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LOGARITHMIC UNITS
INTRODUCTION

This Chapter deals with the concepts and fundamentals of the logarithmic units and their
applications in the engineering of radio waves propagation. Use of these units, expressing
the formulas, and illustrating figures/graphs in the logarithmic systems are common and
frequently referred in the Chapter.In the field of broadcasting a wide spread dynamic range
of audio level is handled. The broadcast engineers have to handle very low level output
from microphone to very high level output from transmitter. To express these levels
conveniently, we require a scale or unit based on ratios rather than on the actual level in
micro watts, milli watts, kilowatts, etc.

OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
 Define Bel and Decibel with concept of logarithmic units and their applications
 Know about the requirement of different reference levels, types and their uses
in broadcasting
 Solve decibel problems to understand the use of logarithmic units
 Study voltage or current ratio to be used in conversion from linear to
logarithmic unit.

THE RESPONSE OF HUMAN EARS

The human ear responds not to the actual sound pressure but to the sound pressure
relative with the ambient sound pressure prevalent at that time. For example, the
movement of a leaf or a squeak of a mouse can be heard sharply in the night or in a quiet
room, but even a gunshot may be missed in a noisy environment.

Let us consider the following level changes in two different situations.

Case 1 Case 2

Initial level 5 kW 1003 kW

Final level 2 kW 1000 kW
Change in level 3 kW 3 kW

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Induction Course (Fundamental)

Even though the level change in both the cases is same, the change in level in case 1, from
5 kW to 2 kW is more significant than that of 1003 kW to 1000 kW in case 2.

In order to facilitate measurements, which take account of this phenomenon, a system was
introduced to allow power ratios to be expressed in a logarithmic manner. Applications of
this logarithmic system of units have dominant advantages as specified below:

 Simplicity of the mathematical operations

 Much better presentation
 Better understanding and more simple interpretation

BEL AND DECIBEL

Bel is defined as the logarithm to the base 10 of the ratio of the change in power level for
audio measurement.
P2

Bel =
log10
( )
P1

Where, P1 and P2 are the powers being compared.

In practice, the unit Bel was found to be high. Hence the unit decibel was defined which is
equal to one tenth of a Bel.

P2

Decibel = 10
log 10
( )
P1
The Decibel is abbreviated as dB. Although dB was originally derived for audio, the dB unit
is commonly used for R.F. Signal also. Change in audio power of 1 dB is barely noticeable.
However some people can notice a change of 2 dB.

A positive (+) sign indicates that P2 is greater than P1 and it may be stated as “P2 is so many
dB above P1”. A negative (-) sign indicates that P 2 is less than P1 and it may be stated as
“P2 is so many dB below P1”.

0 dB indicates that P2 is equal to P1.

The advantages of calculating power ratios by the dB method are clearly demonstrated by
the following example:

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The power output of a particular microphone is 10000000 of a milli watt.

This signal is then amplified to 1 kilowatt power. The system gain expressed as an
arithmetical ratio is 10000 000 000 000 = 1013. Expressed in the decibel notation this
becomes 130 dB. The microphone power output could be stated as –70 dB relative to 1
mw and the audio power output as +60 dB relative to 1 mw.

dB is used only to indicate Gain or Loss in a system like amplifier or attenuator respectively.

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 Logarithmic Units

REFERENCE LEVELS

The dB may be used to indicate absolute power provided that the reference level is known.
Without a reference level power expressed in dB is meaningless.

A reference level of 1 milliwatt is widely used and accepted internationally. Using this as
reference level a power of 1 watt may be specified as:

a) + 30 dB (Reference level 1 milliwatt)

b) + 30 dB ( 0 dB = 1 mw)
c) + 30 dBm
(dBm indicates a power expressed in dB with a reference level of 1 mw).

In Broadcasting, 1 Watt is generally expressed as +30 dBm.

DECIBEL PROBLEMS

Example1. The input power to an audio amplifier is 5 milliwatts. The amplifier delivers an
output of 5 watts to its load. What is the amplifier gain?

The gain of the amplifier in dB is

P2

dB = 10
log 10
( ) P1
= 10
log 10 ( 55WmW )
5000mW
= 10
log 10 ( 5 mW ) = 10 log10 (1000)
= 10 x 3.000 = 30

In this example there is a gain, hence it can be expressed as +30 dB.

Example 2: Input to the FEC is about – 79 dBm, the output is –5 dBm. The Gain of the
system is –5 – (-79) = - 5 + 79 = 74 dB.

A control room amplifier is delivering one watt to a monitoring speaker. The output power is
increased to two watts. In describing this increase, it could be stated that the amplifier
output power has been increased by one watt. This statement could however be
misleading if the original power output had not been stated. A more satisfactory way of
expressing the change would be to state that the power output of the amplifier has been
increased by 3 dB. This value is calculated as shown in the example below:-

dB = 10 log10 (2/1) = 10 log10(2)

= 10 x 0.3010
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Induction Course (Fundamental)

= 3.01

It can also be stated that the power has been increased by + 3 dB.

If the power output had been decreased from two watts to one watt it would be a change of
–3.01 dB.

In any case where the power is altered by a factor of 2.0 the change in level will correspond
to 3 dB.

VOLTAGE OR CURRENT RATIOS

It is often more practical to measure the voltage or current rather than the power dissipated
in a circuit. The decibel may also be used to express voltage or current ratios although this
method is still based on power ratios. The power dissipated in a circuit is equal to:

2
E
P= = I2R
R
Therefore, whenever the decibel relation between two voltages (or currents) is required, the
following formula may be employed.

P2 E22 / R2
dB = 10 log 10
( ) P1
= 10 log 10
( )
E21 / R1
E2 R1
= 20 log 10
( )
E1
+ 10 log 10
( )
R2
............(1)
Alternatively

P2 I 22 R2
dB = 10 log 10
( )
P1
= 10 log10
( )
I 21 R1
I2 R2
= 20 log 10
( )
I1
+ 10 log 10
( )
R1
............(2)
Where P = Power, E = Voltage, I = Current and R = Resistance in the circuit.

In cases where R, in the above expressions, is not purely resistive then the true power must
be calculated by including information on the phase angle of the circuit.

Equation (2) would then becomes

I 22 R2 Cos φ2
dB = 10 log10
( I 21 R1 Cos φ1 )
Where φ1 and φ2 are the phase angles .

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 Logarithmic Units

If the values of R1 and R2 are equal then equations (1) and (2) may be simplified in the
following manner:

E22 / R2
dB = 10 log 10
( )
E21 / R1
E2 E2
= 20 log 10
( )
E1
' when R 1 = R2 = 20 log 10
( )
E1
........(3)
OR
I 22 R 2
dB = 10 log 10
( )
I 21 R1
I2 I2
= 20 log 10
( )
I1
when R1 = R2 = 20 log 10
( )
I1
.........(4)

Equation (3) and (4) may be used to solve many decibel problems if the two impedances
are equal.

The power that is dissipated by resistance is equal to

E2
P = = I2 R
R
If the voltage (E) or the current (I) is doubled the power (P) dissipated by the resistance (R)
will be increased by 4 times.

A power ratio as 4:1 corresponds to a 6 dB change in power and so it must also follow that
a 2:1 change of either voltage or current will also correspond to a 6 dB change in level of
power. That is if there is a change of voltage or current by 2 times the corresponding
change in dB is 6 dB in level of power.

Example 3 : The input impedance and output impedance of an amplifier are equal in
value. A tone signal of 0.1 volt produces an output voltage of 50 volts. What is the
gain of the amplifier in dB?
E2
dB = 20 log 10
( )E1
= 20 log 10 ( 50
0 .1 )

¿ 20 log 10 ( 500 ) =20 x 2. 699=53 . 980

Gain =+53 . 980

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Induction Course (Fundamental)

Example 4 : The voltage across a monitor speaker is 2.5 volts. The gain of the monitor
amplifier is increased and the voltage across the speaker now becomes 4.5 volts.
Calculate the increase in amplifier gain.
E2
dB = 20 log 10
( )
E1
= 20 log 10 ( 42.. 55 )=20 log 10 (1 . 8)

¿ 20 x 0 . 2553=5 . 1Gain=+ 5. 1

STANDARD REFERENCE LEVELS USED IN BROADCASTING

Example 5 : In TVRO, the signal received at the parabolic dish antenna is about -120
1.dBm. dBm
Let us: Power
find outinthe
dBequivalent
up or downpower in watts.to 1 milliwatt of power that is 0.774 volt
with respect
across 600 ohms. It is used in P2broadcasting industries, and 1 milli watt of power is
taken dB = 10level.
as reference log 10
( )
P1
0 dBm means the power measured is 1 milliwatt across 600 ohms.
P2 6
−120=10 log 10
( )
P1
1 mW
120 =10 log 10
 Logarithmic Units

-45 dBm means the power measured is 45 dB below the reference level of 0 dBm
that is 3.162 x 10-5 milliwatt across 600 ohms or 4.3 millivolt across 600 ohms.
2. dBu : 0.7746 volts is taken as the reference level and the voltage can be measured
across any impedance. It need not be measured always across 600 ohms. Note
the difference is only philosophical. The dBu unit has exactly the same magnitude
of voltage as in dBm, if the measurement is made across 600 ohms circuits.
Otherwise it will have different values. In AIR and DD this unit is used in Audio
Consoles.

+8 dBu means the voltage is 1.946 volts or 8 dB above the reference level of 0.7746
volt.

-4 dBu means the measured voltage is 4 dB down with reference to 0.7746 volt or
the measured voltage is 0.4887 volt. The impedance in both the cases may be any
value or 600 ohms.

The output of a monitoring amplifier is 8 watts. It can be expressed as +39 dBu.

Similarly a 10 watt output can be stated as +40 dBu.

3. dBw : 1 watt of power is taken as reference power. It is used when the amount of
power involved is high. The EIRP of transmitter used in satellite communication is
usually expressed in dBw.

For example, a 10 kW power of a transmitter is connected to a cable of loss 3

dB and an antenna of Gain 10 dB. The power output from the antenna to the
space is calculated as below:

Input power to the cable = 10 kW

Loss in the cable = 3 dB
Output from the cable = 5 kW
Gain of the Antenna = 10 dB
Output from antenna or EIRP = 50 kW

4. dBv : When the reference level is taken as 1 micro volt the unit is called as dBv.

5. dBv/m : when reference level is taken as 1 micro volt per meter, the unit is called
dB v/m. This unit is used in field strength measurements.

dBv/m = 20 log10 (v/m)

Example 6: Convert 17 v/m to dBv/m

dBv/m = 20 log10(17v/m)
= 20 x 1.23 = 24.6
17 v/m = 24.6 dBv/m

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Induction Course (Fundamental)

6. dBk: When the reference level is taken as 1 kilowatt (kW) the unit is called dBk. This
unit is used in high power calculation. Any level that is above 1 kW is expressed as +
(x) dBk and any level that is below 1 kW is expressed as –(x) dBk.

To convert power in watts to dBk, use the following formula.

dBk = 10 (log P)-30 where P is in watts.

Example 7: Convert 500 W to dBk

dBk = 10 (log P)-30 = 10(log 500)-30

= 10(2.7)-30 = 27-30

= -3

To convert from dBk to watts, use the formula

P (Watts) = anti-log
(10dBk +3)
Example 8: Convert – 2 dBk to watts.
P watts = antilog (-2/10 +3)
= antilog (-0.2 +3)
= antilog (+2.8) = 631 watt.

In FM transmitter of AIR and TV Transmitters the impedance is 50 ohms. However

the measurements are being made in dBm. Here also the reference level is 1 milli
watt of power measured across 50 ohms, hence the reference level of voltage is
0.2236 volts. This voltage being R.M.S. the corresponding Peak to Peak voltage is
0.2236 x 2 x 2 = 0.6324 volts. Hence 0 dBm in RF corresponds to 0.2236 volts
r.m.s. or 0.6324 volts Peak to peak across 50 ohms.

Example 9 : The output level of FEC is –5 dBm across 50 ohms. Hence –5 dBm
corresponds to 0.316 milli watt or 0.1257 volts r.m.s. across 50 ohms. This is
equal to 0.3555 volts Peak to Peak which can be measured using an
Oscilloscope.

7. dBFS: For measurement of digital signal dBFS (dB full scale) is used. Full scale is
taken as reference level. Full scale means the maximum voltage level possible
before digital clipping.
0dBFS = Maximum possible digital level
-6 dBFS = 50 % of maximum possible digital level
0dBFS for reference level of full scale sine wave is equal to – 3dBFS for reference
level of full scale square wave.

In American System

-20dBFS = 0VU = +4dbu

0dBFS = +24dBu

ACTIVITIES
 Logarithmic Units

FURTHER READINGS

1. Rumsey, F& McCormick, Tim (1994) sound & Recording: An Introduction:

Oxford: Focal.

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