ET-426/L Communications Systems

Labs of selected topics for Spring 2020

South Dakota State University

Byron Gary/Barbara Fourney/Huitian Lu

January 2020

1
 Table of contents

ET-426 Reference Formulas 3

Lab Topics
0. Electrical safety education 7
1. Noise Measurement 8
2. FM Circuits 15
3. Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR) 21
4. Antenna Directional Patterns 25
5. Fourier Components of Digital Waveforms 31
6. A/D – D/A 37
7. FSK Modulation & Demodulation 40
8. BPSK Modulation & Demodulation 46
9. PAM, TDM 51
10. RS-232 56
11. Fiber Optics 58
12. RZ-NRZ (TBD)

Name ________________________________________________

Printed on Recycled paper

2
 ET-426 Reference Formulas

General
Vpp fo
Vrms = Q=
2 2 BW

1 Vout
fo = AV =
2π LC Vin

V2
P = V*I = = I2R
R

dB
 Pout   Vout 
dB gain = 10 * log  = 20 * log 
 Pin   Vin 

dBm input + dB gain = dBm output

 P   P 
dB m = 10 * log  dB W = 10 * log 
 1 mW  1 W 

Electrical Noise

Vn = 4kT(BW)R , k = 1.38x10 -23 , T in Kelvin In = 2qI(BW) , q = 1.6x10 -19

Generic Amplifier S/N measurement setup

Input signal Amplifier has a power Output signal

gain of ? dB,
Input noise Output noise

S/NdB =? and adds ? W of noise S/NdB =?

 signal power   signal rms voltage 

S/NdB = 10 * log  = 20 * log 
 noise power   noise rms voltage 

FM
∆fc
mf = , ∆fc = deviation from carrier rest freq., fm = message freq.
fm
∆fc
% modulation =
BW = 2 * N * fm ∆fc max

3
Transmission Lines

L Vmax Zload Zo
Zo = SWR = = or
C Vmin Zo Zload

Antennas

c
λ = , c = 3 *10 8 m/sec
f

984
λ= , f in MHz, λ in feet
f

 ERP 
Specific Antenna Gain (dB) = 10 * log 
 P transmitter 

LOS distance = 2 * h t + 2 * h r , h in feet, distance in miles

P r 
10 * log   = G t + G r - (37 + 20 * log f + 20 * log d), f in MHz, d in miles
 Pt 

4
 Fourier Theory

1 0.35
BW = , to = width of pulse BW = , tr = rise time
to tr

Encoding
Manchester: mark = falling edge, space = rising edge

FSK: mark = 1270 Hz, space = 1070 Hz QPSK

BPSK
Data Degree Data Degree
0 0° 00 45°
1 180° 01 135°
10 315°
A/D 11 225°

Vpp
Resolution (volts / step) = , n = number of bits
2n - 1
Vsampled
A to D : = # of steps (rounded up) {converted to binary}
resolution
D to A : Binary value {converted to decimal} * resolution = voltage out

FO
BW (in MHz - km)
Max data rate (Mbps) R = , D = length of cable
5 * D (in km)
1
or R = , where d = dispersion factor
5 * d *D
 
10 log  Ptransmitted  = (distance losses + connector losses + splice losses + safety factor) {all in dB}
 Preceiver 

Data Overhead

 N  Effective bit rate = Overall bit rate * (1 - overhead)

% Overhead = 1 −  * 100
 N+ C
N = data, C = overhead

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7-bit ASCII Table

HEX ASCII HEX ASCII HEX ASCII HEX ASCII

00 NULL 20 (Space) 40 @ 60 `
01 SOH 21 ! 41 A 61 a
02 STX 22 " 42 B 62 b
03 ETX 23 # 43 C 63 c
04 EOT 24 $ 44 D 64 d
05 ENQ 25 % 45 E 65 e
06 ACK 26 & 46 F 66 f
07 BEL 27 ' 47 G 67 g
08 BS 28 ( 48 H 68 h
09 HT 29 ) 49 I 69 i
0A LF 2A * 4A J 6A j
0B VT 2B + 4B K 6B k
0C FF 2C , 4C L 6C l
0D CR 2D - 4D M 6D m
0E SO 2E . 4E N 6E n
0F SI 2F / 4F O 6F o
10 DLE 30 0 50 P 70 p
11 DC1 31 1 51 Q 71 q
12 DC2 32 2 52 R 72 r
13 DC3 33 3 53 S 73 s
14 DC4 34 4 54 T 74 t
15 NAK 35 5 55 U 75 u
16 SYN 36 6 56 V 76 v
17 ETB 37 7 57 W 77 w
18 CAN 38 8 58 X 78 x
19 EM 39 9 59 Y 79 y
1A SUB 3A : 5A Z 7A z
1B ESC 3B ; 5B [ 7B {
1C FS 3C < 5C \ 7C |
1D GS 3D = 5D ] 7D }
1E RS 3E > 5E ^ 7E ~
1F US 3F ? 5F _ 7F (sp)

6
 Lab 0: Electrical Safety Education

1. Basic electrical safety rules (Electrical safety rules 2020)

2. CPR – Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation:

1) Call 911 or ask someone to
2) Lay the person on their back and open their airways
3) If they are not breathing, start CPR
4) 30 chest compressions
5) Two rescue breaths
6) Repeat until an ambulance or AED arrives (AED – automated external defibrillator)

https://www.mayoclinic.org/first-aid/first-aid-cpr/basics/art-20056600

First aid:
Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR): First aid

Here's advice from the American Heart Association:

• Untrained. If you're not trained in CPR, then provide hands-only CPR. That means uninterrupted chest compressions
of 100 to 120 a minute until paramedics arrive (described in more detail below). You don't need to try rescue
breathing.
• Trained and ready to go. If you're well-trained and confident in your ability, check to see if there is a pulse and
breathing. If there is no breathing or a pulse within 10 seconds, begin chest compressions. Start CPR with 30 chest
compressions before giving two rescue breaths.
• Trained but rusty. If you've previously received CPR training but you're not confident in your abilities, then just do
chest compressions at a rate of 100 to 120 a minute. (Details described below.)

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 ET 426L Communications Lab

Lab 1: Electrical Noise

Theory
A. Noise is an electronic signal that gets added to the information signal as it is transmitted from one place to
another. There is external noise - from industrial sources, atmospheric sources, and space - and internal noise,
from electrical components. The external noise we often see in lab is low frequency, 60 Hz, which is picked up
through the air by long wires used to make connections.

The internal noise we often see is high frequency noise, which can be thermal noise from resistors, semiconductor
noise from transistors and integrated circuits, or distortion from waveform clipping or non-linear amplification.

This equation gives the internal noise generated by a resistor: Vn = 4kT(BW)R , k = 1.38x10 -23 , T in Kelvin

This equation states that noise will be larger when 1) resistance value, 2) bandwidth, and 3) temperature are
larger.
In = 2qI(BW) , q = 1.6x10 -19
For semiconductors,
This equation says that noise will be larger when 1) current and 2) bandwidth are larger.

In this lab, we will use an op-amp amplifier and control bandwidth, to see its effects on noise. We will be stuck
with the same resistance, current, and temperature for all parts of the experiment.

B. Noise is made up of all frequencies. On a scope you can see the different freq components of noise by looking
at the correct time/div settings.
- 60 Hz can be seen by setting the horizontal to 5 mSec / div (since 1/60 Hz = 16 mSec for 1 period).
- The 1 kHz test tone we will use can be seen by setting the vertical to 0.5 mSec / div (1/1 kHz = 1 mSec for 1
period).

C. A good S/N ratio is important. If the signal is not enough larger than the noise picked up from outside sources
and generated by the circuit itself, the signal will be lost. You calculate S/N ratio in dB by

 signal power   signal rms (or PP) voltage 

S/N(dB) = 10 * log  = 20 * log 
 noise power   noise rms (or PP) voltage 
D. The bandwidth of an op-amp circuit is determined by the gain-bandwidth (G*BW) product for the device.
Voltage gain is Av = Vout/Vin. A TL081 has a gain-bandwidth product of 3 MHz.

G * BW = A V * f2

E. The bandwidth of a circuit is defined by

the -3 dB cutoff frequencies f1 and f2.

In an op-amp gain circuit, the f2, upper cutoff for

circuit bandwidth can be controlled by adding a
cap in parallel to the feedback resistor. The new ©B. Garry
upper cutoff freq. is given by:
1
f2 =
2 π R f Cf

8
F. The lower cutoff, f1, is controlled by a high pass filter made of a cap and resistor in series with the signal.

1
f1 =
2 π Rseries Cseries

9
 Procedure

1. Build this circuit on the small Protoboards (not with the built-in power supplies). Use the B&K DC Power
Supply for the +/- 15 V supplies to the opamps. The B&Ks usually generates less low frequency (60 Hz) noise
than the powered Protoboards.

Use the 10-turn, 10k pot, in order to have fine control of the signal. Build the multistage amplifier as shown.
Keep leads as short as possible, to reduce 60 Hz power line noise pickup. Wherever possible, connect parts
directly to pins on the op-amp, not using jumper wires.

Pin-out

Connect all the grounds of the circuit with a single-point-ground connection only. This will help avoid ground
loops that can pick up low-frequency noise (usually 60 Hz).

(Switch set on Independent)

Signal B&K DC Power Scope Protoboard
Generator B A (probe)
Ground green - + - + Ground (circuit
(lower right) ground)
NC

-15 V +15 V (ground

of probe)

(Bunch of clip leads jammed together)

10
2. This 2-stage circuit will have an gain for each section of _?_ , and overall gain of _?_, which in dB is _?_.
We are using this high gain circuit to make the Vout noise signal be as large as possible.

3. The low-freq cutoff, f1, is set by the 0.47 uF cap in series with the 2.2k resistor. This makes
an f1 = _?_, (Theory part F above) which will help control the 60 Hz noise

The high-freq cutoff of this circuit is set by the op-amp used, f2 = ? (Theory part D above).

This makes the circuit BW = ?

4. Set the signal generator for a 5 Vpp, 1 kHz sine wave. Adjust the 10k pot so there is no signal to the first 2.2k
resistor. (Measure on the left side of the 2.2 k resistor – explain why). Verify with the scope that the input voltage
is zero.

5. There should be no output voltage waveform, except for that caused by ac noise generated by the opamps and
resistors. (There is also, as of course you remember from Analog class, dc input offset currents and voltages
from the opamps themselves that affect the waveform. But, we are measuring ac noise voltages, so we can ac
couple the scope to the circuit, and can ignore the dc offset effects for this exercise.)

Don’t use the digital Vpp reading on the scope to take measurements. Select a vertical V/div scale that makes the
noise signal be about ½ of the screen, whenever possible. Look at the Vout signal and draw it. Estimate and
record the peak-to-peak voltage of the noise. This value is called the noise floor for this circuit setup.

6. Shut off DC power to the circuit, and record the output noise voltage seen. This is the amount of noise picked
up by the scope alone. Comment.

7. Calculate the value (Vpp) of a 1 kHz signal that will make output S/NdB values of +10 dB, +20 dB, and
+30 dB (Theory Part C above), using the output noise Vpp you measured in step 4. Record these values.

Turn power back on, and slowly increase the 10 k pot, and look at Vout, until you see the 1 kHz signal waveform
appear above the noise floor. Keep increasing the input signal level, changing V/div to keep the entire output
waveform on the screen, until the S/NdB is +10 dB, then +20 dB, then +30 dB, as calculated.
Sketch each (signal + noise) waveform.

Label the amplitude (Vpp) of the different freq. components. Comment on how “clean” the output waveform
looks each time.

Vpp out value calculated Sketch, including Label the amplitude (Vpp)
of the different freq. components

+10 dB

11
+20 dB

+30 dB

Comments:

8. Return the input signal to zero. Reduce the upper cutoff, therefore bandwidth, of the circuit by adding a 470 pF
cap in parallel to both of the 220 k feedback resistors (Theory Part E above). This make a new upper cutoff for
each stage: f2 = ? ___ and BW = ? .

9. Record the new noise floor Vpp value, and then record the new +10 dB, +20 dB, and +30 dB
S/NdB waveforms (including Vpp values). Comment.

+10 dB

12
+20 dB

+30 dB

Comments

10. When finished, write a summary (on the lab cover page), including what you learned about Noise and
Bandwidth, and what you learned about how different S/NdB waveforms look.

13
Use the Tektronix TDS2001C FFT function

11. After completing steps 1-9, go back to the setup of step 4. Start at S/N = 10 dB, with Ch 2 attached to the
output. Trigger on Ch 2.

12. Press MATH button

13. Scope Setup

3. Using Horizontal scale control: 250 Hz/division
1. Using Horizontal position control: 1 kHz center frequency
2. Using Ch 2 Vertical scale: 10 dB/division
5. Rectangular window
FFT Zoom = x1
Adjust Vertical position so you can
see top of peak and noise floor

14. Sketch & label the spectrum showing.

(below optional, spring 2020)

15. Change FFT Zoom to x5. Determine the center freq and amplitude, using the Cursor ‘magnitude’ function. Use
the Horizontal position control to move the signal to the center of the screen, if it is not there already.
V 
Amplitude of signal = ________dBV = _____ Vpp (NOTE: dB V = 20 * log measured 
 1 Vrms 
Convert dBV reading to Vmeasured (Vrms),
then Vrms * 1.414 * 2 = Vpp)
Amplitude of noise floor = ________ dBV = _____ Vpp

Sketch & label spectrum

The signal amplitude should match fairly closely to the Vpp measurement you made in step 5 previously, but the
noise floor reading will not. That is because when you look at the time-based waveform, you see all the frequencies
of noise present, and when you look at the frequency-based spectrum, you are only seeing a portion of the total
noise.

16. With the spectrum display in place, add the 470 pF cap in parallel to the 220 k resistor, for the final stage opamp
circuit only. See that the noise floor drops by a large amount, about _______ dB, as the bandwidth is made smaller
by adding the cap (and therefore the noise is limited).

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 ET 426L Communications Lab

Lab 2: FM Modulation and Demodulation

Theory
A. Frequency Modulation is a modulation technique where the amplitude of the message signal changes the
frequency of the carrier signal.

Message signal:

Carrier signal freq. modulated:

(You can’t see a waveform like this
on an analog scope)

B. FM Modulation creates fc +/- Δfc

C. You can see, on a properly triggered oscilloscope, this waveform from a sine wave modulating a higher freq.
carrier

T2 fmax = f1 = 1/T1 fmin = f2 = 1/T2 2*Δfc = fmax - fmin

T1

D. FM demodulation is done using a Phase Locked Loop – PLL. In general, a PLL always tries to make the 2
input waveforms match frequencies. As the external FM signal changes freq (Δfc), the phase detector produces a
change in voltage (Δv), to force the Voltage-controlled oscillator, VCO, to “catch up”. This Δfc to Δv
conversion is FM demodulation.

Input 1

Phase detector LP filter VCO

FM Input 2
Signal Demodulated message signal out

15
Procedure:

A. Set up the FM modulator circuit as shown.

1. Disconnect the signal generator. Adjust the 100k pot until the output, pin 2, is a 50 kHz waveform. Draw it.
What is the unmodulated period, T? (T = 1/f)

2. Set up the signal generator to be a 2 Vpp, 200 Hz sine wave. Apply to the circuit. See the FM waveform
(Theory Part C above). Adjust the amplitude of the signal generator until the FM signal
is 50 kHz ± 5 kHz, in other words, so you get approx. fmin = 45 kHz and fmax = 55 kHz. Draw the waveform
and measure/label T1 and T2.

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3. Keep Modulator circuit set-up to attach to the FM Demodulator in Part B.
B. Set up the FM demodulator circuit as shown

1. Build the 565 circuit. Have no input signal to start. Attach the scope to pin 5 of the 565. Adjust the 10 kHz pot
until you have a 50 kHz sine wave (Set the PLL VCO to the center freq – Theory Part D).

2. Connect the FM input (going to pin 2) to the FM output of the 2206 circuit. Disconnect the signal generator
from the 2206 circuit, so the waveform from the 2206 is just the 50 kHz sine wave.
The 565, pin 7 output is ___? Vdc.

17
3. Attach the signal generator to the 2206 circuit. See the 565, pin 7, output reproduces the original 200 Hz.
waveform. Draw the original input and final output waveforms vertically and label Voltage and time.

4. Adjust the 200 Hz signal generator amplitude a small amount and see the final output follow it. Adjust the 200
Hz signal generator freq a little bit, and see the final output follow it. What happens if you adjust the signal
generator freq or amplitude too far?

5. On the cover sheet, summarize the facts you know about FM modulation, the FM waveform, and FM
demodulation.

18
Use the Tektronix TDS2001C FFT function in lab

6. After completing FM Modulation & Demodulation, attach scope channel 2 to XR2206 pin 2 (FM waveform).
Trigger on Ch 2.

7. Press MATH button

8. Scope Setup
3. Using Horizontal scale control: 12.5 kHz/division
1. Using Horizontal position control: 50 kHz center frequency
2. Using Ch 2 Vertical scale: 10 dB/division
5. Rectangular window
FFT Zoom = x1
Adjust Vertical position so you can
see top of peak and noise floor

9. Attach a DMM (AC Volts) to the signal generator output. 2 Vpp equals 0.707 Vrms. Adjust to that.

10. Sketch & approximately label the spectrum showing.

11. Change FFT Zoom to x10. Disconnect the signal generator. The 2206 is outputting a single freq. Determine
that freq and amplitude, using the Cursor ‘frequency’ function. Use the Horizontal position control to move the
signal to the center of the screen, if it is not there already.
V 
Amplitude = ________dBV = _____ Vpp Freq = _______ kHz dB V = 20 * log measured 
 1 Vrms 
Sketch & label spectrum Convert dBV reading to Vmeasured
(Vrms), then Vrms * 1.414 * 2 = Vpp)

19
12. Reattach signal generator. Use the Cursor function to measure bandwidth of the FM signal.

Amplitude = _____ dBV Bandwidth = ______ Hz

Sketch & label spectrum

13. Repeat step 3 with signal generator amplitude = 0.5 Vrms, 0.25 Vrms, and 0.1 Vrms. Record dBV amplitude
and BW numbers only, no sketches.

14. What conclusions do you draw about Vsignal input amplitude vs FM waveform bandwidth?

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 ET 426L Communications Lab

Lab 3: Transmission Lines and TDR (Time Domain Reflectometry)

Theory

Characteristic Impedance, Zo
L
A. Characteristic impedance is INDEPENDENT of the length of the line Zo =
- Depends on C/unit length and L/unit length C
- RG58/U cable is Zo = 53.5 Ω, which we refer to as 50 Ω cable
- The cable is made with C = 28.5 pF/ft, Inductance in uH/ft is not given

T-connector

B. Time delay td = LC unknown distance

- Can be measured with appropriate set-up.

- See waveform at input to line
and at the output of the transmission line

Ch A

Ch B

Ch A

Ch B Regular scope probe

- Use td to find unknown length of line

L
We know td = LC , and Zo = , combining, we get td = Zo * Ctotal for entire cable,
C
28.5 pF
td measured = 53.5Ω * * X ft of cable
ft

 If signal generator (50 Ω) matches line (50 Ω) matches load (50 Ω) – no reflections (as in the waveforms above)

 Attenuation caused by copper resistance of the line IS dependent on length of the line
 Measured in dB/100 ft, of attenuation.
 at 1 MHz, RG58/U cable has 0.5 dB/100ft attenuation,  Vout 
- X dB = 20 * log ,
 Vin 

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 If Load does not match line – reflections
are generated. For example, with
an open load, the reflected pulse will add
to the original pulse at the input

 On most scopes, the input is expecting a x10 probe to be used. The V/div is set up to be read directly that way.

The direct coax connection does not have the resistor divider,
so on the digital scope, change the channel to be on x1.

 SWR stands for standing wave ratio. It is the ratio of max to minimum peak-to-peak voltage of the combined
(reflected) waveform.
Vmax Zload Zo
SWR = = or , whichever is greater than 1 (SWR is always > 1)
Vmin Zo Zload

Procedure:
1. Use the given unknown length of RG-58U cable. Also use the given T-connector and coax end with clips to
connect the load RL, as directed.

22
2. Set the signal generator for 1 MHz square wave, 4 Vpp. The signal generator output connection
is 50 Ω, so we can connect directly to the coax. Use a 51 Ω resistor for RL. Record the Ch A and B waveforms. Is
this the correct set of waveforms for a matched line-to-load?

3. Measure the delay time td, and calculate and record the length of the RG-58U cable. Show calculations.

4. Measure as precisely as possible the input and output Vpp (change V/div scale), and calculate the attenuation in
the length of coax. Is this close to the theoretical attenuation? Show the calculations.

5. Change the load RL = ∞, open circuit, and again record Ch A and B. Draw notes on the waveforms to explain
how the waveform on Ch B happens.

23
6. Repeat with a RL = 0, short circuit, record Ch A and B waveforms.

7. Repeat with RL = 100 Ω. Record Ch A and B waveforms.

Calculate the SWR from the Zo and the Zload (RL = 100). (Optional: Also calculate the SWR from the Ch B
waveform. Are they close in value?)

24
 ET 426L Communications Lab
Lab 4: Antennas
Theory

We will transmit a 914.5 MHz carrier from a ½ λ horizontal dipole and receive - measure the antenna pattern -
of 3 different antennas:
• horizontal ½ λ dipole,
• vertical Marconi w/ radials
• horizontal 3-element Yagi array

Transmitter Receiver

Transmitter – UHF FM Data Module Receiver - Motorola R2600B

at 914.5 MHz Communications Analyzer

Radiometrix TX3A-914-64

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Coax to antenna
+2.2 Vdc to +12 Vdc

Vertical Marconi with radials 3-element Yagi array

25
Theory continued

On the transmitter end, a ½ λ horizontal dipole antenna (Zin = 73 Ω) is attached to the module transmitter output
(50 Ω), with some RG-58U (53 Ω) cable, so there is some reflection and power loss, but a carrier wave of 914.5
MHz is still transmitted.

On the receiving end, the Motorola Antenna input is also 50 Ω, and the 3 antennas are all different impedances,
but we can still take measurements.

For antenna systems to work properly, they must be at least 10 λ apart. Also, we want the electromagnetic wave
to reflect off as little metal as possible. We will use the classroom as our testing area, as poor as it may be for that
purpose.

Antenna Plotting:
1. Angles on the radials, with 360° total
2. dBm value on the circles, with the highest dBm value put on the outside circle, and an appropriate scale used to
make the rest of the data fit

26
Received signal data – data recorded on White board – copy the data here

Spectrum Analyzer received dBm value

Vertical Marconi Horizontal
Degrees Horizontal Dipole
w/ radials 3-element Yagi

15

30

45

60

75

90

105

120

135

150

165

180

195

210

225

240

255

270

285

300

315

330

345

360
27
 ET 426 Antenna Lab

Dipole

Marconi

28
3-element Yagi

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Blank page

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 ET 426L Communications Lab

Lab 5: Signal Analysis – Fourier Theory

Theory
A. Fourier analysis states that a square wave is made up of a sine
wave at the fundamental frequency of the square wave plus
an infinite number of odd harmonics.

Fourier analysis allows us to determine the sine-wave components

in a complex signal, and also a signal’s bandwidth.

B. A frequency domain plot shows the amplitudes

of the component (harmonic) frequencies.

C. You can see the harmonic components of a square wave using a bandpass filter. For example, filtering for the
3rd harmonic only

An LC bandpass filter has a resonant frequency found by the following equation. 2

 1 
1  
fresonant = Pick a value of L, and solve for C:  2 π fo 
2π LC C=
L
D. As we limit the bandwidth of the system
(therefore including less harmonics), a
square wave looks less and less square.

We make a Low Pass filter from a series RC circuit, with cutoff freq: 1
fcutoff =
2π R C

E. It is generally accepted that pulses will be received adequately 1

when the channel BW is “just enough” as calculated by: BW = , to = width of pulse
to
F. In hands-on lab work, using L and C components that are not exactly the same as the calculated values
changes the resonant frequency of the LC filter. To find the resonant freq of the built circuit, and therefore the
max. output voltages that happen at resonance, a procedure called peaking is used. Peaking means to adjust the
signal generator frequency a little (usually no more than 10% away from the asked-for freq), while watching the
31
appropriate waveform, until it reaches its maximum peak-to-peak value.

Procedure
A. Harmonic components of a square wave.
Build a series of LC band-pass filters to see the individual frequency components of a 20 kHz square wave.
Vout

Square wave,
20 kHz, 10 Vpp 100Ω

L = __________ mH

1. Use R = 100 Ω, and L = 8.9 mH. Measure the inductor, and use the exact value in your calculations. Calculate
values for the capacitor (See Theory Part C), for resonant frequencies of 20 kHz (fundamental),
60 kHz (3rd harmonic), 100 kHz (5th harmonic), and 140 kHz (7th harmonic). There will not be exact capacitors
that match your values, so choose and measure capacitors (C chosen) that are close.
Sample calculations

2. Make a data table with columns for:

Harmonic Theory C C chosen Signal Signal Sketch the signal waveform at
number Freq calculated frequency Vpp out each frequency.
out

With the scope show both the 10 Vpp input square wave (from feedback of the RLC, it will be a little distorted)
and the Vout at the same time. Due to overshoots in the square wave, use the screen value only (divisions *
Volts/division) to get Vpp. Or with the digital scope, capture a waveform and use the Cursor to measure Vpp.
32
 The signal generator stays at approx. 20 kHz for all readings. For each different capacitor, get the peak
voltage reading of the output waveform by varying the signal generator frequency no more than 2 kHz away from
the 20 kHz fundamental freq (theory Part F).

3. From the Vpp data of the different harmonics, draw a frequency domain plot of the 20 kHz square wave. Label
the frequency and amplitude of each harmonic – compare to the theoretical amplitude.

Close to theoretical harmonic amplitudes? Yes or No

B. Effect of band-limiting square waves.

Build a series of low-pass (LP) filters to see the effect on a square wave of different amounts of bandwidth.
Vout

Square wave,
0.001 uF
20 kHz, 10 Vpp

1. Measure your 0.001 uF cap, and use its exact value to calculate the value of fcutoff (Theory Part D) for values
of R = 100, 390, 1k, 3.9 k, 10k, 100k. The value of fcutoff is the bandwidth (BW). As the BW gets smaller,
there are fewer odd harmonic frequency components present, which affects the shape of the square wave.

Sample BW calculation:

33
2. Make a data table with columns for: (BW needed for square waves)
R BW from Fourier theory how many Signal Sketch the Vout waveform for
calculated frequency components are Vpp out each value of R.
present in that much BW

3. On the frequency domain plot of the 20 kHz square wave you obtained in Part A, superimpose over it the
LP filter characteristic with BW that is “just enough” for adequate transmission (Theory Part E).

Which value of R gave you this much BW?

Comment on how ‘square’ that output waveform is.

34
After all steps of regular lab.

4. Attach signal generator, 20 kHz, 10 Vpp, to a 100 Ω resistor as a load. This is to get a waveform without a lot
of overshoots. Use Ch 1 of scope. Draw & label the time-based waveform. Use the Tektronix TDS2001C FFT
function

5. Press MATH button

Scope Setup
3. Using Horizontal scale control: 25 kHz/division
1. Using Horizontal position control: 110 kHz center frequency
2. Using Ch 1 Vertical scale: 10 dB/division
5. Rectangular window
FFT Zoom = x1

6. Sketch & approximately label the spectrum showing.

Note: There will be showing minor peaks where intermodulation distortion is happening. For example 34 kHz &
46 kHz, in between the major peaks of 20 kHz and 60 kHz. Draw, but do not record those values.

7. Determine the freq and amplitude of each of the major harmonic peaks, using the Cursor ‘frequency’ function.
You may have to use the cursor ‘magnitude’ function to get the values of the peaks.

Freq. Amplitude Amplitude Theory Values from

dBV Vpp Harmonic step 2
Harmonic 1st Value
3rd 1/3*Value
5th 1/5*Value
7th 1/7*Value

 Vmeasured 
(NOTE: Convert dBV reading to Vmeasured (Vrms), then Vrms * 1.414 * 2 = Vpp); dB V = 20 * log 
 1 Vrms 

35
 8. Comment on comparing results from circuit vs. from Scope FFT

9. Rebuild Band-limiting square wave circuit, starting with 100 Ω Load.

10. Press MATH button

Scope Setup (below is optional for spring 2020)

3. Using Horizontal scale control: 125 kHz/division
1. Using Horizontal position control: 550 kHz center frequency
2. Using Ch 1 Vertical scale: 10 dB/division
5. Rectangular window
FFT Zoom = x1
Adjust Vertical position so you can
see top of peak and noise floor

11. Sketch & approximately label the spectrum you see.

Continue next page

12. The spectrum scale is set to show the first 30 odd harmonics. Using the dB scale, estimate which is the first harmonic
(3rd, 5th, etc.) that is 20 dB less amplitude than the fundamental, as you change resistors.

R Harmonic that is 20dB less than fundamental

100
390
1k
3.9k
10k
100k

13. In the band-limit step 3, you made an estimate of BW that is “just enough”. Sketch and label the spectrum for that
resistor.

36
 ET 426L Communications Lab

Lab 6: A/D and D/A Conversion

Theory

Vpp
Resolution (volts / step) = , n = number of bits
2n - 1
Vsampled
A to D : = # of steps (rounded up) {converted to binary}
resolution
D to A : Binary value {converted to decimal} * resolution = voltage out

Record the values and draw the circuits and waveforms.

Procedure:
1. The analog input range of the A/D converter is 0 V to 5 V. Calculate the theoretical digital output for the given
analog inputs, and record in the table. Show sample calculations.

Analog Digital Output Digital Output Analog Analog

Input (dc) (8 bit code) (8 bit code) Output (dc) Output (dc)
Actual theory Actual Theory Actual
0V
1V
2.5 V
4V
5V

2. Build just the ADC0804 and 74LS244 portion of the circuit - see sheet attached.

3. Adjust the analog input voltage to each of the following values and record the actual digital code out on the
LEDs.

4. Add the DAC0800 and TL081 portion of the circuit to what you previously built. Calculate the theoretical
analog voltage out – rounding to nearest 0.1 V. Record the actual voltage out for each step. Use 2 DMMs, so you
can see both analog input and analog output voltages at the same time.

37
5. The a/d conversion time can be determined by looking at the INTR’ to WR’ connection on the ADC0804 chip.
Measure and record the time between pulses. Convert this to a frequency. Nyquist’s Law then says that the max
analog input frequency we can accurately reproduce is _______? Hz.

6. Replace the 10 k pot on pin 6 of the ADC0804 with a 4 Vpp, 2.5 Vdc waveform at 500 Hz. Record the input,
sampling pulse (ADC0804 pin 5), and output (of TL081) waveforms. (you can see at the same time input and
output on our 2-channel scope; draw in where the sampling pulses are.)

7. Repeat with Vin = 2000 Hz and draw all 3 waveforms.

38
39
 ET 426L Communications Lab

Lab 7: FSK Modulation and Demodulation

Theory

Frequency Shift Keying is a modulation technique used

to transmit binary data over analog communication
channels with limited bandwidth. For example, from textbook,
in analog modems over telephone lines (BW of 300 – 3400 Hz),
1070 Hz is used to represent a ‘0’ and 1270 Hz a ‘1’.

In this lab exercise, the two frequencies used will be approx. 80 kHz and 120 kHz.

An XR-2206 function generator chip will be used for modulation – generate an FSK waveform.
1
For the FSK circuit, the higher frequency, fmark, is when input = ‘1’. fmark =
R 1 C1
The lower freq, fspace, is when input = ‘0’. 1
fspace =
R 2 C1

An XR 2212 phase locked loop chip will be used to demodulate – to regenerate the input square wave from the
incoming FSK waveform, using a PLL.

Phase Locked Loop (PLL).

In a phase-locked loop, the loop always tries to make the two inputs to the phase detector be the same frequency.
Used specifically as a demodulator, the VCO (voltage controlled oscillator) is set by external an RC to run at a free-
run frequency between the two FSK frequencies. The two inputs to the phase detector are the external FSK freq and
the VCO freq. When the external FSK frequency representing ‘0’ is received, the phase detector will output a dc
voltage to try to make the VCO speed up or slow down to match the FSK frequency. This dc voltage is smoothed by
the low pass filter, and a dc voltage is output that we interpret as ‘0’. The incoming ‘1’ FSK frequency will also not
match the VCO frequency, and the phase detector will put out a dc voltage that will be interpreted as the ‘1’ data

40
 Procedure:

A. Set up the FSK modulator circuit as shown.

10 uF
4.7k

4.7k
Binary Data In 47k

9 4 3
2 FSK Out
13
XR 2206
150k
14 10

1 uF
5 6 7 8 1 12

0.001 uF 8.2k 12k

C1 R1 R2

1. Calculate the fmark and fspace frequencies for this FSK modulator circuit.

2. Ground pin 9 (‘0’ data in), and measure the amplitude and frequency out at pin 2. Record. This is the FSK ‘0’
data.

3. Unground pin 9, and put in +5 Vdc from a dc supply (‘1’ data in), and measure the frequency out. Record. This is
the FSK ‘1’ data.

41
4. Set up the signal generator to be a 5 Vpp (going between 0 and 5 V), 100 Hz square wave, and connect to pin 9 as
shown. This will represent an NRZ, alternating ‘1010’ data waveform. Look at the binary input on Ch 1 and the
FSK out on Ch 2 of a scope.

Trigger on Ch 1. Adjust the time base of the scope to about 10 uSec/div, and adjust the horizontal position so a
transition from 0 to 1, or 1 to 0, is in the center of the scope display. Capture a single trace. Use the cursor
function to measure the FSK frequencies. Draw these waveforms and comment.

Leave the circuit built to use later!

42
B. Set up the FSK demodulator circuit as shown

1. To start, ground pin 2, and disconnect one end of R1 (10k fixed resistor). Adjust the 10k pot
until the VCO frequency at pin 5 is half-way between the ‘0’ and ‘1’ FSK frequencies you found
in Part A. (approx. 100 kHz). This is the free-run frequency of the PLL.

2. Unground pin 2, reconnect R1, and set the function generator to be a sine wave, of amplitude and frequency of
the FSK ‘0’ data from Part A. Measure the DC value of Vout.

3. Set the function generator to the FSK ‘1’ data. Measure the DC value of Vout.

43
4. Disconnect the function generator and connect to the FSK Vout of Part A (2206 pin 2). Record the waveforms at
the Binary data input of 2206 and the Vout of 2212. Comment.

44
Use the Tektronix TDS2001C FFT function (Optional for spring 2020)
Lab Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

5. Go back to the Modulator, and attach Ch 1 to the XR2206 pin 2 (FSK out).

6. Press MATH button

Scope Setup
3. Using Horizontal scale control: 50 kHz/division
1. Using Horizontal position control: 250 kHz center frequency
2. Using Ch 1 Vertical scale: 10 dB/division
5. Rectangular window
FFT Zoom = x1
Adjust Vertical position so you can
see top of peak and noise floor

7. Sketch & approximately label the spectrum showing.

Determine the frequencies of the 2 first peaks, and also the next 2 highest peaks. What is the relationship
between (1) and (2)?

45
 EET 426L Communications Lab

Lab 8: BPSK Modulation and Demodulation

Theory

Binary Phase Shift Keying is a modulation

technique used to transmit binary data over
analog communication channels with limited
bandwidth. For example, from the textbook,
in analog modems over telephone lines
(BW of 300 – 3400 Hz),
a basic frequency of 1200 Hz is modulated
by making abrupt changes in the phase of
the waveform.

Phase Locked Loop (PLL).

In a phase-locked loop, the loop always tries to make the two inputs to the phase detector be the same frequency. Used
specifically as a BPSK demodulator, one input is the BPSK signal, and the other is the “recovered carrier” from the BPSK
modulator. That will be a square wave with no variations in phase. As the BPSK signal changes phase, the phase detector
will notice, and change the dc level it puts out, thus reproducing the original digital waveform

46
Procedure:

A. Set up the BPSK modulator circuit as shown.

1. Put in 0 Vdc to the binary data input (ground pin 1), and then adjust R2, the 1 k pot, so the BPSK output is a sine
wave with minimum distortion.

2. Adjust R1, the 10k pot, so the BPSK output is 25 kHz.

2. Unground pin 1, then put in approx.. 6 Vdc to the binary input, and adjust until the BPSK output is exactly 0 V.
Record this input voltage.

This is the input voltage that “nulls” the output waveform. Above this input voltage the output signal will have
one phase, and below this input voltage the output signal will have a 180° shifted phase.

4. Attach a freq generator to pin 1, the binary data input. Adjust the signal to be a 100 Hz, 4 Vpp square wave
(representing a 1010 digital input), with a DC offset equal to the voltage you found in step 3.

47
5. Look at pin 11 output, a square wave of freq ? . Record freq and amplitude.

6. Look at the binary input on channel 1 and the BPSK output waveform on channel 2 of the scope. You may have
to adjust the DC offset and the 100 Hz freq until you get a stable BPSK waveform. Draw these waveforms and
comment. Keep this circuit to use in the next part.

7. Digitally capture the waveform, and then zoom in on the time scale Keep decreasing the time step until you can
see the phase change happen when the input changes from 1 to 0, or vice versa. Draw this detail.

48
 B. Set up the BPSK demodulator circuit as shown

0.1 uF
1
4.7k
BPSK 0.1 uF
2 100k Vout
in 8
Amp
(from 2206, Phase
pin 2, after the cap) Detector 0.001 uF
16
XR 2212 22 pF
PLL 6 100k
Carrier 7
in VCO
5
(from 2206, 11 47k
pin 11)

13 14 12 10 9 4
0.1 uF
R1

10k
0.001 uF

0.001 uF
(LP filter)

Notice the PLL feedback loop from pin 5 to pin 16 is disconnected.

1. Connect
a) 2206 pin 11 to 2212 pin 16

b) BPSK modulator output (after the 0.001 uF cap from 2206 pin 2) to the BPSK demodulator input
(0.1 uF cap to 2212 pin 2)

2. On the 2206 modulator, pin 1, put in the 100 Hz, 4 Vpp square wave (representing a 1010 digital input), with a
DC offset equal to the null voltage. Draw the Modulator input and demodulator output voltage waveforms.
Comment.

49
3. How high a frequency can you go on the modulator input (1010 data input) until the demodulator output is not a
“good” square wave anymore?

50
 ET 426L Communications Lab
Lab 9: PAM and TDM

Theory

1. The minimum sampling frequency for

any a/d conversion is twice the highest
analog frequency content of the signal
- the Nyquist frequency.

2. PAM (Pulse Amplitude Modulation) is a series

of constant-width pulses whose amplitudes
vary with the amplitude of the analog signal.
In between each sample, the PAM waveform
goes back to zero.

3. TDM (Time Division Multiplexing) is combining

multiple signals, alternating in time.

These pictures show TDM’ing 4 PAM waveforms:

We can’t easily do a circuit to produce this, so in our

lab we will PAM and TDM just two waveforms together.

4. The CD4066 chip is a quad bilateral switch intended for the

transmission or multiplexing of analog or digital signals. The
switch is basically a FET transistor that conducts equally
well Source-to-Drain and Drain-to-Source

When the signal to Control X is high, the switch X is closed.

For example, a high to pin 13 connects pin 1 to pin 2.

A low at pin 13 disconnects the input and output.

51
Procedure

A. PAM – Pulse Amplitude Modulation

Construct the circuit as shown. The 1st 555 circuit will produce a square wave oscillation of
600-700 Hz. The 2nd 555 will produce a 100 uSec long pulse every time there is a rising edge from the oscillator.
This short pulse is our sampling pulse The 4066 CMOS switch connects/disconnects the input waveform (pin 1)
to the output (pin 2). The effect is that the 4066 output, pin 2, will be a PAM sample of the input waveform, with a
sample every 1.5 to 2 mSec.

RA
RA

RB

C C

555 oscillator 555 sampling pulse generator

1.44 PW= 1.1 R A C
f=
(R A + 2R B ) C

1. Measure the freq of the oscillator 555 circuit output (pin 3).

2. Look at the oscillator signal on Ch. A and the sampling pulse on Ch. B of the scope. Draw this. Explain.

52
3. Set signal 1 to be a 5 Vpp, 150 Hz sine wave at (4066, pin 1).

4. With channel 1, look at the incoming waveform (4066, pin 1) and with channel 2, look at the PAM out
waveform (4066, pin 2). Set the scope trigger for the PAM out channel. You may have to play with the trigger
level to get a stable waveform on the screen.

Draw the 2 waveforms, vertically, and explain. Is the sine wave being sampled often enough to be reproduced
properly when it is demodulated?

5. Adjust the signal generator amplitude and see the output Vpp (PAM sampled) follow the input Vpp.

Leave circuit together for next part!

53
 B. TDM – Time Division Multiplexing

Add two more chips to the circuit of Part A. The additional chips - 4069 (inverter) and 2nd 555 sampling pulse
generator - produce another sampling waveform that is separate in time from the first sampling pulse. The two
sampling pulses will operate two switches in the 4066 alternately. The two CMOS switch outputs are OR-tied
together, and will show a time-division multiplexed waveform.

1. Look at sample pulse 1(4066 pin 13) on Ch A and sample pulse 2 (4066 pin5) on Ch B.
Draw and explain.

2. Make signal 1 be a 5 Vpp, 150 Hz sine wave at (4066, pin 1). Make signal 2 be 6 Vdc.

54
3. With channel 1, look at the sine wave and with channel 2, look at the TDM out waveform (4066, pin 2). Set the
scope trigger for the TDM out channel. You may have to play with the trigger level to get a stable waveform on the
screen. Draw the 2 waveforms, vertically, and explain.

55
 ET 426L Communication Systems Lab

Lab 10 : RS-232

Use the HyperTerminal program in Windows to send data back and forth between 2 PCs using the serial RS232 port,
and see what handshaking is needed by using a breakout box.

1. From the class 232 handout, draw lines where connections are needed for DTE-DTE communications. These can
both be called “Null Modem” set-ups.

Full hardware handshaking Loop Back hardware handshaking

DTE1 DTE2 DTE1 DTE2
Tx 2 2 Tx Tx 2 2 Tx
Rx 3 3 Rx Rx 3 3 Rx
RTS 4 4 RTS RTS 4 4 RTS
CTS 5 5 CTS CTS 5 5 CTS
DTR 6 6 DTR DTR 6 6 DTR
DSR 20 20 DSR DSR 20 20 DSR
GND 7 7 GND GND 7 7 GND
CD 8 8 CD CD 8 8 CD
RI 22 22 RI RI 22 22 RI

2. The Lab PCs have a 9-pin Serial Port. We will use

a 9-to-25 pin adapter in order to connect to the 25 pin breakout box.

Breakout Box
Switch detail

connected ON
LEDs
not connected
2 2 14 14
25 pin female connector
25 pin male connector

3 3 15 15
4 4 16 16
5 5 17 17
6 6 18 18
7 7 19 19
t

8 8 20 20
9 9 21 21
10 10 22 22
11 11 23 23
12 12 24 24
13 13 25 25

3. On Desktop, start the Hyper Terminal program. Give the Session some name, then set it up to use COM1, and
then set the configuration to 2400 bps, 8 data bits, no parity, 1 stop bit, Hardware control.
Connect on the breakout box all connections needed for full hardware handshaking.

Under File, Properties, Settings, set to VT 100 emulation, then click on ASCII Setup, and select Send line feeds
and Echo characters locally. See that single characters (press any letter key) can be sent between PCs when there is
56
DTE-DTE full hardware handshaking enabled. Instructor OK ______
4. Put a single digital scope lead on pin 2 (Tx) from left-side PC. Set the scope for single sequence, press Acquire.
From the left-side PC, send the character “a” (61hex) with even parity. Draw the waveform and label the
idle/start/data/parity/stop bits. Change parity to odd and repeat.

“a” – even parity “a” – odd parity

bits

5. Restart HyperTerminal, and set up as in step 4 above, except change to each of the following Flow Control
setups in turn - Hardware, Software, or None. Use the breakout box to find the minimum hardware handshaking
configuration that is needed to make the connection work. That is, remove jumpers on the breakout box until
characters won’t transfer, then undo the last step. Also check to see what, if any, loop-back connections can be
made and characters are still transferred. After each setup, write down the minimum hardware connections
needed. SG – signal ground – is always used, and so doesn’t need to be noted.

For example: Full: all crossovers - TD-RD, RTS-CTS, DTR-DSR, and CD (RLSD) needed.
Loopback: only TD-RD, RTS-CTS needed.
Flow control:
a) Hardware
Full:
Loopback:

b) Xon/Xoff (software)
Full:
Loopback:

c) None
Full:
Loopback:

6. Now we try file transfers. Byron could only get the Z Modem to work, so use that configuration, not X Modem,
Y Modem, or Kermit.

Use Windows “Notepad” to make a short text file, and store the file on the desktop.

Restart HyperTerminal and set the bps, data, parity, and stop bits back to the same as Step 3 above on both PCs.

From the HyperTerminal Toolbar, Transfer tab, set one PC to Send and pick the text file you wrote as the file to
send. Set the other PC to Receive. Start the Receive side before you start the Send side. See the file transfer.

Hangup, set the bps to 19,200, and try to send again. What is the fastest bit rate you can get to work?

57
 ET 426L Communication Systems Lab

Lab 11: Fiber Optics

Names _____________________________________________________________________

Part I (See details below)

Follow the instructions and prepare the ends of a piece of fiber. Instructor OK ___________

Part II (See details on next page)

Use your prepared piece of fiber and follow the instructions using the one pre-built kit circuit.
Step 6: How fast can you make the transmit frequency? __________

Part III
View the Daktronics Fiber Optic Training CD, available in Solberg 302. Start the PowerPoint. You can listen to
the voice over the PowerPoint, or read the notes attached to each slide. Also view the two splicing videos on the
CD. Answer the following questions

1. Dak uses what two sizes of fiber cable?

2. Fiber cable does not like bending very much. What guidelines for minimum bend radius does Dak have?
3. Name some reasons to use fiber vs. copper cable.
4. What length of fiber cable can be pulled in one string?
5. What two types of termination does Dak use?
6. Does Dak common procedure for terminations include polishing the cable ends?
7. What specialized tools are used in the terminating process?
8. In your own words, describe one of the fiber termination techniques.
9. To safely terminate fiber, what rules should be followed?

Part I

A. Fiber Preparation and Examining

Both ends of the fiber must be carefully prepared so it transmits light effectively.

1. Cut ½” off the end of the fiber with a sharp knife on a solid surface (on something like a clipboard to protect the
lab countertops). Make the cut as close to 90° as you can. Do both ends of the fiber.

2. Wet the 2000 grit polishing paper with a small amount

of water. Place the paper on a solid surface. Hold the
optical fiber upright, at right angles to the paper. Support
the upright fiber against a flat object, such as a CD case.
Polish the fiber tip with a gentle “figure-8” motion as shown.

3. Point one end of the fiber to a light source and observe the other end of the fiber. Note the changes in brightness
you see as you move the other end around, or cover the tip with your finger. Point the fiber at various objects. Do
any colors seem to transmit better than others?

58
4. Hold the fiber ½ mm from this paper, and move it across the words on the page. Can you see the variations in
brightness?

Part II Use the constructed test board and follow the procedure.

1. Apply +5 V to (power, EN, and Tx-EXT) leads and ground to the GND lead. This will power both the
transmitter and receiver circuits. You should see the red LED glow in the transmitter side housing (blue
connector).

2. As shown in the figure, insert one end of the

fiber to the transmitter side only, through the locking
cinch nut and into the connector until the fiber core
tip seats against the molded lens inside the device
package. Gently screw the locking nut down,
locking the fiber in place.

3. Take care not to stare into the end of the fiber for too long, to avoid eye damage. Move the fiber around, and
note that you can still see the red LED light transmitted, even with the fiber bent at sharp angles. Do not bend it
enough the crease the fiber.

4. Connect the other end of the fiber into the receiver photodetector housing, but do not tighten the cinch nut yet.
The transmitter circuit has an oscillator that is turning the LED on/off at a 1 kHz rate. Use the scope to see the
transmitted (test point 1 lead) and received (data out lead) square waves. Move the fiber straight out of the
receiver housing. How far away you can get it before the photodetector is not getting enough light (no received
square wave)?

Put the fiber up against the end of connector. Tilt the fiber away from directly into the housing. How much angle
can you make before the photodetector is not getting enough light?

5. Connect a TTL (5 Vpp), 5 Hz, square wave to Tx-EXT. Connect EN to GND. Disconnect the receive side of
the fiber, and carefully look at the end of the fiber to see the light pulsing. How fast can you make the transmit
freq until you can’t see the pulses as separate?

6. Reconnect to the receiver circuit. How fast can you make the transmit freq until you can’t see the pulses as
separate on the scope? This is a limitation of the electronics used, not the fiber.

59