WRITING FIELD NOTES

Field notes are your opportunity to write poorly and get away with it. I say that in jest, but there
is some truth to it. This is one type of writing where you should not be going for literary value, to
make your writing interesting, and even to make it readable for anyone other than yourself.
Instead, the aim is to record your observations as straightforwardly and, while in the field, as
quickly as possible in a way that makes sense to you. Field notes are the first—and a necessary—
step toward developing quality analysis. They are also the record that confirms what you
observed. In other words, field notes are not to be taken lightly or overlooked as unimportant.
Some say that there are two different kinds of field notes: descriptive and analytic. Though the
lines between what counts as “description” and what counts as “analysis” can get pretty unclear,
the distinction is yet useful when thinking about how to write and how to interpret field notes. In
this section, we’ll focus on descriptive field notes. Descriptive field notes are notes that simply
describe a field researcher’s observations as straightforwardly as possible. These notes typically
do not contain explanations of or comments about those observations. Instead, the observations
are presented on their own, as clearly as possible.
Writing in the Field
Field researchers use a variety of strategies to take notes while in the field. Some research is
conducted in settings where sitting with a notebook, iPad, or computer is no problem (e.g., if
conducting observations in a classroom or at a meeting), but this is probably the exception rather
than the norm. More often, field researchers must find creative ways to note their observations
while engaged in the field. I’ve heard about field researchers jotting notes on their hands and
arms, keeping very small notebooks in their pockets and occasionally jotting notes there,
carrying small recorders to make quick observations. With the advent of smartphones, taking
notes in the field has become less arduous than it once was, as it is common to see someone
texting or surfing the web from their phone in almost any setting.
Your strategy for recording your observations while in the field will be determined mostly by the
site you choose and the role you play in that site. Will you be in a setting where having a
notebook or smartphone in your hands will look out of place? If no, by all means, take notes! But
don’t let your note taking distract you from what’s happening around you. Writing notes while in
the field requires a fine balance between jotting down your observations and actually engaging in
the setting. If you are strictly an observer, these will be easy to balance. But if you are also a
participant, don’t let your note taking keep you from participating. If you do happen to be in a
location where taking notes “in the moment” would be too obvious, rude, or distracting, you may
still be able to occasionally jot down a few things very quickly. You may also need to develop a
way of jotting down observations that doesn’t require complete sentences or perhaps even words.

Code:
Code is a word or phrase (often taken from text) which represents a single idea. Single words,
phrases, sentences, or paragraphs can be coded. Basically, coding is an analytical process in
which data, in several forms such as interviews transcripts, field notes and questioner are
categorized to facilitate analysis.
Pattern coding is a methodical and structured approach, reusable documentation which can be
used to solve a series of similar problems, within a specific context. A pattern can be categorized
by: similarity, differences, frequency, sequence.
Codifying and categorizing:
 Codifying means to arrange data in a systematic way, to make something part of a classification
(to categorize).  For example: “politicians for each mention in the text of any political figure”.
After identifying and giving code to the basic meaning units, it is time to put them in categories,
or families. Similar codes all can be gathered together into a category, or family of codes, and
one might give them a common code.  For example: “people in public life, covering those coded
as politicians, celebrities, sportspeople”.
Coding >>>Categorizing >>>Theme
Theme: Theme is a higher-level of categorisation, usually used to identify a major element
(perhaps one of four of five) of your entire content analysis of the text(s). For example:
“Differences between public and private individuals”.
Recoding & Recategorizing: The first cycle codes may be containing by other codes,
relabelled, or dropped altogether. Researcher progress toward next cycle second cycle coding,
there may be rearrangement and reclassification of coded data into new categories.
A Narrative Research Study:
In this study, researcher examines the Ai Mei’s life. The examination of the intersection of home,
school and ethnic community that influences in an Ai Mei’s life provided a glimpse of the
challenges of immigrant or minority students and contribute to understanding of multicultural
education. Theoretical Framework: researcher used Dewey’s philosophy of the interconnection
between experience and education as the theoretical foundation for this study. Methodology:
researcher began observations as a classroom-based participant observer for the research project
and write extensive field notes, when she was in 7 class. Then, researcher conducted interviews
th

and ongoing informal conversation with Ai Mei and collected all types of data.
Context of Ai Mei ‘s
·         Bay school street context
·         Home language conflicting with school language.
·         School language conflicting with home language
·         Parent values conflicting with peer values
·         Teacher expectations conflicting with parent expectations
A phenomenological Study:
The purpose of this study was to explore patients’ experiences and cognitive representations of
AIDS and understanding that how individuals cognitively represent AIDS and their emotional
responses can make easy therapeutic regimens to reduce elevated risk behaviours and enhance
quality of life. For this purpose, the researcher took a purposive sample of 41 men and 17 women
with a diagnosis of AIDS participated in this phenomenological study. Phenomenological
research questions exploring a person’s beliefs, feelings and image of AIDS taps into a personal
experience not previously studied.
A grounded theory study:
In this study the purpose of the researcher was to understand the behavioural process among
African & American women, through the development of a theoretical framework, for explaining
the thoroughfares and linking the key factors together that result in subsequent integration of
physical activity into a lifestyle. A grounded theory approach was selected because of lake of
knowledge regarding this specific area.
An ethnography study:
The researcher analysis builds on new subcultural theories and suggests a framework for how
members construct and understand their subcultural experiences. This study is all about the core
values of the straight edge movement. Straight edge (sometimes abbreviated as sXe) is a
subculture, a lifestyle, a movement, and, for some, an identity. The term itself came from the
early 1980s. No drinking, no drugs, no smoking, no casual sex - these are the primary tenets of
the straight edge subculture. In general, it's cantered around abstinence as a means of rebellion.
The researcher gathered data primarily through longitudinal participant observation with sXers
from 1996 to 2001 and conducted 0unstructured in-depth interviews with 17 sXe men and 11
th th

women between the ages 17 to 30. Straight edger’s make a lifetime commitment to positive,
clean living, for this purpose they make their own rules and promises as an identity.
Defence intellectuals:
Defence intellectuals are men, usually men are use the concept of deterrence to explain that
which kind of weapons are safe and which kind of weapons are not safe to use. The researcher
spent a year immersed in defence technology and arms control as participant observer and he
focused on formulating “what they call rational system for dealing with the problems created by
nuclear weapons”.
State I: listening
When researcher entering the world of defence entering he notice that, “the discussions are
carefully and intricately reason, occurring seemingly without any sense of horror, urgency and
outrage”. The term “clean bomb” implies that radiation the only dirty part of killing people.
Stage 2: learning to speak the language
The quality of power of white male was privilege. Techno-strategic language can be used only to
articulate the perspective of the users of nuclear weapons, not that of the victims.
Stage 3: Dialogue
Researcher says that no matter how well-informed or complex his questions were, if he spoke
English rather than expert jardon, the men responded to him as though he was ignorant and
simpleminded. Using the right phrases opened his way into lengthy discussions that taught him a
lot about techno-strategies reasoning and how to manipulate it.  He found that the better he got at
engaging in this discourse, the more impossible it become for him to express his own ideas, his
own values.
Stage 4: The Terror/Conclusion:
Realization that not only that language was abstract, bur entire system is abstract. At the end he
says that we have a “deconstructive task” of dismantling techno-strategy discourse: “the
dominant voice of militarized manliness and their rationality speaks so loudly in our culture, it
will remain difficult for any other voices to be heard until that voices to be heard. He says that
we have a “reconstructive task” of creating compelling alternatives visions of possible cultures.

QUALITATIVE APPROACH TO INQUIRY

NARRATIVE RESEARCH.
In Narrative studies ,Researchers collect stories about individuals life experiences. The
story that is co constructed between the researcher and the participant. The story
intended as a performance to convey some message or point. Researcher gathers data
through different sources such as interviews, observation, documents, pictures and
other sources.
Types of narrative research:
·         Biographical study
·         Autobiography
·         A life history
·         An  oral history

Phenomenological Research:
It describes the common meaning from several individuals and their life experiences of
a concept of phenomenon. It focus on describing what all participant have in common
as they experience a phenomenon. For example ,Grief, insomnia, anger and depression
etc.
Types of phenomenology
1-Hermeneutical phenomenology
2-Transcendental phenomenology

Grounded theory research:

It is also qualitative research design in which the inquire generates a general
explanation (a theory)of a process, an action or interaction shaped by the views of a
large number of participants. For example Law of gravity.
TYPES OF GROUNDED RESEARCH THEORY
1-Systematic Design.
(a)    Data analysis(open coding, Axial coding, Selective coding)
2-Emerging Design

  Ethnographic research:

Ethnographic research is a qualitative research approach in which researcher studied

the cultural patterns and perspectives of participants in their natural setting. Basically,
the researcher focuses on a community. The purpose of this research is to describe and
analyze the culture of a specific group to understand the group shared beliefs,
behaviors and language. Usually this is called field study.
Types of Ethnographies
1-The realist Ethnography
2- Critical Ethnography

Case study research:

Case study research is a qualitative approach, it is research design n which the
investigator explores a real life  ,contemporary bound system(a case) or multiple bound
systems(cases) over time ,through detailed in-depth data, collections involving multiple
sources of information .For example  ,Observations, Interviews, Audio visual material,
documents and reports case description and case themes.
Types of  case studies
1-Instrumental case study
2-Collective case study

Difference between Qualitative & Quantitative research:

Quantitative research method concerned with discovering facts about a problem or
social phenomenon. It investigates many peoples by questionnaires and collect numeric
data. Data are collected through measuring things and reported through statistical
analysis.
Quantitative research concerned with the understanding of human behaviour and their
perspectives about real life phenomena. It investigates a small number of peoples
through interviews, observations and content analysis. Data is reported in the language
of information.
CODING FOR PATTERNS:-
Some times , codes used repeatedly in patterns. Then same code can be used.
For example , come on students, line up for assembly.
CODING  FILTERS.
The act of coding requires that you wear researcher analytic lens that how  you perceive
and interpret. What is happening in the data depends on what type of filter covers that
lens.
For example,Children from other cities are not allowed to get admission in this
institution.
According to first observer, code is “ send them back”
Second observer’s code is “ admission   rules”
CODING TO CATEGORIES:-
Coding can be convert  to categories as well. Then recoding and re categories  can be
done.
WHAT CAN BE GET CODED:-
1-   Cultural practices{daily routines)
2-   Episodes (un anticipated activities such as divorce, relationship games and
natural disaster).
3-   Encounters {interactions between two individuals}
4-   Roles(student, mother}
5-   Social and personal(husband and wife etc)
6-   Subcultures life styles(Homeless etc)

How we labelling code:

 Decide which types of coding is most relevant
 Start coding
 Create a start list of codes create categorizes
  Test these categories against new data
 Write about codes and explain their significance
Coding is a cyclical process:
 Concrete experience:data transcripts and notes
 Familiarization with data:time on data and then reordering data
 Extraction of key concepts
 Active experimentation
Example:
The closer i get to retirement age the faster i want it to happen.i am not even 55 yet and
i wanted give anything to retire now. But there is a mortgage to pay off and still a lot
more  to sock away in savings before i can even think of it. i keep playing the lotterys
through in hopes of dreams of early winning those millions no retirement luck yet.
Preliminary codes: Retirement age, financial obligation, dreams of early retirement
Final codes: Retirement anxiety
Participant observation is one type of data collection method typically used in qualitative
research and ethnography. Participant observation is a qualitative research method in
which the researcher not only observes the research participants, but also actively engages in
the activities of the research participants. This requires the researcher to become integrated
into the participants' environment while also taking objective notes about what is going on.
Most researchers who conduct participant observations take on the role that they are
interested in studying. The goal of participant observation is to gain a deep understanding
and familiarity with a certain group of individuals, their values, beliefs, and way of life.
Documentary analysis
It refers to the various procedures involved in analyzing and interpreting data generated
from the examination of documents and records relevant to a particular study. In other
words, documentary work involves reading lots of written material (it helps to scan the
documents onto a computer and use a qualitative analysis package). A document is
something that we can read and which relates to some aspect of the social world.
Conversational and narrative analysis
It explores how people talk with each other. On the street, in office, in bus or at council
meetings. Conversational are the natural home of narrative, and the most familiar context of
storytelling. Conversational storytelling illustrates all the important features of narrative
Narrative is the standard part of conversation
·         We all tells stories
·         To make appoint
·         To entrain each other
·         To report news
·         To catch up on each other’s lives
Narrative It is a systematic in many forms of communication (books, films plays). Narrative
refers to the basic element of the story but does not constitute the story. A story needs to have
a point and a context this is what we need to find and to analyze. It examines how people
make meaning out of their experiences, how they interpret them and how they share it with
others.
In depth qualitative interviews these are questions that can’t be answered with ‘yes / no’.
Closed-ended questions do have their place, but you can usually turn them into more
informative ones by starting with ‘why’, ‘how’ or ‘what’. The question that is asked not fixed.
The interviewer doesn’t have to stick on given question he she can make different question on
the time to different interviews.
Four categories of qualitative interviewing Focus group, Internet interviewers,
and Casual conservation and in passing clarifications, semis structured and unstructured
interviews are different from each other in the role of the interviewer. It could be face to face,
or a distance or extend to they are planned.
Focused group Focus group interviews are interviews you conduct with a group of
participants to collect a variety of information. These interviews can be as small as four
participants and sometimes as large as ten, but I would recommend keeping a focus group
interview between four and eight participants. Oftentimes with larger focus group interviews,
some participants dominate the discussions while others fade into the background. As you can
imagine, this is not what you want to have happen in an interview setting, but this can
provide some crucial information to analyze and interpret later.
Internet interview It is a interview for those people who are not willing to come in front
of public. It conducts different types of interviews online on internet.
Casual conversations and in passing clarifications   It takes when during the
participant observation phase of a project, the researcher and interviewee crosses paths.
Casual conversations and in passing clarifications works best where interviewee and
interviewer know each other.
Sami structured   A semi-structured interview is a type of interview in which the
interviewer asks only a few predetermined questions while the rest of the questions are not
planned in advance.
Unstructured interviews Unstructured Interview refers to an interview in which the
questions to be asked to the respondents are not set in advance. Data collection is in
qualitative; types are questions are used in open ended questions. It is Exploratory.
Responsive interviewing it is an interview that builds the trust between the interviewee
and the interviewer. The tone of the questioning is basically friendly. It is based on the
forming a relationship with the interviewee, the relationship is based on trust. Because they
share their personal experiences, feelings, and something which is embarrassing to
themselves,
Designing research for responsive interviewing model Research is about
deciding what where how from whom you will find out. It determines data gathering tools
which are appropriate.
Design is continuous, flexible and adoptable.
·          Continuous means you redesign your study; you can change it when you want it.
·          Flexible means you can explore new information and test new ideas as they emerge.
·          The design is adaptable because it allows you to deal with unexpected.
Ethnographic questions The research needs to have questions in his mind that will guide
what he or she sees and hears and the collection of data. The researcher does field work to
find out the activities of the people, the physical characteristics of the situation and what it
feels like to be the part of situation. It uses participant observation, in depth interviews, and
so on the gather data.
Descriptive questions Descriptive question ask the interview subject to talk about their
experience in their own terms.
There are five major types of descriptive questions and several subtypes.
1. Grand tour question this type of question allowed informants to provide information
that specific question may have failed to anticipate.
1.1 Typical grand tour question in this ethnographer ask in description how the things are.
Ask the questions in general.
1.2 Specific grand tour question it takes the most recent day. The most recent series of event
1.3 Guided grand tour question this form ask the informants to give an actual grand tour.
1.4 Task related grand tour question these question ask the informant to perform some
simple task that aids in the description.
2. Mini tour question responses to grand tour questions offer almost opportunities for
investigating similar aspects.
2.1 Typical Mini tour question
2.2 Specific Mini tour question
2.3 Guided Mini tour question
2.4 Task related Mini tour question
3. Example questions are specific; it leads to the most interesting stories.
4. Experience questions this type of questions asked when they have had in some particular
setting.
5. Native language questions it is design to minimize the influence of informants competence.
5.1. Direct language questions it is asked when simply it used a term like how would you refer
to it?
5.2. Hypothetical interaction questions
5.3. Typical sentence questions
SEIDMAN,  technique is not everything but it is a lot
In  this  the seidman  talks about interview  techniques he tells the interview  is
technique and technique is not everything. But is the part of reflection of the personality
which attractive.
 listen more, talk less
seidman  tells that  when you go  for interview you  must listen more to  participant, to
whom you are taking interviews and focus on his talk what he is saying about when you listen
to the person that will be important skill. It will be very difficult for a interviewer to remain
quiet and listen to the participant to whom he is taking interview.
Interviewers  must listen on  at least three levels.  First, they must listen to what  the
participant is saying. They must concentrate  so that they internalize what participants
say. On  a second level, interviewers must listen for what George  Steiner (1978) calls
"inner voice," as opposed to an outer,  more public voice. An outer, or public, voice
always reflects  an awareness of the audience. On a third level, interviewers like  good
teachers in a classroom must listen while remaining aware of the  process as well as
the substance.
Philosophical assumptions:
Assumption is the framework for understanding and philosophy means abstract ideas and beliefs
that gives our research, that is based on some evidence but are without proof, philosophy is an
essential element of research process. Philosophical assumptions are the first idea in developing
a study and these are the theoretical frameworks to collect, analyse and interpret information. In
any kind of work or study we always bring a certain set of beliefs as well as theosophical
assumptions.Four philosophical assumptions:
 Ontology (the nature of reality): researcher embrace the idea of multiple realities and
report on these multiple realities by exploring multiple forms of evidence from different
individuals’ perspectives and experiences.
 Epistemological (how researcher know what they know): this is the close connection
between researcher and participant (phenomena). Researcher try to get as close to
participant being studied. Subjective evidence is gathered based on individual views from
research conducted in the field.
 Axiological (the role of values in research): researcher make their values known in the
study and actively reports their values that biases are present and research is value-laden.
 Methodology (the method used in the process of research): researcher uses inductive
logic, studies in the topic within its context, shaped by the experience of researcher in
collecting and analysing the data
Interpretive Framework:
Interpretive frameworks can be considered a basic set of beliefs that guide action. This is a
sociological research approach that seeks in-depth understanding of a topic or subject through
observation or interaction.
Post positivism:
Post positivism is a scientific approach, and do not believe on strict cause and effect. This is the
most social science and educational research and consist on logical, empirical, cause and effect
oriented also based on prior theories.
Social Constructivism:
Social Constructivism is the understanding of the world in which we live and work and the
development of multiple meanings. The researchers look for complexity of viewpoints.
Researchers ask broad general open-ended questions and focus on the 'processes' of interaction
with historical and cultural settings of participants for acknowledge their background shapes
interpretation.
Transformative Frameworks:
the basic principle is that knowledge is not unbiased, and the purpose of knowledge is to help
people to improve society because it reflects the social relationships with society.
Postmodern Perspectives:
In Postmodern Perspectives knowledge claims in multiple perspectives such as race, gender,
class and group affiliations and different discourses. It consists on Interpretive biography,
Narrative, Grounded Theory, Ethnographic.
Pragmatism:
Pragmatism focuses on outcomes that 'What works' to address research problem. In pragmatism
Researchers has freedom of choice of methods. Many approaches are used to collecting &
analysing data.
Designing a qualitative study:
In qualitative research individuals seeks to understand the world in which they live and work by
developing subjective meanings of their experiences directed toward objects and things.
 Qualitative research is covering several forms of inquiry that helps us understand and explain the
meaning of social phenomena with a little disruption to the natural setting as possible for
example: case study, field study, ethnography, observation, participant observation. Qualitative
researcher is interested in understanding the meaning people have constructed because it is
assumed that meaning is mediated through the investigator’s own perceptions. Qualitative
research is always descriptive.
Designing qualitative research purposal:
During the qualitative studies researcher needs a clear picture of the phenomena and question
that researcher wants to investigate. Researcher work out design according to some slandered
features, forms and cautions with colleagues and advisors (including participant)
1.   The goal of qualitative studies is to examine some ignored process and events that having a and
important quality.