3.
1 INTRODUCTION
A tension member is a member which transmits a direct axial pull between two
points in a structural frame.tension members are fpund in bridge and roof trusses, towers,
and bracing system, and in situations where they are used as tie rods. One of the simplest
forms of tension members is the circular rod, but there is some difficulty in connecting it
to many structures. The average-size rod has very little bending striffness and may quite
easily sag under its own weight, injuring the appearance of the structure. When rods are
used in wind bracing, it is good practice to produce initial tension in them, as this will
tighten up the structure and reduce rattling and swaying. To obtain initial tension, the
members may be detailed shorter than their required length, a method that gives the steel
fabricators very little trouble. A common rule of thumb is to detail the rods about 1/16 in
short for each 20 ft of length. (approximate stress f¿ € E=¿ ¿.)
The preceding discussion on rods should illustrate why rolled shapes such as
angles have supplanted rods for most applications. A few of the various types of tension
members in general use are illustrated in Fig. 3.1. The tension members of steel roof
trusses may consist of single angles as small as 2 ½ x 2 x ¼ for minor members. For
bridges and large roof trusses, tension members may consist of channels, W or S shapes,
or even sections built up from some combination of angles, channels, and plates. For
instance, the W12 x 79, W12 x 72, and W12 x 65 all have slightly different depth (12.4
in, 12.3 in, and 12.1 in, respectively), while the S sections of a certain nominal size all
have the same depth. For instance, the S12 x 50, the S12 x 40.8, and the S12 x 35 all
have 12.00-in depth.
Although single structural shapes are a little more economical than built up
sections, the latter are occasionally used when the designer is unable to obtain sufficient
area or rigidity from single shapes. Members consisting of more than one section need to
be tied together.steel cables are made with special steel alloy wire roped that are cold
drawn to the desired diameter. Normally, to select a cable tension member, the designer
uses a manufacturer’s catalog.
3.2 NOMINAL STRENGTHS OF TENSION MEMBERS
A ductile steel member without holes and subject to tensile load can resist
without fracture a load larger that its gross cross-sectional area times its yield stress
because of strain hardening. If, on the other hand, we have a tension member with bolt
holes, it can possibly fail by fracture at the net section through the holes. As a result of
the preceding information, the AISC Specification (D2) states that the nominal strength
of a tension member, Pn, is to be the smaller of the value obtained by substituting into the
following two expressions:
For the limit state of yielding in the gross section (which is intended to prevent
excessive elongation of the member),
In the preceding expressions, Fy and Fx are the specified minimum yield and
tensile stresses, respectively, Ag is the gross area of the member, and Ae is the effective
net area that can be assumed to resist tension at the section through the holes. For tension
members consisting of rolled steel shapes, there actually is a third limit state, block
shear. The design and allowable strength presented here are not applicable to threaded
steel rods or to members with pin holes (as in eyebars). It is not likely that stress
fluctuations will be a problem in the average building frame, because the changes in load
in such structures usually occur only occasionally and produce relatively minor stress
variations.
3.3 NET AREAS
The presense of a hole obviously increases the unit stress in tension member,
even if the hole is occupied by a bolt. Tension is assumed to be uniformly distributed
over the net section of a tension member, although photoelastic studies show there is a
decided increases in stress intensity around the edges of holes, sometimes equalling
several times what the stress would be if the holes were not present. This initial
discussion is applicable only for tension members subjected to relatively static loading.
The term “net cross-sectional area,” or simply, “net area,” refers to the gross cross-
sectional area of a member, minus any holes, notches, or other indentations. Now, drills
made from very much improved steels enable fabricators to drill very large numbers of
holes without resharpening. For steel much thicker than bolt diameters, it is difficult to
punch out the holes to the full sizes required without excessive deformation of the
surrounding material.
It may be necessary to have an even greater latitude in meeting dimensional
tolerances during erection and for high-strength bolts larger than 5/8 in in diameter.
Example 3-1 illustrates the calculations necessary for determining the net area of a plate
type of tension member.
The connections of tension members should be arranged so that no eccentricity is
present. The centroidal axes of truss members meeting at a joint are assumed to coincide.
Figure 3.3 shows a truss joint in which the c.g.c coincide.
3.4 EFFECT OF STAGGERED HOLES
Whenever there is more than on hole and the holes are not lined up transverse to the
loading direction, more than one potential failure line may exist. The controlling failure
line is that line which gives the minimum net area. In the previous examples, tension
members were assumed to fail transversely as along line AB in Fig. 3.4(a) or (b). Fig.
3.4(c) shows a member in which a failure along section ABCD is possible unless the
holes are a large distance apart. In Fig. 3.4(b), the failure line is along the section AB. In
Fig. 3.4(c), which is showing two lines of staggered holes, the failure line might be
through one hole (section ABE) or it might be along a diagonal path ABCD. One might
think section ABE is critical since the path ABE is obviously shorter than path ABCD.
From path ABE, only one hole would be deducted while two holes would be deducted
from path ABCD. In a controlling section, to determine it, both paths ABE and ABCD
must be investigated, then accurate checking of strength along path ABCD is very
complex. So however, a simplified empirical relationship has been proposed by
Cochrane and adopted by in the AISC LRFD manual.
a. LRFD Spesification
The LRFD Spesification and other spesifications use a very simple method for
computing the net width of a tension member along a zigzag section. The method is
to take the gross width of the member regardless of the line along which failure
might occur, subtract the diameter of the holes along the zigzag section, and for each
individual line the quantity given by s2/4g. where s is a stragger or spacing of
adjacent holes parallel to loading direction (fig. 3.4(c)), also called pitch and g is a
gage distance transverse to the loading (fig.3.4(c)). Net length of ABC is where
length of ABC substracted to diameter of hole. Net length of ABCD is where length
of ABCD substracted to two times from diameter of hole and then plus s2/4g.
b. LRFD Manual Provisions for angles
Holes for bolts and rivets are usually drilled or punched in steel angles at
certain standard locations. These locations or gages are dependent on the angle-leg
widths and on the number of lines of holes. Table 3.1, shows these gages. When
holes are staggered on two legs of an angle, the gage length g for use in s2/4g
expression is obtained by using length between the centers of the holes measured
along the centreline of the angle thickness, the distance AB in Fig.3.4. this gage
t t
distance g is given by g=g a− + g b− =g a + gb−t .
2 2
3.5 EFFECTIVE NET AREAS
The net area as computed previously gives the reduced section that resist but still may
not correctly reflect the strength. This particularly true when the tension member has a
profile consisting of elements not in common plane and where the tensile load is
transmitted at the end of the member by connection to some but not all of the elements.
An angle section having connection to one leg only is an example of such a such a case.
For such situations, the tensile force is not uniformly distributed over the net area. To
account for nonuniformity, the AISC SPesification provide for an effective net area also
called Ag equal to UAn.
a. AISC LRFD Provisions for Effective Net Area
The AISC LRFD Spesification provide that the effective net area is to be
computed as Ae = UAn where U is a reduction coefficient and An is a net area. The
equation logically applies for both fastener connections having holes and for welded
connections. For welded connections, the net area equal the gross area Ag since there
are no holes. Whenever the tensile load is transmitted by bolts, rivets, or welds
through some but not all of the cross-sectional elements of the members, the load
carrying efficiency is reduced and U will be less than unity. The following equation
can be used to estimate the reduction coeffient U: where x is
distance from centroid of element being connected eccentrically to plane of load
transfer and L is length between first and last bolts in line.
3.6 CONNECTING ELEMENTS FOR TENSION MEMBERS
When splice or gusset plates are used as statically loaded tensile connecting elemnts,
their strength shall be determined as follows:
a. For tensile yielding of connecting elements
Rn=FyAg (AISC Equation j4-1) (AISC Equation j4-1)
σ= 0.90 (LRFD) Ω=1.67 (ASD)
b. For tensile rupture of connecting elements
Rn=FyAg (AISC Equation j4-1) (AISC Equation j4-1)
σ= 0.90 (LRFD) Ω=1.67 (ASD)
the net area Area A=An, to be used in the second of these expressions may not
exceed 85% of Ag. Test have shown for decades that bolted tension connection
elements rarely have an efficiency greater than 85%, even if the holes represent a
very small percentage of the gross area of the elements. The length of the connecting
elements are rather small, compared with the lengths of the members; as a result,
inelastic deformations of the gross sections are limited. In example 3-10, the strength
of a pair of tensile connecting plates is determined.
3.7 BLOCK SHEAR
Block shear is similar to tensile rupture in that the main part of the member tears away
from the connection. The provisions for block shear are found in SCM J4.3 (SCM page
16.1-129). The difference is that there is now combination of tension and shear on the
failure path. Like tensile rupture, there frequently is more than one failure path. Like a
next Fig which is describe how possible block shear failure paths for bolted angle, W
section, and welded plates.
The limit state of block shear follows the standard form. The statement of the limit
states and the associated reduction factor and factor of safety are given here:
LRFD ASD
Pu < ftRn Pa < Rn/Wt
Req'd Rn = Pu/ft < Rn Req'd Rn = Pa Wt < Rn
Pu / (ftRn) < 1.00 Pa / (Rn/Wt) < 1.00
ft = 0.75 Wt = 2.00
The values of Pu and Pa are the LRFD and ASD factored loads, respectively, applied to
the member.
The limit state value computed is the force that STARTS the rupture. Historically, the
SCM equations have assumed that rupture initiates either on the tensile area(s) or on the
shear area(s), not on both surfaces simultaneously. With the AISC specification found in
13th edition of the SCM, revised equations were introduced. The new equations continue
in the 14th edition (Equations J4-5, in SCM J4.3). You should also read the commentary
on the section (SCM pg 16.1-411).
The basic concept for computing the block shear rupture strength is that we
compute the strength of the tension region and the strength of the shear region and add
them together. If you look at SCM equation J4-5 you will see the two terms. SCM
equation J4-5 computes the nominal resistance, Rn, or strength associated with block
shear.
You should also notice that there are actually two equations in equation J4-5.
The term to the left is the situation for shear rupture/tensile rupture and the equation to
the right is for shear yielding/tensile rupture. The way the equations are written, you
compute both values and take the smaller of the two.
One thing that you might notice right off is the presence of a "0.6" in the shear
terms. It turns out that the Fu and Fy values are determined by tension tests. The
comparable terms in shear are approximately 0.6 times the values for tension.
Consequently, wherever shear strength is computed, we use the tension values multiplied
by 0.6. Chances are, whenever you see 0.6Fy and 0.6Fu in an equation then that equation
is computing shear strength.
The other quantity that will be new to you is the Ubs quantity. Ubs was new with
the 13 edition and continues in the 14th edition. This quantity is used to account for
th
non-uniform tensile stress distribution when the block shear region is non-symmetric or
in any other case where non-uniform tensile stress is likely to occur on the tensile
fracture area. This condition generally occurs whenever there is only one shear area in
the failure path. The SCM commentary gives examples of such situations (SCM page
16.1-412). We have this situation in our example problem 3.1.
Equation J4-5 also contains three area quantities: Agv, Ant, and Anv. These terms
are defined in SCM J4.2 and SCM J4.3 and represent the gross and net areas in tension
and shear along the failure path. The same concepts dealing with holes that we discussed
under tensile rupture apply to the computation of these quantities as well. Comparing the
failure paths, the second path is the controlling path because it yields the lesser value.
3.8 PROBLEMS FOR SOLUTION
1. Determine the effective net area of the W16x40 shown in Fig. P3-23. Assume the
holes are for ¾-in ø bolts. (Ans. 8.53 in2)
Solution:
W16×40 (AISC Table1-1 pg 1-22) : Ag= 11.8 in2, bf= 7.00 in, tf= 0.505 in
WT8×20 (AISC Table1-8 pg 1-60) : x=y=1.81 in
Net Area
An= 11.8 in2-4(3/4in +1/8in)(0.505 in) = 10.03 in2
Shear Lag Reduction Factor (Table D3.1 pg 16.1-28)
Case 2 (Table D3-1 pg. 16.1-28)U = 1-¯x/L= 1-(1.81 in/3(3.5 in))= 0.828
Case 7 (Table D3-1 pg. 16.1-28)U = 0.85 since bf= 7.00 in≤2/3(16.0 in) = 10.67 in
Effective Net Area
Ae= UAn= 0.85(10.03 in2)=⇒Ae= 8.53 in2
2. Determine the design tension strength for a single channel C15 x 50 connected to a 0.5
in. thick gusset plate as shown in Figure. Assume that the holes are for 3/4 in. diameter
bolts and that the plate is made from structural steel with yield stress (Fy) equal to 50 ksi
and ultimate stress (Fu) equal to 65 ksi.
Solution:
Limit state of yielding due to tension:
φTn= 0.9 *50 *14.7 = 662kips
limit state of fracture due to tension:
x 0.798
Ae=UAn=(1- )An=(1- )*12.19=10.57in2
L 6
Check: U=0.867≤0.9 OK.
Note: The connection eccentricity, x, for a C15X50 can be found on page 1-51 (LRFD).
φTn= 0.75*65*10.57 = 515kips
limit state of block shear rupture:
Block shear rupture is the critical limit state and the design tension strength is 464kips.
3. Find the strength of the 12 mm thick plate shown in Fig. 9.2. All the holes are 21.5
mm as gross diameter. Take ft=150 N/mm2.
Solution
Gross diameter of rivet hole = 21.5 mm
The effective net width will be computed along the various chain lines
Staggered pitch p = 40 mm
Gauge distance g = 50 mm
Net width corresponding to the chain ABCD = 210 – (2 x 21.5) = 167 mm
Net width corresponding to the chain ABECFG
BIBLIOGRAPHY
https://www.pdfdrive.com/structural-steel-design-5th-ed-signedpdf-e33407185.html
http://ecoursesonline.iasri.res.in/mod/page/view.php?id=2496
https://www.egr.msu.edu/~harichan/classes/ce405/chap4.pdf
https://www.bgstructuralengineering.com/BGSCM14/BGSCM003/BGSCM00307.htm
http://www.engineeringenotes.com/civil-engineering/steel-structure/tension-members-in-
structural-frame-steel-structure-civil-engineering/37735
