K. J.

Somaiya College Engineering

(An Autonomous College Affiliated to University of Mumbai)
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Subject: Energy Conversion - I IA-2

Influence of Lubricating Oil on Formation of

Nanoparticles in Engine exhaust
IA-2 Report submitted under the course of “Energy Conversion -I”
(CourseCode:UMEC601 Course: Energy Conversion -I)
Semester: VI

Submitted By-

SR NO NAME ROLL
NO

1 RISHIKESH DANDEKAR 1715136

2 SHREYA MANDHANA 1615027

3 BHAVIN KHUMAN 1825001

4 JATIN JETHWA 1825002

THIRD YEAR MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

(A Division)
BATCH: A4

Under the Guidance of

PROF BHUSNOOR S. S.

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 K. J. Somaiya College Engineering
(An Autonomous College Affiliated to University of Mumbai)
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Subject: Energy Conversion - I IA-2

LIST OF CONTENTS

SR TITLE PAGE
NO NO.
1. INTRODUCTION 4

2. LITERATURE 6

3. EXPERIMENTAL METHODS 7-9

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 9-15

5. CONCLUSION 16

6. REFERENCES 17

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 K. J. Somaiya College Engineering
(An Autonomous College Affiliated to University of Mumbai)
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Subject: Energy Conversion - I IA-2

LIST OF FIGURE

SR NO TITLE PAGE NO.

1. SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF THE EXPERIMENTAL SETUP 7

2. FUEL QUALITY TEST RESULTS OF THE TEST FUELS 9

3. PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION CHARACTERISTICS OF 10

THE TWO TESTED FUELS BEFORE AND AFTER THE DPF

4. TEM IMAGES OF THE PARTICULATE MATTER FROM THE 11

TWO TEST FUELS

5. SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF THE STRUCTURAL 12

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE BASIC CARBON PARTICLES

6. INTERLAYER SPACING OF THE PARTICULATE MATTER 12

FROM THE TEST FUELS

7. MICROCRYSTALLINE SIZE OF THE PARTICULATE MATTER 13

FROM THE TWO TEST FUELS

8. TORTUOSITY OF THE PARTICULATE MATTER FROM THE 14

TWO TEST FUELS

9. THE RAMAN SPECTRA OF THE DEPM 15

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 K. J. Somaiya College Engineering
(An Autonomous College Affiliated to University of Mumbai)
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Subject: Energy Conversion - I IA-2

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Lubricating oil is an important material to ensure the normal operation of internal
combustion engines. The quality of lubricating oil is directly related to the reliability,
economy and emission of the internal combustion engine The combustion of lubricating
oil will affect soot, ash, soluble organic components, metal elements and other pollutants,
and the improvement of emission control technology for internal combustion engines has
proposed higher requirements on the adaptability of lubricating oil.
To further the theoretical understanding of the lubricating oil quality, researchers
around the world have conducted extensive research on the lubricating oil -derived
DEPM (diesel exhaust particulate matter) emissions, soluble organic matter (OM) with
PM adhering to its surface and kinetic processes of combustion chemical reactions
involving lubricating oil. Sonntag et al.(2012) used the lubricating oil consumption path
tracing method to study the contribution and influence mechanism of the lubricating oil
for light-duty vehicle particulate emissions. Their experimental results showed that
lubricating oil was responsible for approximately 25% of the weighted PM emissions
from light- duty vehicles. In addition, the lubricating oil consumption tracing results
showed that under partial loading, the lubricating oil contributed relatively significantly to
the nanometer-scale PM emissions; when the PM size was expanded to the nanome ter-
scale, reducing the sulfur and additive contents of the lubricating oil would not necessarily
reduce the nanometer-scale PM emissions from a diesel engine. Worton et al. (2014) used
ionization gas chromatography with vacuum ultraviolet mass spectrometry to conduct the
chemical characterization of organic aerosols in automobile exhaust. The results show that
the main ingredients of the POA were benzene ring \ naphthene (80% or higher) and n-
alkanes (<5%), and the index parameters (such as carbon atomic number, double bond
yields, molecular branching degree, et al.) have a higher similarity with the composition of
the lubricating oil. Dongetal. (2015) examined the effects of a lubricating oil and its
additives on the PM emissions and its micro properties using the total cylinder sampling
technique and found that the consumption of a small amount of the lubricating oil could
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 K. J. Somaiya College Engineering
(An Autonomous College Affiliated to University of Mumbai)
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Subject: Energy Conversion - I IA-2

still affect the particle size distribution of the emitted PM, resulting in an increase in the
nucleation mode PM emissions. In addition, they also found that there was a significant
difference between the effects of the additives of different types on the PM emissions
and, under some conditions, the special chemical properties of the additives could even
lead to a decrease in the PM emissions from the diesel engine. Moreover, they noted that
the lubricating oil quality in the traditional sense was disproportionate to its effects on the
PM emissions.

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 K. J. Somaiya College Engineering
(An Autonomous College Affiliated to University of Mumbai)
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Subject: Energy Conversion - I IA-2

BACKGROUND-

 The effect of lubricating oil on the morphology of particulate matter (PM) was studied in a diesel
engine fuelled with pure diesel fuel and blended fuel containing 0.5% by weight of lubricating oil.
Particulate matter emitted by diesel engines is formed primarily by soot agglomerates which are
composed of primary particles.
 In this paper, particulate matter was collected with a thermophoretic sampling system, and a high-
resolution transmission electron microscope (TEM) was used to investigate the primary particles.
 A Fast Particulate Spectrometer, DMS 500, was used to determine the particle size distributions.
The TEM results indicated that the mean diameters of the primary particles increased after the oil
was added into the fuel.

MOTIVATION-
 Although diesel engines are widely used in on-road transport because of their efficiency and
reliability, particulate matter (PM) emitted from diesel engines has negative impacts on human
health. The current emission standards impose limitations only on the mass of particulate matter
that is larger than 2.5𝜇m.
 Although smaller particulates contribute little to the total mass, their significant number and effect
on human health and the environment have drawn people’s attention.
 During engine operation, lubricating oil consumption is inevitable and this is the reason why PM
emissions were found in a hydrogen powered engine.
 This is also the reason why particulate matter smaller than 2.5 𝜇m is proposed to be included in
future emission limits.
 To achieve lower PM emissions, regardless of total mass or number, the optimization of
combustion and the use of a post treatment system could be effective ways to deal with this issue.
Detailed characteristics of PM are indispensable to achieve the desired improvement.
 In order to control the quality of exhaust by studying the effects of lubricating oil on it and try to
reduce the harmful effects on the environment and human beings we have chosen this topic.

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 K. J. Somaiya College Engineering
(An Autonomous College Affiliated to University of Mumbai)
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Subject: Energy Conversion - I IA-2

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE-

Although diesel engines are widely used in on-road transport because of their efficiency and
reliability, particulate matter (PM) emitted from diesel engines has negative impacts on human health [1,
2]. The total mass of PM emissions from diesel engines has been significantly reduced with the advent of
stricter emission standards. However, the current emission standards impose limitations only on the mass
of particulate matter that is larger than 2.5 𝜇m (PM 2.5). Although smaller particulates contribute little to
the total mass, their significant number and effect on human health and the environment have drawn
people’s attention. This is also the reason why particulate matter smaller than 2.5 𝜇m is proposed to be
included in future emission limits. To achieve lower PM emissions, regardless of total mass or number, the
optimization of combustion and the use of a post treatment system could be effective ways to deal with this
issue. Detailed characteristics of PM are indispensable to achieve the desired improvement.
A commercial mobility sizer and high-resolution transmission electron microscope (TEM) are
widely used in investigating the detailed characteristics of PM. Although the use of a mobility sizer is
always considered to be a controversial way to determine PM characteristics, its high speed and stability
are indisputable, especially in comparing PM emissions; thus it is widely used in PM investigations [3– 7].
The results from the mobility sizer were also verified to be consistent in tendency with that from TEM
investigations [8]. Of course, results from TEM images are more direct and visual. Coupled with a
thermophoretic sampling system, many detailed characteristics of PM, such as the primary particle
diameters, morphology, and gyration diameters and others, can be achieved [9–13]. These results are of
great importance in understanding the formation of particulate matter and in guiding the optimization of
combustion to achieve lower PM emissions. However, the choice of samples and the conversion from
pixels to actual dimensions can lead to tiny errors. When considering the contributors to oil consumption,
part of the oil which enters the combustion chamber will be involved with the fuel combustion because of

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 K. J. Somaiya College Engineering
(An Autonomous College Affiliated to University of Mumbai)
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Subject: Energy Conversion - I IA-2

the complex airflow motion in the chamber. It is easy to imagine that combustion of fuel will be influenced
to a minor extent because of lubricating oil droplets cracking, evaporating, or combusting. Oil droplets will
absorb heat from their surroundings when they crack or evaporate, and the resultant lower temperature will
favor PM formation.

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 K. J. Somaiya College Engineering
(An Autonomous College Affiliated to University of Mumbai)
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Subject: Energy Conversion - I IA-2

CHAPTER 3:EXPERIMENTAL METHODS-

The contribution of lubricating oil to PM formation is focused primarily on soluble organic
fraction (SOF) and soot. It is easy for the oil evaporated from the cylinder liner to condense on the
soot surface and contribute to SOF formation. Part of the oil entering the combustion chamber is
not burnt and will contribute to the SOF formation in the same way. In order to investigate the
influence of lubricating oil combustion on soot formation in a diesel engine, 0.5% oil in weight is
blended into the diesel fuel. This does not conform to normal operating conditions but does make
sense in investigating the influence of oil combustion on PM formation. Particulate matter was
collected with a thermophoretic sampling system, and a high-resolution transmission electron
microscope (TEM) was used to investigate the primary particles. A Fast Particulate Spectrometer,
DMS 500, was used to determine the particle size distributions.

 Test fuel: There are two kinds of fuel used in the test. One is a pure diesel and the other is a pure
diesel mixed with lubricating oil (0.5% oil in weight is blended into the diesel fuel).
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 K. J. Somaiya College Engineering
(An Autonomous College Affiliated to University of Mumbai)
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Subject: Energy Conversion - I IA-2

 Test diesel engine: The experiment was conducted on a high-pressure common rail diesel engine.
The technical parameters of the diesel engine are as follows: model: JX493ZLQ3; turbocharged;
four cylinder; cylinder diameter: 93 mm; piston stroke: 102 mm; displacement: 2.77 L; total
power/rotational speed: 85 kW/3600 r/min; maximum torque/rotational speed: 285 N/2000 r/min;
and compression ratio: 17.2. During the particle collection process, the diesel engine had a stable
rotation speed of 2000 r/min and a power of 53 kW.

 Fuel quality analyzer: The fuels were tested using a MINISCAN fuel quality analyzer. The main
technical specifications of the analyzer are as follows: measuring range for the cetane number: 20–
80; measuring range for the total aromatic hydrocarbons: 0%–80%; measuring range for the
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs): 0%–50%; and measuring range for the kinematic
viscosity: 0–10 m/s (40 ◦C). The testing was based on the partial least-squares method and an
advanced chemical model that met the ASTM E1655 standard.

 DPF: A diesel particulate filter (DPF) is a device designed to remove diesel particulate
matter or soot from the exhaust gas of a diesel engine.

 TEM:An FEI TecnaiG2 F20 field-emission transmission electron microscope (TEM) was used to
analyze the crystalline structure of the primary C particles (PCPs) comprising each DEPM
sample.The main technical specifications of the TEM are as follows: accelerating voltage: 200 kV;
magnification: 25,000–1,030,000 times; point resolution: 0.24 nm; line resolution: 0.102 nm; data
resolution: 0.14 nm; angle of inclination of the sample: <±30◦; camera constant: 30–4500 mm.

 Raman spectrometer: Laser confocal microscopic Raman spectrometer was used to analyze the
degree of graphitization of each DEPM sample. The main specifications of the Raman spectrometer
are as follows: laser wavelength: 514 nm; wave number accuracy: ≤0.1 cm−1; spectral resolution: 1
cm−1; Raman shift range: 50–4000 cm−1; and microscopic size range: ≥1 µm.

 The working process of DPF is divided into four stages,

 1.1 h of PM loading,

 2.0.5 h of active regeneration,

 3. 4.5 h of passive regeneration,

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 K. J. Somaiya College Engineering
(An Autonomous College Affiliated to University of Mumbai)
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Subject: Energy Conversion - I IA-2

 4. 0.25 h of active regeneration.

 Thus, an experimental cycle has been completed, and three experimental cycles have been carried
out in total. The measurement of exhaust particle concentration after DPF filtration was completed
at the PM loading stage, considering the pressure drop caused by DPF filter channel blockage due
to PM accumulation, the test was completed within the first 10 min of the PM loading stage, and
the average value of three measurements was used to evaluate the effect of DPF on the
concentration of tested fuel exhaust particles.

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 K. J. Somaiya College Engineering
(An Autonomous College Affiliated to University of Mumbai)
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Subject: Energy Conversion - I IA-2

CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION-

1. FUEL QUALITY TEST RESULTS OF THE TWO TEST FUELS-

Fig.2shows the physical and chemical properties of the two test fuels. The data obtained in this
experiment are the results obtained by averaging the six measurements. We mainly analyzed the cetane
number, total aromatic hydrocarbon content, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon content and T90
temperature. Compared with pure diesel, the cetane number of the mixed fuel increased by 1.9, the total
aromatic hydrocarbon content in- creased by 1.3%, the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon content in-
creased by 0.8, and the fuel distillation characteristic temperature T90 increased by 6 ◦C.

The reason is that the lubricating oil is mainly composed of a base oil and lubricating oil additives. The
main components of the base oil are alkanes , naphthenes, aromatic hydrocarbons, cycloalkyl aromatic
hydrocarbons and non hydrocarbon compounds. Commonly used lubricating oil additives include
antioxidants, detergents, foam inhibitors, anti wear agents, etc., and most of these additives are long

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 K. J. Somaiya College Engineering
(An Autonomous College Affiliated to University of Mumbai)
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Subject: Energy Conversion - I IA-2

carbon chain components. For example, the antioxidant zinc dialkyl phosphorodithiloate has the
formula C28H60O4P2S4Zn.

The long carbon chain component in the lubricating oil in- creases the cetane number of the mixed fuel,
and the distillation characteristic temperature T90 of the mixed fuel increases due to the increase in
heavy components such as the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. The change in the content of the
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the fuel will also affect the particle emission and further affect the
working efficiency of the DPF post treatment system.

2.RESULTS OF PARTICLE SIZE ANALYSIS-

As shown in Fig.3, the diesel fuel and diesel/lubricating oil mixed fuel were used for the bench test in
this work, and the particle concentration and particle size distribution before and after the DPF were
collected and analyzed under the same working conditions. The particle size of the particles produced
by the two fuels is mainly distributed in the range of 0–300 nm. After the DPF post treatment system,
the concentration of the combustion particles of the two fuels is greatly reduced.

Before the DPF, when pure diesel was used, the concentration of particles showed a two-peak
distribution. The peak concentration and its corresponding particle size were 5.25 × 107 (cm3)/19 nm
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 K. J. Somaiya College Engineering
(An Autonomous College Affiliated to University of Mumbai)
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Subject: Energy Conversion - I IA-2

and 6.42 × 107 (cm3)/107 nm, respectively.

When the diesel/lubricating oil mixed fuel was used, the peak concentration and its corresponding
particle size were 2.81x107 (cm3)/20 nm and 9.46x107 (cm3)/93 nm, respectively. In terms of the
particle size, the particles are mainly distributed in the nuclear mode region at approximately 20 nm and
the accumulation mode region at approximately 100 nm. Compared with pure diesel, the peak particle
concentration in the nuclear mode decreased by 46.5%, but the peak particle concentration in the
accumulated mode increased by 47.4%.The reason is that during combustion, the lubricating oil cracks
to produce insoluble particles, sulfates and ash and tends to reach the saturation state and condense into
nuclei during the exhaust and dilution, leading to an increase in the number of accumulated modal
particles.

The distribution of exhaust particle concentration of the two test fuels after DPF filtration were
measured, these particles are those that can pass through the filter channels of DPF, the results show
that, particle size of the two fuels was mainly concentrated in the range of 10 nm–140 nm, and the
particle concentration of pure diesel fuel was relatively flat in the range of the particle size, no longer
having an obvious peak concentration, and the concentration was basically maintained at
approximately 3.8x104 (cm3), indicating that the DPF had a high particle collection efficiency.
Burning the diesel oil/oil mixed fuel still offers a bi- modal particle shape, and the average particle
concentration was approximately 16.9x104 (cm3), which is far higher than that of the pure diesel
particulate matter, suggesting that the lubricating oil in the combustion of the DPF post processing
system has a great influence on the work efficiency because the oil particle emissions deserve more
attention.

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 K. J. Somaiya College Engineering
(An Autonomous College Affiliated to University of Mumbai)
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Subject: Energy Conversion - I IA-2

3. MICROSCOPIC PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF THE PARTICLES-

Fig.4shows the TEM images of the combustion particles of the two test fuels with a magnification of
600,000 times. Under the action of an interparticle liquid bridge and solid bridge forces, the
combustion particles of the pure diesel oil form a chain structure with a single interparticle
connection and present different densification degrees at the junction. Several basic carbon
particles collide and overlap, forming the darker part in the TEM image. For the diesel/lubricating
oil blends, the number of the individual particles increases, the size decreases, and the particle
clusters are distributed in a circular pattern (Linetal.,2017; Bott et al.,2017). Compared to the two
kinds of fuel particle morphology characteristics, the lubricating oil in the combustion has an
irregular shape, and the boundary of the particles increases the soluble organic matter particle
content because the oil will not burn or it has inadequate combustion, leading to a smoldering
lubricant adhering to the surface of the particulate matter. The generated particles in the impact
process are easier to combine, and they overlap each other.

The basic components of the particulate matter are approximately spherical basic carbon particles with
extremely complex structures (Llamas et al.,2017;Zhang et al.,2017;Hou et al., 2017). Therefore,
Digital Micrograph software was used in this study to select the 10 TEM images with an obvious
basic contour according to the requirements of statistics, to accurately and quantitatively extract
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 K. J. Somaiya College Engineering
(An Autonomous College Affiliated to University of Mumbai)
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Subject: Energy Conversion - I IA-2

and analyze the microstructure parameters of the basic carbon particles and to explore the influence
of the lubricating oil participation in the combustion on the microstructure of the particles.

4.INTERLAYER SPACING –

The interlayer spacing refers to the vertical distance between the two adjacent and parallel carbon layers
in the basic carbon particles (Yehliu et al.,2011b,a;Hays and Vander Wal,2007). The gray distribution
of the particle graphite layer is measured in the vertical direction of the graphite layer by means of the
TEM.image grayscale measurement. The distance between the two peaks is the interlayer spacing. To
reduce the measurement error, the average of the three interlayer spacing distances is taken as the
interlayer spacing of the graphite layer. The interlayer spacing reflects the oxidation activity of the
formation of the basic carbon particles. The smaller the layer spacing is, the smaller the contact area of
the reaction between the microcrystalline carbon layer and the oxygen will be, the oxidation difficulty
will increase, and the oxidation activity will decrease.

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 K. J. Somaiya College Engineering
(An Autonomous College Affiliated to University of Mumbai)
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Subject: Energy Conversion - I IA-2

Fig.6shows the calculation results of the particle spacing of the two tested fuels. According to the
distribution of the basic car- bon particles with the different interlayer spacings , the interlayer spacing
of the pure diesel combustion is mainly between 0.18 nm and 0.25 nm, with the largest proportion being
0.21 nm. The interlayer spacing of the particulate matter in the diesel/lubricating oil mixture was
mainly between 0.07 nm and 0.15 nm, with the largest proportion being 0.15 nm. The lubricating oil is
involved in the combustion, which leads to the reduction in the layer spacing of the particles. From a
composition viewpoint, the major components of the diesel have carbon numbers ranging between
C7C20, and the major components of the lubricating oil have carbon numbers ranging between
C17C35; the lubricating oil is easily cracked into volatile substances in the combustion process, and
during the process of exhaust and dilution, it is easy to achieve the supersaturated state and then
condense into the nucleated state to generate a large number of nucleated particles. In addition, the
oxygen content of the lubricating oil is higher; the C and H have more opportunity to participate in the
combustion process and in the oxygen reaction, prompting the particles to crack into smaller sized
particles, which leads to decreased levels in particulate matter spacing and particulate matter that is not
easily oxidized.

5. MICROCRYSTALLINE SIZE –
The morphological and structural characteristics of the soot particles not only
determine the physical morphology and aggregation degree of the soot particles but
are also one of the decisive factors for their oxidation characterist ics. The

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 K. J. Somaiya College Engineering
(An Autonomous College Affiliated to University of Mumbai)
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Subject: Energy Conversion - I IA-2

microcrystalline size refers to the length of a single microcrystalline carbon layer on
the TEM image because carbon atoms at the edge of the carbon layer have unpaired
sp2 electrons, and they are more likely to bond to oxygen (Wang,2011;Lin et
al.,2018). In other words, the smaller the size of the microcrystal, the more relative
number of carbon atoms at the edge of the carbon layer, and the stronger the
oxidation activity of the particles.

Fig.7shows the microcrystalline size calculated based on selected TEM images.

The microcrystalline size of pure diesel is mainly concentrated ∼at0.3nm0.7 nm, and
the proportion of the basic carbon particles with a microcrystalline size of 0.5 nm is
the highest. The particle size of the blended fuel is mainly between 0.6 nm and 1.0
nm, and the proportion of the basic carbon particles with a microcrystalline size of
0.9 nm is the highest. In other words, after the combustion of the lubricating oil, due
to the collision and coagulation of the ash content of the lubricating oil, the
microcrystalline length of the carbon smoke particles increases, the degree of the
carbon layer structure is improved, and the particles are not easily oxidized and
decomposed, which is basically consistent with the conclusion obtainedinFig.3.

6. TORTUOSITY –
Tortuosity reflects the curvature and undulation of the carbon layer, which is related to the degree of
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 K. J. Somaiya College Engineering
(An Autonomous College Affiliated to University of Mumbai)
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Subject: Energy Conversion - I IA-2

disorder in the arrangement of carbon materials. Tortuosity is usually represented by the ratio of the
length of the carbon layer to the linear distance between its endpoints. The more curved the carbon
layer, the higher the value of tortuosity (Jin et al.,2014;Wei et al.,2014a). The bending of the carbon
layer was caused by a 5-membered ring in the aromatic structure. Due to the overlap of the electron
orbitals in the structure of the 5-membered ring, the stability of the electron resonance decreased, which
increased the tension of the bonds in the structure and weakened the energy of the C–C double bond at
the bend. Structurally, the position of a single carbon atom was more convex, so the curved carbon
layer was more likely to be oxidized.

Fig.8is the calculation result of the tortuosity of the basic carbon particles calculated from the TEM
image. The tortuosity of the basic carbon particles of pure diesel combustion particles is mainly
concentrated in the range of 0.9-1.2, while that of the blended fuel combustion particles is mainly
concentrated in the range of 1.1-1.3. From this perspective, the combustion particles of the blended fuel
have a stronger oxidation activity and are easier to oxidize and decompose. However, this is not
consistent with the analysis results from the two parameters of the microcrystalline size and interlayer
spacing. The author further calculated the mean tortuosity value of the basic carbon particles of the two
fuels and found that the mean tortuosity value of the combustion particles of pure diesel fuel was 6.0,
and the mean tortuosity value of the combustion particles of the blended fuel was 6.1; that is to say, the
combustion of the lubricating oil did not have a special impact on the tortuosity of the basic carbon
particles.

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 K. J. Somaiya College Engineering
(An Autonomous College Affiliated to University of Mumbai)
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Subject: Energy Conversion - I IA-2

7. DEGREE OF GRAPHITIZATION –
The C in the DEPM is between orderly graphite and amorphous carbon. Raman spectroscopy can be
used to rapidly and effectively qualitatively or quantitatively analyze the degree of graphitization of the
DEPM. In addition, Raman spectroscopic analysis is repeatable. Three measurements were carried out
on the different positions of the same sample during the Raman spectroscopy test. The peaks of the
spectra obtained by the repeated tests were basically the same, indicating that the samples collected
were uniform. On this basis, the Raman spectra of the particles are fitted to the Raman spectra because
the first-order Raman shift range of the diesel particulate matter is 800 cm−1-2000 cm−1, the second-
order Raman shift range is 2700 cm−1-3500 cm−1, and there is a frequency-doubling relationship
between the Raman spectrum and the first-order Raman spectrum. Therefore, we obtained only the
first-order peak fitting of the Raman spectra.

Fig.9shows the Raman spectra of the DEPM samples collected from the exhaust of the diesel engine fueled
with the two fuels. The characteristic peaks in the Raman spectra of GRAPHITE generally appear near
1190 cm−1 and 1480 cm−1. The former peak, formed as a result of the low-frequency vibrations of the
graphite crystallites, is named the D (disorder) peak; the latter peak, formed as a result of the stretching
vibrations of the C–C bonds within the graphite lattice plane, is named the G (graphite) peak. The D
peak in the Raman spectra of the diesel fuel and blended fuel appears at 1184 cm−1 and 1201 cm−1,
respectively, and the G peak in their Raman spectra appears near 1473 cm−1 and 1494 cm−1. The
FWHM value of the blended fuel is 251 cm−1 and that of pure diesel fuel is 192 cm−1. This is because
blended fuel contained more PAH content. Moreover, the PAHs contained in this fuel included

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 K. J. Somaiya College Engineering
(An Autonomous College Affiliated to University of Mumbai)
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Subject: Energy Conversion - I IA-2

acenaphthylene, acenaphthene, fluorene, phenanthrene, anthracene, benzonand benzo flu - oranthene,
which formed a large variety of intermediate products during the combustion process. It was adsorbed
by the DEPM in large quantities, and consequently, the chemical heterogeneity of the DEPM increased.

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 K. J. Somaiya College Engineering
(An Autonomous College Affiliated to University of Mumbai)
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Subject: Energy Conversion - I IA-2

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION

Based on the present experimental results, the following conclusions can be drawn:

(1) Lubricating oil involved in fuel combustion will lead to an increase in primary particle diameters and
the influence is obvious when the load is low.

(2) Particle size distribution results also indicate that the influence of lubricating oil on PM emissions is
less obvious when the load is high.

(3) Results from the mobility sizer and TEM observation show the approximate tendency in comparing the
PM emissions. Microstructures of particles will change after oil is involved in combustion.

(4) The long carbon chain components in the lubricating oil increases the cetane number
of the mixed fuel ,and the distillation characteristic temperature T90 of the mixed fuel
increases due to the increase in heavy components such as polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons. Compared with pure diesel, the peak particle concentration in the nuclear
mode decreased by 46.5%, but the peak particle concentration in the accumulated mode
increased by 47.4%.

(5) The oxygen content of the lubricating oil is higher, and the C and H have more
opportunity to participate in the combustion process and oxygen reaction ,prompting the
particles to crack into smaller particles, leading to a decrease in the particulate matter
spacing so that the particulate matter is not easily oxidized. After the combustion of the
lubricating oil, due to the collision and coagulation of the ash content of the lubricating
oil, the microcrystalline length of the carbon smoke particles increases, the degree of the
carbon layer structure is improved, and the particles are not easily oxidized and
decomposed.

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 K. J. Somaiya College Engineering
(An Autonomous College Affiliated to University of Mumbai)
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Subject: Energy Conversion - I IA-2

CHAPTER 6: REFERENCES

 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/7473539_Effect_of_Lubricant_on_the_Formation_of_
Heavy-Duty_Diesel_Exhaust_Nanoparticles

 https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/es0505503

 https://pubs.acs.org/doi/pdf/10.1021/es070999r

 Agarwal A K, Srivastava D K, Dhar A, Maurya R K, Shukla P C, Singh A P. “Effect of fuel

injection timing and pressure on combustion, emissions and performance characteristics of a
single cylinder diesel engine.” Fuel 111(3):374-383, 2014. doi: 10.1016/j.fuel.2013.03.016.

Agarwal A.K. “Biofuels (alcohols and biodiesel) applications as fuels for internal combustion
engines.” Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 33(3):233-271, 2007. doi: 10.1016/j.
pecs.2006.08.003.

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 K. J. Somaiya College Engineering
(An Autonomous College Affiliated to University of Mumbai)
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Subject: Energy Conversion - I IA-2

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