizes to make it printable, so is
an original color photograph converted into dots. It is, however, a
little more complicated because the original must be "separated" into

four separate plates, one for each of the four process colors. The tiny
dots meld in the eye and produce, as faithfully as possible, an
illusion of the color values of the "continuous tone" originals.

In panels: Color in flat areas can vary from "solid," that, is 100
percent of the ink, to none, zero percent. Mechanical screens
normally vary the density in increments of 10 percent steps, though 5
percent are also available. Even greater flexibility is available in
electronic technology. Superimposing screens of various percentages
in various combinations of the four process colors can simulate any

color you wish — in flat areas. (To avoid muddy colors, it is best not to
let the sum of all the percentages exceed 240.)

28 THE BASICS
If you are unfamiliar with this material, it can sound confusing. Take
heart and look at page 72. It will begin to make sense when you see
some examples.
Second, matched, or mixed colors differ from process colors
in that they are "real" rather than simulated. Think of them as ready-
made tubes of ink of a specific hue: dark red, light pink, olive green.

They are used solid or in screened form in panels or any other way
on the page you wish (except in photographs, unless you are being
very courageous and tricky). The printer can buy them by swatch or
number from ink manufacturers, if they are standard hues. If they are
unusual, the printer can mix them for you the same way that paint
stores produce the color you want for your walls with a splash of —
this and a squeeze of that. The paint store follows formulas produced
by the manufacturer, and their result is visible on the paint chips.
There are many ink manufacturers who produce their own ink-colors
palettes. The Pantone® Matching System,* however, is universally
known and used as a basis for choosing and specifying the colors of
matched inks (see page 191). These are the "pms colors."

If you choose a specific color in the pms system, it can be printed one
of two ways:

1. As a matched ink
(ifyou have a two-color press, one cylinder of the press is used for
black, the other one for the color of your choice).

2. As a simulation by means of the process colors

(if you have a four-color press, one cylinder is used for each of the
four process colors, and the black carries the black segment of the
process colors as well as the type).

Four-color-process printing is, clearly, more expensive than two-color

printing. So is the prepress preparation of material.

check-standard trademark for color reproduction and color reproductioi

THE BASICS 29
3. PRESENTATIONS
AND
PUBLICATIONS
Using color for continuity
and identity
Presentations with slides and overheads are identical to printed
publications in one major respect: They are both constructed as
streams of information. The streams flow as sequences of
impressions, slide after slide, overhead after overhead, page after
page. They stop and go very much like filmstrips. The audience,
whether viewers///steners or viewers/readers, needs time to absorb
the information. Presentations are controlled by the speaker, so the
audiences are forced to begin at the beginning. Printed pieces have
the advantage of accessibility anywhere. The rate of speed in which
each impression is revealed is controlled by the speaker in the case
of the presentation and by the individual viewer/reader in the case of
printed matter.

The repetitive characteristic presentations and print share is an area

where color can be exploited to add a dimension of recognition,
clarity, and ease of interpretation. This demands that the presentation
planner and editor/designer take a long view of their product, as the
individual units of which the product is assembled are not isolated
units but a flow, a continuum, a series.

It matters little how many pages there are or how many visuals make
up a presentation. The principle of continuity is as valid for a six
hundred-page manual as it is for a four-page brochure, a newsletter,
or a complex book, a short slide show or an in-depth lecture on an
abstruse subject requiring dozens of overheads. Since they are all
constructed of segments, color can be used to make that construction
clear. If the segments have subsets, color can separate them from the
matrix in which they occur. Color can help to codify the ideas in the
presentations or publications in various ways. It can also unify them
and give them a character of their own. Or it can relate them clearly
within a corporate identity.

There are two fundamental requirements for using color cleverly in

an overall context.

1. Remember that it is the patterning itself — the regular recurrence of

colors applied to repetitive elements — that creates a dependable
effect. Once you have developed your system, stick to it. You

weaken itwhenever you depart from it. Reserve such departures

for situations where emphasis is justified.

2. Make the system as simple as possible. The simpler, the better. Not
only do people understand and remember a technique more easily
if it is simple, but simplicity usually results in elegance. To achieve

simplicity requires much thought, and deep analysis usually gets

rid of jarring or obscure complexities. The resulting impression
should be so obvious that any keys or instructions on "how to use
this document" would be foolish. Unfortunately, such obviousness
is hard to attain.
Presentations are visual impressions flashed on a screen
in sequence. Color must be planned to reinforce
relationships^ patterning^ and continuity.

The purpose of presentations is to explain, to sway, to persuade.

Graphics are used to prove points. They might well be called
"decision-support graphics" in corporate use. Translation of data into
graphics can make information easier to understand, if the visuals are
accompanied by good verbal explanation. (This is no different from

graphics in print, which also require good titles and captions or

legends.)

The presentation is a flowing sequence of impressions that must be

carefully planned and coordinated to prevent confusion. Since it is
controlled by the presenter, the viewer/listener is denied the time to
study at his or her own pace. Therefore, each item must be clear, and
the relationships of item to item must make sense. No extraneous
detail or irrational change should disturb the logic of the flow. Most
important, the visuals must agree with the speaker's words. The
wording should not be identical, because the audience will read at a
different pace than the speaker, creating confusion and destroying
concentration. The thrust and meaning of the visuals, however,
should complement the speaker's verbal explanation.

Here are ten principles for the use of color in slides or overheads that
respond to the peculiar requirements of verbal-visual presentations
before audiences. Of course, they are not rules. There are no such
things. There is no right way or wrong way that can be proved or
quantified. There is only an effective or ineffective way based on
common sense and experience.
1 . Use color to make the best of the physical situation in which the
presentation will be viewed.

In dark viewing situations, use dark backgrounds for your slides.

Make the text, small shapes, and thin linework very light. White,
yellow, or red show up best and therefore read best when they
are seen against a dark background. Blue, green, dark red,
brown, and gray are good background colors for slides.

In light viewing situations, use light backgrounds for your

overheads. Black, dark blue, or brown read best against a light

background. Be sure to make your text, small shapes, and thin
linework very dark so that they show up. White, pale green, pale
blue, and light yellow are good backgrounds for overheads.

2. Use color to explain, never just to decorate. Do not make

something pretty for the sake of prettiness or because color is

available. Instead, lead the eye to the significant elements by

emphasizing and highlighting with color.

32 PRESENTATIONS AND PUBLICATIONS

3. Use color to emphasize a single point per visual: one pie-chart
segment, one trend line, one row of figures, one verbal point,
one bar or column. Avoid showing two sets of data on one visual,
unless the comparison itself is the point.

POW!

4. Use color to make the emphasized elements more vivid. Make

the backgrounds of slides dark. Since white or yellow shine out
from a dark background most dramatically, reserve these colors
for the most important words or items. Color the normal material
blue or green. Use red very sparingly and only in small areas.

5.
ninlnln
Use color to prioritize information. Audiences will look at the
brightest area first. Control their response by putting the most
important material in the brightest colors.

6. Use color to make the new points in a slide presentation stand

out. Assign the most vivid color to the fresh data. The contrast of
the vivid and the subdued makes the proposal stand out and
appear that much more weighty. By the same token, dull colors
can be used to play down information that is undesirable,
negative, or unimportant.

m
. Use color to symbolize. The most obvious symbols: red for
danger, green for go, amber for caution.

PRESENTATIONS AND PUBLICATIONS 33

 . Use color to identify a recurring theme; for instance, identify
new data in an insurance contract as distinct from the boilerplate.
Distinguish one set of elements from another, such as the current
situation versus the projected results in a business analysis.

9. Use color so that its implications help the audience to sort out the
material. By assigning orange to positive attributes, for instance,
every time orange appears on the screen, the audience will
immediately interpret the item as "good news." It takes no more
than two or three repetitions of such color assignment for the
audience to catch on, especially if its first appearance is dramatic
and pointed out by the speaker.

10. Use color sequencing to build the presentation to a climax. Start

with a cool green, then progress from cooler to warmer until you
end up with a hot brilliant orange. Or start with a dark shade and
progress from darker to lighter until you end up with pure white.

34 PRESENTATIONS AND PUBLICATIONS

 Though slides are presented in sequence over time, they can
—
and must be planned like print, in space. Work on them as a
seriesfrom left to right. (See page 78 for color sequencing
destined for print. It is identical to color sequencing destined for
projected visuals.)

Here are eight practical suggestions on planning programs that might

prove helpful:

1. Perhaps might be well to remember the technique proved so

it

efficacious in television: The normal half-hour tv program

attempts to make no more than three main points. The full-hour
program makes five. Keeping the project simple in content as well

as look (that is, color) is always efficacious.

2. Interspersing text slides among pictorial ones is often confusing.

The viewer who has become accustomed to seeing visual
symbols, and therefore expects to see them, is startled and
brought short by the necessity of reading messages while
simultaneously listening to similar substance spoken by the
narrator. Too often the parallel processes cancel each other out,
and the viewer/listener tunes out and concentrates on such
extraneous visual details, as the dot on the / that is missing on the
screen. In mixed shows, therefore, as many thoughts as possible
should be turned into graphic form. Textual slides should be kept
to a minimum. Those that are used should consist of "illustrative"
words rather than summaries of the presenter's speech. Wherever
possible, tie the text slides to the pictorial slides with a common
color.

3. Start with a colorful title visual. Use clip art if necessary. Follow
the opener with an agenda visual that shows the key steps in the
presentation. Wind up
with a conclusion visual that lists action
items or recommendations. Assign a color to them that will tie
them together and make them unique by comparison to the rest of
the show.

. Keep the same format throughout so that the audience gets used to
looking at a predictable arrangement. Avoid mixing vertical and
horizontal slides — unless the verticals are strategically inserted as
deliberate breaks. Their change of direction could be emphasized
with a change of color.

PRESENTATIONS AND PUBLICATIONS 35

 5. Many canny presenters never put their conclusions on the last
slide. Instead, they pose a concluding question such as, What are
the three points . .? The presenter then summarizes each point,
.

drawing on audience participation, if possible. The conclusions

are spelled out, of course, in the hard-copy handouts. What an aid
to remembering it would be if the printed pieces matched the
color on-screen.

. In preparing the presentation, make hard-copy printouts of each

visual, and hang them around the room in sequence, from left to
right. is the only way that you can examine them to discover
This
anomalies in layout sequencing. Seeing them all at once reveals
situations that call for improvement of sequencing, patterning,
presentation, and color.

7. Make miniatures of the hard copies, reducing them to a size that

willallow three images to be placed vertically down the left-hand
side of an 8'/2-x-n-inch page. A 3-inch-wide image is about right.
Write the accompanying text alongside each on the right.

8. To foster greater audience intimacy, when the group is small

enough, switch from the screen to a flip charts or chalkboard
wherever it makes sense. The screen —
whether used for slides or
overheads —
has an authoritarian distance, whereas flip charts or
chalkboards are an extension of the personality of the speaker.
Use colored chalk or markers that follow the color scheme
established in the slides or overheads.

Here are five general thoughts on the arrangement of slides

themselves:

1. Limit each visual to the essentials. Simplify and edit out everything
that is not vital. Avoid showing supporting information. Perhaps a

handout distributed after the presentation could contain the

background research. A useful rule of thumb: no more than six
words per line, six lines per visual, or two illustrations per
visual. .and only one thought in bright color.
.

36 PRESENTATIONS AND PUBLICATIONS

2. Use simple typefaces in large sizes. It is the message that matters,
so avoid interposing fancy type between the thought and its
reader.

3. Leave generous space around the outer edges of the visual,

especially if the center is very colorful.

'U
4. People start reading in the top-left corner, then follow diagonally
down to the lower-right corner. Arrange material to follow this
basic pattern. A bright color up there could be a good way to
attract the eye to that starting point.

5. Place the most important information at the top, because that is

where people tend to read first (use the brightest color for it, too).
Few scan the bottom of a page or slide first. Place the most
positive copy in the top-left corner. The expected, traditional,
static, dignified way of putting a title in the middle is analogous to
the placement of a newspaper logo on the front page. It sits there

like a bump on a log. Many newspapers use a trick whenever they

want to gain our attention: they put the headline above the logo,
up in that top-left corner. Should the kernel of the information
the benefit to the viewer —
be written as a lead-in to the title and
placed up there? Or should the title itself be flush left in that
corner for maximally active participation in catapulting
information off the screen into the viewer's mind? (Besides, at the
top it is less likely to be hidden by the shadow of some especially
tall head sitting between the projector and the screen.)

PRESENTATIONS AND PUBLICATIONS 37

Publications are constructed of pages, revealed as
a succession of impressions. Color strengthens the product
by controlling continuity, sequencing, pacing, and unity.

A single color used throughout a publication provides continuity,

unity,and character. Consistency gives the product identity. In a
broader context, it helps to build a corporate identity: think of the
images, such as the ibm blue, that immediately come to mind.

Where color is used more decoratively than informatively,

standardize the use as well as the hues on a product level, in order to
embellish the entire product. See beyond the confines of a single
page to the product as a whole. Seldom is the need to think broadly
more important than in this regard. The temptation to "play" with
colors can be overwhelming. We have all been told that "variety
keeps the viewer interested." As a result, we are often trapped into
using red on one page, green on the next, and yellow on the third.
We think that variety is a good thing. Besides, if it is available, why
not use it? Unfortunately, indiscriminate mixing of colors creates a
visual babel, even worse than that created by an indiscriminate
mixing of various typefaces. (This is a characteristic of much
contemporary electronically produced publishing. It is not a failing of
the technology, but of its users. The temptation of the available riches
is irresistible. Professionalism developed over time will take care of

the problem —
we hope.)
It is better to pick a single color and apply it to all the repetitive
signaling devices. Standardize harmonious colors for the nameplate
(logo), indexes, table of contents, column tags, or department
headings, as well as all the other repetitive signage that the piece
may need. The color will not merely unify the publication, but it will
also strengthen its overall image. Besides, you can use different
colors for the illustrations or other events in the sequence of pages,
wherever might be appropriate. They
this will fall into place in the
overall context in which they are viewed.

One more reason not to change colors, where consistency would pay
is that the complexity of too many colors causes confusion.
off better,
Ithas been found that people can distinguish and easily —
—
remember four colors, if those colors are broadly different from
each other. This has been found
be an optimal number. Realism,
to
aesthetics, or function, of course, may demand more. But these
should be the exceptions rather than the rule. Four colors is the
optimal practical maximum.

38 PRESENTATIONS AND PUBLICATIONS

Use color as a distinguishing characteristic
On any page of a document or printed publication there are elements
document rather than to the subject it contains. What
that refer to the
they are can vary from product to product. Recognizing them for
what they are is simple when you take the long view.

The most obvious examples are folios: page numbers. Few

publications do without them. They appear on every page. They are
independent of the content, relating only to the publications as a
whole. They are usually set in small type to separate them from the
visual texture of the rest of the material on the page. Think how
much clearer such differentiation would be if they were in color.
Imagine what would happen if for some reason it became advisable
to play them up. Perhaps their decorative quality could be exploited
and they could be set much larger. In an enormous size, they could
be run in a gentle mauve. The product's character would change
completely, enriched by a feature that is normally not noticed. Yet the
text on the page could perfectly well remain boringly normal, ten-
point Times Roman type in two 20-pica columns. The page numbers
are independent of the text. They belong to the vehicle, not the
substance it carries.

You have to decide whether you want to use this device in the first
place. If you do, you commit yourself to a discipline that can prove
burdensome. Yet you cannot afford to do things by halves. Sticking to
the rules you make for yourself here and there, wherever it happens

PRESENTATIONS AND PUBLICATIONS 39

 tobe convenient, and departing from them where it is a nuisance is
worse than doing nothing at alh it muddles the user. Besides, it looks
shoddy.

What is the most important commitment as far as color is concerned?

If you want your device to be a strong visual identifier, it must appear

"different." If it is not different enough, it will not stand out well

enough, thus failing to achieve what you intended it to. In short, it

demands to have a color reserved for its own special use. Therefore,
if you assign purple to your device, you cannot use purple anywhere

else, lest you dilute the trademark quality of your device, whose
singular visual characteristic is its purpleness.

Anything that repeats is potentially character-yielding material. Page

numbering has already been cited. Other areas include:

Headers and footers heads and running feet in

(often called running
the book-publishing trade, continued lines in magazines, and jump
lines in newspaper parlance). They are convenience signals. They are
like whispered instructions to the reader. If the publication needs a
lot of such instructions, it is helpful to signal their presence by
making them different from the bulk of the material. Not only will
they be found more conveniently, but the ease with which they can
be found will be appreciated as a helpful service. And in purely
visual terms, the page will appear more interesting at first glance. It

will be less dauntingly, monotonously gray.

True, the page will look busier and spottier. This is a characteristic
that some people find offensive, because simplicity, purity, and
plainness have been touted as aesthetically positive values.
Philosophically, this is absolutely so. But we do not face
philosophical dilemmas. We face practical ones. Resolving this
dilemma is not a question of aesthetics but of efficient function. If

spottiness improves the publication's usability for the reader, then it is

fulfilling its function more effectively. Spottiness makes it a better

publication. Reason enough to go ahead and use color for spots. Yet,
as in all things, restraint must be used, or the plethora of colored
spots will become self-defeating. Measles is not a good thing for the
patient's health or looks.

Frames and backgrounds for boxes and panels. Assume that you are
preparing a publication illustrated with numerous charts and
diagrams. Expand the idea from just one document and imagine that

40 PRESENTATIONS AND PUBLICATIONS

 —

this publication is a monthly magazine and that its field is crowded

with competitors. How can you make it stand out from the crowd
without investing a penny more? Bv consistent application of color.
Make all the backgrounds of the diagrams the same hue. This way

you create a unified image, recognizable as the "green book" or the

"orange book." Obviously the hue you pick has to be dignified and

appropriate. It should also be special: avoid the obvious process

colors: thev are commonplace and not very handsome. Worse,

because they are standard, everyone else has access to them and
uses them because they are inexpensive. If you must use them,
choose a blend of screens of the process colors with each other or
with black. Or reserve a specially mixed ink. At the time of this
writing, ramping the screen from light to dark is becoming
fashionable, because the computer can produce the effect easily.

There are more recommendations about this in the section on

diagrams (see page 46). What to do and how to do it can be rather
complex. Yet the principle is simple: color should be deliberately
restricted so that it becomes a valued, character-yielding attribute,
instead of just colorful enrichment.

Color used as a locator signal

Here we discuss elements whose repetition makes them candidates
for thinking about their color handling, as are folios or panel
backgrounds. They differ from folios, headers, panel backgrounds,
and other elements that are connected with the product as a whole in
that they are a hybrid element —
though they repeat, they refer more
to the material itself. The same color-use theory holds.

Department headings and logos. Most multipage publications are

assembled in sections. Often such a string of elements has to be
explained to the user, and the most effective way to do this is by
topic. Such labels are specific to the material in the section. They are
also a chain of signals within the product as a whole. Controlling
their color in the context of the chain is the reason for their inclusion
here.

PRESENTATIONS AND PUBLICATIONS 41

 Their format needs to be unified, allowing necessary variation in
each individual use. Clearly, the graphic variety of such formats is
unlimited. Decisions about v^hether they should appear at the head
or side of the page, whether they should bleed or not, whether they
should be pale with dark type or dark with white type, and so on, are
specific to each situation. It would be irresponsible to make
generalized recommendations. Suffice it to say that this is an area
where colorfulness pays off.

Numbers and Though they are a subset of department

locator tabs.
headings and logos, and demand similar handling, these deserve to
be thought about separately. Their function is primarily that of a
locator device. Not much thinking has to be done about what a
numeral 5 may mean. It is just a 5. We deduce that there are four
units preceding it and probably several more following, if what we
hold in our hands is heavy enough.

The prime attribute such numbers demand is visibility. They must be

large enough and different enough from their background to be
immediately noticeable. More important: they must be easy to find in
the product as a whole. They must therefore be placed where they
will be exposed most easily. This means that they should be on the
outside of the page, as close to the top corner as possible, because
this is where people tend to look first.

What color to use? A strong one. One that will jump off the page,
because this is what you want it to do. Should the color bleed? And
should the number therefore be in a panel? Yes, if at all possible
technically, because the sliver of color visible on the edge of the

42 PRESENTATIONS AND PUBLICATIONS

pages as they are stacked makes the page easier to find. As the edges
of the pages are shifted by the thumb, the tabs are revealed and
make reference that much easier.

If the product's organization demands it, make each tab a different

color to identify a separate section (and then use that hue within each
section). This variation of the system does not change the basic
principle. It enriches it.

Color used to define sections of the publication

An example of a successful merchandising application of color is the
yellow pages. Wherever telephone directories are found, the yellow
pages define —
well, you know what they are. How much clearer can
anything be? Its definition has been carefully controlled and nurtured
until it has become a form of communication that requires no
explanation.

Any special section can be identified in a similar way. Not

necessarily with yellow. The yellow pages are printed on a special
colored stock, of course. Special-stock inserts require much careful
planning. They tend to be expensive. Are there cheaper equivalents?
A substitute will always remain a substitute, and it has to be your
decision whether a substitute can meet the standard that you set. (A
substitute may not necessarily be bad. Witness the market success of
a spread sold as "substitute margarine.")

PRESENTATIONS AND PUBLICATIONS 43

 Color the outside of the page. How are the yellow pages first
identified by the viewer as the publication is held in the hand? By the
outside edge of the product.

Why not print a strip of color up the edges so that the section you
want to identify is highlighted? The rest of the pages can remain
plain. How wide should the strip be? Wide enough to be able to
accommodate imprecision of trimming (if the publication is bound
and trimmed, like a magazine). The narrower it is, the more critical
does precision become: '/4-inch is too narrow; 'A-inch is more than
ample. However, if you want to print identifying wording in the color
strip (sideways, please, never vertically!) it probably has to be V^-
inch.

If the publication is assembled of individual leaves printed simplex or

duplex as individual 8'/2- x -11-inch sheets, such imprecision of

trimming will probably not be a problem. Therefore, you can make
the strip slightly narrower.

Color the section breaks. Breaking out a single section (as in the
yellow pages, above) may be inappropriate, because no one single
unit is more important than the others. Yet the sequence of chapters
or units of which a publication is constructed needs to be explained
as clearly as possible. The most obvious signal is that of identifying
the starts of each section. Careful planning is necessary to make the
most of every opportunity.

44 PRESENTATIONS AND PUBLICATIONS

Ideally, all openers should be right-hand pages. That way they can be
designed independently as dramatic "covers." Right-hand pages are
also maximally noticeable in the package.

Lett-hand pages are more difficult to handle as "covers" because they

are hard to separate from the right-hand pages opposite. A full two-
page spread, however, is an opportunity for major visual fireworks.
Besides, we read from left to right and look up at the top-left corner

first.

Whether you choose left- or right-hand openers, avoid mixing them.

A random mixture weakens the impact of their accumulated rhythmic
sequence. People miss either those on the left or those on the right,
depending on the way they examine the product.

Your important signals are compromised. The product is not as clear

as it would have been, had it been more rigidly structured.

PRESENTATIONS AND PUBLICATIONS 45

 CHARTS
4.
AND GRAPHS
Using color to explain
and to persuade
The purpose of diagrams is to make complex relationships
understandable by turning verbal concepts and mathematical data
into visual form. The usual diagram is a stand-alone figure with a
label that identifies the subject. Viewers are expected to study,
analyze, absorb, and draw their own conclusions. Sometimes a
caption or legend describes important factors or points out salient
features.

Every time a new page is looked at, the first element to be noticed
and studied is the visual, nontextual one —
the diagram. Too often the
information contained in the diagram is repeated in the text, much to
the annoyance of the reader, who is forced to identify and then skip
the duplication.

Making effective graphics is a complex process, no matter how

helpful the software. It is not just a mechanical process that plots
masses of data and then colorizes them to make the result pretty. It is,
rather, the process of responsible interpretation. Its complexity is like
that of an equation with three unknowns. An equation, however,
usually has a correct answer. In using charts and graphs there is no
such thing as a correct or incorrect answer. The only criterion is
whether the idea, the substance, the reason for publishing, comes
across to the viewer/reader clearly, vividly, and memorably.

Color contributes to the clarity, vividness, and memorableness of a

diagram. Ideas sparkle when color is tied to the function, coupled
with the type, the line weights, and the basic geometry of the piece.
This is why it is folly to start with the goal of dressing up the chart to
make it as pretty as possible. The goal should be to illuminate the
purpose of the chart. If the avowed purpose is to show data without
attempting to draw a conclusion, encouraging the viewer to deduce
his or her own, then by all means make the chart as simple,
forthright, and neutral as possible. Where the purpose is merely to
show without explanation or persuasion, nothing should be allowed
to come between the statistics and their interpreter. Such purity and
elegant simplicity is praiseworthy.* It is not just appropriate but
essential to the serious scholar, specialist, statistician — anyone whose
avowed intention is to derive conclusions from published data.

itilalive Information (Cheshire, Conn.: Graphic

 If, however, there is some intention at persuasion or a particular point

of view in whose support the facts are being presented, then a new
dimension is added to the problem of preparation. In this case, the
data has to be presented in such a way that the viewer will indeed
reach the intended interpretation.

Since there a point of view, something has to be stressed. This

is

means that some elements

are brought into the foreground of
while others are pushed into the supporting
noticeability,
background.** Thus the hidden agenda becomes noticeable.

Clearly, presentation thatemphasizes some aspect of the information

must be responsibly controlled by the editor. The degree of point
making can be gentle or flagrant, subtle or exaggerated. Whatever the
degree of stress may be, the color, type size, line weights, shapes,
areas, and the basic geometry of the figure are used to make the
point.

Charts must be assembled in a manner that fulfills the needs of the

specific circumstances. Color can never be used successfully if it is
merely an afterthought. To make maximum use of its potential, color
must be thought of from the very inception of an idea, when the
information is being planned for presentation. While the "what" and
the "how" are being decided is the time to conceive of the way in
which color will be exploited. Retrofitting it as a cosmetic detail will
not allow it to make a significant contribution.

**See )an V White, Using Chans and Graphs (New York: R. R. Bowker, 1984).

48 CHARTS AND GRAPHS

Most business graphics share some characteristics
thatform a vocabulary of diagram making.
They are the basics to which color can be added.

Most charts, graphs, and diagrams have some fundamental elements

in common. If color is to be assigned logically, it is a good idea to

define these elements and to see them as commonalities.

4\

Pa^r
I Weirfr^l - o
NOW :

Most have the x- and y-coordinates. They are needed because most
sets of information show some form of comparison, in terms of size,
rate of changes, development over time, and so forth.

To make comparisons understandable, the elements that represent

them need a common starting point as vi/ell as a common scale
against v^hich they can be measured. Whether that scale is actually
shown or not is immaterial: without it, no chart would be credible.
Visible or not, scale is implied.

A
->-fWur<r Y

Y
J)ecyeAie

The horizontal x-axis crossing the vertical y-axis creates a field. This
is the area on which the symbols representing the data are plotted

and displayed, be they bars, lines, dots, or whatever. Each format

(graph or fever chart, vertical columns, horizontal bars, or surface
charts, histograms,and so forth) organizes a specific set of data for a
specific purpose.The area is often turned into a color panel "to dress
up the chart." Done
with taste and care, it can be an aid to
understanding, because the color defines the background clearly.

CHARTS AND GRAPHS 49

 Color, however, must be used with care and restraint. Too often,
colorization becomes an end in itself, and if one color is seen as
being good, two are thought to be better. The resultant document
looks like a coat of many colors.

The only format that does not require a coordinate field is the pie
chart, which is a self-contained figure. Pies, however, can be placed
on a tabletop covered with a blue tablecloth, even though blue is not
intrinsic to the pie's message. A common background panel color
can thus tie the pie to the other charts in a group.

Often an entire pie chart is placed in a box of some sort. Such a

frame bears no relation to the specifics of the information displayed.
It is only concerned with the chart as a graphic object and is used as

an opportunity for adding some visual individuality to the statistics.

Further, family resemblance in the frames can be used to tie disparate
units throughout the publication. Color can be used to advantage
here. Standard color schemes coupled with standard frames can be
major aids in establishing corporate identity. (For twenty-four
examples of patterns for boxes and frames, see page 96.) Frames can
be used to cluster smaller units into bunches. (For twelve examples of
patterns for clusters, see page 99.)

50 CHARTS AND GRAPHS

Frames or backgrounds can also be used to depict the subject of a pie
chart, comment on the substance, or make a very graphic illustration
of the material. Such use is growing in popularity because it is the
ultimate step in humanizing dry statistics, making them palatable as
well as understandable to the nonspecialist. The data must be
accurately shown, of course. The imaginative presentation should
affect only the attitude of the reader.

Graphics carry a title normally placed above the diagram. Just like a
headline, which refers to the text that follows, the title over a chart or

CHARTS AND GRAPHS 51

 graph should stand out as strongly as possible so that the reader can
immediately identify the information beneath. It communicates and —
intrigues— best when it is more informative than the usual terse label.
Writing it as short as possible restricts potential interest. (For twelve
ideas on how to tie headings to boxes, see page 98.)

Lines must respond to meaning, as well as technical presentation and

color. The editorial evaluation of each element determines its
importance. The more important the element represented by a line or
area, the more visible the line or area should be. Visibility is a
function of size and contrast. Thus, you must take into account the
need to compensate for reduced contrast whenever color is used. A
red line does not look as important as the same line in black,
because red is less visible on white paper than black. Therefore, it
must be drawn more heavily. (See page 122, where this principle is

discussed in relation to type.)

Arrows are a distinct element in chart making, Not only can they
indicate direction, they can also point out highlighted elements.
Further, they can guide the eye from one element to another
facilitating the reading of charts and graphs. If this were not enough,
they can also illustrate a concept. Color is the material that enables
them to fulfill their potential. (For an analysis of arrows, see page
102.)

Repetitive sources of information, such as keys, sources, north

points, scales, and so on, are all elements that should be thought of
and graphic presentation. Like color,
as integral parts of the chart
they should not be afterthoughts. They should be brought into the
planning process as early as possible in order to weave them into the
fabric of the logic of the presentation.

52 CHARTS AND GRAPHS

A prototypical graph demonstrates the variety of which
a single color is capable. The criterion for its use is

whether the color makes significances vivid.

Charts, graphs, and diagrams are fertile opportunities for applying

color to enriching effect. But the myriad combinations that color, its
screens, and its applications are capable of must be used with
discretion and — wherever possible — with purpose deeper than mere
colorfulness.

The prototypical graph used as the following illustration is merely a

compendium of the basics of charts and graphs: a title, a field,
scales, grids, charted lines — all representing data to transmit. It is

shown in twenty-two (obvious) variations on a theme.

Description of subject Description of subject

3

As W^
3

^
S^
2

/^.
c^ \ A B C
Q
2

/^
C^ A B
\ C

Tint background: a slightly embarrassed neutra

Description of subject
3

S^
^^
/y^\
2

C^ A B c

Title in color: not very thrilling Indices and scales in color: underwhelming

CHARTS AND GRAPHS 53

 Description of subject Description of subject
3

2
Sw
^v
3

2
^ S^

//^
C^ \ vi^
\^ \
A B c A B C
1

The wrong line in color: color implies emphasis Color emphasizes the correct line and ties it to title

3
Description of subject

\ V.
3

\
Description of subject

U y

/ r^\
2 2

/y^
C^ \
1
/ ^^ f
\
Both lines in
A

color; bland and vague

B C ABC
Black grid lines "behind" data lines in color

3
Description of subject

y ./ \ 3
Description of subject

./ \
/ r\\ /A
2 2 >

\,
/ ^f
\
1 1

A B C A B C

Black lines on red grids: reads well Grid lines in bold color: look like prison bars

54 CHARTS AND GRAPHS

Grid lines dropped out I'rom color field Black field, white grid, colored lines: dramatic

Description of subject Description of subject

Field in solid color; perhaps too strong Field in tint of color: better when many charts are needed

Description of subject Description of subject

Field stepped in increments. 'See page 8 Field ramped left-to-right. (See page 87)

CHARTS AND GRAPHS 55

Bold line in color, frame in pale tint: functional Bold color line, gray frame: powerful communication

56 CHARTS AND GRAPHS

The meaning of a chart or graph can be highlighted by color
to help the viewer understand it faster.
But the way in which color is used affects the diagram's interpretation.

Few statistical presentations in graphic form are mere statements of

numbers, published as raw data. In those rare instances, the
information is material intended for the recipient's use or personal
deduction. Scientific research, for instance, is an area where such
purity is expected.

More commonly, statistical data is published to make a specific

point, to prove a theory, to back up an opinion. In other words,
though statistics can appear neutral, they seldom are. Cynical as this
may sound, it is a statement of fact for whose proof ample statistics
can be found.

If you know what this purpose is, you can use graphics and color to
catapult it into the viewer's mind. Deciding what the point is sounds
easier than it is, but making it visible is easier than it sounds. Just
make it bigger and fatter, then color it.

Three fever curves have been plotted as a simple

graph. At first glance, the lines look alike,
despite the fact that thev have been drawn with
different textures. None is deemed more
important than the others. Therefore the viewer is
not guided to any deduction. The color a
background adds nothing to the interpretation of
the information. onlv makes the figure a little
It

more decorative. Were the subject of the graph

4-
the orange-produce business, it might make *\^
sense to tint the background a symbolic orange
color But even that would not be very rewarding *
*
or revealing. 3- \

- ...A >"^ ••'* '

2

/ ^
1
-

\...---
^"\ c

1 1
1 1

/V B c D E f

CHARTS AND GRAPHS 57

 The viewer's attention is forced to line A. The
two other sets of statistics are reduced to
background status against which the dramatic
rise of line A can be seen. They can be studied if
the title and caption give the reader a reason to
bother. Otherwise they are likely to be ignored.
This is not a falsification of the factual data. Strict
accuracy is maintained. It is, however,
statistical
an exaggeration of the way in which they are
likely to be interpreted. Is it ethical to mislead?
Never say never. This example is intended merely
to illustrate what color can achieve.

58 CHARTS AND GRAPHS

Complex relationships can be simplified
by using color as a coding device.
Similar colors relate similar elements to each other.

People instinctively assume that similar colors relate the elements that
bear them. If there are three balls, two of them are red and one blue,
thetwo red ones "belong" together, and the blue one is the outsider.
Canny communicators can make use of this logic in presenting
diagrammed information so that color is used to group and encode
related elements.

A generic two-line graph illustrates how color

relationships can be used to advantage. The This is the title of the figure

statistics are shown here charted in plain black.

6

5 y^^ y
4

jj-- .^^\
3

1
/
ABCDEFGH
The red line carries the red label, the blue line
carries the blue label. (The title is in black, This is the title of the figure

because it is a neutral color.)

6

ABCDEFGH
CHARTS AND GRAPHS 59
 Reversing the colors creates confusion.
This is the title of the figure

5 y'^%^,^/
4

3
/\ .s^K^^^\
2

A B C D E F G H

A more complex situation, where the colors

define more than merely a line and its label. This is the title of the figure

^
Here the field is in two colors: the red indices
6 15
blue ones to
refer to the red material at left, the
the blue material at right. Such information
would be much harder to understand without
color.
5 /^% 1 4

4
/ ^^ 13

PW^
.

3 12

2 11

1
\
" A B C D E F G H

The identical information presented in black with

just one additional color The interpretation is This is the title of the figure
subtler here. Because color is usually used to
^^
/ ^
6 ^^
highlight the important material, the black part is
I

assumed to be the background against which the

red (the important part) is compared. 5 14

4 13

3 12

A B C D E F
V
G H
11

10

60 CHARTS AND GRAPHS

Plain statistical tabulations are difficult to access
because thev require study and analysis.
Color can accelerate the search for the bottom line.

Plain statistics are seldom thrilling to look at. Eye-appeal is never

their purpose. Their purpose is to arrange tacts in clear, logical, and
easy-to-understand fashion. Color can help with the eas\-to-
understand asfject.

As in any charting (and what is a spreadsheet tabulation but an

alphanumeric chart?) there are alwa\s elements that deser\'e to be
stressed. Culminations, high p)oints, bottom lines, projections all —
can be brought out in such a wav that thev stand out from their
background. Ranking information bv such emphasis helps the viewer
to distinguish the important from the less important at first glance.
The onerous process of studying raw data can thus be shortened.

CTRCUM VENTILATOR CORPORATION

First Quarter 1989
Sales Department Statistic
fDollars in Thousands)

-n.,k SalesF'f^rson Jan. Feb. Mar. Tot. Avg. Pet.

Sales Sales Sales Quarter Monthly of Tot.
Sales Sales Sales
1 C. Zachary $450 $1, 100 $950 $2,500 $833 17.6%
2 E Daniels $650 $670 $690 $2,010 $670 14.1%
3 L Gregory $360 $900 $410 $1,670 $557 11.7%
4 A Gregory $410 $560 $700 $1,670 $557 11.7%
5 R Alexis $830 $170 $400 $1,400 $467 9.8%
6 McCourtney $250 $290 $840 $1,380 $460 9.7%
7 D Morgan $190 $270 $570 $1,030 $343 7.2%
8 1 Stopher $350 $320 $330 $1,000 $333 7.0%
9 N Tobin $170 $280 $400 $850 $283 6.0%
10 A Nichols $340 $280 $100 $720 $240 5.1%

Total J4,000 $4.84'-' ?5,390 $14,230 $4,743 100.0%

Percent 28.1% 34.0% 37.9% 100.0%

06-Apr-89

Raw spreadsheet data spewed out by the computer can make the heart sink.
The information is there, but what a job it is to find the conclusions. If
certain information is highlighted by color, the be run in color needs
t>'f>e to
to be bolder, otherwise the emphasized elements disappjear. (Watch out for
red ink: if the numbers represent dollars, use red only for losses.)

CHARTS AND GRAPHS 61

 CIRCUM VENTILATOR CORPORATION
First Quarter 1989
Sales Dep artment Statistics
(Dollar s in Thousands)

Rank Sa lesperpon Jan. Feb. Mar. Tot. Avg. Pet.

Sales Sales Sales Quarter Monthly of Tot.
Sales Sales Sales
1 C. Zaohary $450 $1, 100 $950 $2, 500 $833 17.6%
2 K. Daniels $650 $670 $690 $2,010 $670 14. 1%
3 L. Gregory $360 $900 $410 $1,670 $557 11.7%
4 A. Gregory $410 $560 $700 $1,670 $557 11.7%
5 H. Alexis $830 $170 $400 $1,400 $467 9.8%
6 U. McCourtney $250 $290 $840 $1,380 $460 9.7%
7 1). Morgan $190 $270 $570 $1,030 $343 7.2%
1. Stopher $350 $320 $330 $1,000 $333 7.0%
9 N. Tobin $170 $280 $400 $850 $283 6.0%
10 A. Nichols $340 $280 $100 $720 $240 5. 1%

I^^^K^ Total $4,000 $4,840 $5,390 $14,230 $4,743 100.0%

Percent 28. 1% 34. 0% 37. 9% 100.0%

06-Apr-89

Here the salient points have been separated from the rest of the spreadsheet
by color. The information is classified, but there is one problem: the color
tint decreases the contrast of black ink on white paper, so the very elements

that should pop out are instead harder to read.

CIRCUM VENTILATOR CORPORATION

First Quarter 1989
Sales Department Statistics
(Dollars in Thousands)

k.nnk r.a lesperson Jan. Feb. Mar. Tot. Avg. Pet.

Sales Sales Sales Quarter Monthly of Tot.
Sales Sales Sales
1 c. Zachary $450 $1, 100 $950 $2,500 $833 17.6%
2 K. Daniels $650 $670 $690 $2,010 $670 14.1%
3 L. Gregory $360 $900 $410 $1,670 $557 11.7%
4 A. Gregory $410 $560 $700 $1,670 $557 11.7%
5 H. Alexis $830 $170 $400 $1, 400 $467 9.8%
6 U. McCourtney $250 $290 $840 $1,380 $460 9.7%
7 D. Morgan $190 $270 $570 $1,030 $343 7.2%
8 1. Stopher $350 $320 $330 $1,000 $333 7.0%
9 N. Tobin $170 $280 $400 $850 $283 6.0%
10 A. Nichols $340 $280 $100 $720 $240 5.1%
Tn tal $4,000 $4, 840 $5,390 $14,230 $4,743 100. 0%

Pe rcent 28.1% 34.0% 37.9% 100.0%

06-Apr-89

Since black on white is more highly visible, this version of coloring the
background in panels is much more functional. The salient points are
brighter, the body of information is duller.

62 CHARTS AND GRAPHS

 Tables usually carry information of varying importance.
The viewer can be led to understand ranking
by varying the brightness of colors.

The receding and advancing characteristics of color should be taken

advantage of. As in all communication, the editor must establish
I
which point of view or element needs emphasizing over another.
Then color can be used to fulfill the task of making the intended
point stand out.

Bright yellow, such as process yellow (used below) advances most

obviously. Dull blues and greens recede. How much they advance or
recede depends entirely on the specific hues and the relationships of
The example taken from the advertisement (see
the areas they cover.
original at left) shows the effect clearly.

Used with permission of Espr<

^3?!i!2IH UIMIil ^^01 ^^Q IQQJI

LOS ANGELES 833 Mon. 13:30 Lima Sdo Paulo-Rio
845 Wed. 12:30 Lima Rio-Sdo Paulo
831 Wed. 13:30 Nonstop Rio-Sdo Paulo
831 Fri. 13:30 Nonstop Rio-Sdo Paulo
841 Sat. 12:30 Panama Rio-Sdo Paulo
MIAMI 811 Mon. 21:00 Nonstop Rio-Sdo Paulo
811 Tue. 21:00 Nonstop Rio-Sdo Paulo
801 Wed. 18:45 Manaus Rio-Sdo Paulo
811 Wed. 21:00 Nonstop Rio-Sdo Paulo
811 Thurs. 21:00 Nonstop Rio-Sdo Paulo
811 Fri. 21:00 Nonstop Rio-Sdo Paulo
811 Sat. 21.00 Nonstop Rio-Sdo Paulo
807 Sun. 17:00 Belem
Recife
Salvador Rio-Sdo Paulo
811 Son. 21:00 Nonstop Rio-Sdo Paulo

MONTREAL 851 Thurs. 16:30 Rio-Sdo Paulo

851 Sun. 16:30 Toronto Rio-Sdo Paulo

NEW YORK 861 Mon. 20:00 Nonstop Rio-Sdo Paulo

861 Tue. 20:00 Nonstop Rio-Sdo Paulo
Yellow areas are the vital ones. They exemplify
861 Wed. 20:00 Nonstop Rio-Sdo Paulo
the "freedom of choice" described in the
861 Thurs. 20:00 Nonstop Rio-Sdo Paulo
headline. The green area also advances, though 20:00 Nonstop
861 Fri. Rio-Sdo Paulo
not nearly as dramatically. It should advance 861 Sat. 20:00 Rio-Sdo Paulo
because it lists the destinations, which are 863 Son. 09:00 Nonstop Rio-Sdo Paulo
important, though less than the destinations and 861 Son. 20:00 Rio-Sdo Paulo
dates in the yellow areas. The blue areas in the
background list the background information:
TORONTO 851 Thurs. 19:00 Nonstop Rio-Sdo Paulo
flight numbers, times, stops.
851 Sun. 19:00 Nonstop Rio-Sdo Paulo

CHARTS AND GRAPHS 63

 Would it have made better sense to list them ^T^T^^^H EZII iiHUJ I22J Hi^I^l
From/Day/Destination and then the
LOS ANGELES Mon. SdoPauloRio 833 13:30 Lima
housekeeping facts? Probably. But this would not Wed. Rio-Sdo Paulo 845 12:30 Lima
follow the normal way in which airline flight Wed. Rio-Sdo Paulo 831 13:30 Nonstop
information is listed, and so it might cause Fri. Rio-Sdo Paulo 831 13:30 Nonstop
confusion to the user. Worse, the color contrasts Sot. Rio-Sdo Paulo 841 12:30 Panama
would be reduced, so Day would not stand out
as dramatically —
and so the point of the message MIAMI Mon.
Tue.
Rio-Sdo
Rio-Sdo
Paulo
Paulo
811
811
21:00
21:00
Nonstop
would be obscured.
Wed. Rio-Sdo Paulo 801 18:45 Manaus
Wed. Rio-Sdo Paulo 811 21:00 Nonstop
Thurs. Rio-Sdo Paulo 811 21:00
Fri. Rio-Sdo Paulo 811 21:00 Nonstop
Sat. Rio-Sdo Paulo 811 21:00
Sun. 807 17:00 Belem
Recife
Rio-Sdo Paulo Salvador
Sun. Rio-Sdo Paulo 811 21:00 Nonstop
MONTREAL Thurs. Rio-Sdo Paulo 851 16:30 Toronto
Sun. Rio-Sdo Paulo 851 16:30 Toronto
NEW YORK Rio-Sdo Paulo 861 20:00 Nonstop
Tu^'e"' Rio-Sdo Paulo 861 20:00 Nonstop
Wed. Rio-Sdo Paulo 861 20:00 Nonstop
Thurs. Rio-Sdo Paulo 861 20:00
Fri. Rio-Sdo Paulo 861 20:00 Nonstop
Sat. Rio-Sdo Paulo 861 20:00 Nonstop
Sun. Rio-Sdo Paulo 863 09:00 Nonstop
Sun. Rio-Sdo Paulo 861 20:00
TORONTO Thurs. Rio-Sdo Paulo 851 19:00
Sun. Rio-Sdo Paulo 851 19:00

What is the viewer conscious of first in this ^irJ!7"F^ fftTfr- .rr. EHH ^EHI^l :'i:"'!±lll
version? Time and Stop. Neither is very
LOS ANGELES 833 Mon. 13:30 Lima Sdo Poulo-RIo
important. From is would probably
so dark that it
845 Wed. 12:30 Lima Rio-Sdo Paulo
be ignored. Destination and Flight seem related
831 Wed. 13:30 Nonstop Rio-Sdo Paulo
to each other because the green links them
831 Fri. 13:30 Nonstop Rio-Sdo Paulo
visually. But emphasizing such a close 841 Sat. 12:30 Panama Rio-Sdo Paulo
relationship is not helpful.
MIAMI 811 Mon. 21:00 Nonstop Rio-Sdo Paulo
811 Tue. 21:00 Nonstop Rio-Sdo Paulo
801 Wed. 18:45 Manaus Rio-Sdo Paulo
811 Wed. 21:00 Nonstop Rio-Sdo Paulo
811 Thurs. 21:00 Nonstop Rio-Sdo Paulo
811 Fri. 21:00 Nonstop Rio-Sdo Paulo
811 Sat. 21:00 Nonstop Rio-Sdo Paulo
807 Sun. 17:00 Belem
Recife
Salvador Rio-Sdo Paulo
811 Sun. 21:00 Nonstop Rio-Sdo Paulo

MONTREAL 851 Thurs. 16:30 Toronto Rio-Sdo Paulo

851 Sun. 16:30 Toronto Rio-Sdo Paulo

NEW YORK 861 Mon. 20:00 Nonstop Rio-Sdo Paulo

861 Tue. 20:00 Nonstop Rio-Sdo Paulo
861 Wed. 20:00 Nonstop Rio-Sdo Paulo
861 Thurs. 20:00 Nonstop Rio-Sdo Paulo
861 Fri. 20:00 Nonstop Rio-Sdo Paulo
861 Sot. 20:00 Nonstop Rio-Sdo Paulo
863 Sun. 09:00 Nonstop Rio-Sdo Paulo
861 Sun. 20:00 Nonstop Rio-Sdo Paulo
TORONTO 851 Thurs. 19:00 Nonstop Rio-Sdo Paulo
851 Sun. 19:00 Nonstop Rio-Sdo Paulo

64 CHARTS AND GRAPHS

A prototypical table illustrates the variety that the
addition of a single color can create, despite the fact
that tables are seldom as dramatic as charts and graphs.

There is an infinity of ways to combine the elements in a table with

themselves and the changes that can be
color. Just think of the colors
made by screening; then add black; then add reverses (white type on
black or color); then use clever ways to handle rules and lines. And
then put the whole thing in a box that makes the title stand out The
variety of ways tomix these materials is indeed infinite. What is
definitely not infinite is what you are trying to accomplish with the

presentation. Apart from making the object look prettier, color can
expose or it can hide. It can reveal or camouflage. It can also remain
neutral.

The generic table that follows is shown in fifteen variations to

illustrate the very simplest of ways that color can be applied. The
captions explain how the color would probably affect the viewer.
Process blue has been used because it is used so often for precisely
this purpose.

Topic title

Stub head Column head Column head

Stub topic mmmmmm mmmmm
Stub topic mmmmm mmmm
Stub topic mmmmmm mmmmmm
Stub topic mmmm mmmmm

Topic title

Stub head
HH
•m HilH|
Columrfflea^^
Topic title

Stub topic mmmmmm mmmmnfl

Stub topic mmmmm mmmmH
Stub topic mmmmmm mmmmmm^B
Stub topic mmmm mmmmmi^l
mmnrimm mmmmn^J
i^^^^^^^^^lI^^I^^HH

The simple color panel that covers the black type is not Additional colorfulness, but little improvement in
very helpful; too dark. communication value. No elements are emphasized.

CHARTS AND GRAPHS 65

 Topic title Topic title

Stub head Column head Column head Stub head Column head Column head
Stub topic mmmmmm mmmmm Stub topic mmmmmm mmmmm
Stub topic mmmmm mmmm Stub topic mmmmm mmmm
Stub topic mmmmmm mmmmmm Stub topic mmmmmm mmmmmm
Stub topic mmmm mmmmm Stub topic mmmm mmmmm

The color makes totals pop out. They would be more The title and the bottom line it refers to are tied
dramatically visible were they set in bold type as well together and make the rest of the information
as in color. skippable.

Topic title

Stub head Column head Column head Column head

Stub topic
Stub topic

Stub topic mmmm mmmmm

The highlighting of a topic line is even more noticeable

A single topic line s highlighted with a band of color here than in the example at left.

Topic title
pbpic title

Stub head Column head Column head Bstub head Column head Column head
Stub topic mmmmmm mmmmm Stub topic mmmm mmmmm
Stub topic mmmmm mmmm
Stub topic mmmmmm mmmmmm
Stub topic
mmmmm mmmmm

A screened color 3anel separates a column from its

neighbors, presunr ably signaling its specialness. Screened color areas separate layers from each other.

66 CHARTS AND GRAPHS

 Topic title Topic title

Stub head Column head Column head Stub head Column head Column head
St r. .^^ - mmmmm Stub top c
rr.rr,mrr^,r^ mmmmm
StoD -ca :
mmmmm mmmm Stub top
mmn-T.m mmmm
StL'C top.c
mmmmmm mmmmmm Stub top c
'--^rvr.n^.ni mmmmmm
St.btODC mmmm mmmmm Stub top c
mn-.n-m mmmmm
mmmmm mmmmm

Tinting the field e ncourages the heacJings to stand out.

The grid ot lines a dds another eleme nt to manipulate in Tinting the surroundings encourages the field to stand
color. out. Compare the effect with the example at left.

Topic title Topic title

Stub head Column head Column head Stub head Column head Column head

Stub topic ^^^^^^ mmmmm Stub topic

Stub topic mmmmm mmmm Stub topic

Stub topic ^^^rnmm ^^^rnmm Stub topic

Stub topic • mmmm mmmmm Stub topic

Rules in color sep arate columns and rows. The rule Type in color separated by vertical rules in black. Since
above the totals is in black. type in color is more unusual, it will gain attention.

...

Bbpic ftfle

Stub head Column head Column head Stub head Column head Column head
Stub topic
Stub topic HHHHBHS^^^91
mmmmmm mmmmmr^l
Stub topic
Stub topic Stub topic
Stub topic mmmm mmmmm" Stub topic

An arrangement that is perhaps a little more complex The bold black rules add horizontal emphasis as well as
than the subject warrants. visibility to heads and totals.

CHARTS AND GRAPHS 67

 lO
-

|^.^.,AT.iii.lii'

68 CHARTS AND GRAPHS

 .. .
. ., .

The value (lightness and darkness) of background colors

used in charts and graphs has
a strong effect on how they will be interpreted.

The greatest contrast in print is that of black ink on white paper. (In
slide presentations, the reverse is true: the strongest effect is that of
white type on black background.)

Black type on a white background sparkles more vividly than the

same black type on any other color, it is therefore very dangerous to
run tables with layers of black on white between layers of black on
yellow (or black on whatever). The black on white springs forward
and catches the eye first. The implication is that this is the important
material, and that the other is of secondary importance. It may not be

so in fact, but the viewer will jump to that conclusion simply because
of the physical visual reaction to the printed image.

Black on yellow does stand out more strikingly, but this is a function
of the combination of hue more than of contrast. It is startling, but
not conducive to long-term study. Why is text seldom run on yellow?
Because it hurts to read it.

First-class citizenship l^

held by material in the This type, which is printed on a dark background, is harder to discern than ... 1
layers whose contrast is

greatest. this type wn^cn is priptea on a white background, and stands out more vividly than

dona dark background, and is harder to discern than . .

this type, which is printed on a white background, and stands out more vividly than . .

8 printed on a dark background, and is harder to discern than . ,

this ^yDe A'hch IS pr,nted on a wh te background, and stands out more vividly than

this type, which is printed on a dark background, and is therefore harder to discern. 1

Balanced color B^ on a colored background, no harder

B^"^ ^^'
^^'^^ '^ Pointed is to discern than ,

backgrounds equalize
the interpretation of the
data '^'5 ^P®' ^t^'ch is on a colored background whose tone is similar, therefore . .

' t this type, which is printed on a colored background, is no harder to discern than . .

this type, which is on a colored background whose tone is similar, therefore .

this type, which is printed on a colored background, is no harder to discern than . .

this type, which is on a colored background whose tone is similar, therefore .

this type, which is printed on a colored background, is no harder to discern

The whole backgrounds for type

question of color contrast in is

tricky. White type on color, black type on color: both are

problematic. You have to handle them with care.

CHARTS AND GRAPHS 69

 ...

Plan color with contrast of tone in mind. To ensure legibility, the

background must be dark enough to drop out the type in white, or it
must be light enough to allow the type to be surprinted on it in black.
The table is shown in black (below), and cyan (opposite). Problems
are clearly evident at both ends of the scale. The tables are shown in
increments of 10% screens. The type used is Times Roman, Helvetica
Light, and Helvetica Medium, all in ten point. Notice how much
better the bold type reads in the problem areas. If you intend to run
type in color on color backgrounds, be extremely careful about the
contrast that is likely to occur. Get samples. Run tests. Talk to the
printer. Never experiment on the real thing.

10% This type is surprinted in black

This type is surprinted in black
This type is surprinted in black.

20% This type is surprinted in black ^^^^Hp ^ dropped out in white 20%
This type is surprinted in black ^^^B is dropped out in white
This type is surprinted in black. ^^^Me dropped out in white
is

30% This type is surprinted in black ^^^Re is dropped out in white 30%
This type is surprinted in black. ^^^e is dropped out in white JH
This type is surprinted in black . ^^)e is dropped out in white fl
40% This type is surprinted in black ^^Hbe is dropped out in white 40%
^^Ke

*
This type is surprinted in black. is dropped out in white
This type is surprinted in black. ^^^be
. dropped out in white
is
,^^
50% This type is surprinted in black ^^H|pe is dropped out in white 11
This type is surprinted in black ^^^e is dropped out in white *
This type is surprinted in black.,phis type is dropped out in white

K This type surprinted i^j||jfl this type is dropped out in white 60%
H This type
This type is
is

is surprinted
surprinted
i^^^|
.

.this type
ii^^^ .this type is dropped out in white
Is dropped out in white

70% This type is surprinted in blacM . this type is dropped out in white 70%
This type is surprinted in blacH .this type dropped out in white
is

^
''-.;
. ; .:M,:-r,,-;^', .-.,i ;
r, r>'7)f~k!i this type is dropped out in white
I .

''^H
^ this type
. this type
.this

.
type
this type is
is

is
dropped out in white
dropped out in white
dropped out in white

dropped out in white

80%

90%
'l^^l .this . is

dropped out in white

'^^^^1 type is

'^H . this type is dropped out in white

. this type is dropped out in white 100%

.this type is dropped out in white
. this type is dropped out in white

70 CHARTS AND GRAPHS

 ...
. .... . .,

10% This type is surprinted in black .

This type is surprinted in black

This type is surprinted in black. .

20% This type is surprinted in black .

This type is surprinted in black

This type is surprinted in black. .

30% This type is surprinted in black .

This type is surprinted in black.

This type is surprinted in black. .

40% This type is surprinted in black . ui type dropped out in wnite

IS

This type is surprinted in black .

s type dropped out in white
is

This type is surprinted in black. . is type is dropped out in white

50% This type is surprinted in black . .is type is dropped out in white
This type is surprinted in black . Is type is dropped out in white _
"
This type is surprinted in black. . lis type dropped out in "*
is

60% This type is surprinted in black lis type dropped out in white
is

This type is surprinted in black is type dropped out in white

is

This type is surprinted in black. . lis type is dropped out in white

This type is surprinted in black his type is dropped out in white

This type is surprinted in black. is type is dropped out in white
This type is surprinted in black. . lis type is dropped out in white

This type is surprinted in black this type is dropped out in white

This type is surprinted in black "lis type is dropped out in white
This type Is surprinted in black. his type is dropped out in white

This type is surprinted in black

This type is surprinted in black.
This type is surprinted in black. . lis type is dropped out in white

This type is surprinted in black liis typedropped out in white

is

This type is surprinted in black lis type is dropped out in white

This type is surprinted in black. 'lis type is dropped out in white

CHARTS AND GRAPHS 71

Most people choose hue, forgetting that the relationship of its value
isprobably more critical than its actual "color."
Always be aware of the comparative gray scale.

Using color is always a bit risky, and you never know exactly what it

will look like untilit is finally printed, no matter how carefully you

plot and plan. To avoid mistakes ahead of time, it is always a good

idea to mock up the final as carefully as possible. Markers that
correspond to pms colors, for instance, are widely available. It would
be wise to invest in a full set, if you use a lot of color.

Print out a copy of the black-on-white base drawing (there are few
charts and graphs that lack such a thing), and cover it with a tracing-
paper overlay. Use specially made tissue, which does not allow the
color to bleed through. Sketch in the color with the marker. Then,
having decided which you intend to use, identify each with a swatch
from the color-sample book. If you are using process colors, any
color you choose can be simulated by a combination of the four
process inks.

Then pull your swatches together and compare them for balance (or
contrast) to the gray scale, like the one on the opposite page.
You want them to be in close range, 20% is probably safest, so that
none screams or overwhelms the others. Place the swatch atop the
gray. Half-close the eyes so that you become conscious only of the
tones. When they match, this is the gray value that you are seeking.

rii^v/.*.-i?i»a

"Cv^

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^K '
^ )^^^^^^^^^^^1

1 Beware, because colors darker than an equivalent of 60% on the gray

scale will probably hide the drawing beneath, but this is about the

darkness you need for dropping out type in white most effectively. So
be aware of the area that such a dark color is being used on.

Colors paler than 15%, however, tend to look a bit washed out,
though they are an ideal background for black text. The actual hue
may affect the effect.

72 CHARTS AND GRAPHS

 a

To create color contrast (for instance, to ensure that type stands out
from its colored background) make the difference in gray-scale value
at least 30%.

This message is easy to read because white type

contrasts clearly against the 70% screen of black

L his message is much harder to read despite the brightness

>f its color, because there is hardly any contrast in tone

This is much better: the color of the type is the same green
en J
as in the example above, but the black is paler: 30%

The headline at the top is perfectly legible. It is

ji
white on 70% black. The headline in the middle
is invisible. The background is the same 70%

screen of black, but the lettering is made up of

100% cyan, 100% yellow, and 20% magenta —
nice bright color that happens to have a tonal
value very similar to the 70% black. The
headline in the bottom panel uses the same
green, but the background has been lightened to
30% black. It reads well. Not as well as the
white on gray, perhaps, but considerably better
than the one in the middle. The problem,
therefore, is not that green does not read well on
gray, but what sort of green and what sort of gray
do you attempt to contrast with each other?

CHARTS AND GRAPHS 73

74 CHARTS AND GRAPHS
Gentle, light colors are kinder and friendlier
when type is to be read on them. Bright, dark ones are
more decorative, perhaps. But they can hinder reading.

Any screen over 40% tends to be too strong and dark, and therefore
dangerous, if type is to be surprinted. You can surprint black on
yellow even if it is 100% solid. Its brashness and vulgarity, however,
increase in proportion to its intensity.

Process blue (cyan) is safest in screens. It is perceived as calm and

cool, and it is preferred by people over fifty-five.

Process red (magenta) turns into a crude and unattractive pink when
used alone in screen form.

Both cyan and magenta, used as single screens, denote ordinariness.

They are the cheapest way of getting color onto the page, and they
look it.

More subtle colorization, using muted tones, is preferred by upscale,

sophisticated audiences. Adding 5% black screen is usually the
easiest way to take the curse off plain magenta or cyan.
Light tones in the brighter, primary hues are popular with younger
audiences as well as with the less affluent.

The examples on the next two pages are made of various

combinations of process-color screens. They are shown in 5% and
10% combinations. Some are gentler and more appealing than
others. Remember that they seldom exist by themselves but are seen
in combination with their surroundings. As a result, the initially

cheerful, sunny combination of 5% yellow and 5% magenta will look

aggressively hot when seen in a context of blues or greens.

On a more technical level: when you

print screens in layers on top of
each you have to "angle the screens." If
other, as in all color printing,
the tiny dots were all printed directly above each other, you would
get mud. If they were not placed at just the right distances and angles
to each other, however, the dots would form moire patterns or stars in
the final printed picture. Do not worry, though. Your suppliers (and
your computers) know that black goes down at forty-five degrees,
magenta (red) at seventy-five degrees, yellow at ninety degrees, and
cyan (blue) at 105 degrees from the vertical. You just need to be
aware of this technicality.

CHARTS AND GRAPHS 75

 5% yellow + 5% magenta 10% yellow + 5% magenta 10% yellow + 10% magenta

5% yellow + 5% cyan 'a yellow + 5% cyan 10% yellow + 10% cyan

5% yellow + 5% black 10% yellow + 5% black 10% yellow + 10% black

76 CHARTS AND GRAPHS

5% magenta + 5% cyan 10% magenta + 5% cyan 10% magenta + 10% cyan

5% magenta + 5% black 5% magenta + 10% black 10% magenta + 10% black

5% cyan + 5% black 10% cyan + 5% black 10% cyan + 10% black

CHARTS AND GRAPHS 77

Color's capacity to indicate change can be shown
as a progression of staged hues or tones.
It creates arresting and expressive backgrounds.

The representation of a sequence of change is a commonly needed

device. The usual v^ay to represent this is to number items, 1, 2, 3,
and then to ask the reader to follow the numbers. Primitive as the
method may be, works well enough to describe a series of discrete
it

events. Such a flow, however, can be made to sparkle more vividly

with color. The technique is founded on two simple facts: we read
from left to right (which should be no news to anyone), and some
colors appear to advance while others recede (which is somewhat
To use the factors effectively requires understanding of three
trickier).

additional factors: color progression, geometrical progression, and

how color progression and geometrical progression can be combined
to strengthen the clarity of the flow.

Color progression

Variegation of hue and value effectively splits a is indeed very colorful. Its variety, however, can
series into separate components. Instead of disturb the feeling of flow, making it harder for

creating unifying relationships, it disintegrates. It the viewer to understand the sequence.

Progression can be exhibited most clearly by 15%, 25%, 40%, 60%, 80%, 100%. The darkest
simplicity. Here, a single color is shown in a one (100%) seems to be closest, whereas the
sequence of gradations. The screens used are: lightest one (15%) appears to be farthest away.

For an effect that uses the capacity of the new change the balance. Shown here is 100%
technology to best advantage and produces a magenta, 0% cyan at left; 80% magenta, 20%
colorful result that retains the deliberately cyan; 60% magenta, 40% cyan; 40% magenta,
organized effect, use the illusion of one color 60% cyan; 20% magenta, 80% cyan; 0%
turning into another by stages. This can best be magenta, 100% cyan at right. The result is fairly
accomplished by starting with one pure color at balanced from left to right. If you want to build
left, ending with the other at right, and up to a crescendo, change the proportions of the
superimposing tints in the intervening units that screens. Check in a color book or experiment.

78 CHARTS AND GRAPHS

Geometrical progression

Six units on parade. Even without numbers tar left, as convention dictates. The result is a
showing, we assume numbering to begin at the static presentation without climax.

;s shown overlapping in random fashion. Some appear to be in front, others behind.

The six units all overlapping in the same the ones above to be receding into the distance,
direction. Since we read left to right, we interpret whereas the ones below appear to be advancing.

CHARTS AND GRAPHS 79

Combining the progressions

Adding colors at random to a random

arrangement exacerbates the sense of
disorganization. It is undoubtedly colorful, but it

is confusing.

Organized color helps a little, but it cannot

overcome the problem of the disorganization of
the boxes.

The geometry of these overlaps appears to recede

into the distance at far right. Stronger color at far
left is up front because of its own strength.
also
The sequence proceeds from there into the distance.

CHARTS AND GRAPHS

The colors work at cross-purposes with the
geometry here. The weakest, palest color is in
the "front" at left, whereas the strongest one is in

the box that is supposed to look the farthest

Overlaps that appear to advance toward the

viewer at far right seem to culminate in a climax.
This is why the strongest color at far right is more
successful than if it were the palest.

CHARTS AND GRAPHS

Color progression in use: here is an example of
a simple bar chart. It illustrates how interpretation can be made to vary
by the way the color is applied.

Seven vertical bars,

each with a different
hue. Their individuality
is stressed. The yellow

one seems to be the

most important, because
its color jumps forward

most insistently. This

may or may not be the
desired intention. It is

the visible result.

The same bars in

sequence from light to

dark. Their individuality
is exchanged for a
unified relationship. The
single color implies that
they are all parts of a
whole. The importance
of the light ones is
played down: they are
pale, so they are less
powerful than the darker
ones. Clearly, they are
less important, and the
sequence climaxes in
the bar at right.

w
The monochromatic
arrangement is shown in
reverse pattern, from
dark to light. Here the
bars atleft are the

important ones, and the

ones at right look as if
they were tapering off to
insignificance.

82 CHARTS AND GRAPHS

Two or more colors add
variety but complicate
the interpretation. The
brightness, vividness,
and the advancing and
recessive qualities of
each hue must be taken
into account. The quiet
green is outscreamed by
the brilliant orange.
Though the orange is

indeed "lighter " than the

green, its intensity
advances it in front of
the green, and we
interpret that as
emphasis.

Reaching a climax at far

right, using a sequence
of colors . . .
^li
. and descending
. .

from a climax at left,

using the same colors.

CHARTS AND GRAPHS 83

stepped color progression can be used to advantage
as a more expressive background
in the panel behind the chart, graph, or table.

This background area rendered in a

is a
single color. It is simple and cheap to

create. It also adds a touch of color to

the page or the slide. Its advantage is

neutrality. Its disadvantage is dullness. It

is shown here without a frame or title

block, both of which are opportunities
for more color use.

The vertical subdivisions of the chart or

graph that are to be displayed on the
background can be indicated by color
This technique may well be more
captivating and effective than the usual
horizontal lines. Here the background
is shown in six steps, from light at the

top to dark at the bottom.

Here the sequence is reversed from

dark at the top to light at the bottom.
Which is better? It depends on what is
to be made to stand out most strikingly.

84 CHARTS AND GRAPHS

 Maximal contrast between the
background and the superimposed lines
will occur where the background is
darkest and the lines are white . . .

... or, in reverse, where the

background is lightest and the lines are
dark.

CHARTS AND GRAPHS 85

Color progression can be a far better medium
communication
of subtle
when the colors are ramped rather than stepped.

A background color panel need no longer be a flat tint. What could

only be accomplished at great trouble and expense by airbrushing
has been made easy by electronics. Now you can have a background
that goes from dark to light or light to dark at any rate of darkening
you specify. Further, dithering intersperses pixels of various hues so
that you can create the illusion of going from one color to another.

Ramped backgrounds are visually the most interesting, most

decorative, richest, and certainly the most enjoyable. There is no
doubt going from pale blue at the top of the page to
that a color tint
dark purple at the bottom adds startling originality. Nonetheless, if it
is merely a background that is beautiful for its own sake, then it

remains just that —

a background —
no matter how beautiful or
unique.

People start scanning at

the top and follow
downward.

If there is something
guiding them along,
they alsostart at the left
and follow toward the
right.

From cheerful to somber

CHARTS AND GRAPHS

 The technique can go beyond the ordinary, and it can be exploited to

help clarify ideas, especially diagrams, charts, and graphs. The

in
trick lies in realizing that ramping creates the
illusion of "from . . .

to." Ramping appears to move from dark to paler, or pale to darker; it

flows from warm red to cool blue, from cheerful yellow to somber
brown.

If this capacity of direction is superimposed on the motion of a

graph, then the "from . to" effect is reinforced. This becomes

. .

especially significant if the message of the graph lies at either end of

the time line. The contrast of line against background must be used:
the greater the contrast, the greater its Thus the area
noticeability.
most worth noticing should be placed where the contrast will be the
most dramatic: dark line atop palest background, or light line
dropped out from darkest background.

A line going up, no matter how

dramatic the statistics, is )ust a line on a
colored background. It does not appear
particularly exciting, despite the
implication of good news. It just lies
motionless on the page.

Bv ramping the background color, the

idea of good news is brought out.

The past is shown in the murky

darkness. The good news at the far right
shines out from the contrast of the black
line against pale color. The effect builds
from left to right, following the way
people normally study.

CHARTS AND GRAPHS 87

Color can be used to show progression from front to back.
The illusion of depth can be created
by controlling tonalities and by judicious use of shadows.

We judge distance by paleness. The farther away a mountain is, the

paler it appears. The mountain also turns bluer as distance from the
viewer increases, regardless of its makeup: green trees, brown rocks,

or white glaciers.

The dust particles and water vapor floating in the intervening air are
the physical causes of the illusion. When they are missing, as in the
crystal air of the desert, distances are much harder to determine. The
intervening air is seldom neutral gray, however. Its color is bluish,
purplish. At dawn it is pinkish. At sunset it can be multicolored.

Shadows create the appearance of three-dimensional modeling and

can be added to the tonal procession that disappears into the
distance. The human reaction and interpretation of these illusions is
universal: we see and perceive similarly. Capturing them and
applying them adds not merely visual dimension but also an
intellectual one. It makes the material feel more realistic, more
comfortable, and thus more credible.

CHARTS AND GRAPHS

Here is a diagram of planes overlapped in space.
To make the principle more accessible, think of
them as representing the facades of four
doghouses standing in front of each other.

The four planes have been painted the

same shade of blue. The color gives no
clue as to which of the doghouses is
closest, which the farthest awav.

The small one looks closest, the largest

one farthest away. This is because the
closest one is dark, and the distant one
pale. The intervening planes step back
in logical sequence.

CHARTS AND GRAPHS

 Here the color confuses depth
perception, because the smallest is the
palest,whereas the large one is dark.
The stepping continues logically. So the
confusion is not serious. We just
conclude that the doghouses have been
painted different shades of the same
color, or are we looking down a tunnel?

Lightness and darkness are arbitrarily

rendered. This causes consternation. It
is illogical. The illusion of progression

in depth has been shattered, and the

colors appear random and unrelated.
Normal, expected relationships are
broken.

90 CHARTS AND GRAPHS

The illusion of depth by means of receding color tones
can be reinforced by the addition of
shadows apparently cast by the panel.

The illusion of three-dimensional reality can be created on the two-

dimensional surface of the paper or slide. The technique's steps are
shown here in black and white for simplicity's sake. But we live in a
colorful world, so color increases the realism and thus the credibility
and effectiveness of the illusion.

The smaller one appears

Here are two sheets of to be floating above the
paper The smaller one surface because it
is lying on the larger appears to be casting a
one at a slight angle. shadow.

The width of the shadow determines

how we interpret the distance between
the background and the foreground.
The wider the shadow, the greater the
distance.

As in the illusion created by distance,

where the most distant object appears

to be the palest, the intensity of shadow
color adds to the illusion of distance.
The closer the two elements are, the
darker the shadow should be. The
farther apart they are, the paler the
shadow should be.

For trompe-l'oeuil ffool-the-eye)

realism, the outer edges of the shadow
should be darker than the inside area.
We simply assume that light is reflected
from the hidden underside of the
smaller piece of paper

CHARTS AND GRAPHS 91

 Where there are multiple overlapping planes, it is vitally important to
imagine the planes and their interrelationships and to depict the
shadow widths to conform to the logic of distance. The geometry
apparently becomes increasingly complex, but it just looks
complicated. It is, in fact, very simple. Once the principle of the
illusion of distance created by shadow width is understood, it
becomes a simple matter of addition and subtraction.

Neither of the two planes appears to be

in front of the other. Why? Because the

shadows are arbitrary, unrealistic, and

of equal width. They don't overlap.
They are lying next toeach other.

The determination of distance must be

made first. To make the point
dramatically assume that plane A is five
millimeters from the background (and
therefore the shadow it casts is five
millimeters wide) and that plane B is
one millimeter away (which is why its
shadow is one millimeter wide).

The illusion that B overlaps A is not

believable. The shadows deny what the
rest of the drawing depicts.
The logic of shadow widths must be
taken into account to make A overlap
B. Why does A appear to float in front
of B? It casts its 5-millimeter shadow on
the back plane, but the shadow it casts
is only 4 millimeters wide.
over B
(Subtract the 1 millimeter that B itself

castsfrom the total 5 and you are left

with 4. Not too difficult a calculation,
once you visualize the need for it.)

Now add the principle of lightening the

color of the shadow in accordance to its
width (or distance) and you are creating
credible illusions.

92 CHARTS AND GRAPHS

 All illusions are fragile. They must be carried out with consistency
and care. This is why it is vital to understand about the placement of

the light source. It establishes the direction in which the shadows

fall. The light source should logically be the same when it is shining
on a coordinated group of elements. This helps to ensure the success
of the illusion.

Convention places the shadows at the

lowerright. This implies that the Sun is
above vour left shoulder. Further,
making the width of both sides of the
shadow the same implies that the Sun is
exactiv halfwav between the horizon
and the top of vour head (at fortv-five
degrees).

a:i3DDDCCD
Here is the illusion of the Sun traveling from left to right.

The conventional placement of the light

source can be changed at will. Its
^
implications can affect the way in
which the image is perceived and
interpreted. (Bela Lugosi's Dracula-face
is spooky simply because it is lit from
below.) Here are four diagonals. The
top left is the usual version of casting a
shadow.

'tyM^^^

/ 1 i K
/ \^
/
/ 1
\
9
CHARTS AND GRAPHS 93
 The shape of the shadow describes the
position and shape of the object that is
casting it. These examples are "standing

up," but the backgrounds on which the

shadow is cast are ambiguous: they
could all be flat (with the light source
moving), or they could all be at different
angles (with the light source steady).

The object in the foreground is curved, /

the background is flat.

The shape of the shadow describes the

shape of the object onto which the
shadow is cast. Here a flat plane is
floating in front of the curved
background.

Shadows are thought of as gray. This is why they have been depicted
in black or gray in the preceding examples. This, however, is merely

an accepted convention. It is not how they occur in nature.

Gray is the right color when the background has "no" color. Most
commonly this occurs when the background happens to be a piece
of paper. Since gray can easily be produced from black ink or toner
by using a screen, grayness is the commonest, easiest, and cheapest
method of creating the illusion of shadow in printed matter. This,
however, is an oversimplified cliche.

A shaded area looks darkened because some of the light falling on it

has been blocked by the object casting a shadow. If the original area
was red, it continues being red. The shaded area is darker red not —
gray. An apple continues being a Golden Delicious, it doesn't
suddenly get gangrene, which makes a part of it turn gray. Its gold
color becomes a darker gold.

94 CHARTS AND GRAPHS

If you visit any area where the sun shines brightly, such as Spain, and
become conscious of the colors of the shadows cast on the
whitewashed buildings, you'll discover that gray is seldom among
them. Shadows reflect the light, the sky, the trees, the flowerbeds;
they are purple, blue, brown, greenish. Further, the colors vary from
one side of the shadow to the other. And they change as the sun
moves. They are not static cliches. They are alive, vibrant, exciting,
dramatic. Most of all, they are unexpected.

is there a rule or guideline for doing shadows in color? Is it always

right to change from gray to blue? Or purple? One wishes there were.
Given the variety of contexts, uses, and resultant meanings, no
formulas that make sense can be devised. The only one that makes
sense: open your eyes and observe, then experiment. Play with the
infinite possibilities that the technology now allows. Then have the
courage to try something beyond the safely expected norm.

CHARTS AND GRAPHS 95

Charts, graphs, and diagrams can be inserted in frames,
which presents yet another opportunity for using color
as individual enrichment or identifying continuity.

Boxes and panels are not just boxes and panels. Use your ingenuity
and imagination to make more of them. They are shown here in plain
black on white. Start thinking color: change the lines into color, fill
the spaces with color, surround the spaces with contrasting or
matching color, combine elements. Each is an opportunity to use
color for its own decorative sake. The color can be in the

background, without disturbing the statistics or whatever the content

of the frames may be. Is this decoration? It is. But it, too, has its
legitimate place, so long as it is used responsibly and with restraint.

Twenty-four frames and boxes

From Ian V. White, Using Charts and Graphs (New York: R. R. Bowker, 1984).
96 CHARTS AND GRAPHS
rr
V

i
CHARTS AND GRAPHS 97
Twelve panels with headings

Bold rules could be in color or in black. Background needs to be darker to One three-dimensionalized box atop
drops out or surprints in black,
Title create the illusion of a plane floating in another. Shaded edges of the boxes
depending on the background. front of it. Title in white. must be intwo tones.

Title floats near but separate from the Tints separate the functions of the two The shadow creates the illusion of a
field of the illustration. boxes. sheet of paper floating over the surface.

98 CHARTS AND GRAPHS

Twelve panel clusters

Overlapping units stepped back are shown by means ot Three-dimensionalized boxes with color on the faces, black
shades and shadows (see page 92). edges.

\\ nite panels outlined m bold black, with background a Panels carved out from a solid, with the faces shown at

gentle, light color. different levels.

^ /^ "^r

Varied proportions of individual panels are accommodated by a unifying ribbon in the

Series of rectangles held together
by assembling the panelsin a group and making the spaces background. Shown in black here, it could, of course, be in
between them constant. Rounded corners add personality. another —
strong —
color.

CHARTS AND GRAPHS 99

white panels on a colored background. Colored areas on a black background.

/' \

^
/ \

^
\l

Panels are carved out from a block, but they are shown Panels are the ends of long, rectangular blocks all vanishing
disappearing in perspective. at acommon point. The rectangular two-by-fours are an
opportunity for color variation.

something other than

Pictorialization: think of the panels as
what they Imagine them as being
are: just a panel or two.
billboardson a green hillside; or anything else that makes
sense and where color can be fruitfully employed.

100 CHARTS AND GRAPHS

 —

Color and rules, bars, arrowheads, pointers, bullets,

icons, circles, triangles, ballot boxes, and other symbols
used to identify, rank, organize, or emphasize.

LOGOTYPE

Since color helps to identify, rank, organize, emphasize, and all

those other good things, then it should be used. Unfortunately, color
is too often applied to these visual elements for no other reason than

that they are noi mean something, so coloring them

words. Words
requires a justification that emphasizes the meaning in some way. But
rules, bars, stars,and all those other marks are just visual symbols.
They have no meaning other than that given them by the way they
are applied. They can apparently be made colorful with impunity.
The rationale is simple. The rationalizing monologue runs something
like this: "We've got lists of bulleted items to accommodate on the
page. They look so boring, like most lists. Let's dress'em up
—
somehow. Hey! We've got color available but there's no real reason
to "coke" up any of the text with color. The list is too big to put a tint
behind it, but we've got to do something. So let's colorize the neutral
stuff. Okay, let's make the bullets a green. / //7<e green."

— —
Then the supervisor, client, spouse whoever objects, "Let's don't
make 'em green, that's boring. Let's make them like the rainbow
hey, that's fun! Red, orange, yellow, green, blue, violet, wow!"
(Fortunately this turns out to be too expensive, so they wind up with
a pea-green instead.)

Color is a marvelous material with which to embellish the page or the

presentation. Simple embellishment may well be exactly the right

touch in some circumstances. All this book argues for is that color
not be misused merely in order to make flamboyant use of its
embellishing qualities. It has to be used with purpose. If color fulfills
a clearly defined need, and its presence makes communication
clearer or more vivid, then go for it. (Yes, even if it means making
bullets look like confetti on the page.)

CHARTS AND GRAPHS 101

Arrows and pointers are parts of business graphics that
deserve more care and attention. Coupled with color
they can do more for you than point or identify.

and pointers

can be used to fulfill four distinct purposes.

Indicating the way The most obvious use for an arrow is to show
the direction of flow, course, orientation, compass bearing, or even
responsibility. The point is so clear to start with that color can add

little to its interpretation. It can, however, help to make the sign stand
out from its surroundings, to ensure the visibility of the message.

JL
^^iQIEIiIi]

102 CHARTS AND GRAPHS

 Pointing out The act of pointing toward something identifies it,

it out from its surroundings, and makes it noticeable.

singles

:r!J r-^ tsi ^ fri bf) i^

[-1

:ri nn
The effect is heightened when pointer and pointee are linked by
color.

need a voiuntee- >o^

^^ .-^ re; ^ M t^ i-^ (^.

..j^ A^: /; n f '

^ -^
f , f i^

Illustrating a concept The arrow pointing upward is symbol for

—
good news, downward is bad news as the standard graph cliche
implies. The arrow becoming narrow shows weakening, while its
fattening out symbolizes strengthening. The arrow curving past an
obstacle is understood as overcoming a difficult situation, and so on.
The context in which it is seen affects the way in which the symbol
will be interpreted.' The following figure, for instance, could be
interpreted to mean:

working at cross purposes . tanning all over

CHARTS AND GRAPHS 103

 Leading from here to there Linkage shows the relationship of
the original to the resultant. It depicts development by leading fronn
cause to effect:

The strongest "from . . . to" effect is created by forcing the arrow to

overlap the figures at both ends:

Color must be used to split the arrow from its background so that it is
recognized as floating on a plane apart from the elements it overlaps:

Changing the color from one end of the arrow to the other reinforces
the idea of change:

104 CHARTS AND GRAPHS

The degree of intensity of change can be expressed by color
ramping. The varying color saturation can lead from strong and
dissipate into weak, or start weak and build to strong:

The illusion of realistic dimension, receding into space or coming

closer to the \ iewer, can be created by the way the arrow is drawn:

The feeling of depth is emphasized b\ simultaneous color ramping:

Note that motion is most successfully followed by the viewer/reader

when the "from" is and the "to" is at right. We are used to
at left
reading left to right and find flow that follows that direction as most
natural and least puzzling. It is therefore sensible to use it, because a
diagram is often just a sentence shown in pictures.

CHARTS AND GRAPHS 105

5. TYPE
Using color to
highlight meaning
People are used to reading black ink on white paper. We may call
them "black" and "white" for convenience, but they are hardly ever
that. Black ink and black toner are seldom truly black. They may be
brownish, bluish, purplish, grayish. Let's describe black more
accurately; very dark.

Paper that is pure white is nigh well impossible to fabricate, no

matter how expense is spared. It is grayish, yellowish, creamish,
little

or any other kind of -ish you wish. It also changes color with age.
Let's just call it very light.

People are used to the contrast of very dark ink on very light paper. It
is the traditional way of printing, and it may also be the easiest to

read. The contrast of color against white is inevitably lower than that
of "black." Each hue has a different effect. The darker the color, the
stronger the contrast. The paler the color, the weaker the contrast,
Being aware of this will guide you in compensating by size and
boldness.

To complicate matters, the effects differ markedly when you print

type in color on a white background, or whether you print the
background in color and "drop out" the type in white. (Please do not
forget that dropping out type is technically more difficult, because
the lines tend to fill up with ink except under the most strictly quality-
controlled conditions.) In presentations, where light type is seen on
dark screen, you have to handle type and color with even greater
care than in any printed medium.

To prove the claim that the effects vary markedly, the next eight pages
show the same text, Hamlet's "To be or not to be" soliloquy, set
several different ways for easy comparison. It is set in four
typographic variations: Galliard, Helvetica light, Helvetica medium,
Helvetica bold; in three sizes: 8/8, 10/10, 12/12; using color in four
methods: type in color on white, type in color on black, type in
white on color, type in black on color.

To examine a segment at a time, take some sheets of plain paper and

cover the surroundings. Compare the effect of one unit against
another. Here are some pointers you may agree with:

D You can get away with the smaller sizes of the type on white
background if you use the bolder versions.
D All the larger sizes read better.
D Small sizes of type that are run on dark backgrounds (whether
black or color) do not read nearly as well as the larger ones.
D A serif type, with its thick-and-thin lines, is more fragile and
harder to decipher when used with color than any of the sans-serif
versions.

Remember, this example illustrates a single, though typical, set of

relationships. What is true of one face in one color may not be true of
another. Here we used cyan because it is a color commonly used.

One is the muchness, or the

other consideration to take into account
total volume, of text to The fewer the lines, the
be handled in color.

more freedom you have You can get away with

to take risks.
unexpected tricks, especially when the material is worthy of the
implied emphasis. It will get read no matter how badly you may mess
it up, simply because it is so important. The more lines there are, the

surer you must be that the color handling will not hinder legibility.
When he hi
With a bare bodkin? Who would fardels bear.
To grunt and sweat under a weary life,
But that the dread of something after death.
The undiscover'd country from whose bourn
No traveller returns, puzzles the will.
And makes us rather bear those ills we have
Than fly to others that we know not of?
Thus conscience does make cowards of us all;
And thus the native hue of resolution
Is sicklied o'erwith the pale cast of thought,
And enterprises of great pitch and moment
With this regard their currents turn awry.
And lose the name of action.

To sleep: perchance to dream: ay, there's the rub;

For in that sleep of death what dreams may come
When we have shuffled off this mortal coil,
Must give us pause: there's the respect
that makes calamity of so long life;
For who would bear the whips and scorns of time,
The oppressor's wrong, the proud man's contumely.
The pangs of despised love, the law's delays.
The insolence of office, and the spurns

When he himself might his quietus make

With a bare bodkin? Who would fardels
To grunt and sweat under a weary life,
But that the dread of something after death,
The undiscover'd country from whose bourn
No traveller returns, puzzles the will.
And makes us rather bear those ills we have
Than fly to others that we know not of?
Thus conscience does make cowards of us all
And thus the native hue of resolution
Is sicklied o'er with the pale cast of thought.

And enterprises of great pitch and moment

With this regard their currents turn awry.
And lose the name of action.
To Sleep: perchance to dream: ay, there's the rub;
For in that sleep of death what dreams may come
When we have shuffled off this mortal coil,
Must give us pause: there's the respect
that makes calamity of so long life;
For who would bear the whips and scorns of time,
The oppressor's wrong, the proud man's contumely,
The pangs of despised love, the law's delays.
The insolence of office, and the spurns
That patient merit of the unworthy takes.
When he himself might his quietus make
With a bare bodkin? Who would fardels bear,
To grunt and sweat under a weary life,
But that the dread of something after death,
The undiscover'd country from whose bourn
No traveller returns, puzzles the will.
And makes us rather bear those ills we have
Than fly to others that we know not of?
Thus conscience does make cowards of us all;
And thus the native hue of resolution
Is sicklied o'erwith the pale cast of thought,
And enterprises of great pitch and moment
With this regard their currents turn awry,
And lose the name of action.

ws of outrag«ous fortune

Devoutly to bo wish'd. To die. to siMp; ^ ^ rub;

To sleep: perchance to dream: ay, there's the . ^
For in that sleep of death what dreams may come
When we have shuffled off this mortal coil,
Must give us pause: there's the respect
that makes calamity of so long life;
For who would bear the whips and scorns of time,
The oppressor's wrong, the proud man's contumely,
The pangs of despised love, the law's delays,
The insolence of office, and the spurns
That patient merit of the unworthy takes.
When he himself might his quietus make
With a bare bodkin? Who would fardels bear,
To grunt and sweat under a weary life,
But that the dread of something after death,
The undiscover'd country from whose bourn
No traveller returns, puzzles the will.
And makes us rather bear those ills we have
Than fly to others that we know not of?
Thus conscience does make cowards of us all;
And thus the native hue of resolution
is sicklied o'er with the pale cast of thought.
And enterprises of great pitch and moment
With this regard their currents turn awry.
And lose the name of action.
To sleep: perchance to dream: ay, there's the rub;
For in that sleep of death what dreams may come
When we have shuffled off this mortal coil,
Must give us pause: there's the respect
that makes calamity of so long life;
For who would bear the whips and scorns of time.
The oppressors wrong, the proud man's contumely,
The pangs of despised love, the law's delays.
The insolence of office, and the spurns
That patient merit of the unworthy takes.
When he himself might his quietus make
With a bare bodkin? Who would fardels bear,
To grunt and sweat under a weary life,
But that the dread of something after death.
The undiscover'd country from whose bourn
No traveller returns, puzzles the will,
And makes us rather bear those ills we have
Than fly to others that we know not of?
Thus conscience does make cowards of us all;
And thus the native hue of resolution
Is sicklied o'er with the pale cast of thought,
And enterprises of great pitch and moment
With this regard their currents turn awry.
And lose the name of action.

to be wishd. To die. to sleep;

p: perchance to dream: ay, there's the rub;
that sleep of death what dreams may come
When we have shuffled oH this mortal coil,
Must give us pause: there's the respect
that makes calamity of so long life;
ho would bear the whips and scorns of time,
The oppressor's wrong, the proud man's contumely,
The pangs of despised love, the law's delays,
The insolence of office, and the spurns
That patient merit of the unworthy takes,
When he himself might his quietus make
With a bare bodkin? Who would fardels bear,
To grunt and sweat under a weary life,
But that the dread of something after death,
The undiscover'd country from whose bourn
No traveller returns, puzzles the will,
And makes us rather bear those ills we have
Than fly to others that we know not of?
Thus conscience does make cowards of us all;
And thus the native hue of resolution
with the pale cast of thought.
Is sicklied o'er
And enterprises of great pitch and moment
With this regard their currents turn awry.
And lose the name of action.
To be, or not to be: that is the question:
Whether 'tis nobler in the mind to suffer
The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune,
Or to take arms against a sea oftroubles.
And by opposing, end them? To die: to sleep;
No more; and by a sleep to say we end
the heartache and the thousand natural shocks
That flesh is heir to, 'tis a consummation
Devoutly to be wish'd. To die, to sleep;
To sleep: perchance to dream: ay, there's the rub;
For in that sleep of death what dreams may come
When we have shuffled off this mortal coil.
Must give us pause: there's the respect
that makes calamity of so long life;
For who would bear the whips and scorns of time.
The oppressor's wrong, the proud man's contumely.
The pangs of despised love, the law's delays.
The msolence of office, and the spurns
That patient merit of the unworthy takes.
When he himself might his quietus make
With a bare bodkin? Who would fardels bear.
To grunt and sweat under a weary life.
But that the dread of something after death,
The undiscover'd country from whose bourn
No traveller returns, puzzles the will,
And makes us rather bear those ills we have
Than fly to others that we know not of?
Thus conscience does make cowards of us all;
And thus the native hue of resolution
Is sicklied o'er with the pale cast of thought,
And enterprises of great pitch and moment
With this regard their currents turn awry,
And lose the name of action.

To be, or not to be: that is the question:

Whether 'tis nobler in the nnind to suffer
The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune,
Or to take arms against a sea of troubles.
And by opposing, end them? To die: to sleep;
No more: and by a sleep to say we end
the heart-ache and the thousand natural shocks
That flesh is heir to, 'tis a consummation
Devoutly to be wish'd^ To die, to sleep:
To sleep: perchance to dream: ay, there's the rub;
For in that sleep of death what dreams may come
When we have shuffled off this mortal coil,
Must give us pause: there's the respect
that makes calamity of so long life;
For who would bear the whips and scorns of time,
The oppressor's wrong, the proud man's contumely,
The pangs of despised love, the law's delays,
The insolence of office, and the spurns
That patient merit of the unworthy takes,
When he himself might his quietus make
With a bare bodkin? Who would fardels bear,
To grunt and sweat under a weary life,
But that the dread of something after death,
The undiscover'd country from whose bourn
No traveller returns, puzzles the will,
And makes us rather bear those ills we have
Than fly to others that we know not of?
Thus conscience does make cowards of us all;
And thus the native hue of resolution
Issicklied o'er with the pale cast of- thought,
And enterprises of great pitch and moment
With this regard their- currents turn awry,
And lose the name of action.
To be, or not to t>e: that is the question:
Whether 'tis nobler in the mind to suffer
The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune,
Or to take arms against a sea of troubles.
And by opposing, end them? To die: to sleep;
No more; and by a sleep to say we end
the heart-ache and the thousand natural shocks
That flesh is heir to, 'tis a consummation
Devoutly to be wish'd. To die, to sleep;
To sleep: perchance to dream: ay, there's the rub;
For in that sleep of death what dreams may come
When we have shuffled off this mortal coil,
Must give us pause: there's the respect
that makes calamity of so long life;
For who would bear the whips and scorns of time,
The oppressor's wrong, the proud man's contumely,
The pangs of despised love, the law's delays.
The insolence of office, and the spurns
That patient merit of the unworthy takes.
When he himself might his quietus make
With a bare bodkin? Who would fardels bear,
To grunt and sweat under a weary life,
But that the dread of something after death,
The undiscover'd country from whose bourn
No traveller returns, puzzles the will,
And makes us rather bear those ills we have
Than fly to others that we know not of?
Thus conscience does make cowards of us all;
And thus the native hue of resolution
Is sicklied o'er with the pale cast of thought,
And enterprises of great pitch and moment
With this regard their currents turn awry.
And lose the name of action.

To be, or not to be: that is the question:

Whether 'tis nobler in the mind to suffer
The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune,
Or to take arms against a sea of troubles.
And by opposing, end them? To die: to sleep;
No more; and by a sleep to say we end
the heart-ache and the thousand natural shocks
That flesh is heir to, 'tis a consummation
Devoutly to t>e wish'd. To die, to sleep;
To sleep: perchance to dream: ay, there's the rub;
For in that sleep of death what dreams may come
When we have shuffled off this mortal coil,
Must give us pause: there's the respect
that makes calamity of so long life;
For who would bear the whips and scorns of time,
The oppressor's wrong, the proud man's contumely,
The pangs of despised love, the law's delays,
The insolence of office, and the spurns
That patient merit of the unworthy takes,
When he himself might his quietus make
With a bare bodkin? Who would fardels bear,
To grunt and sweat under a weary life,
But that the dread of something after death,
The undiscover'd country from whose bourn
No traveller returns, puzzles the will.
And makes us rather bear those ills we have
Than fly to others that we know not of?
Thus conscience does make cowards of us all;
And thus the native hue of resolution
with the pale cast of thought,
Is sicklied o'er
And enterprises of great pitch and moment
With this regard their currents turn awry.
And lose the name of action.
To be, or not to be: that is the question:
Whether 'tis nobler in the mind to suffer
The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune,
Or to take arms against a sea of troubles.
And by opposing, end them? To die: to sleep;
No more; and by a sleep to say we end
the heart-ache and the tnousand natural shocks
That flesh is heir to, 'tis a consummation
Devoutly to be wish'd. To die, to sleep;
To perchance to dream: ay, there's the rub;
sleep:
For of death what dreams may come
in that sleep
When we have shuffled off this mortal coil.
Must give us pause: there's the respect
that makes calamity of so long life;
For who would bear the whips and scorns of time.
The oppressor's wrong, the proud man's contumely.
The pangs of despised love, the law's delays.
The msolence of office, and the spurns
That patient merit of the unworthy takes.
When he himself might his quietus make
With a bare bodkin? Who would fardels bear,
To grunt and sweat under a weary life,
But that the dread of something after death,
The undiscover'd country from whose bourn
No traveller returns, puzzles the will.
And makes us rather bear those ills we have
Than fly to others that we know not of>
Thus conscience does make cowards of us all;
And thus the native hue of resolution
Is sicklied o'er with the pale cast of thought.
And enterprises of great pitch and moment
With this regard their currents turn awry.
And lose the name of action.

To be, or not to be: that is the question:

Whether 'tis nobler in the mind to suffer
The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune,
Or to take arms against a sea of troubles.
And by opposing, end them'' To die: to sleep:
No more: and by a sleep to say we end
the heart-ache and the thousand natural shocks
That flesh is heir to, 'tis a consummation
Devoutly to be wish'd. To die, to sleep:
To sleep: perchance to dream: ay, there's the rub;
For in that sleep of death what dreanns may come
When we have shuffled off this mortal coil,
Must give us pause: there's the respect
that makes calamity of so long life;

For who would bear the whips and scorns of time,

The oppressor's wrong, the proud man's contumely,
The pangs of despised love, the law's delays.
The insolence of office, and the spurns
That patient merit of the unworthy takes.
When he himself might his quietus make
With a bare bodkin? Who would fardels bear,
To grunt and sweat under a weary life,
But that the dread of something after death,
The undiscover'd country from whose bourn
No traveller returns, puzzles the will,
And makes us rather bear those ills we have
Than fly to others that we know not of?
Thus conscience does make cowards of us all;
And thus the native hue of resolution
Is sicklied o'er with the pale cast of thought,
And enterprises of great pitch and moment
With this regard their^ currents turn awry.
And lose the name of action.
To be, or not to be: that is the question:
Whether 'tis nobler in the mind to suffer
The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune,
Or to take arms against a sea of troubles,
And by opposing, end them? To die: to sleep;
No more; and by a sleep to say we end
the heart-ache and the thousand natural shocks
That flesh is heir to, 'tis a consummation
Devoutly to be wish'd. To die, to sleep;
To sleep: perchance to dream: ay, there's the rub;
For in that sleep of death what dreams may come
When we have shuffled off this mortal coil,
Must give us pause: there's the respect
that makes calamity of so long life;
For who would bear the whips and scorns of time,
The oppressor's wrong, the proud man's contumely,
The pangs of despised love, the law's delays.
The insolence of office, and the spurns
That patient merit of the unworthy takes,
When he himself might his quietus make
With a bare bodkin? Who would fardels bear,
To grunt and sweat under a weary life,
But that the dread of something after death,
The undlscover'd country from whose bourn
No traveller returns, puzzles the will.
And makes us rather bear those ills we have
Than fly to others that we know not of?
Thus conscience does make cowards of us all;
And thus the native hue of resolution
Is sicklied o'er with the pale cast of thought.
And enterprises of great pitch and moment
With this regard their currents turn awry,
And lose the name of action.

To be, or not to be: that is the question:

Whether 'tis nobler in the mind to suffer
The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune,
Or to take arms against a sea of troubles.
And by opposing, end them? To die: to sleep;
No more; and by a sleep to say we end
the heart-ache and the thousand natural shocks
That flesh is heir to, 'tis a consummation
Devoutly to be wish'd. To die, to sleep;
To sleep: perchance to dream: ay, there's the rub;
For in that sleep of death what dreams may come
When we have shuffled off this mortal coil,
Must give us pause: there's the respect
that makes calamity of so long life;
For who would bear the whips and scorns of time,
The oppressor's wrong, the proud man's contumely,
The pangs of despised love, the law's delays.
The insolence of office, and the spurns
That patient merit of the unworthy takes.
When he himself might his quietus make
With a bare bodkin? Who would fardels bear,
To grunt and sweat under a weary life,
But that the dread of something after death.
The undlscover'd country from whose bourn
No traveller returns, puzzles the will.
And makes us rather bear those ills we have
Than fly to others that we know not of?
Thus conscience does make cowards of us all;
And thus the native hue of resolution
with the pale cast of thought,
is sicklied o'er
And enterprises of great pitch and moment
With this regard their currents turn awry,
And lose the name of action.
Headings can get more attention,
communicate more purposefully, and explain the point more vividly
when color is used tactically.

In all sorts of publications, you will find headlines or titles picked out
in color, just because color is available and it makes the page look
more attractive. Is there anything wrong with No. Its wide use
that?
proves that it is a perfectly acceptable technique.

As always, the context in which color is used affects the wisdom of

using it. Where headings are expected to be run in black (as in
regular newspapers, for instance), using a color is startling. If the title

so uniquely treated is worthy of the distinction, the fact that it is

startling and thus stands out against the others is not merely justified
but an advantage. however, the title has been picked out in color
If,

arbitrarily, just to add a touch a "variety" and to "dress up the page,"

then its is leading the public to a false interpretation. It has
distinction
been made to appear more important than it deserves to be. The
disappointed reader feels cheated, and the publication loses
credibility.

With this caveat understood, the next few pages demonstrates a

collection of —
common even primitive ways of handling headlines —
in color. The variations are endless. Imagine what you can do with all

the different typefaces, in all the sizes and styles that are available.
Then multiply the possible combinations by the thousands of colors
we easily distinguish. What richness of expression!

Clearly, the effects are impossible to catalog, even if it were a good

idea to do so. Type is language made visible. Color adds an
additional dimension to expression in print. Language in type
enriched by color must be blended into a combined means of
communication. Ultimately, of course, it is the message in the text
that matters most. The appropriate handling of the "display" can
make or break the delivery of this message. The function of headlines
is to define the topics and attract attention. They must persuade the

browser who is a potential reader to concentrate and do the work of

reading. This is why it is vital to use color as a verbal/visual tool
rather than mere embellishment.

timc !<.- -tr^ ^r^jn^'^m^

^QBtlWnB priiited 111 coloF
if the color is bright and dark enough (like this
cyan, the "blue" of the four process colors), then
the title will be legible. It will probably not be as
startling as had been hoped, because this
particular color is hackneyed.

This is an '
though emphasized by color
'

Communicators think of color as something

special. This is why they tend to use it for special
situations. But it is paler than black, so the
contrast with the white paper is reduced.
Therefore, the words are not as visible as the
ones in black. The color fails to fulfill its purpose
of highlighting key words.
This is an •mnni'toi^t thougt emphasized by color
Compensate for the comparative weakness of
color by changing the type. Here it is just
enlarged.

Thicranho moro effective way lisplay emphasis

Since black is stronger than color, it makes sense
to run the emphasized words in black,
surrounded by color. This way both colorfulness
and visibility are ensured.

Changing the values can reverse the effect

You can reverse the effect and make the blue
words stronger if you weaken the blackness of
the black ones: here it is weakened to a 20%

screen. If the gray were a color, let's say green,

the contrast of values would make the blue stand
out.

weakens their impact

weakens their impact

weakens their impact

Greening color or black weake

it possible to cover the paper with less color by
is

means of screens. The "tint" or "screen" is

expressed as a percentage, 100% being solid or
complete coverage, 0% no color ink at all.
Normally increments are in 10% steps. Clearly, a
paled-down version of a color is less strong than
its solid.

At left, 10%, 30%, 50%, and 70% of cyan are

shown with 70%, 50%, 30%, and 10% of black

at right. They were chosen to illustrate variety,
and they are the screens used in the following
example.
Combining screens of color and blacl( maices a third liue

Combining screens of color and black maices a third hue

Combining screens of color and black makes a third hue

Combining screens of color and black makes a third hue

Here the same sets of tints shown in the example
above have been printed on top of each other.
Look at the remarkable variety of subtle shadings
possible by such manipulation. The top line:
10% cyan + 70% black. Second line: 30% cyan
+ 50% black. Third line: 50% cyan + 30%
black. Bottom line: 70% cyan + 10% black.

This shows a more complex two-color technique

Each word is run in a different combination of
screens to build to a colorful climax. The black is

constant at 20%. The cyan moves from 20% at

the left by 10% increments to 80% at right.

Tft"fe 'sffac t 'of ITi^ p -'iT'ia^^

"HI|fe^^cftQff<iriQRr^f«teH^'m1*WbQ<dR^^
The effect of drop-shadow in two colors

The effect of drop-shadow in two colors^

Electronic technology makes drop-shadows easy
to produce. The upper example seems more
successful because it is more "natural." We think
of shadows as being dark. Black is perhaps a
little stark. A 70% screen of black is better. But

black type with a blue shadow is unexpected.

 This is type dropped out in wliite from color

Colored background allows relationships that are

unexpected, different, perhaps even startling.
This one is not: plain type dropped out from blue
could not be less amazing . . .

. nor could black type surprinted on color.

TIlis sliows colored type on black

Blue type on black is a little more unexpected

because of the startling quality of the black
background. (Ideal for slides, less so for print.)

White emphasizes an important thought

Attention is concentrated onto the most

important word, if it is left white, and the other

words are colored.

White type with black drop-shadow on color is not as startling as . .

This black type has a white shadow

. . black type with white drop-shadow on color.

1|l|iftHtfNfl%1lSlil^lPAft%WH^ shaclRM^

white type with blue drop-shadow on black is not as startling as .

'l|l|i^'ir[U'3'Vjli;ilMft% iMf^^imiRIMf

. blue type with white drop-shadow on black.

©KiOIlBoiiQDi]® QmQcsDQsQIS©® &sM\ ©©j^ijua©© 'SGq® ©®D®[JS

A thin white outline can separate the black type from its background, if the background is too. dark.
 Color and the traditional way of setting headlines
Using Up-And-Down style with color reduces the effect of surprise
and emphasis that color can engender. Where the words read
smoothly (that is, when they are set all-lowercase), the interruption
created by color is much more dramatic. Upper and lower case
makes words look like separate units and smoothness is replaced by
visual hiccups.

This heading is set in lowercase with a Proper Name

Reading is smooth and the proper name is easily distinguished from its

surroundings, so the result is easily intelligible.

Heading Set in Up-And-Downstyle With A Proper Name

The proper name looks like all the other words, therefore the message is
harder to understand. Too many believe that headings are supposed to be
this way.

This Heading Set In Up-And-Downstyle With A Proper Name

Exaggerating the size of the capital letters exacerbates the problem of
reading, and it is just as illogical as . . .

tHIS hEADING sET IN dOWN-aND-uP sTYLE

. . . this travesty, which demands deciphering because we are not as inured
to it as we are to the Up-And-Down style.

This heading set in lowercase with a Proper Name

Look how clearly the words in color pop out from a smooth background .

This Set In Up-And-Downstyle With A Proper Name

. . . whereas here the capitalization competes subtly for attention and thus
reduces the impact of the color.
Type run in color looks paler than the same type run in black.
Compensate for its weakness
by using bolder or larger type.

Squint through half-closed eyes at a printed page that has some type
in color. This is a foolproof way of filtering out the weak from the
strong. You will find that light type recedes or even disappears. The
type in black will remain, because black ink contrasts more vividly
against the white page than color does.

Because we consider color as special, we tend to put the important

thoughts in color in order to make them stand out. Unfortunately, the
colors often do not come up to expectations, too often the thoughts
Two lines of equal
disappear.
thickness. The
insignificant one is in Therefore,do not fall in the trap of thinking that color is as strong as
blue. black because it looks brighter, more cheerful, more vibrant, and so
more fun to look at. It is not. You have to compensate for its
weakness, to make color as visible as black. There just has to be
more of it, so you have to use fatter lines, bolder type, or larger type
to overcome the problem.

Two lines of unequal

thickness. They are in
balance, because the
blue line is twice as
thick.

To call attention to specific words or To be, or not to be: that is the question:
phrases, you could set them in italics; Whether 'tis nobler in the mind to suffer
boldface; bold italics; larger type size; The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune,
underscored; a different face; spaced Or to take arms against a sea of troubles,
out; and in capitals (though that is very And by opposing, end them'^ To die: to sleep;
unwise). And, of course, in color: but No more; and by a sleep to say we end
look how much paler the words in blue the heart-ache and the thousand natural shocks
look. Yet the color used here, cyan, is a That flesh is heir to, 'tis a consummation
strong color. indeed "strong" when
It is Devoutly to be wish'd. To die, to sleep;
seen in bulk, as in the swatch below. rub,
But when seen as the scrawny, thin For in that sleep of death what dreams may come
lines that type is made of, it is sicklied When we have shuffled off this mortal coil.
o'er with a pale cast. Must give us pause: there's the respect
thatmakes calamity of so long life;
For who would bear the whips and scorns of time,
The oppressor's wrong, the proud man's contumely.
The pangs of despised love, the law's delays.
The insolence of office, and the spurns
That patient merit of the unworthy takes.
When he himself might his quietus make
With a bare bodkin? Who would fardels bear,
Tc under a weary life,
:

Bu: .of something after death,

The unuiscover u country from whose bourn
No traveller returns, puzzles the will.

And makes us rather bear those ills we have

Than fl\/ tn nfhprQ that wp knnw nnt nf?
Thus conscience does make cowards of us all;
And thus the native hue of resolution
Is sicklied o'er with the pale cast of thought.

And enterprises of great pitch and moment

With this regard their currents turn awry,
And lose the name of action.
 Bold type uses fatter lines. Thus more To be. or not to be: that is the question:
blue ink is used, and the words are Whether 'tis nobler in the nnind to suffer
more visible than in the previous The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune,
example. Or to take arms against a sea of troubles.
And by opposing, end thenn'? To die: to sleep;
No more: and by a sleep to say we end
the heart-ache and the thousand natural shocks
That flesh is heir to. tis a consummation
Devoutly to be wishd To die, to sleep;
To S!L- there s the rub;
For in that sleep of death what dreams may come
When we have shuffled off this mortal coil.
Must give us pause: there's the respect
that makes calamity of so long life:
For who would bear the whips and scorns of time,
The oppressor's wrong, the proud man's contumely.
The pangs of despised love, the law's delays.
The insolence of office, and the spurns
That patient merit of the unworthy takes.
When he himself might his quietus make
With a bare bodKm'? dels bear,
To gr, -y life,
But that the dread of something after death,
The undiscover d country from whose bourn
No traveller returns, puzzles the will,
And p' ills we have
Than ot of?
Thus conscience does maKe cowards of us all;

And thus the native hue of resolution

Is sicklied o'er with the pale cast of thought.

Larger tvpe uses more ink, just like To be, or not to be: that IS the question:
bolder type does. The emphasized Whether tis nobler in the mind to suffer
words are therefore more noticeable for The Slings and arrows of Outrageous fortune,
two reasons: size and color. Or to take arms against a sea of troubles,
And by opposing, end them'i' To die: to sleep:
No more: and by a sleep to say we end
the heart-ache and the thousand natural shocks
That flesh is heir to, 'tis a consummation
Devoutly to be wish'd To die, to sleep;
To —
:" -
ay. there's the rub;
For in that sleep of death what dreams may come
When we have shuffled off this mortal coil.
Must give us pause: there's the respect
that makes calamity of so long life;
For who would bear the whips and scorns of time.
The oppressor s wrong, the proud man's contumely,
The pangs of despised love, the law's delays.
The insolence of office, and the spurns
That patient merit of the unworthy takes,
When he himself might his quietus make
With a bare bodkin? ;.:.:. .-.c^,^ 'ardels bear,
To grunt and sweat under a weary life,
But that the dread of something after death,
The undiscover'd country from whose bourn
No traveller returns, puzzles the will.
And makes us rather bear those ills we have
Than fly we know not of?*
to others that
Thus conscience does make cowards of us all;
And thus the native hue of resolution
Is sicklied o'er with the pale cast of thought.
 Here the important words are set both To be, or not to be: that is the question:
larger and bolder. It is little wonder that Whether 'tis nobler in the mind to suffer
they jump off the page. The color The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune,
succeeds in attracting the eye because Or to take arnns against a sea of troubles.
there is enough of it there to outscream And by opposing, end thenn'? To die: to sleep:
the black. True, the fact that the lines No nnore; and by a sleep to say we end
also extend out of the column at right the heart-ache and the thousand natural shocks
contributes to their noticeability. Cover That flesh is heir to, 'tis a consunnmation
up the excess with a piece of white Devoutly to be wish'd. To die, to sleep;
paper to examine the effect of color and e's the rub;
size alone. Shakespeare's words should For in that sleep of death what dreams may come
not be edited to make them fit into a When we have shuffled off this mortal coil,
column. Must give us pause: there's the respect
that makes calamity of so long life;

For who would bear the whips and scorns of time.

The oppressor's wrong, the proud man's contumely,
The pangs of despised love, the law's delays,
The insolence of office, and the spurns
That patient merit of the unworthy takes.
When he himself might his quietus make
With a bare bodkin'? is bear,
y life,
Buf that the dread of something after death,
The undiscover'd country from whose bourn
No traveller retiirr*;, nuzzles he will.

Thus conscience does make cowards of us all;

And thus the native hue of resolution

Is sicklied o'er with the pale cast of thought.

Look how wimpy the pale blue looks by To be, or not to be: that is the question:
comparison to the example above. Whether 'tis nobler in the mind to suffer
The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune.
Or to take arms against a sea of troubles,
And by opposing, end them'? To die: to sleep;
No more; and by a sleep to say we end
the heart-ache and the thousand natural shocks
That flesh is heir to, 'tis a consummation
Devoutly to be wish'd. To die, to sleep;

For in that sleep of death what dreams may come

When we have shuffled off this mortal coil.
Must give us pause: there's the respect
that makes calamity of so long life;

For who would bear the whips and scorns of time.

The oppressor's wrong, the proud man's contumely,
The pangs of despised love, the law's delays,
The insolence of office, and the spurns
That patient merit of the unworthy takes,
When he himself might his quietus make
With a bare bodkin? jar,
To grunt acid sweat unoer a weafy life.
But that the dread of something after death,
The undiscover'd country from whose bourn
No traveller returns, puzzles the will,
And makes us rather bear those ills we have
Than fly to othprc; that wo Uno\*' r<o* of?
Thus conscience does make cowards o^f us all;

And thus the native hue of resolution

Is sicklied o'er with the pale cast of thought.
These examples are identical in type. In To be, or not to be: that is the question:
the all-black version, the words set in Whether 'tis nobler in the nriind to suffer
Helvetica Bold outshout the words set The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune,
in Helvetica Light. In the two-color Or to take arms against a sea of troubles.
version, a better balance is reached. And by opposing, end them'r' To die: to sleep;
This is because process blue (cyan) is No more; and by a sleep to say we end
the equivalent of approxinnately 60% in the heart-ache and the thousand natural shocks
terms of darkness. The all-black version That flesh is heir to, 'tis a consummation
gives a different impression from the Devoutly to be wish'd. To die, to sleep;
two-color version — one which is hard
to visualize, unless you know what you For in that sleep of death what dreams may come
are trying to do. When we have shuffled off this mortal coil.
Must give us pause: there's the respect
that makes calamity of so long life;

For who would bear the whips and scorns of time,

The oppressor's wrong, the proud man's contumely.
The pangs of despised love, the law's delays,
The insolence of office, and the spurns
That patient merit of the unworthy takes.
When he himself might his quietus make
With a bare bodkin?

But that tho .ning after death,

The undiscc rom whose bourn
No travelip : the will.

Thus conscience does make cowards of us all.

And thus the native hue of resolution

Is sicklied o'er with the pale cast of thought,

Avoid the black-ink trap: never judge To be, or not to be: that is the question:
relationships that are intended to be Whether 'tis nobler in the mind to suffer
seen in color by the way they appear in The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune,
black on white. Think ahead, and Or to take arms against a sea of troubles,
remember that you are working with And by opposing, end them'?' To die: to sleep;
variety in values, not just colors. When No more; and by a sleep to say we end
they are all shown in black, this variety the heart-ache and the thousand natural shocks
is not only not visible, but the effect is That flesh is heir to, 'tis a consummation
skewed; the heavy black appears Devoutly to be wish'd. To die, to sleep;
overwhelmingly strong. You must To sleep: perchance to dream: ay, there's the rub;
imagine it the way it will be, not the For in that sleep of death what dreams may come
way it looks here. This is why it is most When we have shuffled off this mortal coil.
unwise to show preliminary schemes to Must give us pause: there's the respect
anyone incapable of visualizing the thatmakes calamity of so long life;
final effect you are planning. (This rules For who would bear the whips and scorns of time,
out all bosses.) Play for time. Ask for The oppressor's wrong, the proud man's contumely,
patience. Only show the finished job. If The pangs of despised love, the law's delays.
you must present preliminaries for The insolence of office, and the spurns
approval, be sure they are very good, That patient merit of the unworthy takes.
very precise, and as close to the final as When he himself might his quietus make
fX)ssible. Don't ask them to imagine the With a bare bodkin'?Who would fardels bear.
intended effect. They probably can't. To grunt and sweat under a weary life,
But that the dread of something after death.
The undiscover'd country from whose bourn
No traveller returns, puzzles the will.
And makes us rather bear those ills we have
Than fly to others that we know not of?
Thus conscience does make cowards of us all;

And thus the native hue of resolution

Is sicklied o'er with the pale cast of thought.
Initial letters are visual interruptions in text.
Their purpose is deliberately more decorative than meaningful^
so they are useful spots for color for fun.

Picking out a random chunk of text and running it in color would be

seen as an unwelcome interruption in a narrative that flows smoothly
from page to page. It would be resented as an unnecessary
disturbance.

Interruptions in the text that signal changes in the direction of

thought, however, are appreciated. They are like "thankyousirs" on
hilly roads in the days before the automobile. They were short, flat
pieces purposely constructed to give horses a breather from the effort
of pulling carts uphill.

The points where one segment ends and the next begins may not be
important enough to warrant starting a new chapter with its new title.
They may not even be strong enough to warrant the insertion of a
subhead. What is needed is an innocuous signal that says, "Yes,
here's a change in direction, so be aware of it, but don't pay too
much attention to it. Don't stop, continue reading, but realize that
you are now starting on something slightly different."

Arbitrary interruption of Major change in the Regular changes in the Minor changes can be
running text is useless course of thought is flow of thought are represented by initial
and resented signaled by a title shown by subheads letters

The special need has been with the introduction of decorative

filled
initials. Their presence is not a resented intrusion, because they

occur in pivotal places. (Or, rather, they should occur there, and only
there. They should not be inserted somewhere on the page just
because they make the composition look good. That would be a
misuse of a serious, purposeful signal.)

Initials come in an forms,* and color can add

infinite variety of
greatly to their visual appeal. Coloris certainly not an important

factor in their identification. A

black initial functions as well as a
colored one. But color does enrich the whole visual effect. Such
joyful embellishment is a valuable attribute in the right place.
Assuming that their typographic character, supported by the right
color, matches the character of the story, such color application is a
valuable contribution to the product.

Nine nonsense verses from "Sylvie and Bruno" by Lewis Carroll are a
delightful opportunity to demonstrate how the same letter H can be
handled in different ways, even though the situations are identical.

*See Ian V. White, Graphic Design for the Electronic Age (New York: Xerox PressAA/atson-Cuptill
Publications, 1988), p. 107 et seq. and Alex White, How to Spec Type (New York: Watson-Cuptill,

1987).
K Le thought he saw an Elephant,
that practiced on a
he looked again, and found
fife:

it was
Heupon
thought he saw
chimney
the
he looked again, and found
a Buffalo
piece:
it was
a letter from his wife. his sister's husband's niece.
'At length I realize/ he said, 'Unless you leave this house,' he said,
'the bitterness of Life!' 'I'll send for the Police!'
Raised, upstanding, or stickup Cut-in two-line drop-cap

e thought he saw a Rattlesnake e thought he saw a Banker's Clerk

that questioned him in Greek:
he looked again, and found it was
the Middle of Next Week.
H a
descending from the bus:
he looked again, and found it was
Hippopotamus:
'The one thing I regret,' he said, 'If this should stay to dine' he said,
'is that it cannot speak!' 'there won't be much for us!'
Hanging or freestanding

He
that
thought he saw a Kangaroo
worked a coffee-mill:
he looked again, and found it was
H le thought he saw a Coach-and-Four
that stood beside his bed:
he looked again, and found it was
a Vegetable-Pill. a Bear without a Head.
'Were I to swallow this.' he said, 'Poor thing,' he said, 'poor silly thing!
'I should be very ill!' It's waiting to be fed!'

Small Dramatically large

He thought
L e he saw an Albatross
oiSM, thought he saw a Garden-Door
that flutteredround the lamp: that opened with a key:
he looked again, and found it was he looked again, and found it was
a Penny-Postage-Stamp. a Double Rule of Three:
'You'd best be getting home,' he said: 'And all its mystery,' he said,
'The nights are very damp!' 'is clear as day to me!'

Plain Fancy

He thought he saw an Argument

that proved he was the Pope:
he looked again, and found it was
a bar of mottled soap.
'A fact so dread,' he faintly said,
'extinguishes all hope!'
Color can make important points stand out.
The implied benefit should be stressed whenever that makes sense.
Accentuate the positive with color.

Emphasizing the benefit to the viewer improves motivation.

Remember, however, that the text has to be written to make use of the
technique. The normal way is to write the text as an essay or report,
to which a headline or title is added. Only when it is finished does
color enter into the thought process. It is too late by then. Color
cannot be woven into the fabric of the text functionally in order to
bring out meanings. It is restricted to retrofitting, so it can do little
more than "dress up" the piece. Does that add anything in addition
to the cosmetic? Only by chance.

If you know ahead of time that color is available, you should

structure the organization of the writing so you can take advantage of
the power can add to words in type. The Yogurt and Dill
that color
Pickle Diet could easily have been written in running-text style, as
the first version shows. The second version adds color to it. The third
version rewrites the copy, so the benefits follow a more visible
pattern. The fourth blends writing, color, and layout to expose the
benefits. This is the version that would achieve highest readership
because it makes the "what's in it for me" factor most obvious.

ThA yogurt and dill pickle diet

Picture a slimmer and more glamorous you: no more Picture a slimmer and more glamorous you: no more
embarrassment in public, when people stare (or you think embarrassment in public, when people stare (or you think
they do). You'll not only weigh less, because the caloric theydo). You'll not only because the caloric
intake balances the energy outflow in this scientifically intake balances the energy outflow in thisscientifically
nutritionally controlled diet plan, but you'll feel better, not nutritionally controlled diet plan, but you'll not
only physically, but mentally. That's what your net self- only physically, but mentally, too. That's what your new self-
esteem and achievement will do for you. You'll have the esteem and achievement will do for you. You'll
energy to do the things you've always wanted to do but to do the things you've always wanted to do but
couldn't —tennis, swimming, volleyball on the beach and couldn't — tennis, swimming, volleyball on the beach and
all those other activities that left you huffing and puffing and all those other activities that left you huffing and puffing and

ashamed. You'll look younger, too, because that is the ashamed. You'll too, because that is the
effect that happy exercise has on the human body. How effect happy exercise has on the human body. How does it

does feel now when you squeeze into your favorite

it feel now when you squeeze into your favorite clothes? Like
clothes? Like an elastic band twisted around your waist? elastic band twisted tight around your waist? Won't be it

Won't be great to fit into all those great clothes again and
it great to fit into all those again and
be comfortable doing it? No more being stuck with the "fat doing it? No more being stuck with the "fat pants"
pants" for you every day. Your self-esteem will soar with the for you every day. Your self-esteem will soar with the results
results of this wonderful new breakthrough in diets. You'll of this wonderful new breakthrough in diets. You'll just love
just love the new yogurt-and-dill-pickle you. the new yogurt-and-dill-pickle you.

Running text with color used only for the title. Color might as Text identically worded, but the key words denoting the
well not be there, for all the good it does. benefits ennphasized with color. Better than the original
monotonous monochromatic version, but still hard to scan.
The visual salesmanship is not as hard-hitting as the verbal
salesmanship of the text.
The yogurt and dill pickle diet The yogurt and dill pickle diet
Picture a slimmer and more glamorous no more
you: Picture a slimmer and more glamorous you: no
embarrassment in public, when people stare (or you think more embarrassment in public, when people
they do). stare (or you think they do).
You'll weigh less because the caloric intake balances
You'll weigh less because the caloric intake balances the
the energy outflow in this scientifically nutritionally con-
energy outflow in this scientifically nutritionally
trolled diet plan.
controlled diet plan.
You'll feel better not only physically, but mentally too.
You'll feel better not only physically, but mentally too.
That's what your new self-esteem and achievement will do
for you.
That's what your new self-esteem and achieve-
You'll have more energy to do the things you've always ment will do for you.

wanted to do but couldn't —

tennis, swimming, volleyball You'll have more energy to do the things you've always
on the beach and all those other activities that left you wanted to do but couldn't —
tennis, swimming,
huffing and puffing and ashamed. volleyball on the beach and all those other
You'll look younger, because that is the effect that activities that left you huffing and puffing
happy exercise has on the human body. and ashamed.
You'll be more comfortable. No more elastic bands You'll look younger, because that is the effect that happy
twisted tight around your waist. exercise has on the human body.
You'll fit into allthose great clothes again. No more
being stuck with the "fat pants" for you every day.
You'll be more comfortable. No more elastic bands
twisted tight around your waist.
Your self-esteem will soar with the results of this wonderful
You'll fit Intoall those great clothes again. No
new breakthrough in diets. You'll just love the new yogurt-
more being stuck with the "fat pants" for you
and-dill-pickleyou
every day.
Your self-esteem will soar with the results of this
wonderful new breakthrough in diets. You'll just
love the new yogurt-and-dill-pickle you.

The text has been edited slightly to allow the six key ijenefits Here the benefits have been made maximally visible in the
to be presented in parallel fornn. Each item starts a new margin at left, where the visual pattern supports their verbal
paragraph. Color helps the eye to find the items and ties them repetition. The benefits are tied to the headline by color as
to the headline by implication. well as placement. The benefits gush off the page.
Link words to pictures by a shared color.
When applied strategically^ the two individual elements combine
into a result greater than the sum of its parts.

Color affects speed of Interpretation. A slightly farfetched example of

a mother duck arbitrarily colored blue (she Is entitled to "the blues")
illustrates the principle.

The duck is blue, the caption

red. The effect is colorful, but
this is all. The redness of the
words is not helpful. It is
neutral at best, misdirecting at
worst. All it does is add a little

superficial prettiness.

Ten ducklings: depressing problem for mother

The word mother picked out

in blue establishes an obvious

and immediately recognizable

relationship to the picture of
the duck. The redness of the
rest of the caption is here an
actively disturbing factor,
because blue is functional,
whereas the red is gratuitous.

Ten ducklings: depressing problem for

Black is understood by readers
as being neutral. Therefore, it
is a better contrast to the blue

than the red in the previous

example. Fortunately, the
picture ot the duck is directly
above the word mother. Such
proximity emphasizes the
linkage between picture and
concept.

Ten ducklings: depressing problem for

The all-blue caption blends

with the blueness of the duck
herself. The problems she
faces are immediately seen as
being the subject under
discussion. The way in which
the caption has been
reworded to allow the word
mother to appear first
emphasizes the relationship.

Mother's depressing
Color can be a series of beacons guiding the reader
into and through text. It can tie related elements together
so that their relationship is noticed at first glance.

How and where color is applied must be based on an analysis of the

meaning of the message. The editor/designer must understand the
point of the message in order to interpret it vividly. The wording and
the color must be planned together.

It is much more difficult when the words are written first and page
makeup follows as a second step. Often such an analysis shows how
wise it would be to reorganize, simplify, and rewrite the information.
It encourages the development of thought patterns that can be

coordinated with color. Such retrofitting of text is extra work that

results in anger, cost overruns, missed deadlines ... but clearer
communication.

Cats: best pet bet Cats: best pet bet

:um peon legum odioque civiuda. Et tamen in busdam njm peon legum odioque civiuda. Et tamen in busdam
rob pary minuit, potius inflammad ut coercend magist rob pary minuit, potius inflammad ut coercend magist
iste fact cond qui neg facile efficerd possit duo conetud iste factcond qui neg facile efficerd possit duo conetud
;sim est ad quiet. Endium caritat praesert cum omning ;sim est ad quiet. Endium caritat praesert cum omning
d non est nihil enim desiderabile. Concupis plusque in i non est nihil enim desiderabile. Concupis plusque in
tabil, sed quiran cunditat vel plurify afferat. Nam dilig tabil, sed quiran cunditat vel plurify afferat. Nam dilig

Kittens are cute Kittens are cute

^lam cum solitud et vitary sing amicis insidar et metus ^am cum solitud et vitary sing amicis insidar et metus
Atque ut odia, invid despciation adversantur luptatib, Atque ut odia, invid despciation adversantur luptatib,
1 spe erigunt consequent ac poster tempor most es uy 1 spe erigunt consequent ac poster tempor most es uy
liligam idcirco et boctor ipsumed effit in amicitad cum iiligam idcirco et boctor ipsumed effit in amicitad cum

Kitties are clean Kittles are clean

de enim bon et malut puer utra dicabit, dysa stante an de enim bon et malut puer utra dicabit, dysa stante an
se concede mus si movent. Tamen dicitis nulla turnen se concede mus si movent. Tamen dicitis nulla turnen
men argument hoc picurus a parvis petivit aut etiam a men argument hoc picurus a parvis petivit aut etiam a
igna aliquam erat voluptat. Ut enim ad minim veniam, igna aliquam erat voluptat. Ut enim ad minim veniam.

Tabbies don't shed Tabbies don't shed

fuga. Et harumd derenid facilis est er expedit distinct, fuga. Et harumd dererud facilis est er expedit distinct,
omnis voluptas assumenda est, omnis dolor repellend. omnis voluptas assumenda est, omnis dolor repellend.
)n recusand. Itaque earud rerum hie tenetury sapiente )n recusand. Itaque earud rerum hie tenetury sapiente
)n possing accommodare toquat nost ros quos tu paulo )n possing accommodare toquat nost ros quos tu paulo

;um peon legum odioque civiuda. Et tamen in busdam :um peon legum odioque civiuda. Et tamen in busdam
rob pary minuit, potius inflammad ut coercend magist rob pary minuit, potius inflammad ut coercend magist
iste fact cond qui neg facile efficerd possit duo conetud iste fact cond qui neg facile efficerd possit duo conetud

;sim est ad quiet. Endium caritat praesert cum omning ;sim est ad quiet. Endium caritat praesert cum omning
i non est nihil enim desiderabile. Concupis plusque in i non est nihil enim desiderabile. Concupis plusque in

Pussies catch mice Pussies catch mice

sing stalibilit amicitiae acillard tuent tamet eum locum sing stalibilit amicitiae acillard tuent tamet eum locum
^am cum solitud et vitary sing amicis insidar et metus ^am cum solitud et vitary sing amicis insidar et metus
Atque ut odia, invid despciation adversantur luptatib. Atque ut odia, invid despciation adversantur luptatib,

A provocative assertion sure to find favorable response among Running the title in color is the ordinary way of adding color
cat-lovers predisposed toward anything that agrees with their to an page. It only succeeds in making the page more
all-text
passion. In plain black, the burden of attraction, explanation, decorative. The color does not help to motivate the potential
implication, and emphasis rests on what the words say. reader to enter the text. Though the subheads clearly list the
rationale for the assertion in the title, they appear neutral and
inactive.
 Cats: best pet bet Cats: better pets than
"um peon legum odioque civiuda. Et tamen in busdam icud quo in perseus, duos labor propter suam susciper
rob pary minuit, potius inflammad ut coercend magist n verbis adem inquite senten confirmavit anim ne aut
iste faa cond qui neg facile efficerd possit duo conetud de enim bon et malut puer utra dicabit, dysa stante an
;sim est ad quiet. Endium caritat praesert cum omning se concede mus si movent. Tamen dicitis nulla turnen
d non est nihil enim desiderabile. Concupis plusque in men argument hoc picurus a parvis petivit aut etiam a
:abil, sed quiran cunditat vel plurify afferat. Nam dilig gna aliquam erat voluptat. Ut enim ad minim veniam,

Kittens are cute Kittens cuter than

Nam cum solitud et vitary sing amicis insidar et merus Et harumd dererud facilis est er expedit distinct,
fuga.
Atque ut odia, invid despciation adversantur luptatib, omnis voluptas assumenda est, omnis dolor repellend.
^ spe erigunt consequent ac poster tempor most es uy )n recusand. Itaqueearud rerum hie tenetury sapiente
liligam idcirco et boctor ipsumed effit in amicitad cum m possing accommodare toquat nost ros quos tu paulo

Kitties are clean Kitties cleaner than

de enim bon et malut puer utra dicabit, dysa stante an ste fact cond qui neg facile efficerd possit duo conetud
seconcede mus si movent. Tamen dicitis nulla turnen sim est ad quiet. Endium caritat praesert cum omning
men argument hoc picurus a parvis petivit aut etiam a 1 non est nihil enim desiderabile. Concupis plusque in
igna aliquam erat voluptat. Ut enim ad minim veniam, :abil, sed quiran cunditat vel plurify afferat. Nam dilig

Tabbies don't shed Tabbies shed less than

fuga. Et harumd dererud facilis est er expedit distinct. Nam cum solitud et vitary sing amicis insidar et metus
omnis voluptas assumenda est, omnis dolor repellend. Atque ut odia, invid despciation adversantur luptatib,
50 recusand. Itaque earud rerum hie tenetury sapiente 1 spe erigunt consequent ac poster tempor most es uy
>n possing accommodare toquat nost ros quos tu paulo ipsumed effit in amicitad cum
liligam idcirco et boctor
Tim peon legum odioque civiuda. Et tamen in busdam icud quo in perseus, duos labor propter suam susciper
rob pary minuit, potius inflammad ut coercend magist n verbis adem inquite senten confirmavit anim ne aut
ste fact cond qui neg facile efficerd possit duo conerud de enim bon et malut puer utra dicabit, dysa stante an
.sim est ad quiet. Endium caritat praesert cum omning se concede mus si movent. Tamen dicitis nulla turnen
1 non est nihil enim desiderabile. Concupis plusque in men argument hoc picurus a parvis petivit aut etiam a

Pussies catch mice Cats: mousers not

sing stalibilit amicitiae acillard tuent tamet eum locum aesent luptatum delenit atgue duos dolor et molestias
<un cum solitud et vitary sing amicis insidar et metus 'uga. Et harumd dererud facilis est er expedit distinct,
Atque ut odia, invid despciation adversantur luptatib, omnis voluptas assumenda est, omnis dolor repellend.

The title extends its tentacles down the entire page, because The cat words are in red, dog-words in blue.The differences
color ties it to the subheads. The color also arouses greater between them are in black. The way in which the writing is
curiosity than ordinary black would and therefore increases patterned encourages what is, in effect, simple tabulation of
the likelihood of the subheads being scanned. There, information. Such a list is easy to distinguish, fast to scan,
perhaps, a detail may arouse a potential reader's curiosity, and very easy to understand.
where the nnain headline might be passed over as
uninteresting. Thus the chances of pulling in readers are
increased.
Color can be used to advantage wherever highlightings
emphasizing^ or separating elements aid comprehension.
Color pinpoints what you want the viewer to notice.

It is in the interest of all concerned to make the viewer/reader's work

easier wherever possible. We gain a friend whenever the user of the
printed piece can find, absorb, and understand information fast. This
is why we should make the structure of the piece evident, so the

scanner can recognize the elements at first glance. We should do

everything we can to simplify the material and ensure its recognition.
-^:
t^" Color can be of great value in this process of classification.

Highlight points worth noting

The attention-getting illusion is based on human curiosity. We all

want to be in the know. Finding out about something we were
perhaps not intended to know about adds a fillip of zest — if not
—
danger to the ruse. If the document you are examining had been
owned by someone else, they might have annotated it with their own
thoughts in the margin or highlighted it in the reading.

Write comments in the Use highlighter to mark Circle significant words Lead arrows from one
margin. Print them in important passages. or phrases in the text in item to a related one.
blue, like the one Yellow is the expected "red crayon." Use light blue or pale
above. color, but pink, orange, green so that the text
or light blue are also covered by the color
believable. retains legibility.

Personal handmade notes such as these are irresistible. The success

of the trick — and —
trick it is depends on the faithful reproduction of
the handwriting and annotation in facsimile of the original. It must
not appear mechanical, or it will not only fail but will put the
veracity of the entire publication in question.
 Identify summaries or introductions
In most documentation, each segment often starts with an overview
of the contents and ends with a summary. If these information units
look different, they can be found faster. They can be studied or
skipped. And because they are different, the rest of the chapter look
that much shorter and less threatening.

Such handling should not be reserved for summaries or

introductions, of course. Any class of information that can be usefully
separated from the main body of the text should be. Consistency of
application as well as of color is the key to success. Running some in
blue, others in brown, would be more confusing than doing nothing
and leaving it all in plain black.

To distinguish the introduction and Distinguish the introduction or

summary, run the type in color. But be summary (or any other similar recurrent
sure to make it bold enough to carry feature) with a color panel. Make the
sufficient color to make it strongly color pale enough not to jeopardize
visible. legibility.

Define change-revisions
The vertical bar commonly placed alongside change revisions that
replace obsolete or changed information in technical documents
stands out more effectively in color, because it is unexpected.
6. BLACK-
AND-WHITE
PICTURES
Adding color for meaning
or dramatic effect
 Since this chapter is mostly concerned with halftones, a definition is

)n of
tone are
by
I

crossed
lines. The number of determines the fineness of the
lines per inch
dots: coarse reproduction, as in newspapers, requires fewer dots per
inch (sixty-five is usual) than normal magazine quality (133 or 150),
but higher resolution is demanded for fine offset reproduction (200 or
even 300). Clearly the finer the dots, the better the detail and tone
values of the reproduction.

Top: an enlargement of a black-and-white

halftone of an eye. Above: a much greater
Color can add an unlimited dimension of interpretive capacity to the
enlargement of four-color separations of an eye.
Magenta in the top-left quadrant; magenta and
ordinary black-and-white halftone. It runs the gamut from simple
black lower left; magenta, yellow, and black at
at
mechanical attention getting to bringing out the subtlety of mood and
lower right; magenta, cyan, yellow, and black at atmosphere. How you use it and where you use it depends entirely
top right. on the specifics of what you are working with and its purpose.
Color can be utilized to focus the viewer's attention
to a critical element in the picture.
Use a strong color, in a small, concentrated area for maiximum effect.

Select the one element that ennbodies the reason for publishing: the
idea readers should care about, the one that they should carry away
and remember. Making such a definition — understanding the
rationale and defending that decision — is probably the hardest part of

the creative process. Once made, the application depends on the

graphic material at hand. The common principle underlying all the
techniques is simple: for maximum effect, use a strong color on a
single small area.

Frame the center of

interest. Bright red has
been used here because
it shows up well against

the gray background of

a photograph.

138 ^ BLACK-AND-WHITE PICTURES

Color only the object under
discussion.
Use a color appropriate to its
nature. A
little red schoolhouse
would look
wrong in green. (As Kermit the Frog
says, "It's not easy being green." He
would look silly in yellow or red.)

BLACK-AND-WHITE PICTIJRFS
 Bring out the implied
-
'^^S^
relationship of two
elements (here the little
boy wanting the flower)
by linking them with
color.
W^
-^%' 1» ll^^^ ^^^^^^^^^^^^1

140 BLACK-AND-WHITE PICTURES

 ^^^W

^1 ^^^^^B' y^'^-.fs^^^^

^^^^^^i 1

^^^^^pTvA4 \\v\

^1^^
Kjl R
HH^
J^-^
^^^HB^St^F I^B^i'''^

pB 31^
^^i^Hcl^
^^^^s^^^^

1^
v^H
Expose the center of
by leaving color
interest
out.Here the tabletop is
dropped out (or
"knocked out") from the
40% cyan screen that
overprints the halftone

BLACK-AND-WHITE PICTURES 141

Replace the whole area with a color tone. Here
the photo has been made into an "outline
halftone" or silhouette, and the blue sky has
been added — and expanded — making the snow
in the foreground appear the whiter.

142 BLACK-AND-WHITE PICTURES

Combining black-and-white photos with four-color
process or second-color tints can enrich — or ruin — their effect.
Surface treatments must have a reason.

Color is an attractive trap. When it is available, it demands to be

used. It must be used with care and circumspection, because it

hinders clarity of communication if it is misapplied. How? By

directing the attention of the viewer/reader in the wrong direction,
often to no more than itself.

A simple black-and-
white original can be
used as original artwork
and treated as though it
were in color. The
resulting four-color
black-and-white
reproduction is far
richer than the ordinary
halftone

BLACK-AND-WHITE PICTURES 143

Black-and-white halftones need not be in plain
black. They can be run in color. Here they are
shown in the three process colors. Unfortunately,
they all look washed-out, because color yields
less contrast than black does on white paper. It is
better to combine the color photograph with a
second one of black: a duotone.

Should you need a washed-out version of a

halftone run in black, you can produce it easily
by "ghosting." A ghosted halftone is one where
the tonal scale is shortened. The shadows are
lightened, while the highlights and middle tones
are retained.

144 BLACK-AND-WHITE PICTURES

The most common method used to add color to a black-and-
white halftone is to surprint a panel of color over the
photograph. The color reduces the contrast in the highlights,
resulting in a "flatter" version of the image. It is, however
more colorful. It is also inexpensive. Here, the plain halftone
is run over 30% screens of the process colors.

BLACK-AND-WHITE PICTURES 145

Duotones and tritones make the most of the color
added to halftones, because they enrich the visual result,
while improving dramatic detail.

A duotone reproduces a black-and-white original in two

colors. One halftone plate is made especially contrasting
in order to pick up the highlights and the shadow areas.
A second halftone picks up the middle tones. Printed on
top of each other, usually in black and one other color,
all contrasts are intensified. An unlimited variety of
effectsis made possible by varying the color balance

and the way each segment is produced.

A "double-dot" duotone is technically similar to the

normal duotone, but both segments are printed in black.
The subtle variations depend on the exact shade of black
ink used: bluish, brownish, greenish, reddish. Most rich-
looking black-and-white reproductions printed on fine
stock are handled this way. Look at any self-respecting
annual report through a magnifying glass.

Black with magenta

146 BLACK-AND-WHITE PICTURES

Cyan with vello\ Magenta with cyan

BLACK-AND-WHITE PICTURES 147

 Tritones follow the same principle as duotones, using
three colors in three halftone segments superimposed on
each other. The third color adds tonal capability
impossible to achieve in simple duotones. They are
more expensive, of course. The effect should be worth
it. A less expensive method is to run a duotone atop a

panel of a light-screen third color.

Duotones and tritones can be manipulated so that a hue

dominates. Such a color can be relied on to tie a group
of images together and is often used as a basis for the
design of the entire package.

148 BLACK-AND-WHITE PICTURES

 pm^
~^
nP'

Blatk an.l - .
.
i
-omjii 20% cyan bcreen

Black and cyan duotone on 20% magenta -

Black and vellow duotone on 20% cyan sere

BLACK-AND-WHITE PICTURES 149

Manipulating the texture of black-and-white pictures
and combining it with color results in unexpected images
thatcan startle, excite, and intrigue the viewer.

The surface treatment of a halftone can create a variety of effects. The

halftone screen itself can affect the look and — interpretation — of the
original picture simply by its own degree of resolution. A coarse
screen like that used for printing on newsprint usually has sixty-five
lines per inch. Such low resolution hides detail. Upscale magazines
printed on good stock usually use a finer screen —
150 lines per
inch — and their high-resolution shows detail far better.

The screens are called "line screens" because they are indeed a mesh
of lines through which the continuous-tone original is
rephotographed to be made into a halftone. The spaces between the
lines is what creates the printing dots. We define the fineness of. the
screen in terms of number of lines per inch.

Screens, however, do not have to be the normal halftone dots. They

can be replaced by all sorts of variations that are technically possible
and commercially available. A few of the basic ones are shown in the
pages that follow. They are, of course, surface treatments. They
manipulate the original in startling ways. Their validity and usefulness
depends on the circumstances and the intended function of the
illustration.

Mezzotints are line conversions of a photograph produced by

shooting the original copy through a textured screen instead of a
screen that produces normal halftone dots. A large variety of such
screens is available. They produce patterns that make the picture look
as if it were a steel etching or printed on linen, woodgrain, or just
about any naturalistic texture you can think of. There is another
group of screens that is abstract and geometric. These screens
produce anything from concentric circles to parallel lines. Using
them as duotones or tritones produces some remarkable results.

The black-and-white original

photograph is compared to a straight
mezzotint version to demonstrate the
texture. The other examples are shown
in on
a variety of ways: plain mezzotint
color background as well as mezzotint
duotones.

150 BLACK-AND-WHITE PICTURES

ilii^l
Magenta mezzotini
80% yellow screen panel

Black mezzotint and Cyan mezzotint and Magenta and cyan mezzotint duotones
cyan mezzotint duotone yellow mezzotint duotone on 30% yellow screen panel

BLACK-AND-WHITE PICTURES 151

 Posterization is a mechanical process that converts a continuous-tone
original into one or more layers of single tones. If a halftone is

photographed as though it were line art (that is, only 100% black or
100% white, like a line drawing) then all the pale grays that are less
than 50% of black drop out or disappear, and all the grays that are
darker than 50% of black turn into solid black. The result is known as
a line conversion, and it can be extremely striking and decorative.

Posterization takes the same technique several steps further. It scans

the original for as many tonal steps as you wish. If you intend to print
the result in plain black-and-white, each such step converted into
is

the appropriately lighter or darker screen. If you are going to print in

color,each layer can be printed as a separate color, creating
unexpected and decorative results.

The black-and-white
original has been
converted into a four-
20%,
step posterization:
40%, 60%, and 80%
steps.

152 BLACK-AND-WHITE PICTURES

 The four black-and-
white steps have been
run here in process
colors: 20% is in

yellow; 40% is in cyan;

60% is in magenta; 80%
is in black.

To illustrate the variety

of effects possible just
by changing colors,
here is the same
posterization now run
in: 20% 40%
black;
magenta; 60% cyan;
80% yellow.

This example shows

another arbitrary change
in colors: 20% cyan;
^j^
40% black; 60% Wf
yellow; 80% magenta. ./'

i^.if5^
BLACK-AND-WHITE PICTURES 153
Drawings lend themselves to embellishment with color
more effectively than any other visual elements.
But, as in all color use, there has to be a reason for using color.

Representational art (drawings, sketches, renderings, diagrams,

pictures, cartoons) can be produced in an infinite range of
techniques. At the most complex extreme, it can be rendered in full

color like a painting. As such, it must be reproduced in process

colors, using the same techniques required
photographs in
to print
color. At the other end of the spectrum, representational art can also
be produced as a simple drawing using black line, without tone or
tint. Clearly, there are any number of variations between these two
extremes.

In the black-and-white version, the doorway is there, but it is not interpreted as important.
Assuming that the doorway is intended to be the focal point, it needs to be made noticeable.

in the two-color version, the color draws attention to itself.

The doorway is seen before its surroundings.

154 BLACK-AND-WHITE PICTURES

 A complex drawing
requires explanation.
Color can help. This
section through a house
is taken from Cottage,

Lodge and Villa

Architecture (London,
1849i. Assuming that we
intend to remodel the
hall and stairway, the
pink helps to attract the
viewer's attention, while
accurately defining the
extent of the proposed
revisions.

BLACK-AND-WHITE PICTURES 155

Color can be applied to technical drawings in such a way
that the viewer notices the aspects we want them to see.
As such; color is a tool used for editing.

You can use color to point to what should be deduced from a

diagram. It can help the viewer to understand the important
characteristics. The more complex the installation, the more useful
does color become, if it is used as an explanatory visual code. What
it is to explain, of course, is at the heart of the editing and
communicating process.

In the following example, color has been used in three distinct ways.
Each answers a different question:

D What this machine?

is

n How constructed?
is it

D How does work? it

Each makes sense in a different way, so they can all be called

correct. The communicator must decide which angle is the most

significant to this publication's specific audience.

What is this machine? The diagram

is delicately engraved on steel and
demands leisure to study and
analyze its intricacies. It is a detail
from a section through
Reichenbach's hydraulic ram in the
saltworks at lllfang in Bavaria
published in the Brockhaus
Encyclopedia of Technological
Knowledge (1857). To the
uninitiated, it looks no less awesome
than a diagram of more
contemporary technology. (If you
insist on detail, check the caption.)

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mit ciner Sibevuna turn 3innriiigen, N. ?lbfIuBrcbt
bet Srafttvafjct,
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Scrbinbung^robv, R. Cijlinbcr fiir m

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S?uftbabu fut baS 3ufIuEi>£ntiI
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aBeitfelfoIbenftange, qq'. Stjget fiir

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156 BLACK-AND-WHITE PICTURES

How is it constructed? Each piece of hardware is separately How does it work? The water flowing through the system is

defined by color. If the significance lies in its assembly, then clearly indicated in blue. But: The assembly of pipe units is

the presentation communicates well. But: If the significance ignored. The diagram tells a different story.
lies in the way in which the water flows through, then this

rendering is a disaster. Not only does it emphasize the wrong

thing, it visually impedes the illusion of flow.

BLACK-AND-WHITE PICTURES 157

 I

Color used on illustrations can be interpretive

or merely decorative. Both are equally valid,
though one is more equal than the other.

A simple line illustration has been used as an example of a variety of

color applications on the pages that follow. The range of possibilities
is infinite when a variety of colors and treatments is available. The
palette has deliberately been restricted to plain cyan blue. want to I

demonstrate the amazing variety that even such a severe restriction

allows. Recommending one technique over another in the following
examples is, of course, irresponsible. What is appropriate in one
context is inappropriate in another. The decision as to which
technique to use depends entirely on what is to be communicated by
means of the illustration, be it factually informative or mood creating.
This is why the captions describe only technical facts.

The original version: a

black-and-white pen-
and-ink drawing of
Montmartre with the
Sacr^ Coeur, by Em i

Weiss

158 BLACK-AND-WHITE PICTURES

BLACK-AND-WHITE PICTURES 159
160 BLACK-AND-WHITE PICTURES
BLACK-AND-WHITE PICTURES 161
 _^

162 BLACK-AND-WHITE PICTURES

BLACK-AND-WHITE PICTURES 163
A L.OLOR
PHOTOG
Using color to
hidden values
 We are so used to the convention that ordinary photographs are
black and white that we think of them as being normal, and full-color
ones as special. But black and white is not normal at all. Photos in
black and white are merely a manipulated form of full-color reality.
The world is a colorful place. Monochromatic presentations is a
technological compromise.

M2 mw

Which version packs Reproducing full-color pictures is, obviously, more difficult than
more meaning? The reproducing monochromatic ones. The colors must be safeguarded
added cost of the full-
against exaggeration, though some degree of latitude must be
color version is more allowed. The effect of looking at a transparency (or chrome) is very
than recouped by the
different from the effect achieved in printing the same image on
added value of the
paper. One is much brighter than the other. Therefore sensible
information it transmits.
And it does this in
compromises must be made. To ensure credibility however, you must
addition to the visual demand the most faithful reproduction your technology can produce.
delight. You must also control the lighting conditions under which
comparisons are made.

Pure light comes from the sun. Colors look different in direct sunlight
from the way they do in indirect lighting. It is always better to
examine colors under a northern light, away from the direct sun.
 Hues appear to change when they are seen under natural light,
fluorescent lights, incandescent light, or varying degrees of light
intensity. Darkness or shade make a difference. So does the
background. This is why it is wise to examine colors in an all-white,
all-black, or all-medium-gray environment.

The special characteristics of electrical light sources vary and

therefore affect the way in which colors appear. Fluorescent lights are
especially influential.

Blue and green paints are best under daylight fluorescents, pinks and
tans under soft-white fluorescents,and reds and yellows under warm-
tone fluorescents.

Areas of color also affect the way that they look. A small swatch is a
very different entity from a wall's-worth. The value and chroma
appears to change as sizes change.

Printers and prepress production houses have specially constructed

booths in which to examine color proofs and originals. The lighting
conditions are standardized and controlled, using specially fabricated
lightbulbs. Often, the clients have such a facility in their production
departments. This way both clients and suppliers can see the
identical effect and agree on the required changes based on common
understanding.

Time was when pictures in full color were a rarity. Their very
colorfulness was reason to stop, look, examine, and study. Now they
are so commonplace that this is no longer the case. You can no
longer depend on color pictures to give your product anything more
than pictures in color. (Unless you handle them with finesse.)

First, you must see what the pictures actually show. Train yourself to

see what the viewer is going to see. It is often different from what
you — —
knowing the reasons for using an image think you are
showing. Do not kid yourself that you will have a cheerful page just
because you have pictures of outdoor scenes. The sky isn't always
blue. Sometimes it lowers, misty and forbidding. Trees and meadows
aren't always lawn green. They can be parched, frozen, and in
shadow. Roads aren't always gravel driveways. They are usually gray,
patched, and embroidered with potholes.

This is not quite as cynical as it sounds. Though the optimist calls the
and the pessimist half-empty, the realist asks you why
glass half-full
you did not use a smaller glass to start with. A realistic attitude leads
us to examine possibilities in color pictures with a little more
subtlety. Here are a few such considerations.

If you have a fine photograph to work with, one that is worthy of

showing large, because its meaning as well as its visual excellence

entitle it to be the dominant eye-catching and thought-provoking

element, let it speak for itself. Give it the room it deserves, and let it
stand by itself in space, so it can be seen unencumbered. And
whatever you do, do not "help it" with additional color. Leave it
alone. Don't ever dilute its impact by using competing color in the
surroundings. When you have good quality materials to work with,
less is more.

166 COLOR PHOTOGRAPHS

The magnetic force that pulls the viewer through the arch and beyond it, uphill into sunlight,
emotional quotient that makes this picture grabbing. Its message is clear and self-contained.
Tampering with the photograph on the page in order to improve it would only harm it.

COLOR PHOTOGRAPHS 167

when putting groups of pictures together on a page,
be aware of their color relationships. They can spoil
or enhance each other as well as the cluster as a whole.

Beware of clustering images with various hues. Their colorfulness

tends to draw attention away from the subject of the cluster to
concentrate it on itself. That can weaken the intended effect.

Pictures of four aspects of water: from stream to waterfall, ocean, and

iceberg. Separately,each makes its point clearly and well. Together, they are
bunch. The colors spoil the effect. They are indeed "natural," but
a listless
they do not support each other. Their moods are different.

168 COLOR PHOTOGRAPHS

 Shared color ties a cluster of diverse images together.

These tour photos share a sunnv, orant^e color This is the only characteristic
that a neatly stackedwoodpile in Switzerland has in comnnon with a detail of
Ayer'sRock in Australia, the entrance to Carmona castle in Spain, or a
gravestone in Salzburg, Austria. But they make a unit, do they not?

COLOR PHOTOGRAPHS 169

 where colorfulness itself is the story, then the more vibrant, the
better.

Exuberant color is the essence of the streetscape of Saint John's, Antigua

Clustering the pictures adds surprise to shock and produces delight and
annazement.

170 COLOR PHOTOGRAPHS

If your purpose is to gain attention, tampering with

the naturalism of the picture can create startling effects.

—
Technology allows encourages color manipulation.—
Realistic color reproduction to create as natural an effect as possible
is the normal way of presenting images. Color, however, can be

changed to create deliberately unnatural effects. This is where today's

visual fireworks comes from. The surreal, the impossible, and the
shocking are all an integral part of the current vocabulary of visual
communication.

The new computerized technology not only allows but encourages

experiments. Tricks —
especially such visible ones are always—
tempting. Use them with discrimination. Resist the temptation except
where its result will yield an improvement in the communication
value of your product.

It would be folly to attempt to catalog the techniques literally at our

fingertips with the right equipment. Suffice it to show eight such eye-
openers as examples.

Well-handled naturalism helps credibility. Here

is a mechanical drawing of a piece of simple

machinery rendered in full color. The

dimensionality becomes understandable,
especially when shadows are shown. Color and
texture help to distinguish iron from wood. There
was an advantage to having enough time to draw
by hand; yet imagine drawing all that wood grain
with a crowquill pen and sepia ink. This is what
this student of mechanical engineering had to do
around 1885.

COLOR PHOTOGRAPHS 171

 Color alteration

If you expect the sea to be Barbados blue, the

sand pinkish, and the sky the Caribbean azure, it

comes as a nasty shock to see the hues changed
out of all recognition.

172 COLOR PHOTOGRAPHS

Posterization

The massive bulkiness of the Galapagos turtles

can be made to look even more brutal by the
posterization process, which exaggerates values
and steps the colors in several degrees rather
than as continuous tone.

COLOR PHOTOGRAPHS 173

 Mezzotint conversion

The texture of the surface and the seal's lv^cIl

already gritty with specks of sand is made even

grittier by the employment of mezzotint screens
instead of the usual halftone screens. The
halftone's dots are replaced by rough squiggles.

174 COLOR PHOTOGRAPHS

Pixelization

The image can be reproduced by computer in a

mesh of small squares. The size of the individual
cells can be smaller or larger. Since there are
details in the photograph that need to be seen,
the squares used here were kept deliberately
small. The larger the cells, the more startling the
effect, but the greater the loss of detail.

COLOR PHOTOGRAPHS 175

 Ghosting

The rocal point is shown in natural balance, but

the background is made very pale so that the

five-legged chicken stands out more vividly.

176 COLOR PHOTOGRAPHS

Darkening

The focal point remains natural, but its

surroundings are darkened so that Mount
McKinley is noticed more intensely.

COLOR PHOTOGRAPHS 177

 The simple picture of the grasshopper sitting on
his rock is turned into something unexpected by
tampering with the outside edges.

178 COLOR PHOTOGRAPHS

Filtering

Using the full four-color spectrum only in the

critical areas of the picture and dropping the

black plate in its surroundings focuses the
viewer's attention where you want it. The effect is

as though one were looking through a hole in a

filter.

COLOR PHOTOGRAPHS 179

Even "reflection copy" can be manipulated to help
the significant idea jump off the page into the viewer's subconscious.
The criterion: validity of purpose.

Reflection copy is merely technical-speak for artwork not already a

transparency that can be scanned on a laser scanner for process-
color reproduction. Such art, paintings, photographic prints,
whatever you want to reproduce, must be made into transparencies,
from which the separations (magenta, cyan, yellow, and black) are
then created.

The separations can be manipulated so that the eye of the beholder is

led to the intended center of interest. It is a matter of controlling and
changing color contrast. In the following example, three different
ways of distorting the brightness or dimness of the surroundings
draws attention to the couple under the umbrella.

Nothing stands out

because colors are in
tonal balance, it was a
gray, cold, rainy day in
Keswick, England, when
my father drew this
pencil and watercolor
sketch. Wartime's khaki
uniforms added to the
general drabness. Only
the Vfor Victory sign
stood out bright.

3t' „.^^

COLOR PHOTOGRAPHS
 The couple under the
umbrella again stand
out from the crowd.
Here, they appear to
have been spotlighted
because the
surroundings have been
made darker.

COLOR PHOTOGRAPHS 181

 The couple under the
umbrella stand out from
the crowd. Their colors
are unchanged, yet they
appear brighter because
the surroundings have
been paled down.

^ -i.

182 COLOR PHOTOGRAPHS

Surrounding or combining full-color pictures with
of color must be done with finesse and grace.
flat tints
Gratuitous color for color's own sake is often damaging.

Let good pictures stand alone. Protect them from corrosion. When
seen in the same context as a full-color picture, flat tints (or spot
color) tend to look somewhat common and cheap. Too often they
infect the picture with their own cheapness, unless the tints
themselves are used with discretion. This is indeed an area where
artistic taste plays an important part.

The blue-footed booby's feet are a gorgeous blue.

True, the blue frame attracts the viewer's
attention to their blueness. Nobody canmiss it.
But the price to be paid for the attention-getting
device is a philosophical one: Does the blue
frame add to their natural elegance?

COLOR PHOTOGRAPHS 183

 Ifyou do want to combine color photographs with spot color, then
repeat the dominant hue of the photograph in the surroundings. This
way the photograph's aura will be expanded over a larger area and its
eminence increased. The page will gain unity and dignity from it,
too. Yet, even in a simple picture with just three colors in it, the
choice depends on your purpose. What you want to say about the
picture leads you to choose one of them as dominant. They all make
sense. But using purple or green would be ridiculous, would it not?

There are but two

dominant colors in this
photograph taken in the
Olgas in Australia's
Outback: the orange of
the land and the blue of
the sky. The pink in the
lady's shirt and blue of
her jeans are tiny but
significant spots.

i)'j^/_'^-
'
^:

The pinkness of the

panel directs the viewer
to the pink shirt,
emphasizing human
smallness in these
massive surroundings.

184 COLOR PHOTOGRAPHS

 J--

The blue panel

emphasizes the sliver of
sky and thus the
enclosure felt by the
visitor in the gorge.

The overwhelming scale

of the land is expanded
by the matching orange-
color panel alongside.

COLOR PHOTOGRAPHS 185

APPENDIX
How to specify color
 "Let's makethis line red and the background blue." We all know
what means, because we all know what red and blue are. But
that
when we down to specifics, there are any number of varieties of
get
"red" or "blue." Light ones or dark ones, shy ones or aggressive ones,
pinkish ones or purplish ones, and which of them are the precise
ones you intend to use? How do you pick them? How do you
measure them? How do you describe them? How do you instruct
someone to produce them? (It matters little whether that "someone"
is human or machine. Both need exact nomenclature to generate

—
what you have in mind.) Specifying color choosing what you want
and then communicating it clearly —
is a tricky process. If color were

simple, it would be easy. But color is anything but simple, once you
get deeper than its simplest superficialities. It is not just complex in its
technical aspects or in the effects it creates. It is even more complex
in the way we talk about it and in the way we control it.

Though surrounded with color, we have not had color under control
until the nineteenth century. Before then, dyes and pigments were
limited to organic materials, many which were very rare and
of
therefore expensive. People wore clothes made of fabrics left in their
natural colors. Only the rich could afford dyed ones.
Then aniline dyes were discovered, shortly to be followed by the
coal-tar dyes, which were developed by Adolf von Baeyer in the
1860s. The first color he produced was purple, and the little snail.
Purpura Haemastoma, the marine gastropod of the eastern
Mediterranean who sacrificed its life to help kings look properly
kinglike, could now live a little longer. Then metallic oxides were

The Dyer, from Jost

Amman's Book of
Trades, 1568. Hans
Sachs's poem mentions
green, gray, black, and
blue as the colors the
dyer uses to dye cloth
for merchants.

^trh ten ^au^ieuin tU <Sctjtt>abntf>ucfjf r

^^rtln/gratt) t)n& fc^trar^/ m &ar ju blatp/

S)arjuicbaucfjfin CO?ange f^ab/

S)af;id:) fir mang fern gcU mti^iat/
manfonfl jufrrben ^e/
2(ucf)tt>a6
9Qn^ mangfti finDfrnanmicfjaUiOf/
 added to the armamentarium of coloring materials. New synthetics
replaced such traditional materials as cochineal (a carmine-colored
dye made of the bodies of female scale insects found only on
cactuses in Central America) and indigo (the blue dye made by
boiling fermented leguminous plants, already used for dyeing
mummy-cloth in Egypt in 1600 B.C.)
Today, we live in an increasingly artificial world. More and more
colors and combinations of colors surround us, beg for our conscious
attention, and impose on our subconscious. Every technology is
burgeoning with color.

Yet the way we as people communicate about color is as medieval as

the way cloth was dyed. Haphazard. Inaccurate. Personal.
Subjective.

Most languages have few names for color.* Most colors other than
the basic color-named ones are named to associate with objects that
have that shade. Or they describe gradations of the original few
—
names light brown, dark purple, pinkish; and so forth.
Roget's International Thesaurus, fourth edition (1977), lists colors in

ten groups, with varying numbers of words to describe each one:

Whiteness: 30
Blackness: 20
Grayness: 45
Brownness: 104
Redness: 140
Orangeness: 45
Yellowness: 88
Greenness: 100
Blueness: 80
Purpleness: 44
696 words

Only a few of these many words are in general use. The number you
might determine as commonly understood probably depends on the
size of your own vocabulary and experience in the field of color. The
obscure rejects are highly specialized terms. Whatever the total, the
number of names still falls far short of the number of colors people
can distinguish. (Studies have determined that it is within human
capacity to distinguish 7.5 million different colors. Some
computerized crt equipment can produce 16 million.)

Color names other than the obvious basic ones are derivations from
other areas:
and so forth are flowers.
Violet, lilac, rose,
Cherry, orange, lemon, lime, chocolate, olive, and peach are foods.
Sapphire, turquoise, ruby, and emerald are stones.
Rust, terracotta, cobalt, silver, and gold are minerals.
Vermilion, crimson, and carmine are worms or insects.
Canary and cardinal are birds.
Salmon is a fish.
Purple is a shellfish.
Magenta, Delft, and Siena are places.

e than two hundred names for brown. They have

188 APPENDIX
What is puce, taupe, or beige? We
talk about charcoal, pink, parrot
green, myosotis blue, fuchsia, Caribbean blue. What are they?
Exactly. Nothing but personal interpretations. Toast is a color. Do you
like yours light, medium, or burned? They are inexact, variable, and
confusing. They are also deeply influenced by current fads and
fashions.

Even the basic terms defining groups of colors are imprecise and
vague. They are easier to describe than they are to define. For
instance:

Cool colors: Hues from the blue, green, and violet families; also pale
yellows, whites, and light pinks. They subdue.

Warm colors: Hues from the yellow, orange and red families; also
intense greens and violets. They excite.
Somber colors: Dark blue, dark green, dark purple, dark gray. They
depress. (Sombra means shadow in Spanish.)

Bright colors: Pure hues with high chroma and reflectance.

T/nt5; Hues that result from adding white to a pure color. Tint
stepping means adding white to paints to produce paler versions.
Hues dulled by the addition of black, gray, white, or the
Tones.-
complementary color. Also known as neutralized hues. They are
quiet.

Pastels: Hues that result from adding white to a tone. They are pale,
cheerful, but a bit washed-out.

Many theories of color organization have been devised.They bring

order out of chaos, since they are scientific studies of wavelengths,
pigment concentrations, and so forth. They are vital to the
understanding and production of balanced technology. Even
outlining them, however, is beyond the scope of this how-to book.

We gratefully acknowledge their existence and use their results. In

practice, all we need is a good way to communicate about colors.

There are four widely used systems of nomenclature: the Munsell

system, which is based on a theory of color; the Pantone® Matching
system* (the pms colors), which started as a commercial system of
mixing printing inks but has grown into an internationally accepted
means of practical communication; the Natural Color system, based
on the way color is perceived; and the cie Notation system, which is

based on accurate measurement of light.

The Munsell system

Why should you bother to understand it? Because most people who
use color do. Because it is accepted by the U.S. National Bureau of
Standards, the Optical Society of America, the Japanese Industrial
Standards for Color, the British Standards Institution, the German
Standard Color System, and many others. Because it uses
terminology that is accurate when understood in its context. Most of

•Pantone, Inc.'s check standard trademark for color reproduction and color reproduction materials.

APPENDIX 18'
 all,because you can go to any supply-shop and buy sheets of
colored paper (called Color-Aid) coordinated with its system. You can
use them as a frame of reference.

The Color-Aid paper comes in 220 colors: twenty-four basic hues,

four tints, and three shades of each hue. Also sixteen grays, black,
and white. They are labeled, for instance, OYOS2 or an equivalent
number, which you cross-check in the swatchbook. (Orange-yellow-
orange shade 2, in this example.)

The swatchbook is a good $16.00 investment.

The full-sized sheets of silkscreen flat matte color measure 18 x 24
inches and cost about $1.65 apiece.

The system devised by Albert H. Munsell is a precise language, a

method of notation, as well as a method of comparison. It is readily
applicable to scientific and technical purposes because of its
accuracy. The simple code consisting of one letter and three
numbers, can describe any color accurately —
or accurately enough
for practical purposes of identification.

The Munsell system is based on five colors: red, yellow, green, blue,
purple.

Each of these colors has three characteristics:

1. Hue.- The distinction of one color from another. It is shown

clockwise as a circle around the equator of the Munsell Globe.
Hue is determined by a spectroscope, which differentiates colors
by measuring the spectral wavelength composition. This
composition produces the perception of greenness, pinkness,
redness. Color measurement is done by a spectrophotometer,
which measures light reflectance. It converts the color into the
dominant wavelength and defines brightness and purity.

2. Value: The measurement of relative darkness to lightness. It is

j
(pk^-^- -

shown with white at the head and black at the foot of the scale
forming the vertical axis of the Munsell Globe. Value is
determined by a photometer, which measures darkness in degrees.

3. Chroma (or saturation): The measurement of the relative weakness

or strength; that is, It is shown horizontally from
purity of a color.
u neutral at left to maximum saturation at right in branches from the
lOel"!^^' central axis leading out to the perimeter of the Munsell Globe.
Chroma is determined by comparison to Maxwell Disk, which
i(ZA- T\or^ ,^ows intensity in a series of steps.

-'J

The Munsell Globe, sometimes called the Munsell Tree, is shown here in
diagrammatic form. The value (from 1, black, to 9, white) forms the vertical
axis or trunk. Hues are arrayed as around the center. They go from yellow to
red, purple, blue, and green back to yellow. Their purest form is at level 5.
Above they become paler, below they become darker Chroma or saturation
is shown by steps leading out from the axis, with the minimum or gray at the

center and the brightest possible at the perimeter. Saturation varies not only
with each hue but also with each value step.

190 APPENDIX
The Pantone system
Pantone is a registered trademark for color reproduction materials.
The Pantone Matching System is a system of color standardization
developed originally for printers and designers, but now accepted
throughout industry and in computerized technology. It consists of
more than 533 colors, each numbered or named.
It is a precise and reliable method of selecting a color and

communicating about it. Accurate color matching is made possible,

and the system is versatile enough to allow application to most
requirements, from on-screen use to signs painted on trucks, let
alone any kind of printing technology. It is also one of the basic color
methods used in software.

The colors are available in a range of coordinated materials: artists'

and designers' materials of all sorts, such as markers, papers, and
transparent film overlays; also printers' inking formulas, as well as:

D A small (2-x-4-inch) swatchbook of fifty-five color sheets on

uncoated paper, which costs $12.00.
D Sheets of uncoated paper, which also contain a printing guide for a
variety of effects, including adding black screen, which costs
$4.50.
D The Specifier, which contains all the colors on coated and
uncoated stock as tear-out chips, which costs $79.50. (Colors on
coated stock appear more brilliant, because the coating on the
surface prevents the ink from being absorbed into the fabric of the
paper. The color numbers are followed by a U or a C standing for
uncoated or coated paper.)
n The Tint Selector, which shows the effects created by 10% to 80%
screens of five hundred colors, which costs $79.50.
D The Color-and-Black Selector, which shows eighty-one colors in
percentage combinations with black, which costs $79.50.
D The Process Color Selector, which displays nine thousand hues
composed of 10% through 100% screen combinations of the
process colors, which costs $195.00.
D The Process Color Simulator, which matches Pantone colors in
process printing, which costs $195.00.
D The Two-Color Selector, which shows a comprehensive display of
two color mixtures in 100% as well as 10% to 70% combinations,
which costs $95.00
D The Professional Color System, which has 1225 standardized
colors for people who work with materials other than printing inks
(cosmetics, paints, fabrics, carpeting, ceramics, and so forth),
which costs $125.00.

The purpose of citing this list of the currently available Pantone

materials is not to create publicity for an already well-known service
or product but to demonstrate their scope, which makes them so
widely accepted and used.

Note that the various Pantone products and systems are not generic,
and that they are protected by copyrights and registered trademarks.
They can be used to communicate color selection. Any reproduction
of a color accompanied by its identification intended for use in
corporate manuals or graphic color standards, however, should first
be checked out with their Trademark Control Department, 55

APPENDIX 191
 Knickerbocker Road, Moonachie, N.]., 07074; telephone (201)
935-5500.

The Pantone Color Institute, 6324 Variel Avenue, Suite 319,

Woodland Hills, Calif., 91367; telephone (818) 340-2370, publishes
Color News. It is a newsletter full of fascinating information. Volume
3, number 4 (December 1988) cites $5.00 as the price per copy.

Natural Color system

The Natural Color system is the Swedish standard color notation
system, widely used throughout Scandinavia, Switzerland, and Great
Britain. It is language based on the way colors are perceived.
a color
It is founded on the fact that there are six elementary colors that

stand alone: yellow, red, blue, green, white, and black. All other
colors can be described by their degree of resemblance to two or
more of them. The theory, proposed by Ewald Hering of Germany in
the late nineteenth century has been developed by Anders Hard of
Sweden.

Organized by color in percentage increments from light to dark and

dull to brilliant, the system is shown in a color atlas with sixteen
hundred color samples. Each color is located by two reference
numbers. The first double number describes its nuance (its degree of
resemblance to black, then its closeness to chromatic purity). The
second reference describes the hue (the proportional degree of
resemblance to two chromatic colors, in percentages always adding —
up to 100). A number of other subtleties are, of course, inherent in
the system.

What makes it so "natural" is the way in which the colors are

grouped. The relationships are instinctive, arranged the way people

tend to think of colors. What makes it a useful tool for color
specifiers is the fact that manufacturers of industrial materials,
licensed by the International Commission on Illumination to be
members of the Color Dimension Association, publish a catalog that
presents their products organized by color. The dependably
standardized color nomenclature eases the search for the right
material. Though the system has not yet penetrated the printing
industry to any great extent, its usefulness is being noticed and its
influence is growing, especially in the corporate-identity area. There,
it is found to be immensely practical in defining the required colors

across the whole spectrum of corporate requirements. A formula

guide (747XR) is available to translate the pms ink colors into
equivalent Natural Color system nomenclature.

The Colour Atlas, index fans in chromatic order, paper samples, and
other materials are available from Edgebrite Ltd., 60 High Street,
Bridgnorth, Shropshire WV
164DX, Great Britain.

The ciE Notation system

The Commission Internationale de I'Eclairage (International
Commission on Illumination) in 1931 established a set of standards
that are not based on matching physical color samples but rather on
accurate measurement of light.

192 APPENDIX
The colorimeter measures the light energy and wavelengths reflected
by a sample. It defines the intensity of the light (luminance), its hue,
and its saturation. Combined, they produce a value of chromaticity.

The chromaticity diagram or "color map" is shown below. The outer

boundary of the gray area shows the pure spectrum colors indicated
by their wavelength number. (For instance, 578 is yellow, 492 blue-
green, 615 red.) The colored area demonstrates the colors printable
with process colors, with the purest on the perimeter. At the center is
the light source, which combines all wavelengths and therefore
creates whiteness. The numbers around the margin are merely an x-y
grid for accurate color placement. Tomato red, for instance, is
0.5x 0.35y.

The value of the ciE system lies in its permanence. Color samples, no
matter how produced and preserved, tend to fade over time.
carefully
The precise numbers, however, can be used as controls in the
cie
preparation of replacement swatches.

Substrates affect color perception

Controlling color produced by different technologies and on different

substrates can be a major problem. Red sprayed in lacquer on sheet

APPENDIX 193
 create a shiny car may look very different from the dye a
steel to
clothwas dipped in or the ink used in printing on newsprint.
Matching them in four-color process inks is yet another compromise.

Communicating about such anomalies or inconsistencies exacerbates

the problem. Some of the reasons are purely physical: fading inks,
inconsistent lighting, faded swatchbooks, variations in materials of
which the swatches are made. Other reasons, of course, are
terminology and language.

Do these minor variations matter? Perfection is unattainable anyway,

so why bother? Matching the precise color is a critical consideration
when the product is identified by its color packaging or when color is
an element of corporate identity.

Two of the companies that can help:

Pantone, Inc., 55 Knickerbocker Road, Moonachie, N.J. 07074, (201)

935-5500

The Pantone™ Packaging Color Standards Program produces proofs

on the substrates you need and shows tolerance limits. It also
produces printing-ink formulas or pigment-content information to
match the required hues.

Munsell Color, 2441 N. Calvert Street, Baltimore, Md. 21218, (301)

243-2171

They produce swatches in opaque which is more

acrylic lacquer,
stable than colored ink (though it, and is
too, will fade over time
liable to scratching and They use a notation system
fingerprinting).
that identifies the hue, value, and chroma, so the color can be
duplicated within given tolerances.

194 APPENDIX
GLOSSARY
 Bit image Eight-bit: electronic image format representing each pixel as a
number from one to 256, each of which describes a value of gray or
a fixed value from a color palette.

Twenty-four-bit: electronic image that represents each pixel as a

combination of red, green, and blue, each color in 256 levels of
gray. Therefore, 16,777,216 color combinations are possible
(256 X 256 X 256).

Chroma The degree of purity, brilliance, or saturation of a color.

Chromaticity A measure of the combination of both hue and saturation in color

produced by lights.

Color Light waves reach the viewer's eye by transmission (through an object
between the source of light and the viewer) or by reflection (when
waves bounce off an object). All substances, whether transparent or
solid, absorb some wavelengths while letting others pass through or
bounce off. Green glass looks green because it absorbs all colors in
white light except green, which it allows to pass through. A purple
grape looks purple because it absorbs all colors in white light except
purple, which it reflects. White objects reflect all and black ones
absorb all light waves (at least in theory). There is no such thing as
perfect white or perfect black.

Color, additive When color is produced by colored lights, then mixing color affects
the total value (lightness or darkness). Combining colored lights
produces a lighter result, light is composed of all the
because white
colors of the spectrum. (See Primaries, additive and subtractive.)

Color, subtractive When color is produced by pigments, mixing colors produces darker
values.

Color bars Rectangles of color printed on color proofs to check the ink densities,
trapping,and other technical factors required to conform to quality
standards.

Color conversion Black-and-white version made from a color photograph or other

original.

Color correction Adjusting color separations to make accurate reproduction,

accommodating them to the limitations of the particular press, inks,
paper, and technology used.

CEPS Color Electronic Prepress System. Digital color image manipulation

and assembly systems used in electronic color separation.

Color filter Dyed gelatin or plastic under glass, used to absorb certain colors and
improve others. Blue, green, and red filters are used in making color
separations.

Color matching Specifying flat colors according to numbered samples on a color

chart available from the printer or in swatch books. Process colors are
usually specified percentages of screens of the four colors, for
in

example, XY 5M 2C 1K(X usually means 100%, so here it calls for

100% yellow, 50% magenta, 20% cyan, and 10% black. The letter K
designates black to avoid confusion with the word Blue, which is
often used instead of cyan. Often the word Red is used instead of
Magenta.
 Color photographs The negative process activates dyes that are complementary to those
in the original scene. The positive print made from the negative
reverses the arrangement and the final result corresponds to the
colors of the original again.

The positive process: releases magenta, cyan, and yellow dyes in the
When developed, the light shining through the
film's three layers.
transparency recreates the original image.

Color print Photographic print, as opposed to transparency. It is made by

methods such as Cibachrome, dye transfer, Kodacolor, and so forth.

Color proof Hard copy in color to check before the piece is printed.

Color keys, 3M products, are a fast process of color proofing on

separate acetate sheets, which are overlaid and combined to show
the intended result.

Cromalin by Du Pont and Matchprint by 3M are systems that yield

accurate proofs inhigh-quality single images. There are literally
dozens of other off-press proofing systems available.

Progressive proofs or "progs," made from the separate plates in color

process printing, show each color singly as well as in combination
with the others according to the printing sequence, usually yellow,
magenta, cyan, and black. They are true press proofs, made (at
enormous expense) on the press on which the job will be run or on a
separate proofing press.

Color separations A colored original transformed into four printable segments: the three
subtractive primaries (yellow, magenta, and cyan) and black. It is
done by photographing the original through filters or by means of an
electronic scanner. The four negatives are turned into positive
printing plates, which are superimposed on each other in the printing
process. The four colors combine and accumulate to create the
illusion of full color, similar to the original.

Color wheel Diagram of colors, originally created by bending Sir Isaac Newton's
spectrum into a circle. In desktop publishing, the color wheel
displays all available colors.

Colored paper Best color reproduction is provided by white paper of the right
surface smoothness. The white paper is the light source off which

waves are They pass through the inks, which are generally
reflected.
transparent. Colored paper affects the appearance of the color
printed on it, because it does not reflect the full spectrum of white
light but only parts of it (since other parts are absorbed by the paper
itself).

Continuous tone A photograph, rendering, or other similar image that is made of

blended gray tones or values that flow into each other gradually and
without hard edges.

Expresslonistic colors Colors picked for emotional impact or meaning rather than for literal

description.

Halftone A photograph or other continuous tone original rendered

reproducible in print by conversion to a variety of tiny dots whose
size duplicates the darkness or lightness of the original.

198 GLOSSARY
 Hue/Luminance/Saturation. Also called hsb (Hue/Saturation/
Brightness). A means of characterizing a color in desktop publishing.
The equivalent of the traditional hue/value/chroma relationships.
The characteristic of a color that is distinguished by a name such as
red, blue, and so forth. The actual hue is created by a wavelength of
light.

Hues: analogous Colors that are neighbors on the color wheel.

chromatic Any colors other than black, white, or gray.
complementary Colors that lie opposite on a color wheel.
monochromatic Colors of single hue but varied value and chroma.
nonchromatic Neutral color: black, white, or gray.
polychromatic Multicolored.
secondary Colors made by mixing two primary colors.
spectral White light broken by a prism, like the rainbow.
tertiary Colors made by mixing a primary with an adjacent secondary color.

Luminance The degree of lightness or darkness in colors created by mixing lights.

The equivalent of value in colors created by mixing pigments.

Moire pattern Undesirable star or other patterns resulting from the superimposition
of dot-screens at wrong screen angles.

Neutralized colors Also called tones, these colors are hues dulled by the addition of
white, black, gray, or some of the complementary color pigment.

Palette colors Graphic technique restricted to using a limited number of colors.

Pastel colors Colors resulting from white pigment being added to neutralized hues.

Pigment Material, usually in powder form, added to a liquid binder to give

color to paints or inks.

Posterization A mechanical process that converts continuous tone images into a

variety of flat areas

Primary colors The hues from which other colors can be mixed.

Primaries, additive Red, green, and blue are the three primary hues that form white light
when they are added together. Video display terminals represent
colors this way.

Primaries, subtractive The three ink colors (yellow, magenta, and cyan) used in process
color printing. Each primary is created by absorbing, that is
"subtracting," one of the additive primaries from white light.

Process-color inks Three subtractive primaries used in conjunction with black to

reproduce full-color originals. Process yellow reflects red and green
light and absorbs blue light. Cyan (blue) reflects blue and green light
and absorbs red light. Magenta (red) reflects red and blue light and
absorbs green light.

Ramping, or gradation The illusion of a gradual change of one color to another, like the
effect of an airbrush, created in the software by a series of discrete
steps.

Retouching change them or to eliminate imperfections.

Editing images to alter or
Itcan be done by hand, by airbrush, or electronically on digitized
images, black-and-white or color.

GLOSSARY 199
 RGB Red/Green/Blue: the additive colors used by computers to display
colors.One hundred percent of all colors equals white light.
Saturation The purity of a color. Its brightness. Same as chroma.

Scaling Altering the size of an electronic image. Anamorphic scaling changes

only one dimension, resulting in a squeezed or stretched image.

Screen angles Each element of a four-color separation must be photographed

through a screen that has been placed at a specific angle, to avoid
moire patterns when the colors are superimposed. Black is normally
shot at forty-five degrees, magenta at seventy-five degrees, cyan at
105 degrees, and yellow at ninety degrees. Precise registration is
required.

Screens The eye thinks that a pattern of dots looks like a shade of gray. The
smaller the dots, the lighter the shade; the larger the dots, the darker
the shade perceived. They are produced by photographing the
original artwork (photograph or any continuous tone illustration)
through an actual screen of fine lines. The fineness of the screens can
vary from sixty-five lines to 1 50 lines or more per inch. Sixty-five- or
eighty-five-line screens are used for printing on newsprint. Better
paper can accommodate more detailed printing produced by finer
screens, which yield higher resolution.

Shade Color resulting from black pigment being added to a pure hue.

Spectrophotometer Instrument used to measure energy in a sample of light or pigmented

surface.The colorimeter measures the amount of power of
wavelengths emanating from a light source.

Spot color Also flat or matched color. Areas of solid color used on the printed

page usually in addition to black. In desktop parlance, a spot color is

usually a special colored ink, not a combination of process-color

inks.

Style sheet Formatting table that assigns attributes to a graphic element, such as
stroke weight, color, and fill pattern in a drawing program.

TIFF Tagged Image File Format. Electronic image format capable of

controlling gray scale and color.

Tint Color resulting from white pigment being added to a pure hue.

Undercolor removal (ucr) Increasing the quality of color reproduction by changing the balance
of inking. The amount of ink used to print yellow, magenta, and cyan
is decreased, while black is increased to produce a stronger image.

Value The lightness or darkness or shade of a color.

Visible spectrum Wavelengths perceived by the human eye as colors.

YCMK Yellow/Cyan/Magenta/Black, the process colors used in process-color

offset printing.

200 GLOSSARY
BIBLIOGRAPHY
For further reading you may find these works useful.

Josef Albers, Interaction of Color (New Haven: Yale University

Press, 1975).

Mark Beach, Steve Shepro, and Ken Russon, Getting It Printed

(Portland: Coast to Coast Books, 1986).

Michael Beaumont, Type and Color (Oxford: Phaidon Press, 1987).

Faber Birren, Principles of Color (West Chester, Penn.: Schiffer

Publishing, 1987).

Tom Cardamone, Mechanical Color Separation Skills (New York: Van

Nostrand Reinhold, 1980).

Hideaki Chijiiwa, Color Harmony: A Guide to Creative Color

Combinations (Rockport, Mass.: Rockport Publishers, 1987).

Alton Cook and Robert Fleury, Type and Color (Rockport, Mass.;
Rockport Publishers, 1989).

Mario Garcia, Color in American Newspapers (St. Petersburg, Fla.:

Poynter Institute for Media Studies, 1988).

Luigina de Grandis, Theory and Use of Color (New York: Harry N.

Abrams, 1986).

GATF, Color and Its Reproduction (Pittsburgh: Graphic Arts Technical

Foundation, n.d.).

Karl Gerstner, The Forms of Color (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT

Press, 1986).

Johannes Itten, The Elements of Color (New York: Van Nostrand

Reinhold, 1970).

PMS, Color Simulator, Color Selector, Two-Color Selector, etc.

(Moonachie, N.J.: Pantone Library of Color, n.d.).

PMS, Color News Quarterly (Woodland Hills, Calif.: Pantone Color

Institute, n.d.).

S. D. Scott Process Color Guide, 5000 Combinations (New York:

S. D. Scott Printing Company, n.d.).

Ikuyoshi Shibukawa and Yumi Takahashi, Designer's Guide to Color,

3 vols. (San Francisco, Calif.: Chronicle Books, 1983, 1984, 1989).

Miles Southworth, Color Separation Techniques (Livonia, N.Y.:

Graphic Arts Publishing Company, n.d.).

Jan V. White, Using Charts and Graphs (New York: R. R. Bowker,

1984).

Jan V. White, Graphic Design for the Electronic Age (New York:
Xerox PressA^'atson-Guptill Publications, 1988).

Paul Zelanski and Mary Pat Fisher, Colour for Designers and Artists
(London: The Herbert Press, 1989).
INDEX
 3

Achromatic color schemes, 15 Cliche, 27 Duotones, 146-47

Alteration of color, 172 Clustering Dyes, 187-88
Analogous color schemes, 15 color photographs, 168-70
panels, 99-100 Filtering, 179
Aniline dyes, 187
Arrows, 52, 102—5 Coal-tar dyes, 187 Flat tints, 183-85
Coats of arms, 25 Fluorescent lights, 166
Attention-getting illusion, 134
Cochineal, 188 Folios, 39-40
Background colors, 69-71 Coding, 19, 59-60 Footers, 40
Color Four-color-process colors, 28, 41,
Baeyer, Adolf von, 187
Bar chart. See Charts and graphs functional use of, 10 143-45
information and, 9 Frames, 40-41, 50-51, 96-97
Black-and-white pictures
drawings, 154-57 specification of, 187-94
duotones, 146-47 Color-Aid paper, 190 Generic table, 65-68
focusing of viewer's attention, Color-impaired people, 21 Geometrical progression, 79
138-42 Color photographs Ghosted halftone, 144
four-color process, 143-45 alteration of color, 172 Ghosting, 176
halftones, 137, 144 clustering, 168-70 Glossary, 197-200
illustrations,158-63 darkening, 177 Gray scale, 72-73
mezzotints, 150-51 filtering, 179
183-85 Halftones, 137, 144. See Black-and-
posterization, 152-53 flat tints,

ghosting, 176 white pictures

screens, 150-53
groups of, 168-70 Hard, Anders, 192
second-color tints, 143-45
surface treatments, 143-45, 150-51 light source and, 165-66 Headers and footers, 40
tritones, 148-49 manipulation of color, 171-82 Headings
mezzotint conversion, 174 black on color, 119
Black-plus color schemes, 15
pixelization, 175 capitalization, 121
Blazon, 25
Blue, nonreproducing, 21 posterization, 173 in charts and graphs, 51-52
reflection copy, 180-82 colored type on black, 119
Boldtvpe, 123-24
40-41,96-97 shared color, 169 department headings, 41-42
Boxes,
Bright colors, 19, 20, 21, 23, 189 silhouetting, 178 down-and-up style, 121

Color progression, 78, 82-83 dropping out, 107, 119

Business graphics. See Charts and
ramping, 86-87 drop-shadows, 118, 120
graphs
stepped, 84-85 lowercase, 121
Color/shape redundancy, 19 outline, 120
Capitalization, 121
Color wheel, 14 screening, 117-18
Change-revisions, 135
Color wheel theory, 1 setting of, 121
Charts and graphs, 47-48
102-5 Commission International de two-color technique, 118
arrows, 52,
See Notation system type in, 116-21
background colors, 69-71 I'Eclairage. cie
Complimentary color schemes, 15 up-and-down style, 121
boxes, 96-97
Continued lines, 40 whitein, 119-20
coding, 59-60
Helvetica Bold and Light, 125
elements common, 49-52
in Contrast, 14
simultaneous, 18 Heraldry, 25
frames, 50-51,96-97
size and, 19 Hering, Ewald, 192
gray scale, 72-73
51-52 Contrasting color schemes, 15 High chroma colors, 23
headings,
Control of color, 20-21 Highlighting of text, 134-35
illusion of depth, 88-90
Cool colors, 21, 23, 189 Hospital green, 21
interpretation of, 57-58
Coordination of hues, 19 Howard, W. Gary, 22
lines,52
Cultural connotations, 22-23 Hue, 13, 19, 190
marks, 101-5
panels, 98-100 Human face, 27
pie charts,50-52 Darkening, 177
Decision-support graphics, 32 Idioms, 27
pointers, 102-5
Department headings, 41-42 Illusion, attention-getting, 134
process-color screens, 75-77
Depth, illusion of, 91-95 Illusion of depth
progression of color, 78
Diagrams. See Charts and graphs lightsource and, 93
prototypical graph, 53-56
86 through shadows, 91-95
screens, 75-77 Dithering,
Double-dot duotone, 146 through tonality control, 88-90
sequence of change, 78-81
Down-and-up style, 121 Illusion of size, 17
spreadsheet tabulations, 61-62
61-62 Drawings, 154-57 Illustrations, 158-63
statistical tabulations,
Dropping out, 107, 119 Implied benefit of color, 128-29
tables, 63-68
Drop-shadows, 118, 120 Indigo, 188
Chroma, 13, 190
Dull colors, 20 Information, color and, 9
ciE Notation system, 192-93
Initial letters, 126-27 Presentations Special-stock inserts, 43
Inserts, special-stock, 43 arrangement of slides, 36-37 Specification of color, 187-94
International signage, 24 decision-support graphics, 32 Spottiness, 40
Interpretation of charts and graphs, planning suggestions, 35-36 Spreadsheet tabulations, 61-62
57-58 principles for use of color, 32-35 Statistical tabulations, 61-62
Introductions, 135 publications compared to, 31 Stepped color progression, 84-85
Process colors. See Four-color-process Substrates, 193-94
lump lines, 40 colors Summaries, 135
Process-color screens, 75-77 Surface treatments, 143-45, 150-53
Large type, 123-24 Progressions Symbolism, 24-27
Leonardo da Vinci, 18 color progression, 78,82-83 Systems of nomenclature
Light colors, 21 combining progressions, 80-81 ciE Notation system, 192-93
Light source, 93 geometrical progression, 79 Munsell system, 189-90
color photographs and, 165-66 Proportions, 17 Natural Color system, 192
fluorescent lights, 166 Prototypical graph, 53-56 Pantone Matching System, 191-92
Lines, 52 Prototypical table, 65-68
Locator tabs, 42-43 Psychological tricks, 16-18 Tables
Logos, 41-42 Publications, 38 prototypical table, 65-68
boxes, 40-41 ranking, 63-64
Magic tricks, 16-18 footers, 40 Technical drawings, 156-57
Manipulation of color, 171-82 frames, 40-41 Terminology, 13-15
Marks, 101-5 headers, 40 Tertiary color, 13
Matched colors, 29 locator signals, 41-43 Text
Medieval heraldry, 25 page numbers, 39-40 change-revisions, 135
Metallic oxides, 187 panels, 40-41 highlighting of, 134-35
Mezzotint conversion, 150-51, 174 presentations compared to, 31 introductions, 135
Mixed colors, 29 section breaks, 44-45 retrofitting of, 132-33
Monochromatic color schemes, 15 summaries, 135
Munsell Globe, 190 Ramping, 41, 86-87 189
Tints, 13,
Munsell system, 189-90 Ranking, 63-64 See Headings
Titles.
Reflection copy, 180-82 Tonality control, 88-90
Names of colors, 188-89 Retrofitting of text, 132-33 Tones, 189
Natural Color system, 192 Roget's International Thesaurus, 188 Traffic signals, 24
Nonreproducing blue, 21 Running feet, 40 Tritones, 148-49
Numbers, 42-43 Running heads, 40 Two-color technique, 118
Type, 107-15
Off-colors, 23 Sans-serif type, 107 bold type, 123-24
Outlines, 120 Screens dropping out type, 107
Outside edge, 44 in black-and-white pictures, 150-53 in headings, 116-21

in charts and graphs, 75-77 Helvetica Bold and Light, 125

Page numbers, 39-40 in headings, 117-18 implied benefit of color, 128-29
Pale colors, 20-21 Secondary color, 13 initial letters, 126-27
Panels, 28, 40-41, 98-100 Second colors, 29 large type, 123-24
Pantone Matching System, 29, 191-92 Second-color tints, 143-45 preliminary schemes, 125
Pastels, 189 Section breaks, 44-45 retrofitting of text, 132-33
Patterning of color, 31 Serif type, 107 shared color, 130-31
Perception of color, 16-18 Setting of headings, 121 weakness, compensation for, 122-25
Photocopying, 21 Shade, 13
Photographs. 5ee Pictures Shadows, 91-95 Up-and-down style, 121
Pictures Shape. See Color/shape redundancy
black-and-white pictures. See Black- Shared color, 130-31, 169 Value of color, 13, 190
and-white pictures Silhouetting, 178 Verlizzo, Frank, 22
color photographs. See Color Simple colors, 23 Visibility of color, 14, 21
photographs Simplicity, 31 Visual vibration, 18
four-color-process colors in, 28, Simultaneous contrast, 18
143-45 Size Warm colors, 21, 189
Pie charts, 50-52 contrast and, 19 Weakness of color in type, 122-25
Pixelization, 175 illusion of, 17 Wheel theory of color, 13
Pointers, 102-5 of type, 107 White space, 20
Posterization, 152-53, 173 Slides. See Presentations
Preliminary schemes, 125 Somber colors, 189 Yellow p , 43
 .

COLOR FOR THE ELECTRONIC AGE

New environments for color open up every day thanks to rapid technological change,
but in any medium color can communicate your message or confuse it. In this
insightful new book, Jan White shows how to get your point across by using color
effectively —both in print and on-screen. Experienced desktop publishers and corpo-
rate communicators, as well as graphic design newcomers, need to know how to
direct color in meaningful ways, and Jan White presents detailed explanations and
hundreds of colorful examples to help you:

use color in slide and film presentations for visual clarity; — —

add color media for impact, as well as beauty;
to print
link and emphasize ideas with color in charts and graphs;

highlight key points in photographs and drawings with color;

discriminate between color used poorly or functionally in any media.

Whether you work in electronic or traditional media, this is your best source for the
creative, controlled use of color, benefiting the communications novice and the
seasoned professional alike.

Jan V. White is an award-winning designer who makes communications graphics

easily accessible to both designers and nondesigners. He lectures throughout the
world on graphics and editing, and he has developed design standards for Xerox
Corporation's technical documentation. He is the author of Editing by Design,
Mastering Graphics, Designing for Magazines, Graphic Design for the Electronic Age,
Graphic Idea Notebook, Using Charts and Graphs, and The Grid Book, and he has
created the video Learn Graphic Design.

ALSO FROM XEROX PRESS. .

I
GRAPHIC DESIGN ^^""^'^^l Graphic Design for the Electronic Age
FOR THE
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AGE The
ISBN 0-8230-21 22-X. $24.95 (paper).

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