Mechanics

1 Vector

1.1 r
r r r r
Any vector A = Ax x0 + Ay y0 + Az z 0 (1.1) B
r
Addition of two vectors: A
r r r r r r r
C = A + B = ( Ax + Bx ) x0 + ( Ay + B y ) y 0 + ( Az + Bz ) z 0 (1.2) C
Dot product of two vectors
r r r
A • B = AB cos θ = Ax Bx + Ay B y + Az Bz (1.3) A
r r
It is also referred to as the projection of A on B , or vise versa. θ r
Amplitude of the vector B
r r r
| A |≡ Ax2 + Ay2 + Az2 = A • A (1.4)
z (x,y,z)
1.2 r
r r r r r
Position vector of a particle: r = xx0 + yy 0 + zz 0 (1.5).
o
If the particle is moving, then x, y, and z are function of time t. y
Velocity:
r
r dr dx r dy r dz r r r r
v≡ = x0 + y0 + z0 = v x x0 + v y y0 + v z z0 (1.6) x
dt dt dt dt
Acceleration
r
r dv dv x r dv y r dv z r d 2x r d 2 y r d 2z r r r r
a≡ = x0 + y0 + z 0 = 2 x0 + 2 y 0 + 2 z 0 = a x x0 + a y y 0 + a z z 0 (1.7)
dt dt dt dt dt dt dt

1.3 Uniform circular motion

y
Take the circle in the X-Y plane, so z = 0,
x = R cos(ωt + Φ ) , y = R sin(ωt + Φ ) (1.8)
ω is the angular speed. Φ is the initial phase. Both are constants. θ = ωt + Φ

Using the above definition of velocity (1.6), x

r r r
v ≡ − Rω sin(ωt + Φ) x0 + Rω cos(ωt + Φ) y 0 (1.9),
r r
v is always perpendicular to r .
Its amplitude is v = Rω (1.10)

The acceleration is:

r r r r
a ≡ − Rω 2 cos(ωt + Φ) x0 − Rω 2 sin(ωt + Φ ) y0 = −ω 2 r (1.11).
v2
Its amplitude is a = Rω 2 = (1.12)
R

1
2 Relative Motion

A reference frame is needed to describe any motion of an object. O’ r

r'
Consider two such reference frames S and S’ with their origins at r
O and O’, respectively. The X-Y-Z axes in S are parallel to the X’- R
Y’-Z’ axes in S’. One is moving relative the other. r
r r r r
Note: r = r '+ R . (2.1) O
r r r
r dr dr ' dR r r
So the velocity is: v= = + = v' + u (2.2)
dt dt dt
r r r
r dv dv ' du r r
Similar for acceleration: a≡ = + = a '+ A (2.3)
dt dt dt
r r r r
This is the classic theory of relativity. If u is constant, then A = 0 , and a = a ' , i. e., Newton’s
Laws work in all inertia reference frames.
Properly choosing a reference frame can sometimes greatly simplify the problems.

3 Forces

Pull through a rope, push, contact forces (elastic force and friction force), air resistance, fluid
viscosity, surface tension of liquid and elastic membrane, gravity, electric and magnetic,
strong interaction, weak interaction. Only the last four are fundamental. All the others are the
net effect of the electric and magnetic force.

3.1 Tension r r
Pulling force (tension) in a thin and light rope: T T
Two forces, one on each end, act along the rope direction. The
two forces are of equal amplitude and opposite signs because
the rope is massless. It is also true for massless sticks.

3.2 Elastics
Elastic contact forces are due to the deformation of solids. r r
F1 F2
Usually the deformation is so small that it is not noticed. The
contact force is always perpendicular to the contact surface. In
r r
the example both F1 and F2 are pointing at the center of the
sphere.

3.3 Friction
The friction force between two contact surfaces is caused by the relative motion or the
tendency of relative motion. Its amplitude is proportional to the elastic contact
r force, so a
r
friction coefficient µ can be defined. v N

When there is relative motion, the friction force is given by f =

µkN, where µk is the kinetic friction coefficient. The direction r
of the friction is always opposite to the direction of the f
relative motion.

2
 r
When there is no relative motion but a tendency for such N
r r
motion, like a block is being pushed by a force F , the F
amplitude of f is equal to F until it reaches the limiting value
r
of µsN if F keeps increasing, where µs is the static friction f
coefficient.
Once the block starts to move, the friction becomes f = µkN. Usually µk < µs.

3.4 Viscosity
Air resistance and fluid viscous forces are proportional to the relative motion speed and the
contact area. A coefficient called viscosity γ is used in these cases.

3.5 Inertial force

Inertial force is a ‘fake’ force which is present in a reference frame (say S’) which itself is
r r r
accelerating. Recall that a = a '+ A . Assume frame-S is not accelerating, then according to
r r r r
Newton’s Second Law, F = ma = m(a '+ A) . So in the S’-frame, if one wants to correctly
r r r
apply Newton’s Law, she will get F − mA = ma ' , i. e., there seems to be an additional force
r r
Fint = −mA (3.1) r
acting upon the object. a

Example 3.1

A block is attached by a spring to the wall and placed on the r r

smooth surface of a cart which is accelerating. According to F = ma
r
the ground frame, the force F acting on the block by the spring
r r Ground frame
is keeping the block accelerating with the cart, so F = ma . In r r r r
the reference frame on the cart, one sees the block at rest but Fint = −ma F = ma
there is a force on the block by the spring. This force is
r r
‘balanced’ by the inertial force Fint = −ma Cart frame

3.6 Gravity

Between two point masses M and m, the force is r

r
r GMm ) m
F =− 2 r (3.2) M
r
r GM )
The gravitation field due to M is g = − 2 r (3.3).
r
The field due to a sphere at any position outside the =
sphere is equal to that as if all the mass is concentrated at M
the sphere center. (Newton spent nearly 10 years trying to
proof it.) M
− GM
Potential energy U = (3.4).
r

3
Application of superposition: Uniform density
larger sphere with a smaller spherical hole.
= -
r r r
Near Earth surface, because the large radius r1 r2 r1 r
of Earth, the gravitation field of Earth can be r2
taken as constant, and its amplitude is
O O O
GM E
g= 2
= 9.8 m/s2 (3.5).
RE

Its direction is pointing towards the center of Earth, which in practice can be regarded as
‘downwards’ in most cases.

Example 3.2
y
r
The ‘weight’, or the force of the ground on a person on N
different places on Earth. Take the radius of Earth as R, and r
a r
the rotation speed being ω (= 2π/86400 s-1). r f
mg
On the Equator, we have mg - N = ma = mω2R, θ x
so N = mg - mω2R = m(g - ω2R) r r
mg N
At the South Pole (or North Pole), we have N = mg r
At latitude θ, by breaking down the forces along mg
the X-direction and Y-direction, we have r
N
(mg − N ) cos θ − f sin θ = ma , and
(mg − N ) sin θ + f cos θ = 0 .

Solving the two equations, we get (mg − N ) = ma cos θ , f = − ma sin θ , where a = ω 2 R cos θ .
The negative sign of f means that its direction is the opposite of what we have guessed.

One can also break down the forces along the tangential and radial directions to obtain the
same answers. One can also take Earth as reference frame and introduce the inertia force to
account for the rotational acceleration.

3.7 Buoyancy

In a fluid (liquid or gas) of mass density ρ at depth H,

consider a column of it with cross section area A, then the H r
mg
total mass of the column is ρAH, and the gravity on it is
ρAHg. The gravity must be balanced by the supporting force
from below, so the force of the column on the rest of the
liquid is F = ρAHg and pointing downwards. The pressure

4
P = F/A = ρHg (3.6).

Now consider a very small cubic of fluid with all six side area of A at depth H. The force on
its upper surface is ρAHg and pointing down, the force on its lower surface is ρAHg but
pointing upwards so the cubic is at rest. However, for the cubic not to be deformed by the two
forces on its upper and lower surfaces, the forces on its side surfaces must be of the same
magnitude. This leads to the conclusion that the pressure on any surface at depth H is ρAHg,
and its direction is perpendicular to the surface. One can then easily prove that the net force of
the fluid (buoyancy) on a submerged body of volume V is equal ρVg. (See the HKPhO 2003
paper.) The buoyancy force is acting on the center of mass of the submerged portion of the
object.

3.8 Torque

When two forces of equal amplitude and opposite directions

acting upon the two ends of a rod, the center of the rod remains
stationary but the rod will spin around the center. The torque (of
a force) is introduced to describe its effect on the rotational
motion of the object upon which the force is acting. First, an
origin (pivot) point O should be chosen. The amplitude of the
r
torque of force F is

τ = rF (3.7),
O r
r F
where r is the distance between F and the origin O. The r
direction of the torque (a vector as well) is point out of the paper
surface using the right hand rule. One can choose any point as
origin, so the torque of a force depends on the choice of origin.
However, for two forces of equal amplitude and opposite
directions, the total torque is independent of the origin. O
r
The general form of torque is defined as r
r r r r
τ ≡ r ×F (3.8), F

which involves the cross-product of two vectors.

5
4 Oscillations

4.1 Simple Harmonic Motion

1
Frequency f and Period T: T=
f

x(t ) = xm cos(ωt + φ ) (4.1)

(a) Effects of different amplitudes

(b) Effects of different periods

(c) Effects of different phases

Since the motion returns to its initial value after

one period T,

xm cos(ωt +φ ) = xm cos[ω (t +T ) +φ ],
ωt +φ + 2π =ω (t +T ) +φ ,
ωT = 2π .

6
 2π
Thus ω= = 2πf . (4.2)
T

Velocity
dx d
v(t ) = = [ x cos(ωt + φ )], (4.3a)
dt dt m
v(t ) = −ωxm sin(ωt + φ )]. (4.3b)
Velocity amplitude: vm = ω xm (4.4).

Acceleration
dv d
a (t ) = = [−ωxm sin(ωt + φ )],
dt dt
a (t ) = −ω 2 x m cos(ωt + φ )]. (4.5)
Acceleration amplitude a m = ω 2 xm (4.6).

This equation of motion will be very useful in identifying simple harmonic motion and its
frequency.

4.2 The Force Law for Simple Harmonic Motion

Consider the simple harmonic motion of a block of mass m subject to the elastic force of a
spring

F = − kx (Hook’s Law) (4.7).

Newton’s law:

F = − kx = ma.
d 2x
m 2 + kx = 0.
dt
d 2x k (4.8)
+ x = 0.
dt 2 m
Comparing with the equation of motion for simple harmonic motion,

7
 k (4.9)
ω2 = .
m
Simple harmonic motion is the motion executed by an object of mass m subject to a force that
is proportional to the displacement of the object but opposite in sign.

Angular frequency:
k
ω= (4.10)
m
Period:
m
T = 2π (4.11)
k

Examples 4.1

A block whose mass m is 680 g is fastened to a spring whose spring constant k is 65 Nm-1.
The block is pulled a distance x = 11 cm from its equilibrium position at x = 0 on a frictionless
surface and released from rest at t = 0.
(a) What force does the spring exert on the block just before the block is released?
(b) What are the angular frequency, the frequency, and the period of the resulting oscillation?
(c) What is the amplitude of the oscillation?
(d) What is the maximum speed of the oscillating block?
(e) What is the magnitude of the maximum acceleration of the block?
(f) What is the phase constant φ for the motion?

Answers:
(a) F = − kx = −65 × 0.11 = −7.2 N
(b) k 65
ω= = = 9.78 rad s -1
m 0.68
ω
f = = 1.56 Hz
2π
1
T= = 0.643 s
f
(c) xm = 11 cm
(d) vm = ω xm = 1.08 ms -1
(e) am = ω 2 xm = 9.782 × 0.11 = 10.5 ms - 2
(f) At t = 0, x(0) = xm cosφ = 0.11 (1)
v(0) = −ω xm sin φ = 0 (2)
(2): sin φ = 0 ⇒ φ = 0

8
Example 4.2

At t = 0, the displacement of x(0) of the block in a linear oscillator is – 8.50 cm. Its velocity
v(0) then is – 0.920 ms-1, and its acceleration a(0) is 47.0 ms-2.
(a) What are the angular frequency ω and the frequency f of this system?
(b) What is the phase constant φ?
(c) What is the amplitude xm of the motion?

(a) At t = 0,
x(t ) = xmcos(ωt + φ ) = xmcosφ = −0.085. (1)
v(t ) = −ω x sin(ωt + φ ) = −ω x sinφ = −0.920. (2)
m m

a (t ) = −ω 2 xmcos(ωt + φ ) = −ω 2 xm cosφ = +47.0. (3)

(3) ÷ (1): a (0) = −ω 2 .
x(0)
a ( 0) 47.0
ω= − = − = 23.5 rad s - 1. (answer)
x (0 ) − 0.0850
(b) (2) ÷ (1): v(0) sin φ
= −ω = −ω tan φ .
x(0) cosφ
v(0) − 0.920
tan φ = − =− = −0.4603.
ωx(0) (23.51)(−0.085)
φ = –24.7o or 180o – 24.7o = 155o.
One of these 2 answers will be chosen in (c).
(c) (1): x ( 0)
xm = .
cosφ
For φ = –24.7o, − 0.085
xm = m = −9.4 cm.
cos(−24.7 o )
For φ = 155o, x = − 0.085 m = 9.4 cm.
m
cos155o
Since xm is positive, φ = 155o and xm = 9.4 cm.
(answer)

9
Example 4.3
A uniform bar with mass m lies symmetrically across two rapidly rotating, fixed rollers, A and
B, with distance L = 2.0 cm between the bar’s centre of mass and each roller. The rollers slip
against the bar with coefficient of kinetic friction µk = 0.40. Suppose the bar is displaced
horizontally by a distance x, and then released. What is the angular frequency ω of the
resulting horizontal simple harmonic (back and forth) motion of the bar?

Newton’s law:
∑ F y = F A + FB − mg = 0. (1)
∑ F x = f kA + f kB = ma. (2)
or µ F − µ F = ma.
k A k B
Considering torques about A,
∑τ z = FA ⋅ 0 + FB ⋅ 2 L − mg ( L + x ) + f kA ⋅ 0 + f kB ⋅ 0 = 0. (3)
or FB ⋅ 2 L = mg ( L + x ).
(3): F = mg ( L + x) .
B
2L
mg ( L − x)
(1): F A = mg − FB = .
2L
(2): µk
[mg ( L + x ) − mg ( L − x)] = ma.
2L
d 2x gµ
+ k x = 0.
dt 2 L
2
Comparing with d x + ω 2 x = 0 for simple harmonic motion, ω 2 = µk g ,
2
dt L
µk g (0.40)(9.8)
ω= = = 14 rad s-1. (answer)
L 0.02

4.3 Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion

Potential energy:

Since x(t ) = xmcos(ωt + φ ),

1 1
U (t ) = kx 2 = kxm2 cos2 (ωt + φ ). (4.12)
2 2

Kinetic energy:

Since v(t ) = −ω xm sin(ωt + φ ),

10
 1 1 (4.13)
K (t ) = mv 2 = mω 2 xm2sin 2 (ωt + φ ).
2 2

Since ω 2 = k / m,

1
K (t ) = kxm2 sin 2 (ωt + φ ).
2

Mechanical energy:
1 1
E = U + K = kxm2 cos2 (ωt + φ ) + kxm2 sin 2 (ωt + φ )
2 2
1
= kxm2 [cos2 (ωt + φ ) + sin 2 (ωt + φ )].
2

Since cos2 (ωt + φ ) + sin 2 (ωt + φ ) = 1,

1
E = U + K = kxm2 . (4.14)
2

(a) The potential energy U(t), kinetic energy K(t), and mechanical energy E as functions of
time, for a linear harmonic oscillator. Note that all energies are positive and that the potential
energy and kinetic energy peak twice during every period. (b) The potential energy U(t),
kinetic energy K(t), and mechanical energy E as functions of position, for a linear harmonic
oscillator with amplitude Xm. For x = 0 the energy is all kinetic, and for x = ±Xm it is all
potential.

The mechanical energy is conserved.

4.4 The Simple Pendulum

Consider the tangential motion acting on the mass.

Using Newton’s law of motion,
d 2θ
− mgsinθ = ma = mL ,
dt 2
d 2θ g (4.14)
+ sinθ = 0.
dt 2 L

When the pendulum swings through a small angle,

sinθ ≈ θ . Therefore

d 2θ g (4.15)
+ θ = 0.
dt 2 L

11
 g
Comparing with the equation of motion for simple harmonic motion, ω 2 = and
L
L
T = 2π .
g

5 The Centre of Mass

5.1 Definition

The centre of mass of a body or a system of

bodies is the point that moves as though all of
the mass were concentrated there and all
external forces were applied there.

For two particles,

m1 x1 + m2 x2 m1 x1 + m2 x2
xcm = = .
m1 + m2 M

For n particles,

m1 x1 +L+ mn xn
xcm = .
M

In general and in vector form,

v 1 n v
rcm = ∑m r . (5.1)
M i =1 i i

If the particles are in a uniform gravity field, then the

total torque relative to the center of mass is zero. The
same applies for the inertia force when the particles are
in an accelerating reference frame.

Proof:
r n v v r n v v n r v v r
τ = ∑ mi (ri − rcm ) × g = ( ∑ mi ri − rcm ∑ mi ) × g = ( Mrcm − Mrcm ) × g = 0
i =1 i =1 i =1

12
5.2 Rigid Bodies

1 1
xcm = ∫ xdm = ∫ x ρ dV ,
M M
ycm = ⌠
1 1
 y dm = ∫ y ρ dV , (5.2)
M⌡ M
1 1
z cm = ∫ z dm = ∫ z ρ dV
M M

where ρ is the mass density.

If the object has uniform density,

dm M
ρ= = . (5.3)
dV V

Rewriting dm = ρ dV and m = ρV , we obtain

1
xcm = ∫ x dV ,
V
1
ycm = ∫ y dV , (5.4)
V
1
zcm = ∫ z dV .
V

Similar to a system of particles, if the rigid body is in a uniform gravity field, then the total
torque relative to its center of mass is zero. This is true even when the density of the object is
non-uniform. The same applies to the inertia force. The proof is very much the same as in the
case for particles. One only needs to replace the summation by integration operations.

5.3 Newton’s Second Law for a System of Particles

In terms of X-Y-Z components,

∑ Fext , x = Macm, x ,
∑ Fext , y = Macm, y , (5.5)
∑ Fext , z = Macm, z .

13
5.4 Linear Momentum

For a single particle, the linear momentum is

v v
p = mv. (5.6)

Newton’s Law:

v v v
v dv d v dp
∑ F = ma = m = (mv ) = . (5.7)
dt dt dt
This is the most general form of Newton’s Second Law. It accounts for the change of mass as
well.
v r r
I = ∫ ∑ F dt = p f − pi . (5.8)
The change of momentum is equal to the time integration of the force, or impulse.

For a system of particles, the total linear momentum is

v v v v v
P = p1 + L + pn = m1v1 + L + mn vn . (5.9)

Differentiating the position of the centre of mass,

v v v
Mvcm = m1v1 + L + mn vn .

v v
P = Mvcm . (5.10)

The linear momentum of a system of particles is equal to the product of the total mass M of
the system and the velocity of the centre of mass.

14
Apply Newton’s Law’s to the particle system,
r r r
mi ai (t ) = Fi ext + ∑ Fij ,
j ≠i

r 1 r
X= ∑ mi xi , ( M = ∑ mi = total mass )
M i i
r 1 r
⇒V = ∑ mi vi
M i
r 1 r 1  r ext r 
⇒ A= ∑ mi ai = ∑  Fi + ∑ Fij 
M i M i  j ≠i 
r r
According to the Third Law, Fij = − F ji . So

r
∑ Fij = 0 (5.11)
j ≠i

and
r ext
r 1  r ext
∑ Fi + (0) = tot
F
A= (5.12)
M  i  M

Newton’s law:
v v
dP dvcm v
=M = Ma . (5.13)
dt dt cm

Hence
v
v dP
∑ Fext = . (5.14)
dt
v r r
If ∑ Fext = 0 , then MV = ∑ mi vi = const (5.15)
i
The total momentum of a system is conserved if the total external force is zero.

5.5 Rigid body at rest

The necessary and sufficient conditions for the balance of a rigid body is that net external
force = 0, and the net torque due to these external forces = 0, relative to any origin (pivot).
Choosing an appropriate origin can sometimes greatly simplify the problems. A common trick
is choosing the origin at the point where an unknown external force is acting upon.

15
Example 5.1 r
A uniform rod of length 2l and mass m is fixed on one end by T
a thin and horizontal rope, and on the wall on the other end.
Find the tension in the rope and the force of wall acting upon
the lower end of the rod. θ
Answer: r
The force diagram is shown. Choose the lower end as the F r
r mg
origin, so the torque of the unknown force F is zero. By
balance of the torque due to gravity and the tension, we get
mglsinθ - Tlcosθ = 0, or T = mg tanθ
r
Breaking F along the X-Y (horizontal-vertical) directions, we get Fx = T, and Fy = mg.
It is interesting to explore further. Let us choose another point of origin for the consideration
of torque balance. One can easily verify that with the above answers the total torque is
balanced relative to any point of origin, like the center of the rod, or the upper end of the rod.

Can you prove the following?

If a rigid body is at rest, the total torque relative to any pivot point is zero.

5.6 Conservation of Linear Momentum

If the system of particles is isolated (i.e. there are no external forces) and closed (i.e. no
particles leave or enter the system), then
v
P = constant. (5.16)

Law of conservation of linear momentum:

v v
Pi = Pf . (5.17)

Example 5.2

Imagine a spaceship and cargo module, of total mass M, traveling in deep space with velocity
vi = 2100 km/h relative to the Sun. With a small explosion, the ship ejects the cargo module,
of mass 0.20M. The ship then travels 500 km/h faster than the module; that is, the relative
speed vrel between the module and the ship is 500 km/h. What then is the velocity vf of the
ship relative to the Sun?

Using conservation of linear momentum,

Pi = Pf
MVi = 0.2 M (v f − vrel ) + 0.8Mv f
vi = v f − 0.2vrel
v f = vi + 0.2vrel
= 2100 + (0.2)(500)

16
= 2200 km/h (answer)

Example 5.3

Two blocks are connected by an ideal spring and are free to slide on a frictionless horizontal
surface. Block 1 has mass m1 and block 2 has mass m2. The blocks are pulled in opposite
directions (stretching the spring) and then released from rest.

(a) What is the ratio v1/v2 of the velocity of block 1 to the velocity of block 2 as the
separation between the blocks decreases?
(b) What is the ratio K1/K2 of the kinetic energies of the blocks as their separation decreases?

Answer
(a) Using conservation of linear momentum,
Pi = Pf
0 = m1v1 + m2v2
v1 m
=− 2
v2 m1

1 2
K1 2 m1v1 m1  v1 
2 2
m1  m2  m2
(b) = =   = −  =
K 2 1 m v 2 m2  v2  m2  m1  m1
2 2
2

Example 5.4

A firecracker placed inside a coconut of mass M, initially at rest on a frictionless floor, blows
the fruit into three pieces and sends them sliding across the floor. An overhead view is shown
in the figure. Piece C, with mass 0.30M, has final speed vfc=5.0ms-1.

(a) What is the speed of piece B, with mass 0.20M?

(b) What is the speed of piece A?

Answer:
(a) Using conservation of linear momentum,
(b) Pix = Pfx
Piy = Pfy
mC v fC cos 80o + mB v fB cos 50o − mAv fA = 0 (1)
o o
mC v fC sin 80 − mB v fB sin 50 = 0 (2)
mA = 0.5M, mB = 0.2M, mC = 0.3M.
(2): 0.3Mv fC sin 80o − 0.2Mv fB sin 50o = 0
(0.3)(5) sin 80o
v fB = o
= 9.64 ms-1 ≈ 9.6 ms-1 (answer)
0.2 sin 50

17
(b) (1): 0.3Mv fC cos 80o + 0.2Mv fB cos 50o = 0.5Mv fA
(0.3)(5) cos 80o + (0.2)(9.64) cos 50o
v fA = = 3.0 ms-1
0.5
(answer)

5.7 Elastic Collisions in One Dimension

In an elastic collision, the kinetic energy of each colliding body can change, but the total
kinetic energy of the system does not change.

In a closed, isolated system, the linear momentum of each colliding body can change, but the
net linear momentum cannot change, regardless of whether the collision is elastic.

In the case of stationary target, conservation of

linear momentum:

m1v1i = m1v + m2 v 2 f .
1f

Conservation of kinetic energy:

1 1 1
m1v12i = m1v12f + m2 v22 f .
2 2 2

Rewriting these equations as

m1 (v1i − v1 f ) = m2 v2 f ,

m1 (v 2 − v12f ) = m2 v22 f .
1i
Dividing,

v1i + v1 f = v 2 f .

We have two linear equations for v1f and v2f. Solution:

m1 − m2
v1 f = v ,
m1 + m2 1i
2m1
v2 f = v .
m1 + m2 1i

18
 P m1
Motion of the centre of mass: vcm = = v .
m1 + m2 m1 + m2 1i

Example 5.5

In a nuclear reactor, newly produced fast neutrons must be slowed down before they can
participate effectively in the chain-reaction process. This is done by allowing them to collide
with the nuclei of atoms in a moderator.
(a) By what fraction is the kinetic energy of a neutron (of mass m1) reduced in a head-on
elastic collision with a nucleus of mass m2, initially at rest?
(b) Evaluate the fraction for lead, carbon, and hydrogen. The ratios of the mass of a nucleus
to the mass of a neutron (= m2/m1) for these nuclei are 206 for lead, 12 for carbon and
about 1 for hydrogen.

Answer
(a) Conservation of momentum
m1v1i = m1vif + m2v2 f
For elastic collisions,
1 1 1
m1v12i = m1v12f + m2v22 f
2 2 2
m1 (v1i − v1 f ) = m2v2 f (1)
m1 (v12i − v12f ) = m2v22 f (2)
Dividing (1) over (2), v1i + v1 f = v2 f (3)

(1): m1 (v1i − v1 f ) = m2 (v1i + v1 f )

m1 − m2
v1 f = v1i
m1 + m2

19
Fraction of kinetic energy reduction

1 1
Ki − K f m1v12i − m1v12f v 2 − v 2 v12f
= = 2 2 = 1i 1f
=1− 2
Ki 1
m1v12i v12i v1i
2
2
 m − m2  4m1m2
= 1 −  1  = 2
(answer)
 1
m + m2  ( m1 + m2 )

(b) For lead, m2 = 206m1,

4m1 (206m1 ) 4(206)
Fraction = 2
= = 1.9% (answer)
(m1 + 206m1 ) 207 2
For carbon, m2 = 12m1,
4m1 (12m1 ) 4(12)
Fraction = 2
= = 28% (answer)
(m1 + 12m1 ) 132
For hydrogen, m2 = m1,

4m1 (m1 )
Fraction = = 100% (answer)
(m1 + m1 )2
In practice, water is preferred.

5.8 Inelastic Collisions in One Dimension

In an inelastic collision, the kinetic energy of the

system of colliding bodies is not conserved.

In a completely inelastic collision, the colliding

bodies stick together after the collision.

However, the conservation of linear momentum still holds.

m1
m1v = (m1 + m2 )V , or V = v.
m1 + m2

20
Examples 5.6

The ballistic pendulum was used to measure the speeds of bullets before electronic timing
devices were developed. Here it consists of a large block of wood of mass M = 5.4 kg,
hanging from two long cords. A bullet of mass m = 9.5 g is fired into the block, coming
quickly to rest. The block + bullet then swing upward, their centre of mass rising a vertical
distance h = 6.3 cm before the pendulum comes momentarily to rest at the end of its arc.
(a) What was the speed v of the bullet just prior to the collision?
(b) What is the initial kinetic energy of the bullet? How much of this energy remains as
mechanical energy of the swinging pendulum?

Answer
(a) Using conservation of momentum during collision,
mv = ( M + m)V
Using conservation of
energy after collision,
1
( M + m)V 2 = ( M + m) gh
2
V = 2 gh
M +m
v= V
m
M +m 5.4 + 0.0095
= 2 gh = 2(9.8)(0.063) = 630 ms-1
m 0.0095
(b) Initial kinetic energy
1 1
K = mv 2 = (0.0095)6302 = 1900 J
2 2
Final mechanical energy
E = ( M + m) gh = (5.4 + 0.0095)(9.8)(0.063) = 3.3 J
(only 0.2%) (answer)

Example 5.7

(The Physics of Karate) A karate expert strikes downward with his fist (of mass m1 = 0.70 kg),
breaking a 0.14 kg wooden board. He then does the same to a 3.2 kg concrete block. The
spring constants k for bending are 4.1 × 104 Nm-1 for the board and 2.6 × 106 Nm-1 for the
block. Breaking occurs at a deflection d of 16 mm for the board and 1.1 mm for the block.
(a) Just before the board and block break, what is the energy stored in each?
(b) What fist speed v is required to break the board and the block? Assume that mechanical
energy is conserved during the bending, that the fist and struck object stop just before the
break, and that the fist-object collision at the onset of bending is completely inelastic.

Answer
1 2 1
(a) For the board, U = kd = (4.1× 104 )0.0162 = 5.248 J ≈ 5.2 J (answer)
2 2

21
 1 2 1
For the block, U = kd = (2.6 × 106 )0.00112 = 1.573 J ≈ 1.6 J (answer)
2 2
(b) For the board, first the fist and the board undergoes
an inelastic collision. Conservation of momentum:

m1v = (m1 + m2 )V (1)

Then the kinetic energy of the fist and the board is

converted to the bending energy of the wooden board.
Conservation of energy:

2U 2(5.248)
(2): V = = = 3.534 ms-1
m1 + m2 0.7 + 0.14

m1 + m2  0.7 + 0.14  -1
(1): v = V = 3.534 ≈ 4.2 ms (answer)
m1  0 . 7 

For the concrete block,

2U 2(1.573)
V= = = 0.8981 ms-1 .
m1 + m2 0.7 + 3.2

m1 + m2  0.7 + 3.2  -1
v= V = 0.8981 ≈ 5.0 ms (answer)
m1  0 . 7 

The energy to break the concrete block is 1/3 of that for the wooden board, but the fist speed
required to break the concrete block is 20% faster! This is because the larger mass of the
block makes the transfer of energy to the block more difficult.

5.9 Collisions in Two Dimensions

Conservation of linear momentum:

x component: m1v1i = m1v1 f cosθ1 + m2 v2 f cosθ 2 ,

y component: 0 = −m1v1 f sinθ1 + m2 v2 f sinθ 2 .

Conservation of kinetic energy:

1 1 1 1
m1v12i + m2 v22i = m1v12f + m2 v22f .
2 2 2 2

Typically, we know m1 , m2 , v1i and θ1. Then we can solve for v1 f , v2 f and θ2.

22
Examples 5.8

Two particles of equal masses have an elastic collision, the target particle being initially at
rest. Show that (unless the collision is head-on) the two particles will always move off
perpendicular to each other after the collision.

Using conservation of momentum,

v v v
mv1i = mv1 f + mv2 f
v v v
v1i = v1 f + v2 f
The three vector form a triangle.
In this triangle, cosine law:

v12i = v12f + v 22 f + 2v1 f v2 f cos φ (1)

Using conservation of energy:

1 2 1 2 1 2
mv1i = mv1 f + mv2 f
2 2 2
2 2 2
v1i = v1 f + v2 f (2)

(1) – (2): 2v1 f v2 f cos φ = 0

φ = 90o (answer)

Example 5.9

Two skaters collide and embrace, in a completely inelastic collision. That is, they stick
together after impact. Alfred, whose mass mA is 83 kg, is originally moving east with speed vA
= 6.2 km/h. Barbara, whose mass mB is 55 kg, is originally moving north with speed vB = 7.8
km/h.
v
(a) What is the velocity V of the couple after impact?
(b) What is the velocity of the centre of mass of the two skaters before and after the
collision?
(c) What is the fractional change in the kinetic
energy of the skaters because of the
collision?

(a) Conservation of
momentum:
mAv A = (mA + mB )V cos θ (1)
mB vB = (mA + mB )V sin θ (2)
(2) ÷ (1):

23
 mB vB (55)(7.8)
tan θ = = = 0.834 , so θ = 39.8o ≈ 40o (answer)
mAv A (83)(6.2)

m Av A (83)(6.2)
(1): V = = = 4.86 km/h ≈ 4.9 km/h (answer)
(mA + mB ) cos θ (83 + 55) cos 39.8o
(b) Velocity of the centre of mass is not changed by the collision. Therefore V = 4.9 km/h and
θ = 40o both before and after the collision. (answer)
1 1
(c) Initial kinetic energy K i = mAv A2 + mB vB2 = 3270 kg km2/h2.
2 2
1
Final kinetic energy K f = (mA + mB )V 2 = 1630 kg km2/h2.
2
K − K f 1630 − 3270
Fraction = i = = −50% (answer)
Ki 3270

6 General equations of motion in the X-Y plane with constant forces

6.1 General formulae

F 
v x (t ) = v x o +  x t
m
(6.1)
 Fy 
v y (t ) = v yo +  t
m
1F
2
x(t ) = xo + v x o t +  xt
2 m

(6.2)
1  Fy  2
y (t ) = y o + v yo t +  t
2 m 
These general formulae can be applied to any situations, once the initial conditions (x0, y0, vx0,
vy0) are given.

A word of caution: Friction forces are not always ‘constant’. Pay attention to their directions
because they change with the direction of the velocity.

6.2 Projectile motion near Earth surface

The only force on the object is the gravity which is along the –Y direction. Accordingly, we
have
F 
v x (t ) = v x o +  x t = v x o
m
(6.3)
 Fy 
v y (t ) = v yo +  t = v yo − gt
m

24
for the velocity and
1 F 
x(t ) = xo + v x o t +  x t 2 = xo + v x o t
2 m 
(6.4)
1  Fy  1
y (t ) = y o + v yo t +  t 2 = y o + v yo t − gt 2
2 m  2
for the position.

These general formulae can be applied to any situations, once the initial conditions (x0, y0, vx0,
vy0) are given.

~end~

25
 Geometric Optics
1 Lens
Positive lens
1.1 Basic properties
• Rays parallel to optical axis are focused to the focus
point. F F
• Rays through the focus point become parallel to the
optical axis
• Parallel rays are focused onto a point on the focal
plane

Negative lens
Positive lens

F
F F F

1.2 Finding the image of an object formed by a lens

so = object distance to lens, positive/negative if object on the left/right of lens
si = image distance to lens, positive/negative if object on the right/left of lens
f = focal length (property of individual lens, positive/negative for convex/concave lens)

1 1 1
+ = (O.1)
so si f

Positive lens
Virtual Object
F
F
Virtual Image

1.3 Finding the image of an object formed by spherical mirror

so = object distance to lens, positive/negative if object on the left/right
of mirror
si = image distance to lens, positive/negative if object on the left/right
of mirror R
f = focal length (= R/2, where R is the radius of the sphere,
positive/negative for concave/convex mirror)
1 1 1
+ = (O.2)
so si f

1.4 Magnification

M = si/so (O.3)

1.5 Light intensity

Consider a point light source emitting light uniformly in all directions. The light
energy through the sphere of radius r is therefore uniform, and the portion of energy

Area
26
 2
πa 2 1  a 
through a circular area of radius a is then I= =   . For a lens of
4πr 2 4  r 
radius a at a distance d from a light source the energy flowing through it is
2
a
∝  .
r
As shown, the brightness of the image depends on the size of the lens and
the diameter of the aperture.

Waves
Definition: Collection of vibrating particles with fixed phase delay between neighbors

1 Wave equation

1.1 Plane wave

W ( x, t ) = A cos(kx − ωt ) (W.1)

describes a plane wave propagating along the x-axis, i. e., the

equal-phase surface is a plane, for example,

ω c
x = (ωt − c) / k = t− (W.2).
k k
ω
The plane is moving in space at a speed of v= (W.3).
k
2π Z
Here k≡ , and λ is the wavelength (W.4).
λ
W ( x, t ) is a periodic function of both time t and position x. The spatial x
period is λ the wavelength, i. e.,

W ( x, t ) = W ( x + λ , t ) (W.5a),

2π
and the temporal period is T≡ (W.5b) r
ω
because W ( x, t ) = W ( x, t + T ) (W.5c)

27
1.2 Spherical wave

W (r , t ) = A cos(kr − ωt ) (W.6)

i. e., the equal-phase surface is a sphere.

Pulse (shock) wave: W ( x, t ) = f ( x − vt ) = f ( x − x0 ) , t=0 t = t1

with x0 = vt , and v being the propagation speed. f ( x − x0 ) is a
function with maximum at f (0) .

x
1.3 Wave intensity x0 x1
The intensity of a wave is the time average of the oscillation.

1T 1T 2 1 2
I ≡< W (r , t ) 2 >= 2 2
∫ W (r , t ) dt = ∫ A cos (kr − ωt )dt = A (W.7)
T0 T0 2

(Note that cos2θ = (1 – cos2θ)/2)

2 Wave interference

Waves from two sources meet.

W1 = A1 cos(kr1 − ωt + φ1 ) , W2 = A2 cos(kr2 − ωt + φ2 ) , r1

Superposition principle: W = W1 + W2 (W.8)

r2
Using Eq. (W.7) we have W 2 = W12 + W22 + 2W1W2 , so

< W 2 > = A12 + A22 + 2 A1 A2 cos φ (W.9),

where the phase difference φ ≡ k (r2 − r1 ) + φ 2 − φ1 (W.9A).

< W 2 > max − < W 2 > min 2A A

Contrast I≡ 2 2
= 2 1 22 (W.10).
< W > max + < W > min A1 + A2

I reaches maximum of ‘1’ when A1 = A2.

The interference problems then become the problems of calculating path

differences δ r ≡ r2 − r1 and then the phase difference, which is usually
straightforward to solve. For example, in the case of a thin film under
normal incidence, the path difference between the waves reflected from the 1
first surface (red arrows) and from the second surface (green arrows) is
n, d
2nd, where n is the refractive index and d the thickness. The reflection at 2
the first surface introduces a phase shift π, so the total phase difference is
2πnd
φ= −π .
λ

Electrostatics

28
1 Electric charge

The crucial point is that some physical quantity which we call “charges” is discovered. The charges are
associated with a special force we called electric force.

1.1 Coulomb’s Law

This is the first Law of Physics on electromagnetism discovered by human beings. It says that the
electrostatic force between two charges q1 and q2 separated by distance r is given by
r qq )
F12 = k 1 2 2 r (E.1) r
r r
q2
) q1 r
where k is a constant, and r is a unit vector pointing in the direction from charge 1 to charge 2. F12 is the force
acting on charge 2 from charge 1.

SI Unit of charge: Coulomb(C)

One coulomb is the amount of charge that is transferred through the cross section of a wire in 1 second when
there is a current of 1 ampere in the wire.

Notice that the relationship between electric current and electric charges is already assumed in this definition. In
1
SI Unit k is given by k= = 8.99 × 10 9 N .m 2 / C 2 ,
4πε 0

or ε 0 = 8.85 × 10 −12 C 2 / N .m 2 .

For many charges, the forces satisfy the law of superposition,

r r 1 qi q j r
Fi ,net = ∑ Fij = ∑ r 3 rij (E.2).
j ≠i 4πε o j ≠1 | rij |

r m1m2 )
Notice the similarity of Coulomb’s Law with Law of Gravitation, F12 =G r . The main difference is that
r2
charges can be both positive and negative, whereas masses are always positive. The similarity between Coulomb
Law and Law of Gravitation also enable us to draw some conclusion about Coulomb forces easily. For example,

A shell of uniform charge attracts or repels a charged particle that is outside the shell as if all the shell’s charge
were concentrated at its center.

If a charged particle is located inside a shell of uniform charge, there is no net electrostatic force on the particle
from the shell.

29
Example:

The figure shows two particles fixed in place: a particle of charge q1 = 8q at the origin and a particle of charge q2
= -2q at x = L. At what point (other than infinitely far away) can a proton be placed so that it is in equilibrium? Is
that equilibrium stable or unstable? (-q = charge of electron)

1.2 Spherical Conductors

If excess charges Q are placed on a piece of metal, the charge will move under each other’s repulsion to stay as
far away from each other as possible. That means they prefer to stay at the surface of metal. For spherical
conductors with radius R the final distribution of charges is simple. Because of symmetry, the charges Q will be
Q
spread uniformly on the surface of the spherical conductor, the surface charge density being σ= .
4πR 2

30
1.3 Charge is quantized

−19
We now know that like other materials in nature electric charges have a smallest unit, e = 1.60 × 10 C , and
all charges are multiple of the smallest unit, i.e. q=ne, n = 0, ± 1, ± 2,.... etc. When a physical quantity such as
charge can have only discrete values, we say that the quantity is quantized. It is in fact not obvious at all why
matters in our universe all seem to be “quantized” somehow.

2) Identical isolated conducting spheres 1

and 2 have equal charges and are
separated by a distance that is large
compared with their diameters (fig.(a)).
The electrostatic force acting on sphere
r
2 due to sphere 1 is F .
Suppose now that a third identical sphere 3, having an insulating handle and initially neutral, is touched
first to sphere 1 (fig.(b)), then to sphere 2 (fig.(c)), and finally removed (fig.(d)). In terms of magnitude
r
F, what is the magnitude of the electrostatic force F ' that now acts on sphere 2? (1/2,1/4,3/4,3/8)
2 Electric Fields

2.1 Introducing electric field

The concept of “Field” was initially introduced to describe forces between 2 objects that are separated
by a distance (action at a distance). It is convenient to have a way of viewing how the force coming from object 1
felt by another object is “distributed” around object 1. This is particularly easy for charges obeying Coulomb’s
Law, since the force felt by charge 2 coming from object 1 is proportional to charge of object 2, i.e. we can write
r qq ) r r
F12 = k 1 2 2 r = E12 q2 , where E12 is the force per unit charge acting on q2 due to charge 1. Because of
r r
linearity of force, this concept can be generalized to the force felt by a test charge q at position r due to a
distribution of other charges. In that case, we may write

r r r q qj r r r r
F (r ) = ∑ F j = ∑ r r 3 ( r − r j ) = qE ( r ) ,
j 4πε o j | r − rj |
r r r
where E (r ) is the force per unit charge of a charge q felt at position r .
r r r r
E (r ) = F (r ) / q (E.3)

was given a name called electric field. The SI unit for electric field is obviously Newton per coulomb (N/C).

31
2.2 Electric Field Lines

To make it easier to visualize, Michael Faraday introduced the idea of lines of force, or electric field lines.
Electric field lines are diagrams that represent electric fields. They are drawn with the following rules: (1) At any
point, the direction of a straight field line or the direction of the tangent to a curved field line gives the direction
r
of E at that point, and (2) the field lines are drawn so that the numberr of lines per unit area, measured in a plane
that is perpendicular to the lines, is proportional to the magnitude of E .

Some examples:

a) field lines from a (-) spherical charge distribution

b) Field lines from 2 point charges of equal magnitude (i) charges are same (ii) charges are opposite.

2.3 Electric field due to different charge distributions

r
1) Point charge at origin ( r =0)
r q )
E= 2
r (E.4)
4πε o r
r
Exercise: what is the electric field at position r = ( x, y, z ) from 2 point charges with magnitude q , and
r )
q ' , respectively located at r = ± z0 z ?

We use the formula

r r
r r 1 qj r r 1  (r − z0 z) ) )
( r + z0 z ) 
E (r ) = ∑ r r 3 ( r − rj ) =  q r )3 + q ' r )  (E.5a)
4πε o j | r − rj | 4πε o  | r − z0 z | | r + z0 z |3 

Therefore

r 1  x x 
E x (r ) = q r ) 3 + q' r ) 3 (E.5b),
4πε o  | r − z0 z | | r + z0 z | 

32
 r 1  y y 
E y (r ) = q r ) 3 + q' r ) 3 (E.5c),
4πε o  | r − z0 z | | r + z0 z | 

r 1  z − z0 z + z0 
Ez (r ) = q r ) 3 + q' r )  (E.5d)
4πε o  | r − z0 z | | r + z0 z |3 

r )
where | r ± z0 z |= x 2 + y 2 + ( z ± z0 ) 2 .

2) Electric dipole

This is the electric field due to 2 point charges with magnitude q , and
r d) r
− q , respectively located at r ' = ± z , and at distances | r |>> d
2
from the origin.
In math, (1 + x) a ≅ 1 + ax when x << 1 , and a is a real number.

Using the above result, we obtain for the dipole electric field;
r q  x x  3qd zx
E x (r ) =  r ) − r )  ~ (E.6a)
4πε o  | r − d 3
z| |r + d z| 
3 r >>d
4πε o r 5
 2 2 

r q  y y  3qd zy (E.6b)
E y (r ) =  r ) − r )  ~
4πε o  | r − d z | | r + d z |  r >>d 4πε o r 5
3 3
 2 2 

q  z− 2 
d z+d 2 2
r
E z (r ) =  r − 2  ~ qd 3z − r (E.6c).
r
4πε o  | r − d z) |3 | r + d z) |3  r >>d 4πε o r5
 2 2 

The electric field lines coming from a pair of opposite charges are shown in previous section (b). Notice that at
r )
distances far away from origin, the electric field is only proportional to the product qd. The quantity p = ( qd ) z
is called an electric dipole moment. The direction of the dipole is taken to be along the direction from the
negative to the positive charge of a dipole.

2.4 Motion of Charges in electric field

a) Point charge
r r
A particle with charge q satisfies Newton’s Equation of motion F = ma under electric field, where m is the
r r
mass of the particle. The force the particle feels is F = qE , followed from the definition of electric field.

b) Dipole

33
 Since a dipole consists of 2 opposite charges of equal magnitude, the force acting on a dipole will be zero if
r
electric is uniform. However, the forces on the charged ends do produce a net torque τ on the dipole in general.
The torque about its center of mass is

τ = −(qE )(d / 2) sin ϑ − (qE )(d / 2) sin ϑ = − pE sin ϑ (E.7)

Notice that the torque is trying to rotate the dipole clockwise to

decrease θ in the figure, which is why there is a (-) sign.

r r r
In vector form, τ = p × E . Notice that associated with the torque is
also a potential energy

ϑ ϑ r r
U = − ∫ τdϑ = ∫ pE sin ϑdϑ = − pE cosϑ = − p.E (E.8).
π /2 π /2

r r r
c) Cross-product of two vectors C = A× B :
r r
• C = AB sin θ , direction perpendicular to A and B , and
determined by right-hand-rule. (E.9a)
r r r r
• A × B = −B × A (E.9b)
• For unit vectors along the X-Y-Z axes
r r r r r r r r r
x0 × y 0 = z 0 , y 0 × z 0 = x0 , z 0 × x0 = y 0 (E.10)

r r r r r r r r
A × B = ( Ax x0 + Ay y0 + Az z 0 ) × ( Bx x0 + B y y0 + Bz z 0 )
r r r
x0 y0 z0
r r r (E.11)
= ( Ay B z − Az B y ) x0 + ( Az Bx − Ax Bz ) y0 + ( Ax B y − Ay Bx ) z 0 = Ax Ay Az
Bx By Bz

Questions
r
What is the x-component of electric field at position r = ( x, y, z ) from 3 point charges with magnitude q , q’
r ) ) )
and q”, respectively located at r = x0 x , y0 y, z0 z , respectively? Recall:
r r q 
 E (r ) = 1 ∑ r jr 3 (rr − rrj ) 
 4πε o j | r − rj | 
 

r 1  x − x0 x + x0 x 
(a) E x (r ) = q r ) 3 + q' r ) 3 + q" r 3  ,
4πε o  | r − x0 x | | r + x0 x | |r | 

r 1  x − x0 y − y0 z − z0 
(b) E x (r ) = q r ) 3 + q' r ) 3 + q" r ) ,
4πε o  | r − x0 x | | r − y0 y | | r − z0 z |3 

r 1  x − x0 x x 
(c) E x (r ) = q r ) 3 + q' r ) 3 + q" r ) 3
4πε o  | r − x0 x | | r − y0 y | | r − z0 z | 

34
 1 x y z
(d) E x (r ) q  q'  q"
4SH o | r  x0 x |3
| r  y0 y |3
| r  z0 z |3

1 x x x
(e) E x (r ) q  q'  q"
4SH o | r  x0 x |3
| r  y0 y |3
| r  z0 z |3

4 Electric Potential

4.1 Conservative force and potential energy

Recall that in Newtonian mechanics, a potential energy can be defined for a particle that obeys
Newton’s Law F ma if the force is conservative. In this chapter, we shall see that the electric force felt by
charges (we assume implicitly that charges have mass and obey Newton’s Law) are conservative. Therefore, we
can define potential energy for charges moving under electric force. We can also define the electric potential –
the potential energy per unit charge, following the introduction of electric field from electric force. First we
review what a conservative force is.

Conservative force

A conservative force is a force where the work done by the force in

i
moving a particle (that experience the force) is path independent. It
depends only on the initial and final positions of the particle.

In this case, the work done by the force on the particle can be expressed as minus the difference between the
potential energies on the two end points,  'W U f  U i , the potential energy U (x ) is a function of the
position of the particle only. The potential energy can be related to the force by noting that the fwork done is
related to the force by dW F y dl . Consequently,

W F y dl (U f  U i ) (E.12).
i

The integral is path independent for conservative force. Using multi-variable calculus, it can be shown that the
above equation can be inverted to obtain F “U (r ). This is a simplified notation for 3 equations

xU ( x, y, z ) xU ( x, y, z ) xU ( x, y, z )
Fx  , Fy  , Fz  (E.12a).
xx xy xz

4.2 Electric Potential energy and electric potential

We can define electric potential energy for a point charge particle if electric force is conservative. Fortunately
q1q2
we know that electric force is conservative because of its similarity to gravitational force, F12 r12 .
4SH o r122
We know from analogy with gravitational force that the electric potential energy for a charge q1 moving under

35
 q1q2
the influence of another charge q2 should be U12 = , and the corresponding electric potential at a
4πε o r12
U12 q2
distance r from a charge q2 is V2 (r ) = = .
q2 4πε o r

Direct Evaluation of V2 .

The potential energy expression U12 can be derived using the formula
f r
r
W = ∫ F • ds = −(U f − U i ) ,
i
i
where we shall set the initial point i at infinity and the final point f at a
distance r from a fixed charge q2. Notice that the electric potential is given by
a similar integral

f r r
V f − Vi = − ∫ E • ds ,
i f

since electric field is the force per unit charge by definition. We shall for simplicity chooses the initial and final
points to be on a straight line that extends radially from q2 (see figure).
r
In general, the work done by the electric field W on a charge q moving from point r1 where the electric potential
r r r r r
is V (r1 ) to point r2 with potential V (r2 ) is W = qV (r1 ) − qV (r2 ) .

In this case the integral becomes

q2 1r q2
V f − Vi = − ∫2
dr = .
4πε o ∞ r 4πε o r

q2
Choosing the reference electric potential to be Vi = V (r = ∞) = 0 , we obtain the result V2 (r ) =
4πε o r
(E.13).

Equipotential Surfaces

The construction of equipotential surfaces is useful in this case. Equipotential surfaces are points in
space that have the same electric potential. These points usually form closed surfaces in space. For the electric
q
potential from a single charge q, V (r ) = . The equipotential surfaces are surfaces consist of points at
4πε o r
same distance r from the charge, i.e. they are spherical surfaces surrounding the charge.

36
Notice that no (net) work W is done on a charged particle when the particle moves between any two points i and f
on the same equipotential surface. This follows from

f r
r
W = ∫ F .ds = −(U f − U i ) = 0 if U f = U i .
i

As a result the electric force (field) must be everywhere perpendicular to the equipotential surface. To see this
r
we consider an arbitrary infinitesimal displacement ds on the equipotential surface. The work done is
r r r
dW = F • ds = 0 . This can be satisfied for arbitrary displacement ds on the equipotential surface only if the
r
force F is everywhere perpendicular to the equipotential surface.

The figure above shows the equipotential surfaces for several different situations. The surfaces can be
constructed easily from the electric field lines since they are surfaces perpendicular to the electric field (force)
lines.

37
Potential of a charged Isolated Conductor

Recall that for excess charges distributed on an isolated conductor, all charges must be distributed on the
surface such that the electric field on the surface cannot have a component parallel to the surface. (Otherwise
there will be a current on the conductor surface)

Therefore, for any points i and f on the surface of conductor,

f r r
V f − Vi = − ∫ E • ds = 0 ,
i

i.e. the surface of an isolated conductor forms a equipotential surface.

We show in the figure below the electric potential V(r) and electric field
E(r) as a function of distance r from center for a spherical conductor
with radius 1.

∂V (r )
Notice that E (r ) ~ .
∂r
Units of electric potential energy and electric potential:

The SI unit for energy is Joule (J) (1 Joule = 1 Newton × 1 meter). The SI unit for electric potential is
therefore

1 Volt (V) = 1 Joule per Coulomb (J/C).

r
This new unit allows us to adopt a more conventional unit for electric field E , which we have measured up to
now in Newton per Coulomb (N/C). We note that

 N  1V .C  1J 
1 N / C = 1    =1 V / m .
 C  1J  1N .m 

We also notice that an energy unit that is often more convenient to use in atomic and subatomic domain is
electron-volt (eV). 1 eV = energy equal to the work required to move a single elementary charge e through a
potential difference of one volt, or

1 eV = e × (1V) = 1.6×10-19C)(1J/C)=1.6×10-19J.

4.3 Electric Potential due to a group of point charges

For many charges, the forces and electric field satisfy the law of superposition,

r r r 1 qj r r
E (r ) = ∑ E j (r ) = ∑ r r 3 ( r − rj ) .
j 4πε o j | r − rj |
r
r r r r
Therefore, the electric potential V ( r ) − V∞ = − ∫ E • ds is given by (setting V∞ = 0 )
∞

38
 r r r
r 1 r r '− r r 1 qj
j
V (r ) = − ∑ q j ∫ r r 3 • ds ' = ∑ r r (E.14).
4πε o j ∞ | r '− r j | 4πε o j | r − r j |

The last equality comes because the final potential is a sum of potentials from single point charges. Notice that
electric potential is a scalar and the last sum is a simple algebraic sum of numbers (scalars). This is considerably
simpler to evaluate than the sum over electric fields which are vectors.
r
Example: electric potential at position r = ( x, y, z ) from 2 point charges with magnitude q , and q ' ,
r )
respectively located at r = ± z0 z

r 1 qj 1  q q' 
V (r ) = ∑ r r =  r ) + r ) 
4πε o j | r − rj | 4πε o  | r − z 0 z | | r + z0 z | 

r )
where | r ± z0 z |= x 2 + y 2 + ( z ± z0 ) 2

Evaluating the electric field from V(r)

Recall that for a conservative force, the force can be derived from the potential energy using

∂U ( x, y, z ) ∂U ( x, y, z ) ∂U ( x, y, z )
Fx = − , Fy = − , Fz = − .
∂x ∂y ∂z
r r
Since qE = F and qV = U , we also have

∂V ( x, y, z ) ∂V ( x, y, z ) ∂V ( x, y, z )
Ex = − , Ey = − , Ez = − .
∂x ∂y ∂z

Example:

What are the electric potential and electric field at the center of the
circle due to electrons in the figure below?

(Notice that there are 12 electrons around the perimeter in both cases)
Exercise: evaluate the electric field for the 2-charge problem from
V(r). Show that it gives the same result as what we have obtained
previously by directly adding up the electric fields from 2 separate
charges.

Electric dipole potential

This is the electric potential due to 2 point charges with magnitude q,

r ) r
and −q, respectively located at r = ± 2 z , and at distances | r |>> d
d

from the origin.

Using the above result, we obtain for the dipole electric potential;

39
 q   r)
r 1 1 qd (r .z ) p cos ϑ
V (r ) =  r − r  ~ =
4πε o  | r − d z) | | r + d z) |  r >>d 4πε o r 3 4πε o r 2
 2 2 
r
where p = qd, and θ is the angle between r and z-axis (see figure).
Notice that in Cartesian coordinate,
r)
r qd ( r .z ) pz
V (r ) ~ = (E.15).
r >>d 4πε r 3 4πε ( x 2
+ y 2 + z 2 )3/ 2
o o

4.5 Electric potential energy of a system of point charges

q1q2
We have shown that for a pair of charges q1, q2, the electric potential energy is U12 = , which is
4πε o r12
minus the work done by the electrostatic force to move one of the charges from infinity (with the other charge
fixed) to its position at r12. For a collection of charges, we may define the electric potential energy similarly. We
define:
The electric potential of a system of fixed point charges is equal to the work done by an external agent to
assemble the system, bring each charge in from an infinite distance.

Let’s see how we can derive the potential energy expression for 3 charges, q1, q2, q3, located at r1, r2, r3,
respectively, using the expression for U12 and the principle of superposition.

Our strategy is to bring in the charges one by one, and sum up the energy we needed to bring in all the charges
together.

First we bring in charge 1 to position r1. The electric potential energy U1 we needed is zero, since there is no
charge around.

Next we bring in the second charge to position r2. The electric potential energy we need is U2=U12 from
definition.

We then bring in the third charge. From the principle of superposition, the force experienced by the third
charge is the sum of the forces from the first two charges. Consequently the work done needed to bring in the
third charge is equal to sum of the work done against the force of the first 2 charges, i.e. U3=U13+U23.

Therefore the total electric potential energy needed to build up the system is

U = U1+U2+U3 = (0)+(U12)+(U13+U23) = U12+U13+U23.

In fact, we can continue this construction to show that the electric potential of a system of N charges is

qi q j 1 qq
U = ∑ U ij = ∑ = ∑ i j .
i< j i < j 4πε o rij 2 i ≠ j 4πε o rij

Question

The figure below shows the electric potential V as a function of x. (a)

Rank the five regions according to the magnitude of the x component
of the electric field within them, greatest first. What is the direction of

40
the field along the x-axis in (b) region 2 and (c) region 4? (d) Indicate
points where charges may be present in the system.

5 Capacitor

5.1 Introduction

In the previous few chapters we have learnt about the basic physics in electrostatics. In this and the next
few chapters we shall discuss how these physics can be applied in daily life to build circuits. We start with
learning a basic circuit-device element - capacitor. Crudely speaking, capacitors are devices for storing electric
charges. Because of electrostatic forces energy is also stored in capacitor at the same time.

Capacitance

Generally speaking, capacitors are composed of two isolated

conductors of any shape. We shall call them capacitor plates. The
capacitor is “charged” when equal and opposite amount of charges
is put on the two plates.

Because the plates are conductors, they are equipotential surfaces. Moreover, there is a potential difference V
between the two plates when the capacitor is charged.

The potential difference between the two plates can be expressed as

− r r
V = − ∫ E • ds ,
+

where the integral is performed along a line joining the plate with positive charge to the plate with negative
charge. Since the electric field from a charge distribution is directly proportional to the magnitude of charge, i.e.,
r
E ∝ q , we must have V ∝ q , or

q = CV (E.16).

The proportionality constant C is called the capacitance of the capacitor. We shall see that C depends only on
the geometry of the plates and not on their charge or potential difference. This is a direct consequence of the
linearity of the Coulomb’s Law.

The SI unit for capacitance is farad.

1 farad = 1 F = 1 Coulomb per volt = 1C/V.

5.2 Calculating the Capacitance

− r r +r r
The idea is to apply formula V = − ∫ E • ds = ∫ E • ds , for a given charge q on the capacitor, where + and –
+ =
are end points of the conductor. The capacitance is deduced from the relation between V and q. We shall consider
situations with high symmetry and will often apply Gauss’ Law to calculate the electric field.

A Parallel-Plate capacitor

41
 We assume that the plates of our parallel-plate capacitor are so
large and so close together that we can “forget” that the plates has
a boundary, i.e. we treat them as two infinite parallel plates put
close together.

We draw a closed surface as shown in figure, Notice that one side of the surface is inside the conductor
r
where E = 0 . In this case, all electric field come out perpendicular to the surface. Applied Gauss’ Law, we have

q = ε o EA , A = area of capacitor plate.

We also have

+ r r
V = ∫ E • ds = Ed (E.17a),
=

V 
where d = distance between two plates. Therefore, q = ε o   A = CV . The capacitance is
d
εo A
C= (E.17b).
d
Notice that the capacitance does depend only on geometrical factors, the plate area A and plate separate d. We
shall see that this remains true in later examples.

Isolated conductors

We can define a capacitance to a single isolated conductor by taking (“removing”) one piece of the conductor
to infinity. For an isolated spheres taking b → ∞ we obtain

C = 4πε o a (E.18).

To understand the meaning of this result we look at the equation q/C = V. In the previous cases V is the
potential difference between the two pieces of conductors. What is the meaning V when b → ∞ ?

(ans: V is the potential difference between the charged conductor and infinity.

5.3 Capacitors in parallel and in series

When there is a combination of capacitors in a circuit, we can sometimes describe its behavior as an equivalent
capacitor – a single capacitor that has the same capacitance as the actual combination of capacitors. In this way,
we can simplify the circuit and make it easier to analyze. There are two basic configurations of capacitors that
allow such a replacement.

Capacitors in parallel

The configuration is shown in the figure.

The equivalent capacitance can be derived by analyzing the applied voltage and charge on each capacitor.

The applied voltage is the same for the (3) capacitors, i.e., we have
q1 = C1V , q2 = C2V q3 = C3V ,.... (E.19a)

42
The total charge stored is q = q1 + q2 + q3 + ..... . Therefore the effective capacitance is

q
Ceq = = C1 + C2 + C3 + ... (E.19b)
V
for capacitors in parallel.

Capacitors in Series

The configuration is shown in the figure below.

Notice that because of overall charge neutrality, the charge q stored on each capacitor must be the same =
charge stored in the equivalence capacitor. The voltage across each capacitor is given by
V1 = q / C1 , V2 = q / C2 V3 = q / C3 ,....

43
The total voltage across the equivalence capacitor is

1 1 1  q
V = V1 + V2 + V3 + ... = q + + + .. = .
 C1 C2 C3  Ceq

Therefore the equivalent capacitance is given by

1 1 1 1
= + + + .. . (E.20)
Ceq C1 C2 C3

5.4 Energy Stored in Capacitors

To charge up a capacitor, we need work done. You may imagine that we need to move the electrons (-Ve
charges) from neutral atoms in one capacitor plate to another. Energy is needed in this process because we have
to separate positive and negative charges from an originally charge neutral configuration. In practice the work
done is supplied by a battery.

The total energy needed to charge up a capacitor can be evaluated by noting that the energy needed to move
unit charge dq against a potential V is, by definition

q
dW = Vdq = dq .
C
Therefore the work required to bring the total capacitor charge up to final value Q is

1Q Q2
W = ∫ dW = ∫ qdq = (E.21)
C0 2C

= potential energy (U) stored in a capacitor with charge Q.

1
Alternatively, using the relation Q = CV, we may also write U = CV 2 . (E.21a)
2

44
Magnetic Field

1 The B-field of an infinitely long wire

Symmetry analysis shows that the B-field must be horizontal and circles around the
wire, and depends on r (the distance of the position to the wire) only. Using Eq. (3),

r r r r µ0 I
∫ B ⋅ d l = 2πrB = µ 0 ∫∫S J ⋅ dS =µ 0 I , so B =
2πr
(M.1).

Example-1A
Find the B-field of an infinitely long cylindrical conductor of radius R carrying
uniform current density J.

Solution:
Take a loop of radius r, as shown (the red or blue circle). r
For r > R, the answer is the same as above with I = JπR2. J
For r < R, the current within the loop is Jπr2. So
µ 0 Jr
B= . (M.2)
2

2 Force of B-field on current wire and charged particle (Lorentz force)

Lorentz force on a point charge q is

r r r
F = qv × B (M.3),
r
where v is the velocity of the charge.
2.1 Motion of a charged particle in uniform magnetic field

(a) Circular motion

r r r
When v of a particle with mass m and charge q is perpendicular to B , the force is also perpendicular to v , and
the charge is moving in a circle. The radius of the circle R is determined by

v2 2πR 2πm
qvB = m , or R = mv/qB. The time period is T = = (M.4)
R v qB
r r
(b) General case v and B at an angle θ
r r r r
Break v into a component parallel to B and a component perpendicular to B . For example, choose B along
r r r
the z-direction, then v = v cos θ z 0 + v xy . The force is in the x-y direction so along z-axis the particle is
moving at constant speed vcosθ. Change to the reference frame S’ that is moving at vcosθ along z-axis, we then

45
 r mv sin θ
have a particle with velocity v xy . Using the results in (a) the motion is then a spiral with radius R=
qB
2πmv cosθ
and distance between two spirals is Tv cos θ = . Note that the period T is velocity independent.
qB
r r r
2.2 On a thin wire in uniform B-field, it is F = I (l × B)

Force per unit length between two parallel wires carrying currents I1 and I1 I2
I2, and separated by a distance D.
F
Solution:
µ 0 I1
From Example 1A, the magnetic field due to I1 at I2 is B= , and pointing into
2πD
the paper plane. The force is then pointing to the right, and is the same along the
µ 0 I1 I 2
wire. For any section of the wire of length L, the force is F= L (M.5).
2πD

3 Electromagnetic Induction

3.1 Lorentz force on moving charge

r r
For a section of electric current I in a thin wire dl is Idl , the force is
r r r
dF = Idl × B (M.6)
r
Electromotive force f s – any force on a charged particle other than that due to other charges.
b r r
Electromotance ξ = ∫ f s ⋅ dl (M.7).
a
Conventionally called emf, but it is not really a force. The Chinese translation 電動勢, is more appropriate.

b
r r r
The emf in a section of wire due to B-field is ξ = ∫ (v × B) ⋅ dl (M.8)
a

Example-1

A rod of length L is sliding down a slope in a uniform B-field at speed v.

Find emf in the rod.

Solution: θ
r r
The amplitude of (v × B ) is vBcosθ and its direction is pointing straight
r
out of the paper plane, parallel to the length of the rod. So emf = LvBcosθ B
Example-1A

46
r
B
The same rod is spinning at angular speed ω in the B-field around one of
its end. The angular momentum is parallel to the B-field. Find emf
between the two ends of the rod.

Solution:

Take a small length of the rod dr at distance r from the fixed end. The speed of it is ωr so its emf is Bωrdr. Total
L
1
emf along the whole length is ξ = ∫ Bωrdr = BωL2 ans.
0
2

1.2 Faraday’s law – A changing magnetic field induces an electric field.

Their relation is given by:

r
r r ∂B r d r r dΦ
ξ = ∫ E ⋅ dl = − ∫∫ ⋅ dS = − ∫∫S ⋅ dS = − dt
B (M.9),
l S
∂t dt
where ‘S’ is the surface enclosed by the closed line ‘l’.

It can be shown that when a wire loop is moving relative to the B-field, Eqs. (3) and (4) are equivalent.
However, Eq. (4) is more general, and works even when there is no relative motion, or the wire loop can be at
the location where there is no B-field.

Example-2
The current in a long solenoid (N turns per unit length) is decreasing linearly with
time t, I = I0 - kt. Find the induced E-field.

Solution

By symmetry argument, we can see that the B-field is along the axis of the
solenoid. Take an Ampere’s loop-1 outside the solenoid, we find that the B-field is
constant. But far away the B-field must be zero, so the B-field outside is zero.
Now take loop-2, BL =µ0NIL, so B = µ0N(I0 – kt)

Note that outside the solenoid there is no B-field, but the changing B-field
induces an E-field so that if the circular wire carries charge, it will spin. Note
also that Eq. (4) is of the same in mathematical form as Ampere’s law, when
r
∂B
− is viewed as ‘electric current’ and the induced E-field as the ‘magnetic
∂t
field’. Applying Eq. (4), the left hand side = 2πrE, where r is the radius of the r
loop, and the right hand side = µ0NkA, where A is the cross section area of the B
µ 0 kNA
solenoid. So E= . Ans.
2π r
1.3 Self and mutual inductance (of coils)

Consider a coil (a loop of wire) carrying current I. If I changes with time, its magnetic field, and therefore the
magnetic flux Φ through the coil (See Eq. (4)) will change, inducing an emf. As the field (hence flux) is
proportional to I, we can define a quantity L which depends only on the geometrics of the coil, called self-
inductance, such that

Φ = LI (M.10),

47
 dΦ dI
because ξ =− = −L (M.10a).
dt dt
The mutual inductance between two coils, M12 and M21, are similarly defined.

Φ2 = M12I1, and Φ1 = M21I2. (Φ2 is the magnetic flux through coil-2 due to the current I1 in coil-1).
(M.11)

It can be shown that M12 = M21, and they depend only on the coils geometrics. (M.12)

Example-4
The magnetic flux through a coil of resistance R changes uniformly from Φ1 to Φ2 over a time interval T, Find
the total charge passing through any cross section of the wire.

Solution:

dΦ Φ 1 − Φ 2
From Eq. (6) and (6A) − = = ξ = RI = R , so Q = IT = (Φ1 – Φ2)/R. ans.
dt T

48