LECTURE NOTES

ON
PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT
(BBA II YEAR III SEMESTER FOR MKU SYLLABUS)
2018 – 2019

BY

Mr. A. JOES FERNANDO D CRUZ

ASST.PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE AND MANAGEMENT STUDIES
PARVATHY‟S ARTS AND SCIENCE COLLEGE
WISDOM CITY, MADURAI ROAD, DINDIGUL – 624002
 II BBA – Semester III

PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT

SYLLABUS

Unit-1

Managerial Personality: Definition of Personality – Basics of personality -Determinants of

personality – Development of personality – Theories of Personality.

Unit-2

Personality Traits: Definition – Nature and Importance of Perception -Factors influencing

the perception.

Unit-3

Self Development: Self-awareness – Self-confidence – Mnemonics – Goal Setting – Time

Management and Effective Planning – Human Growth and Behaviour.

Unit-4

Self Management: Stress Management – Meditation and Concentration Techniques – Self

Hypnotism – Self Acceptance and Growth.

Unit-5

Transactional Analysis: Ids – Ego – Super Ego – Transactions – Life Positions – Winners
and Losers – Interpersonal Relations.
 UNIT – 1

Definition of Personality: “Personality can be described as how a person affects others, how he
understands and views himself and his pattern of inner and outer measurable traits‖ – Floyd
L.Ruch.
Basics of personality:
1. Communication Skill: People possessing good communication skills may show keen interest
in such jobs that offer scope to talk. Public relations officers, salesmen and receptions are chosen
mainly on the basis of their communication skills. Those who are not so good in their
communication ability may have to settle mostly for paperwork. People with good
communication skills have supreme self-confidence.

2. Inquisitiveness: People who are inquisitive or curious are always eager to learn. They show
keen interest in every matter and in particular that concerning their work. They are prepared to
spare any amount of time and effort to learn.
3. Tolerance: Only people who have tolerance can be successful in such jobs as those of sales
representatives and public relations officers. People who are intolerant may quarrel frequently
with others.
4. Self-esteem: The extent to which a person considers himself to be capable and important is
what is known as self-esteem. A self-esteem person will only be interested in more interesting
and challenging assignments.
5. Desire for Domination: Some people always have the desire to dominate. They have the
capacity to lead others. A person with a desire for domination wants others to accept his views.
Such a quality is essential for executives.
6. Achievement Need: People with a desire to achieve show interest only in such assignments
the completion of which will give them name and fame. Such people want to try out something
different each time.
7. Introversion: People who are ‗introverts‘ are, by nature, quiet. They may be intellectuals but
may interact only with a few persons who are close to them.
8. Extroversion: ‗Extroverts‘ are those who mingle freely with everyone. They always want to
be in the company of a group.
9. Conservatism and Dynamism: Individuals who are conservatives cannot adapt themselves to
changes. Such people are only fir for work of a routine and repetitive nature. On the other hand,
a person has to be necessarily dynamic to undertake work involving the use of skill and technical
knowledge.
10. Locus of Control: It refers to the beliefs of an individual that what happens is within his
control (Internal) or is beyond his control (External). Individuals who think that events are
determined by external forces are less satisfied with their jobs and individuals who think that
events happening are within their control have greater job satisfaction.
11. Machiavellianism: It is a term derived from the work of one Nicolo Machiavelli. It refers to
the tendency to influence others for the sake of achieving one‘s goals. A person high in
Machiavellianism is pragmatic and logical. Machiavellianism are good in jobs that require
bargaining skills.
12. Type A and Type B Personality: Behavioural experts have grouped individuals into Type A
and Type B based on their personality traits. Type A people are impatient. They act fast and are
always achievement-oriented. In contrast Type B people are relaxed and easygoing.
Determinants of personality: The various factors that determine the personality of a person
may be grouped under three categories:
1. Hereditary/Genetic Factors: A number of physical mental and psychological qualities of a
person are determined by his heredity. Heredity is the biological transmission(through genes) of
physical and mental characteristics from parents to children. A person generally inherits the
following characteristics:
i) The physical structure of a person – his height and weight
ii) Other physical features – colour of skin, hair and eyes
iii) The capacity to learn and respond
iv) Temperament
v) Level of enthusiasm

2. Social Factors: Apart from the biological or heredity factors mentioned above certain social
factors also play a crucial role in shaping the personality of an individuals. Important among
these are the influence of family, teachers and the peer group.
Parents play a significant role in the personality development of a child. Home is the first school
of every child. The child learns basic manners and also acquires certain habits from its parents. It
is appropriate to mention here that if the parents themselves are not disciplined their children
also may not be disciplined. Apart from parents the other members of the family, particularly,
brothers and sisters also shape a person‘s personality.
Next to family teachers play a vital role in a person‘s personality development. At school
teachers give students certain assignment that require them to work independently. Students, who
are asked to participate in debates and cultural programmes, are able to overcome shyness. They
also acquire certain skills, particularly, communication skills.
The influence of peer group in shaping a person‘s personality be ignored. Peer group consists of
persons who all have similar likes dislikes. At different stages of life, that is right from school to
workplace, person is sure to be associated with several peer groups. If an individual is associated
with a group of intellectuals, needless to say, he will also be an intellectual. That is why it is said
that to know about a person one should know about his friends. ―Tell me about your friend, I will
tell about you‖ is a famous quotation.

3. Situational Factors: The particular situation in which one is placed also puts pressure on him
to behave in a particular fashion. A person who appears to be quiet may perform well in a crisis.
On the other hand, there may be another person who may look aggressive always but may fail
miserably in a critical situation. That is why it is often said, ―appearance is always deceptive‖.
A sales representative, who will be calling on customers, has to have patience, endurance and
tolerance. Sales people do not normally get a warm reception wherever they go. Moreover,
certain customers are more knowledgeable and may pose intricate questions. The salesman,
therefore, must be in a position to handle such customers effectively. People with a brilliant
academic record may fumble when it comes to doing practical work. It is also possible that those
who are good job performers may not be academically brilliant.
Some people develop work stress because they are unable to adapt themselves to the work
environment. Those who have the adaptive capacity can successfully get rid of job stress.
Thus, it is clear that in addition to the hereditary and social factors several environmental factors
also play an important role in shaping an individual‘s personality.
Development of Personality: The process of personality development at different stages of a
person‘s life has been explained by many psychologists.
i) Freud and ii) Erikson
Freudian Approach to Personality Development:
Sigmund Freud has identified the following stages in the process of personality development of a
person:
i) The Oral Stage: This stage covers the first year of one‘s life. Infants depend totally on others
for their survival. The mouth is the body organ through which the child satisfies its biological
needs at this stage, e.g., Thumb sucking by the child.
When teeth erupt, the child begins to bite and derives pleasure out of it. The mouth remains an
important body zone to derive pleasure throughout one‘s life. Indulgence in nail biting, gum
chewing, smoking, kissing, over eating etc., by a person proves this point. Freud is of the view
that insufficient or excessive stimulation given to the infant may make him passive in his
adulthood.
ii) The Anal Stage: This stage covers the second and third years in one‘s life. The anal is the
body zone that influences stimulation during this period. Children at this age, it is believed,
derive pleasure by delaying bowel movements. The toilet habits of the children during this phase
have a considerable influence on the development of personality at a later stage. The child
withholds faces when its parents are harsh in the matter of toilet habits. Such a child, it seems,
develops during adulthood personality traits like stinginess, punctuality and cleanliness. If the
parents advise the child on the need for regular bowel movements, the child may develop during
its adulthood such personality traits as cruelty, destructiveness, disorderliness and hostility.
iii) The Phallic Stage: This stage is reached between the age three and four. The body zone
responsible for stimulation at this phase is the child‘s sex organ. Children, during this stage,
derive pleasure in examining and fondling their genital organs. Sometimes the child may be
prone to what is called ‗Oedipus Complex‘(Subconscious sexual desire of a child for parent of
the opposite sex especially mother). This causes anxiety and guilt feelings that may affect
personality development.
iv) The Latency Stage: This phase occurs between four to six years and lasts till adolescence.
At this stage the focus shifts to satisfying one‘s social needs, e.g., playing and talking with
friends. It is only during this phase the child acquires the knowledge and skill necessary to
progress.
v) The Genital Stage: This phase occurs during adolescence to adulthood. The individual
revives his sexual desire. The interest in the opposite sex increase.

Erikson‟s Approach to Personality Development:

i) Infancy: The period covered by this stage is birth to one year. During this stage the infant who
is well take care of develops trust in others and in case it does not receive the love and affection
of the people around it develops mistrust. Whatever happens during this stage has a lasting
impact on one‘s personality.
ii) Early Childhood: This stage covers the period from one to three years. During this phase the
child, whose activities get the approval of the parents and other people around, develops a sense
of autonomy. In case his activities are disapproved, he develops a sense of doubt and shame.
iii) Play Age: This stage covers children in the age group of four and five years. The child,
during this phase, develops a sense of initiative if he is encouraged to experiment to attain certain
goals. On the other hand, if he is discouraged and made to feel inadequate or incapable, he feels
guilty.
iv) School Age: The age group covered by this stage is six to twelve years. The child becomes
enterprising if he makes progress in proportion to his abilities. If he does not he feels inferior.
v) Adolescence: Teenagers fall in this category. The individual, at this stage, tries to establish his
own identity in the society. Failure to achieve results in confusion.
vi) Early Adulthood: People in their early 20‘s fall in this category. During this phase the
individual tries to develop intimate relationships with others. Failure to achieve results in
isolation.
vii) Middle Adulthood: Adults who are in their 40‘s and 50‘s face a situation of either
generativity or stagnation. They are generative if they are productive and creative, able to give
parental care and guidance. If the individual, during this stage, is unable to look beyond himself,
it results in stagnation.
viii) Late Adulthood: People in their old age face the crisis of integrity versus despair. If the
individual is fully satisfied and does not have fear of death, he has integrity and will have the
wisdom of old age. On the other hand, if he sees no meaning in life, lacks faith in others or fears
death, it results in despair or no hope situation.

Theories of Personality:
Behavioural science experts have developed different theories on the concept of personality.
These are:
i) Type Theory: The type theory classifies personalities based on
a) Body build/structure and
b) Psychological factors
Psychologists have explained the concept of personality based on the body structure of
individuals. Accordingly personalities are classified into ‗introverts‘ and ‗extroverts‘. Introverts
are those who avoid social contacts and interaction with others. They are shy and quiet.
Extroverts, on the other hand, are more sociable and friendly.
Typing personalities into introverts and extroverts may appear to be simple. But it does not help
much in understanding personalities as many people may fall in between the two extremes. The
type theory provides a simple approach to understanding the concept of personality.

ii) Trait Theory: The theory explains personality on the basis of the traits of a person. Traits are
the distinguishing characteristics of an individual. For example, every individual has intelligence.
But some have a very high level of IQ. Likewise, everyone has the capacity to communicate but
some are exceptionally good in their communication ability.
A person who does not mingle freely with others and is quiet always is considered to be an
introvert. If a person has the capacity to raise any issue in any forum and is able to convince
others, he is considered to be a dominating personality. An individual who always wants to
follow the conventional approach to work and who cannot accept changes will be called a
conservative.
Thus, accordingly to the trait theory, it is possible to come to a conclusion about one‘s
personality based on his peculiar traits.

iii) Psychoanalytical Theory: The credit for developing the psychoanalytical theory is given to
Sigmund Freud. The theory is based on the assumption that human behaviour is influenced more
by unseen or unconscious forces rather than conscious and rational thoughts.

The unconscious framework comprises of three elements: They are:

i) Id: „Id‘ refers to an individual‘s inherited psychological impulse or drive. It is animalistic,

unorganized and is present in the individual throughout his life. It forces the individual to satisfy
certain urges, particularly, thirst, hunger and sex. A person, who is starving, may even resort to
stealing to satisfy his hunger. Id does not understand law and therefore it may, sometimes, be
dangerous to the individual and to the society as well.

While id forces a person to satisfy certain urges at once, „ego‟ makes him understand reality. It
prevents him from doing anything for the sake of satisfying his urge. In other words, ego
disciplines a person in the appropriate time and place for everything.

‗Super Ego‘ denotes a system of norms, values and ethics. It guides the individual in knowing
whether his actions are in conformity with the norms of the society.

iv) Social Learning Theory: A person acquires certain behaviour or modifies his behaviour by
learning. He learns to behave by observing the actions of others and the consequences of such
actions. The behaviour of an individual is influenced by the situation. Sometimes he may also
develop a situation to behave in a particular manner. This is what is termed as ‗reciprocal
behavioural pattern‖.

v) Self Theory: Carl Rogers is given credit for developing the self theory. It is based on what a
person says about himself. It focuses on the following four factors:
a) Self-image: How one sees oneself.
b) Ideal-self: What one would like to be
c) Looking glass-self: Perception of a person about how others are perceiving his qualities.
d) Real self: What one actually is.
 UNIT - 2

Meaning:
Personality traits reflect people's characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.
Personality traits imply consistency and stability someone who scores high on a specific trait like
Extraversion is expected to be sociable in different situations and over time.

Definition of Personally Traits:

A trait of personality means such a distinctive characters of a person‘s thoughts, feelings and
actions so as to make the individual different from other persons. Traits possess some important
characteristics such as sociability, flexibility, functional unity. Traits are mental sets, which are
learned. Traits are any distinguishable ways in which one individual differs from other.

Types of Personality Traits:

The following are five personality traits, which make one person different from other
Extroversion:
This trait includes characteristics such as excitability, sociability, a talkativeness, high emotional
expressiveness, friendly, like to work with others, not easily embarrassed etc.
Agreeableness:
This includes attributes like kindness, affection, trust and other pro social behaviors.
Conscientiousness:
This includes high level of thoughtfulness, with good impulse control and goal directed
behaviors. They are organized and mindful of details
Neuroticism:
This includes emotional instability, anxiety, moodiness and sadness.
Openness:
This trait features are such as imagination, insight. This trait persons have a broad rang of
interests.

Meaning:
Perception underpins all human behavior and helps interpret sensory information to make sense
from the senseless. Exploring the nature of perception can help us glimpse life beyond
experience and experience, perceiver and perception.

Definition of Perception:
―Perception is the process through which the information from outside environment is selected,
received, organised and interpreted to make it meaningful to you. This input of meaningful
information results in decisions and actions.‖ – Joseph Reitz.
Nature of Perception:
Perception refers to the interpretation of sensory data. In other words, sensation involves
detecting the presence of a stimulus whereas perception involves understanding what the
stimulus means. For example, when we see something, the visual stimulus is the light energy
reflected from the external world and the eye becomes the sensor. This visual image of the
external thing becomes perception when it is interpreted in the visual cortex of the brain. Thus,
visual perception refers to interpreting the image of the external world projected on the retina of
the eye and constructing a model of the three dimensional world.‖

From the above explanation it becomes clear that perception is something more than sensation. It
correlates, integrates and comprehends diverse sensations and information from many organs of
the body by means of which a person identifies things and objects, the sensations refer to.
Perception is determined by both physiological and psychological characteristics of the human
being whereas sensation is conceived with only the physiological features. Thus, perception is
not just what one sees with the eyes it is a much more complex process by which an individual
selectively absorbs or assimilates the stimuli in the environment, cognitively organizes the
perceived information in a specific fashion and then interprets the information to make an
assessment about what is going on in one‘s environment. Perception is a subjective process,
therefore, different people may perceive the same environment differently based on what
particular aspects of the situation they choose to selectively absorb, how they organize this
information and the manner in which they interpret it to obtain a grasp of the situation.

Importance of Perception:
Perception is the awareness of something through the senses. In other words it's the ability to see,
hear, understand or become aware of something. Perception is important due to the following
reasons:

 It's a physiological process through which everything is this world is interpreted and
understood.
 It's the way people perceive things that defines their character and attitude. Kindness,
hate, love and all other emotions originate from one's perceptions about something.
 It's just perception which defines what happiness means to a person. For some earning
money is happiness, for some spending money is happiness.
 Human perception towards god is the main reason why are having so many religions
today. It not just shows that perceptions are varied but also perceptions of a few have the
ability to influence the mankind as a whole.
 Perceptions help in shaping up a person's goal and his/her outlook on life. It's the thing
that initiates anyone to find their purpose in life.

Factors influencing the Perception:

Characteristics of the Perceiver:
 Needs and Motives: Our need pattern play an important part in how we perceive things.
 Self Concept: ADVERTISEMENTS:
  Past Experience:
 Current Psychological State:
 Beliefs:
 Expectations:
 Situation:
 Cultural Upbringing:

Characteristics of the Perceiver:

1. Needs and Motives:
Our need pattern play an important part in how we perceive things. A need is a feeling of
discomfort or tension when one things he is missing something or requires something. Therefore,
unsatisfied needs or motives stimulate individuals and may exert a strong influence on their
perception. When people are not able to satisfy their needs they are engaged in wishful thinking
which is a way to satisfy their needs not in the real world but imaginary world. In such cases,
people will perceive only those items which suit their wishful thinking. Motives also influence
the perception of people. People who are devious are prone to see others as also devious.
2. Self Concept:
Self concept indicates how we perceive ourselves which then influences how we perceive others
and the situation we are in. The more we understand ourselves, the more we are able to perceive
others accurately. For example, secure people tend to see others as warm and friendly. Less
secure people often find fault with others. Perceiving ourselves accurately and enhancing our-
self concept are factors that enhance accurate perception.
3. Past Experience:
Our perceptions are often guided by our past experiences and what we expect to see. A person‘s
past experiences mould the way he perceives the current situation. If a person has been betrayed
by a couple of friends in the past, he would tend to distrust any new friendship that he might be
in the process of developing.
4. Current Psychological State:
The psychological and emotional states of an individual are likely to influence how things are
perceived. If a person is depressed, he is likely to perceive the same situation differently than if
he is elated. Similarly, if a person is scared out of wits by seeing a snake in the garden, she is
likely to perceive a rope under the bed as a snake.
5. Beliefs:
A person‘s beliefs influence his perception to a great extent. Thus, a fact is conceived not on
what it is but what a person believes it to be. The individual normally censors stimulus inputs to
avoid disturbance of his existing beliefs.
6. Expectations:
Expectations affect the perception of a person. Expectations are related with the state of
anticipation of particular behaviour from a person. For example, a technical manager will expect
that the non- technical people will be ignorant about the technical features of the product.
7. Situation:
Elements in the environment surrounding an individual like time, location, light, heat etc.,
influence his perception. The context in which a person sees the objects or events is very
important.
8. Cultural Upbringing:
A person‘s ethics, values and his cultural upbringing also play an important role in his perception
about others. It is difficult to perceive the personality of a person raised in another culture
because our judgement is based upon our own values.
B. Characteristics of the Perceived:
Characteristics of the person who is being observed can affect what is perceived. Though, it may
go against logic and objectivity, but it cannot be denied that our perceptions about others are
influenced by their physical characteristics such as appearances, age, gender, manner of
communication as well as personality traits and other forms of behaviour. For example, loud
people are more likely to be noticed in a group than are quite ones. So too are extremely
attractive or extremely ugly individuals. Persons, objects or events that are similar to each other
tend to be grouped together. People dressed in business suits are generally thought to be
professionals, while employees dressed in ordinary work clothes are assumed to be lower level
employees.
Manner of communication, both verbal and non-verbal, affect our perception about others. For
example, the choice of words and precision of language can form impressions about the
education and sophistication of the person. The tone of voice indicates the mood of the person.
The depth of conversation and choice of topics provide clues of people‘s intelligence. The body
language or expressive behaviour such as how a person sits and the movement of his eyes or a
smile can indicate whether he is nervous or self confident. The status or occupation of a person
also influences the perception. We tend to behave in a more respectful way when we are
introduced to the principal of a school in which our child is studying, judge of the high court or
Supreme Court or a famous cricket player. Sometimes our perception of a person tends to be;
biased, depending upon the description given to us by other persons. When we meet a person
who is described to us as warm and friendly, we treat him differently as compared to meeting a
person who is known to be cold & calculating.

C. Characteristics of the Situation:

The context in which we see objects or events is very important. The surrounding environment
and the elements present in it influence our perception while perceiving a particular situation or
event, its physical, social and organisational setting can also influence the perception. For
example, if you meet a person for the first time and he is with a person whom you respect and
admire, you will create a favourable image about him in your mind as compared to a situation in
which you see him with another person whom you intensely dislike. Of course, the initial
impressions may change with the passage of time, but the saying that ―First impression is the last
impression‖ is very valued.
Location of a given event is also very important factor in determining the behaviour. For
example, a conversation with the boss taking place in a casual reception area may be perceived
differently than when taking place in the boss‘s office with the door closed. Organisational
setting also affects the behaviour of the people. An organisation setting where people are given
an opportunity to interact in a friendly and sociable work situation, they become more
trustworthy and less defensive.
 UNIT - 3

Meaning of Self-Awareness: Conscious knowledge of one's own character and feelings.

Definition: Self-awareness is the key cornerstone to emotional intelligence, according to Daniel

Goleman. The ability to monitor our emotions and thoughts from moment to moment is key to
understanding ourselves better, being at peace with who we are and proactively managing our
thoughts, emotions, and behaviours.

Importance of Self-Awareness:
Developing self-awareness skills is important for learning about yourself and discovering your
true capabilities, which may be vital for a successful career. Following are some of the most
significant implications of self-awareness skills:

 Improves emotional intelligence: Developing self-awareness skills is the key to

developing emotional intelligence as a skill. The self-analysis that you conduct will help
you be aware of your own values which, if touched by any event or action, will generate
certain emotional responses. When you have a better understanding of the problem, you
can take more effective actions to address it.
 Gives a direction to your efforts: Knowing your strengths enables you to utilize them
more effectively and in appropriate situations. Whereas, knowing your weakness helps
you figure out when you need to draw on the strengths of others. Also, acknowledging
our weaknesses prevents us from reacting inappropriately at any point in time and from
making disastrous decisions.

Meaning of Self-confidence: A feeling of trust in one‘s abilities, qualities and

judgement.

Definition of Self-confidence: Confidence in oneself and in one‘s powers and abilities.

Importance of Self-Confidence: Self-confidence one's ability to judge his own social

and personal standing with respect to his environment and be able to derive satisfaction
out of it. Self-confidence is influenced by factors like upbringing, work environment, and
levels of dedication towards pursuing a cause

The Importance of Building Self-confidence:

Everyone knows that self-confidence is very important but what is not known to
everyone is the degree of its importance. Self-confidence is more important than you can
imagine.

Self confidence can change your whole life to the better while lack of confidence will
definitely have a negative effect on your social relations, career, achievements and even
your mood. The following list will give you a better idea of the importance of self-
confidence:

 The more confident you are the less disappointed you will feel upon being rejected.
whether it was a rejection letter, relationship rejection or personal rejection. What makes
many people feel down when they get rejected is their own lack of confidence in their
abilities and not the rejection itself.
 The more self-confident you become the more risks you will be willing to take and so the
more opportunities you will encounter
 The more confidence you have the less will criticism affect you. Instead of feeling bad
when being criticized you will just ignore it and laugh
 The more Self-confidence you have the less anxious you will be. One of the major
reasons for experiencing anxiety is that we doubt our ability to handle a situation. If we
were confident that we can handle it correctly we wouldn‘t have felt anxious.
 When being lonely you won't feel that bad compared to someone who is not confident.
Confident people have a better power of solitude which is the ability to feel good even
when you are alone.
 If you are a confident person, you will feel that you are worthy, regardless of your social
or economic status. Even if you currently don't have someone who loves you or even if
you aren't rich you will still feel adequate.
 People will love you: people love confident ones and look up to them. By being self-
confident you will be a role model for many other people.
 One of the fundamental factors that can help in developing depression is a low self
esteem. In my book, The ultimate guide to getting over depression i explained how lack
of self confidence can be one of the main factors that triggers depression. This doesn't
mean that depression affects people who lack self confidence but it means that building
self confidence will make you less likely to get depressed.
 The less confident you are the easier you will experience jealousy.
 The more confident you are the less likely you will feel insecure about a relationship or
about your job.
 The more confident you become the more convincing you will become and the more
likely you will win debates.

Reasons That Self-Confidence Leads to Success:

1. The Drive to Start Things: Confident people start things. They are not shy about
striking out on a new idea even when those around them are still pondering it.
2. The Ability to Stand Up for Oneself: Confidence allows you to stand up for yourself in
a fair and consistent manner. Otherwise, you may find yourself unheard or unfairly
treated.
3. The Ability to Say No: Confident people have the ability to say ―No‖ where appropriate.
They do not take on unnecessary or inappropriate work or obligations.
4. The Ability to Say Yes: And at the same time, confident individuals say ―Yes‖ to
opportunity. They do not miss new options because they are shy. I have seen individuals‘
pass up opportunities (even promotions) because they didn‘t think they were ―worthy.‖
5. Confidence Overcomes Fear: Lack of confidence can lead to paralysis from fear. Fear
of failure. Fear of what others think. Fear of the unknown. To succeed, you need the
confidence to face and overcome your fears.
6. Believe In Themselves: Self-confidence means believing in yourself. Henry Ford said,
―Whether you think you can, or you think you can‘t -you‘re right.‖ He was right.
7. Set the Bar High Enough: Confident individuals set the bar high and aim high. Lack of
confidence leads to weak goals, setting the bar too low, and mediocre results.
8. Stretch Your Limits: Confidence lets you know your limits and test them. By stretching
your limits you increase them. You are stronger than you think.
9. Confidence Asks Questions: Confidence allows you to ask questions, even when others
are silent. Confidence even lets you ―ask for the job.‖
 10. Believe In Winning: Confident people believe in success. And more importantly, they
believe in their ability to succeed.

Meaning of Mnemonics: The study and development of systems for improving and
assisting the memory.

A mnemonic is an instructional strategy designed to help students improve their memory of

important information. This technique connects new learning to prior knowledge through the use
of visual and/or acoustic cues.

Benefits of Mnemonics:
Mnemonics are fun tools or memory aids you can use to remember word sequence. Figures,
events, face and facts, can be mastered and recalled by using memory aids, popularly known as
mnemonics. In fact, using mnemonics is effective compared to other conventional means such as
repetition and rote learning.
1. Improvement in Memory:
Mnemonics is powerful tool that can help you improve your memory. While ordinary
memorization can be monotonous, using memorization techniques can be an entertaining method
to retain valuable information. Mnemonics can help enhance both your long-term and short-term
memory.
2. Helps Children with Dyslexia:
Dyslexia simply means reading difficulty or inability to read fluently, despite adequate
opportunity and intelligence. The common symptoms among dyslexia patients are reversing
numbers and/ or words, which translates to reading difficulty. However, using mnemonics can
help improve reading ability in children with dyslexia.
3. Enhances Imagination:
Imagination is important in order to create strong mnemonics. Our information will help us to
create effective learning aids to improve our memory. When we strongly visualize and imagine a
short phrase, it becomes easy to recall the information later. Moreover, we can either decide to
use violent or vivid mnemonics, depending on our preference.
4. Sensory Stimulation:
Mnemonics help to break monotony associated with rote learning, which make learning fun.
Through using mnemonics, we can learn new language, a complex game, and even cook some
unfamiliar recipes. Mnemonics are more effective with learners who have improved verbal skills.
This means that students who have reading difficulties may have trouble learning new material
using mnemonics.
5. Retrieves Important Information:
When we try to remember something, the brain activates nerve cells used to store the
information. By using mnemonics, it becomes easy to keep healthy function of the blood cells,
improving your memory. Also, mnemonics help to enhance our imagination to create more ways
to remember important information.

Key Benefits of Mnemonics:

• Less study, more score

• Crack Your Entrance Exam

• Memorize a list of items

• Memorize Long answers

• Memorize Mathematics Formulae

• Memorize account/economics Formulae

• Live Stress free Life

•Mem Memorize Periodic Table

• Memorizing History dates

Definition of Goal Setting: The definition of goal setting is the process of identifying
something that you want to accomplish and establishing measurable goals and timeframes. When
you decide on a financial change to save more money and then set a certain amount to save each
month, this is an example of goal setting.

Three types of goals:

1. Set Goals That Motivate You: When you set goals for yourself, it is important that they
motivate you: this means making sure that they are important to you, and that there is value in
achieving them. Motivation is key to achieving goals. Set goals that relate to the high priorities in
your life and have an "I must do this" attitude."I can't do anything or be successful at anything"
frame of mind.
2. Set SMART Goals:
You have probably heard of SMART goals already. But do you always apply the rule? The
simple fact is that for goals to be powerful, they should be designed to be SMART. There are
many variations of what SMART stands for, but the essence is this goals should be:

 Specific.
 Measurable.
 Attainable.
 Relevant.
 Time Bound.

a. Set Specific Goals: Your goal must be clear and well defined. Vague or generalized goals are
unhelpful because they don't provide sufficient direction. Remember, you need goals to show
you the way. Make it as easy as you can to get where you want to go by defining precisely where
you want to end up.
b. Set Measurable Goals: Include precise amounts, dates, and so on in your goals so you can
measure your degree of success. If your goal is simply defined as "To reduce expenses" how will
you know when you have been successful? In one month's time if you have a 1 percent reduction
or in two years' time when you have a 10 percent reduction? Without a way to measure your
success you miss out on the celebration that comes with knowing you have actually achieved
something.
c. Set Attainable Goals: Make sure that it's possible to achieve the goals you set. If you set a
goal that you have no hope of achieving, you will only demoralize yourself and erode your
confidence. However, resist the urge to set goals that are too easy. Accomplishing a goal that you
didn't have to work hard for can be anticlimactic at best, and can also make you fear setting
future goals that carry a risk of non-achievement. By setting realistic yet challenging goals, you
hit the balance you need. These are the types of goals that require you to "raise the bar" and they
bring the greatest personal satisfaction.
d. Set Relevant Goals: Goals should be relevant to the direction you want your life and career to
take. By keeping goals aligned with this, you'll develop the focus you need to get ahead and do
what you want. Set widely scattered and inconsistent goals, and you'll fritter your time – and
your life – away.
e. Set Time-Bound Goals : Your goals must have a deadline. Again, this means that you know
when you can celebrate success. When you are working on a deadline, your sense of urgency
increases and achievement will come that much quicker.

3. Set Goals in Writing: The physical act of writing down a goal makes it real and tangible.
You have no excuse for forgetting about it. As you write, use the word "will" instead of "would
like to" or "might." For example, "I will reduce my operating expenses by 10 percent this year,"
not "I would like to reduce my operating expenses by 10 percent this year." The first goal
statement has power and you can "see" yourself reducing expenses, the second lacks passion and
gives you an excuse if you get sidetracked.
4. Make an Action Plan :This step is often missed in the process of goal setting. You get so
focused on the outcome that you forget to plan all of the steps that are needed along the way. By
writing out the individual steps, and then crossing each one off as you complete it, you'll realize
that you are making progress towards your ultimate goal. This is especially important if your
goal is big and demanding, or long-term.
5. Stick With It!: Remember, goal setting is an ongoing activity, not just a means to an end.
Build in reminders to keep yourself on track, and make regular time-slots available to review
your goals. Your end destination may remain quite similar over the long term, but the action plan
you set for yourself along the way can change significantly. Make sure the relevance, value, and
necessity remain high.

Ten Steps to Successful Goal Setting:

1. Belief: The first step to goal setting is to have absolute belief and faith in the process. If you
don‘t believe you can absolutely transform your life and get what you want, then you might as
well forget about goal setting and do something else. If you are in doubt, look around you.
Everything you can see began as a thought. Make your thoughts turn into reality.

2. Visualize: what you want. Think of what you deeply desire in your life or where you want
your company to be a year from now. What changes have to take place? What do you need to
know or learn? What spiritual, emotional, personal, financial, social or physical properties need
to be addressed? The clearer you are with each of these dimensions will bring your vision into
sharp focus. The clearer you are, the easier it will be to focus on making it happen.

3. Get it down!: Writing down your goals is key to success. By writing down your goals, you
become a creator. Failure to write down your goals often means you will forget them or won‘t
focus on them. Have them written down where you can see them every day.

4. Purpose: Knowing why you want to achieve your goals is powerful. Identifying the purpose
of your goal helps you instantly recognize why you want that particular goal and whether it‘s
worth working toward. Knowing why you want something furnishes powerful motivation to see
it through to the finish. After all, if the purpose of earning a million dollars is to put it in the bank
for a rainy day, you probably won‘t be as motivated as you will if you need it to pay for your
child‘s cancer treatment.

5. Commit: This might sound obvious to you but it‘s a step that has disastrous consequences
when it‘s taken lightly. Write a few pages about why and how you are committing to each goal;
why it‘s important to you, what it means to you, why the outcome is necessary and what are you
going to do to make it happen. Without strong commitment you aren‘t likely to follow through.

6. Stay focused: By focusing on your goals, you manifest. You may not know how you‘ll reach
your goals but when you make a daily practice of focus, they become easier to reach. Having
your goals written down somewhere where you will see them each day is a good idea. Your mind
will notice that there is a discrepancy between where you are now and where you want to be
which will create pressure to change. If you lose focus you can always bring it back. Without a
regular practice of focusing on your goals you may be distracted by something.

7. Plan of action: Being really clear about what you want, knowing your purpose, writing your
goals down, committing to them, and staying focused gives you the power of clarity to write
down a list of action steps. You may not know all the steps ahead of time but you will know the
next steps that take you in that direction. Having goals without a plan of action is like trying to
complete a complex project without a project plan. There is too much going on, it‘s too
disorganized, you miss deadlines and you don‘t have priorities. Eventually you get frustrated and
the project/goal fails or collapses under its own weight.

8. No Time Like the Present: To show how committed you are to your goals, think of
something you can do right now that will get you moving toward fulfilling your goals. Even if
it‘s just making a phone call, do it now. You will be surprised how this simple step reinforces all
the previous steps and gets you motivated and moving toward what you desire. If you are not
motivated to do something right now, how are you going to get motivated tomorrow?

9. Accountability: To push through when things get tough, you have to hold yourself
accountable unless you bring in outside help like a coach who provides it for you. It makes sense
to have someone beside yourself who can provide valuable feedback at critical junctures, like a
friend or a mentor. Telling your friends and family about your goals may give you the
accountability your need.

10. Review: Make it part of your day to review your goals and take action. This keeps your goals
alive and top of mind. It‘s a good time to convert the over all plan into discrete action steps that
you can take through out the week. It will also help you be aware if one goal feels stuck and you
are over compensating on another goal.

Meaning of Time Management: The ability to use one's time effectively or productively,
especially at work.

―Time management‖ refers to the way that you organize and plan how long you spend on
specific activities.

It may seem counter-intuitive to dedicate precious time to learning about time management,
instead of using it to get on with your work, but the benefits are enormous:
 Greater productivity and efficiency.
 A better professional reputation.
  Less stress.
 Increased opportunities for advancement.
 Greater opportunities to achieve important life and career goals.
Failing to manage your time effectively can have some very undesirable consequences:
 Missed deadlines.
 Inefficient work flow.
 Poor work quality.
 A poor professional reputation and a stalled career.
 Higher stress levels.
Benefits of Time Management:
1. Less Stress: Managing your time can directly reduce your stress level. Fewer surprises.
Fewer tight deadlines. Less rushing from task-to-task and place-to-place.
2. Get More Done: Of course, being productive is one of the main goals of time
management. When you are aware of what you need to do, you are able to better manage
your workload. You will be able to get more (of the right tasks) done in less time.
3. Less Rework: Being organized results in less rework and mistakes. Forgotten items,
details, and instructions lead to extra work. How often do you have to do a task more than
once? Or make an extra trip because you forget something?
4. Less Life Friction and Problems: How often do you create your own problems?
Whether it is a forgotten appointment or missed deadline, not managing your time results
in increased life friction. Avoid creating your own problems by planning and preparing
for your day.
5. More Free Time: We can‘t create more time, but you can make better use of it by
managing your time. Even simple actions like shifting your commute or getting your
work done early can produce more leisure time in your life.
6. Less Wasted Time: When you know what you need to do, you waste less time in idle
activities. Instead of wondering what you should be doing next, you can already be a step
ahead of your work.
7. More Opportunities: Being on top of your time and work produces more opportunities.
The early bird always has more options. As well, luck favors the prepared.
8. Improves Your Reputation: Your time management reputation will proceed you. At
work and in life you will be known as reliable. No one is going to question whether you
are going to show up, do what you say you are going to do, or meet that deadline.
9. Less Effort: A common misconception is that time management takes extra effort. To the
contrary, proper time management makes your life easier. Things take less effort,
whether it is packing for that trip or finishing up that project.
10. More Time Where it Matters: Managing your time is allotting your time where it has
the most impact. Time management allows you to spend your time on the things that
matter most to you.

Disadvantages of Time Management:

1. Non-clear Objectives:
The productive behavior is definitely one of the main goals in time management. Sometimes, it
leads to non-clear objectives which usually struck people for worse. An unaware person doesn‘t
know what to do? If you are not being able to do better management of workload, you will get
more struck in non-done tasks in no time.
2. Mismanagement:
Organized results to less rework and mistakes but excess organizing craze leaves a person in
blunder. The items, details, and instructions are if forgotten then leads to extra work and a blame
of mismanagement. A person has to do a task more times if he forgets something. It will lead to
fatigue and it happens because of predictive behavior.
3. Can‟t say “no”:
You might have forgotten an appointment, or missed deadline and all happened because of
working on others task as saying ‗no‘ will be tough for you. Such crazy situations incline life
friction. You can avoid creating such problems by planning and preparing exactly. No body can
create more time but it can be used in better way by managing time undoubtedly. It‘s always
better to keep back because people simply can‘t say no to anyone.
4. Obstacles:
Simple actions like shifting commute or getting a work done early, produce more issues in life.
The time management leads you towards an obstacle. When you know what you need to do, you
hate wasting time in idle activities and that leads to disputes and disturbances. Instead of thinking
what to do next, concentrate on steps ahead of work, as anything can go wrong. The people face
many problems due to it.
5. Inactivity:
The common misconception makes time management an extra effort. To the contrary, proper
time management makes a human life easier and inactive. If things are asking for less effort than
the usual time, then the consumption of time leads to dullness.
Manage time for improving life, as time management is all about spending time in right places,
and on the right things but sometime the obsession for doing right makes your life stagnant.
6. Load of different works at one time:
When you work according to time management, then sometimes in over confidence you take too
many tasks in hand. That particular condition leaves you in total blunder. The people keep too
much expectations from you just because of your flaunting behavior and at last you feel a load of
work on your shoulders. And such confusion creates a mismanagement situation.
7. Fatigue and stress become part of life:
Fatigue and stress is common problem that leads you to a tired phase. The tiredness leads a
human being to irritate and fed up of life. They also feel demoralized because they again and
again think about their unsuccessful attempt of adopting time management in their life. They
consider their unsuccessful attempt as halt in their way and leave interest in all things.
Majority of people make themselves prone to diseases. The proper planning is not a cup of tea of
all. The first and last thing only adopts those skills which give you relaxation from hardships of
hectic life instead of putting you deeper.
8. No time for recreation:
Recreation vanishes from those people‘s life, who get involved in time management more than
their personal skills. They waste most of their time in doing planning instead of taking action.
Intellectuals usually define, action speaks louder than words. And those people can never
become successful who spend their money and time in planning. Recreation has become a need
of today‘s life. If someone is not doing it then life of these people becomes a burden on them and
they led their life in stagnant way.
Importance of Time Management in Students Life:
Time management is important not only for professionals but also for every one. Even students
need to know how to manage their time to use it effectively.
Some of the reasons why time management is important for students are,
 Help them develop responsibility
 Can lead to effective learning
 Helps in management of money
 Good efficiency gains
 Makes you ready for the world outside.
Rules for Successful Time Management:
1. Start your day right: Don‘t rush into the day. Take a few minutes to sit quietly and
gather your thoughts. Remember what‘s really important to you and prepare yourself
inwardly to meet whatever the day brings.
2. Have a plan for what you want to accomplish: Have a set of reasonable goals for what
you will be able to do that day.
3. Break tasks into reasonable units: Looking at a big task can make you feel
overwhelmed and hopeless. And unless you‘re careful, it can keep you from doing other
things you need to do. So break it up into chewable bites so you know what you‘ll get
done today, and what you‘ll do each day over the coming week.
4. Prioritize tasks and refuse inessential tasks: Decide what‘s the best order to do things,
what needs to get done no matter what, and what you can forget about. That may mean
saying ―no‖ to other people who want you to do things that you don‘t have time for.
5. Delegate if possible: For myself, I‘ve put together a great team of assistants. I let them
do what they‘re good at so I can do what I‘m good at. I don‘t get burned out doing things
I don‘t like, and I have more creative energy for the things I‘m naturally better at.
6. Plan time for meals, exercising, and socializing: That old Puritan ethic can keep you
working non-stop – until you burn out and decide to stop for good! Before that happens,
make the time to do things that make your life complete.
7. Follow a big push with relaxation: Sometimes I have to work hard to meet a deadline.
Or maybe I feel inspired and I work well into the night. That‘s great. But I know I can‘t
keep up that intensity forever. Even if you have to force yourself to take time off, do it.
There‘s a clever sign on a local restaurant that says, ―We give our cooks time off. Do
you?‖ That‘s a question you should ask yourself.
8. Practice the 10-minute rule: We all have tasks we dread to do. We put off starting them
and they loom before us, keeping us in a state of anxiety that drains our energy. The rule
is to just work on it for 10 minutes. Chances are, once you get started, you‘ll keep
working on it, but start out planning just 10 minutes. Do that over a number of days, and
the task will get done – and off your back.
9. End each day with a plan for tomorrow: I like to end my day by making a quick list of
what I need to do the next day. Everything is fresh in my mind and clear. Then the next
morning I don‘t have to try to remember what I was doing and what‘s needed next. It‘s
like I have a headstart on the day and I‘m eager to get going. That‘s the opposite of
burnout!

Effective Planning: In organizations, planning can become a management process, concerned

with defining goals for a future direction and determining on the missions and resources to
achieve those targets. Planning increases the efficiency of an organization. Planning reduces
risks.

Benefits of planning:

 Planning is chalking out what course of action you propose to undertake.

 Planning gives an approximation of the time required for completing any task.
 It gives a fairly good idea about the expenses involved in the task.
 It enables you to be prepared for emergencies.
 A well thought out plan gives you a clear idea about what is to be done every day, every
week and every month.
  Unnecessary effort and duplication of tasks can be avoided with the help of proper
planning. If there are multiple people involved in the plan, they can all understand their
roles clearly.

Steps in planning:
There are six simple steps in planning being talked about. If you follow them in order, your
chances of making errors would come down to a great extent. You will notice that once you
create a plan, there will be a lot of clarity in your everyday life.

Step 6: Evaluate
Step 5: Work the plan
Step 4: Create the plan
Step 3: Consider alternatives
Step 2: Identify resources
Step 1: Define the task

Defining the task:

This is the first stage in planning. Here, you need to identify the tasks that you must complete in
a particular day.
Gather the need-to-know information:
 All the facts and figures: where, when, how, what and who
 The goals or objectives: what we are trying to accomplish
When you have answers to the questions above, it will mark the completion of this stage. Put
only those tasks on the planning template given at the end of this chapter that need to be done
today.

Identifying the resources:

When we consider the resources needed and available, we need to ask ourselves:
 What resources do we need to accomplish the task?
 What do we already have?
 Where do we get what we do not have?
 Are there any resources that require special attention, advance planning, or significant
expense? Are there alternatives?
Once your resources are identified, you need to see how best to utilise them.

Consider alternatives:
This step relates to alternate methods and procedures that can be used to achieve the desired
objectives. These might include:
 What kind of aids can be used?
 Which technique will be best for getting the message across?
 This also relates to emergencies or unexpected developments. It is always fruitful to have
a backup plan (Plan B).
 Are we prepared for equipment failure?
 Do we have backup staff members in case a member of the team suddenly becomes ill?
 Do we have provision for time constraints?
 How should we arrange the resources?
Plan B is extremely important because in its absence, a failure is usually taken as a setback. To
interpret failure as a stepping stone to success, it is important to plan for contingencies as well.
Make space for emergencies and always keep a buffer for unexpected events like visitors when
you sit down to write an article.

Create the plan:

We can all create wonderful plans on paper. But at the end of the day, we are human.
My friend had a meeting with his son‘s class teacher. His planner had ―15 minutes‖ written next
to this meeting. The teacher had so much to share about the kid that the meeting went on for an
additional hour. As a result, all the activities that he had planned for the next hour got postponed
and he missed an important meeting.
Creating a workable plan can be a challenge.
 It should be written with precision and focus.
 We need to leave blank spaces for buffer.
 A written plan tells everyone concerned what is expected, and when.
 It provides a permanent record of the details of the plan.
 It can serve as a checklist for what is done and what needs to be done.
Keeping a plan in writing and letting everyone concerned know what it is saves quite a lot of
time. Write it to make it right!

Work the plan:

Flexibility is the key to this step. A plan is only successful if it relieves stress rather than create
it. My friend created stress by formulating a plan that was not workable. Even if you have
created buffer and a Plan B, you still need to keep an open mind.
 Be sure you are ready.
 Review the previous steps.
 Do it!
 Keep up with the written plan, but be flexible and make adjustments if required.
If you do your homework before the execution, then sticking to the plan is literally a cakewalk.

Evaluate:
Like every action, planning is incomplete without proper feedback. There needs to be an
assessment of the situation.
What should we evaluate about the plan?
 Have I achieved what I decided to do?
 Will I follow the plan all over again?
 If not, what changes would I make?
The last step then is to document the changes to the plan so that the revised plan can be
implemented successfully in the future.

The Importance of Planning in an Organization:

Efficient Use of Resources:
All organizations, large and small, have limited resources. The planning process provides the
information top management needs to make effective decisions about how to allocate the
resources in a way that will enable the organization to reach its objectives. Productivity is
maximized and resources are not wasted on projects with little chance of success.

Establishing Goals:
Setting goals that challenge everyone in the organization to strive for better performance is one
of the key aspects of the planning process. Goals must be aggressive, but realistic. Organizations
cannot allow themselves to become too satisfied with how they are currently doing--or they are
likely to lose ground to competitors. The goal setting process can be a wake-up call for managers
that have become complacent. The other benefit of goal setting comes when forecast results are
compared to actual results. Organizations analyze significant variances from forecast and take
action to remedy situations where revenues were lower than plan or expenses higher.

Managing Risk And Uncertainty:

Managing risk is essential to an organization‘s success. Even the largest corporations cannot
control the economic and competitive environment around them. Unforeseen events occur that
must be dealt with quickly, before negative financial consequences from these events become
severe. Planning encourages the development of ―what-if‖ scenarios, where managers attempt to
envision possible risk factors and develop contingency plans to deal with them. The pace of
change in business is rapid, and organizations must be able to rapidly adjust their strategies to
these changing conditions.

Team Building:
Planning promotes team building and a spirit of cooperation. When the plan is completed and
communicated to members of the organization, everyone knows what their responsibilities are,
and how other areas of the organization need their assistance and expertise in order to complete
assigned tasks. They see how their work contributes to the success of the organization as a whole
and can take pride in their contributions. Potential conflict can be reduced when top management
solicits department or division managers‘ input during the goal setting process. Individuals are
less likely to resent budgetary targets when they had a say in their creation.

Creating Competitive Advantages:

Planning helps organizations get a realistic view of their current strengths and weaknesses
relative to major competitors. The management team sees areas where competitors may be
vulnerable and then crafts marketing strategies to take advantage of these weaknesses. Observing
competitors‘ actions can also help organizations identify opportunities they may have
overlooked, such as emerging international markets or opportunities to market products to
completely different customer groups.

Types of Plans:
Operational plans:
The specific results expected from departments, work groups, and individuals are the operational
goals. These goals are precise and measurable. ―Process 150 sales applications each week‖ or
―Publish 20 books this quarter‖ are examples of operational goals.

An operational plan is one that a manager uses to accomplish his or her job responsibilities.
Supervisors, team leaders, and facilitators develop operational plans to support tactical plans (see
the next section). Operational plans can be a single use plan or an ongoing plan.

 Single use plans apply to activities that do not recur or repeat. A one time occurrence,
such as a special sales program, is a single use plan because it deals with the who, what,
where, how, and how much of an activity. A budget is also a single use plan because it
predicts sources and amounts of income and how much they are used for a specific
project.
 Continuing or ongoing plans are usually made once and retain their value over a period
of years while undergoing periodic revisions and updates. The following are examples of
ongoing plans:
 A policy provides a broad guideline for managers to follow when dealing with important
areas of decision making. Policies are general statements that explain how a manager
 should attempt to handle routine management responsibilities. Typical human resources
policies, for example, address such matters as employee hiring, terminations,
performance appraisals, pay increases, and discipline.
 A procedure is a set of step by step directions that explains how activities or tasks are to
be carried out. Most organizations have procedures for purchasing supplies and
equipment, for example. This procedure usually begins with a supervisor completing a
purchasing requisition. The requisition is then sent to the next level of management for
approval. The approved requisition is forwarded to the purchasing department.
Depending on the amount of the request, the purchasing department may place an order,
or they may need to secure quotations and/or bids for several vendors before placing the
order. By defining the steps to be taken and the order in which they are to be done,
procedures provide a standardized way of responding to a repetitive problem.
 A rule is an explicit statement that tells an employee what he or she can and cannot do.
Rules are ―do‖ and ―don't‖ statements put into place to promote the safety of employees
and the uniform treatment and behavior of employees. For example, rules about tardiness
and absenteeism permit supervisors to make discipline decisions rapidly and with a high
degree of fairness.

A tactical plan is concerned with what the lower level units within each division must do, how
they must do it, and who is in charge at each level. Tactics are the means needed to activate a
strategy and make it work. Tactical plans are concerned with shorter time frames and narrower
scopes than are strategic plans. These plans usually span one year or less because they are
considered short term goals. Long term goals, on the other hand, can take several years or more
to accomplish. Normally, it is the middle manager's responsibility to take the broad strategic plan
and identify specific tactical actions.

A strategic plan is an outline of steps designed with the goals of the entire organization as a
whole in mind, rather than with the goals of specific divisions or departments. Strategic planning
begins with an organization's mission. Strategic plans look ahead over the next two, three, five,
or even more years to move the organization from where it currently is to where it wants to be.
Requiring multilevel involvement, these plans demand harmony among all levels of management
within the organization. Top‐level management develops the directional objectives for the entire
organization, while lower levels of management develop compatible objectives and plans to
achieve them. Top management's strategic plan for the entire organization becomes the
framework and sets dimensions for the lower level planning.

Contingency plans:
Intelligent and successful management depends upon a constant pursuit of adaptation, flexibility,
and mastery of changing conditions. Strong management requires a ―keeping all options open‖
approach at all times — that's where contingency planning comes in.

Contingency planning involves identifying alternative courses of action that can be

implemented if and when the original plan proves inadequate because of changing
circumstances. Keep in mind that events beyond a manager's control may cause even the most
carefully prepared alternative future scenarios to go awry. Unexpected problems and events
frequently occur. When they do, managers may need to change their plans. Anticipating change
during the planning process is best in case things don't go as expected. Management can then
develop alternatives to the existing plan and ready them for use when and if circumstances make
these alternatives appropriate.
Human Growth & Behaviour:
The capacity of mental, physical, emotional, and social activities experienced during the five
stages of a human being's life - prenatal, infancy, childhood, adolescence, and adulthood.
Includes the behaviors as dictated by culture, society, values, morals, ethics, and genetics.

Human Development:
Human development, or developmental psychology, is a field of study that attempts to describe
and explain the changes in human cognitive, emotional, and behavioral capabilities and
functioning over the entire life span, from the fetus to old age.
 UNIT - 4

Stress Management : Stress management is a wide spectrum of techniques and psychotherapies

aimed at controlling a person's level of stress, especially chronic stress, usually for the purpose
of improving everyday functioning.

Five techniques to help to reduce stress in the short- and long-term:

 Take a break from the stressor. It may seem difficult to get away from a big work project,
a crying baby or a growing credit card bill.
 Exercise.
 Smile and laugh.
 Get social support.
 Meditate.

 Take a break from the stressor: It may seem difficult to get away from a big work
project, a crying baby or a growing credit card bill. But when you give yourself
permission to step away from it, you let yourself have time to do something else, which
can help you have a new perspective or practice techniques to feel less overwhelmed. It‘s
important to not avoid your stress (those bills have to be paid sometime), but even just
20-minutes to take care of yourself is helpful.
 Exercise: The research keeps growing — exercise benefits your mind just as well as your
body. We keep hearing about the long-term benefits of a regular exercise routine. But
even a 20-minute walk, run, swim or dance session in the midst of a stressful time can
give an immediate effect that can last for several hours.
 Smile and laugh: Our brains are interconnected with our emotions and facial
expressions. When people are stressed, they often hold a lot of the stress in their face. So
laughs or smiles can help relieve some of that tension and improve the situation.
 Get social support: Call a friend, send an email. When you share your concerns or
feelings with another person, it does help relieve stress. But it‘s important that the person
whom you talk to is someone whom you trust and whom you feel can understand and
validate you. If your family is a stressor, for example, it may not alleviate your stress if
you share your works woes with one of them.
 Meditate: Meditation and mindful prayer help the mind and body to relax and focus.
Mindfulness can help people see new perspectives, develop self-compassion and
forgiveness. When practicing a form of mindfulness, people can release emotions that
may have been causing the body physical stress. Much like exercise, research has shown
that even meditating briefly can reap immediate benefits.

Ten steps to reduce stress levels:

 Avoid Caffeine, Alcohol, and Nicotine. ...
 Indulge in Physical Activity. ...
 Get More Sleep. ...
 Try Relaxation Techniques. ...
 Talk to Someone. ...
 Keep a Stress Diary. ...
 Take Control. ...
 Manage Your Time.
Improve Your Concentration in Meditation:
1. Concentrate without physical tension.
2. Relax your body.
3. Pray before you meditate.
4. Sit perfectly still.
5. Sit longer.
6. Keep your eyes gently raised.
7. Consciously withdraw the energy from the body.
8. To develop concentration, do one thing at a time, and do it well.

Practicing Concentration Meditation:

1.Find a quiet, private spot for meditation: Ideally, your meditation should be in a space free
of pets, distracting noises or other people. Some people choose to set aside a corner of a room in
their homes for the sole purpose of meditation. Others prefer to sit outside, weather permitting.

 Sitting in the same spot might help increase your ability to concentrate. Your body will
start to associate this area with meditation, and nothing else.
 Many people find that morning meditation helps them start their day. Others prefer to
meditate at the end of the day. An office that's private offers an opportunity to meditate
during the workday.

2 Sit comfortably: Your body should not experience discomfort during meditation. The goal is
to be comfortable in your body while allowing your attention to be focused completely on the
object of concentration. Wear loose, comfortable clothing that doesn't pinch or cut off
circulation. Clothing that gathers behind the knees when you sit is not recommended.

 Concentration meditation is typically practiced either sitting or standing, but may be

practiced lying down if necessary.

3 Set a timer: Because you'll need to train both your body and your mind to meditation, start
with short sessions, 5-10 minutes in length. You can repeat these short sessions throughout the
day.

 Use a timer rather than a clock so that you won't have the distraction of checking to see
how much time you have left. If you are sleepy, it may also keep you from falling asleep
for longer than the time you've allotted.
 Gradually work you way up to longer intervals of time. After several weeks of 10-minute
meditation, for example, increase the time by 5 minutes, then 10 minutes.
 There are many meditation timer apps available to help you, or you can use an ordinary
kitchen timer. It doesn't matter what you use to set the time, so long as you let go of the
need to attend to it.

4 Allow your eyelids to relax: You may choose to close your eyes, or to keep them partially
open without being entirely focused. If visually focusing on an object of concentration, make
sure your eyes are entirely relaxed. Never strain your eyes or hold tension in your eyes. This
includes your eyelids, the small muscles around the eyes, and the muscles which move the eyes.

 You may hold your lips in a slight smile, lips closed.

5 Direct your attention to the focus of concentration: Many people chose to focus on the
breath. Do not force your attention, or become frustrated with yourself when distracted. When
distracted, simply redirect your attention. This form of meditation is not intended to be stressful
or coerced.

 If you have chosen to focus on the breath, turn your attention to your breath as you inhale
and exhale. One complete inhalation and exhalation will be 1 breath. In your mind,
concentrate on the number 1. Then take another breath, all the way in and all the way out.
This is breath 2. Continue until you've counted 10 breaths. Then start again. Holding your
attention to this count will deepen your concentration meditation.
 Your choice of objects may vary depending on the day, the situation in which you find
yourself, or the experiences you have as you continue your practice. Allow yourself to
experiment with different objects.
 Enjoying the practice of concentration is a pleasure, but not a goal. Allow your feelings
to arise as they will. Notice them, and let them go.

6 Set aside distracting thoughts: The goal of concentration meditation is to train the mind for
continual focus. When thoughts or feelings arise, notice them, and return your attention to the
object of its focus.

 If you start to feel disappointment, frustration, or irritation with yourself for being
distracted, this feeling itself is a distraction. Notice the feeling, and return to the object of
concentration.
 There is a subtle balance between holding onto the object of concentration too tightly and
holding on too loosely. When concentration is held too tightly, you will feel a certain
tension that impedes your spiritual progress. When held too loosely, you'll find yourself
distracted.
 Some people experience a shift in their awareness between themselves and the object of
concentration. You may find that you feel a certain sensation of merging with the object.
Do not be afraid: this is a common sensation, and a sign of deeper insight.

Difference Between Meditation & Concentration:

Meditation is the uninterrupted focus on one object for a prolonged period of time. All
meditation begins with a simple process of concentration: focusing the mind on a given object. In
time, as this focus becomes steady and the mind is no longer distracted by other thoughts, then
concentration has become meditation.

Self-Hypnosis:
The term self-hypnosis is used to refer to the situation in which a person is giving the
suggestions to himself or herself. To gain access to the powerful tools of self-hypnosis, you need
to learn how to induce (or allow a self hypnosis audio recording to induce) a relaxed, receptive,
trusting, open state of consciousness through a series of suggestions given to yourself and
designed to induce your mind and body to function in a more positive way.

In other words, a hypnotic process is underway any time a person‘s attention is focused and
possibilities are offered for their consideration.

 ―Let your body relax totally, from head to toe‖

 ―You will awaken feeling alert and fully rested.‖
 ―Picture in your mind the most relaxed, peaceful place you could imagine.‖
  ―Imagine you can hear your beloved grandmother‘s voice.‖

Hypnosis is a process using a particular collection of tools and skills that:

 Enable a person to move in and out of various states of consciousness.

 Enable the user to guide awareness (the conscious mind).
 Are used to enhance or diminish certain patterns of thinking, feeling,
behaving, believing, or relating.
 May affect behavior of the cells of the body, the emotional state, the
thoughts and images in the mind, and the belief system.
 Used properly, can facilitate healing and wholeness at every level of
system.

A Self-Hypnosis Technique:
1. Sit in a comfortable chair with your legs and feet uncrossed:
Avoid eating a large meal just before so you don‘t feel bloated or uncomfortable. Unless you
wish to nod off, sit in a chair, as lying down on a bed will likely induce sleep. You may also
wish to loosen tight clothing and take off your shoes. If you wear contact lenses, it is advisable to
remove them. Keep your legs and feet uncrossed.

2. Look up at the ceiling and take in a deep breath:

Without straining your neck or tilting your head to far back pick a point on the ceiling and fix
your gaze on that point. While you keep your eyes fixed on that point take in a deep breath and
hold it for a moment and then breathe out. Silently repeat the suggestion ―My eyes are tired and
heavy and I want to SLEEP NOW‖. Repeat this process to yourself another couple of times and,
if your eyes have not already done so, let them close and relax in a normal closed position. It is
important when saying the suggestion that you say it to yourself as if you mean it, for example in
a gentle, soothing but convincing manner.

3. Let your body relax:

Allow your body to become loose and limp in the chair just like a rag doll. Then slowly and with
intention count down silently from five to zero. Tell yourself that with each and every count
you‘re becoming more and more relaxed. Stay in this relaxed state for a number of minutes while
focusing on your breathing. Notice the rising and falling of your diaphragm and chest. Be aware
how relaxed your body is becoming without you even having to try and relax it. In fact, the less
you try, the more relaxed you become.

4. When ready, come back to the room by counting up from one to five:
Tell yourself that you are becoming aware of your surroundings and at the count of five you will
open your eyes. Count up from one to five in a lively, energetic manner. At the count of five,
open your eyes and stretch your arms and legs. Repeat this technique three or four times and
notice how each time you reach a deeper level of relaxation. However, if you find you do not
relax as much as you would like, do not force it. There is a learning curve involved so resolve to
practice self-hypnosis on a regular basis.

Self Acceptance and growth Meaning: Self-acceptance can be defined as: the awareness of
one's strengths and weaknesses, the realistic appraisal of one's talents, capabilities, and general
worth, and, feelings of satisfaction with one's self despite deficiencies and regardless of past
behaviors and choices.
Self-growth or personal growth involves making improvements in all aspects of life, so that you
get closer to realizing your true potential. It can be achieved through activities that give you
better sense of awareness and individual identity.

Steps to Personal Growth and Development:

1. Know yourself. This is the first and possibly the most difficult step. ...
2. Set your goals. Setting a goal and working toward it every day can give you renewed
confidence and passion for life
3. Create a plan
4. Get better every day
5. Get out of your comfort zone.

1. Know yourself:
This is the first and possibly the most difficult step. What are you good at? What are your
weaknesses? What are those areas of your life that are really holding you back from living the
life of your dreams? Understanding yourself and what you want in life is the first, and possibly
the hardest step to improving. But it‘s also the most worthwhile.

2. Set your goals:

Setting a goal and working toward it every day can give you renewed confidence and passion for
life. What is it that you really want in life? Do you want to lose weight and have more energy?
Do you want to be more successful in your career? Do you want to have better personal
relationships? Whatever your goals are, make sure you set them the right way and then you can.

3. Create a plan:
Personal growth and development is a life-long journey, and like any journey, you‘ll want to
create a plan to help you get to your destination. Based on the goals you‘ve set for yourself, how
can you turn into the type of person who will achieve it? You may need to learn more about diet
and exercise if you want to become healthier, or maybe you‘ll need to develop a specific skill to
help further your career. Whatever your goals are, create a plan to help you strengthen the areas
of your life that will make achieving your goal come naturally.

4. Get better every day:

The power of habit is pretty crazy. Your habits create your life. Brush your teeth every day and
you‘ll make your dentist visits go smooth. Save money each month and over time you‘ll be able
to build up a nice little nest-egg. Invest in your personal growth and development every day and
you‘ll be able to look back each month and year knowing that you‘re becoming a better version
of your previous self. And if you do this with a specific plan to improve your strengths and shore
up your weaknesses, you‘ll be able to achieve huge levels of success in the areas of life you‘re
focusing on.

5. Get out of your comfort zone:

Maybe you have read lots of self improvement books and that is worked well for you. Great.
What about audio CD‘s or MP3‘s to listen to during your commute so you can pack in more info
without having to squeeze in time at the end of the day? Or perhaps conferences and seminars to
help you make more progress, faster? Switching up the way in which you learn new information
and apply that to a constantly improving version of yourself is a great way to get exposed to new
types of information, while also building the confidence that you‘re able to try new things and
make progress against each.
 UNIT -5

Id: „Id‘ refers to an individual‘s inherited psychological impulse or drive. It is animalistic,

unorganized and is present in the individual throughout his life. It forces the individual to satisfy
certain urges, particularly, thirst, hunger and sex. A person, who is starving, may even resort to
stealing to satisfy his hunger. Id does not understand law and therefore it may, sometimes, be
dangerous to the individual and to the society as well.

Ego: While id forces a person to satisfy certain urges at once, „ego‟ makes him understand
reality. It prevents him from doing anything for the sake of satisfying his urge. In other words,
ego disciplines a person in the appropriate time and place for everything.

‗Super Ego‘ denotes a system of norms, values and ethics. It guides the individual in knowing
whether his actions are in conformity with the norms of the society.

Life Positions:
The Life Positions refers to the specific behavior towards others that an individual learns on the
basis of certain assumptions made very early in the life.
The psychological positions taken about oneself and about others fit into four basic patterns. Life
positions are basic beliefs about self and others, which are used to justify decisions and
behaviour.

Winner: A person or thing that wins something.

A person or company that is successful in a particular situation such as a competition, a market,
or an election

Loser: A person or thing that loses or has lost something, especially a game or contest.
A person who accepts defeat with good or bad grace.
A person who is disadvantaged by a particular situation or course of action.

Importance of Winning:
Despite varied opinions on the subject, becoming a winner may be the most important thing a
person can do in life and does matter in very big ways. So much so that winning is the key to a
passionate, productive, purposeful, and prosperous life.

Importance of Losing:
At some point in our competitive lives, we've all experienced losing. When it comes to losing a
game, there are two things that are most important: the positive lessons you learn from losing;
and. the manner in which you behave after a loss.

Interpersonal Relationship Meaning:

An interpersonal relationship is a strong, deep, or close association or acquaintance between two
or more people that may range in duration from brief to enduring. This association may be based
on inference, love, solidarity, regular business interactions, or some other type of social
commitment.
Interpersonal Relationship is a close association or acquaintance between two or more
people. Interpersonal relationship can also be defined as the social association, connection or
affiliation between two or more people.

An interpersonal relationship is the nature of interaction that occurs between two or more people.
People in an interpersonal relationship may interact overtly, covertly, face-to-face or even
anonymously.

Importance of Inter-personal Relationship:

i. Inter-personal relationships enhance respect and regards.

ii. Inter-personal relationships ensure common goal .
iii. Inter-personal relationships ensure Inter-dependence.
iv. Inter-personal relationships ensure Transparency.

Importance of Interpersonal Relationship in Workplace:

The importance of interpersonal relationships in workplace is evident from the following

benefits:

 Greater employee satisfaction. Human being is a social animal. Working in isolation

makes an individual prone to stress and he starts to find his job monotonous. Therefore,
interpersonal relationships give employees a chance to form close relationships with
fellow co-workers, developing in them a sense of joy as well as satisfaction.
 Better decision-making. Any important decision making within an organization is based
on its employees brainstorming to find the best ideas and strategies. However, this
requires a platform such that every individual has the liberty and an equal opportunity to
express his views and opinions. Such effective communication is best possible when
employees have close associations with each other that allows for effective
communication as well as some honest feedback.

How to improve interpersonal relationship skills?

Interpersonal relationships in an organization are very critical for the job as well as career
success of individual employees. However, they also require a lot of efforts on the part of the
employees to nurture and maintain them. Following are some of the tips that can help you
improve you interpersonal relationship skills and achieve the ultimate success you desire:

 Interact with your colleagues or subordinates more often. Greet your colleagues every
day you see them even if they are from a different team. Also, provide an open platform
for everyone to discuss any issue at hand and encourage honest feedback. Whether you
use verbal or written communication method makes little difference but you must be able
to make informed decisions. Hiding things from a co-worker or ignoring him may spoil
your relationship with him.
 Conduct as well as attend morning meetings. Leaders should make it a habit to arrange
and members should make sure to attend morning meetings. However, these meetings
should not be made too formal e.g. by allowing coffee mugs as well as informal
interactions between the members during the meeting.
  Arrange picnics as well as off-site meetings for team members. Meeting outside the
office, in an effort to change the ambience, gives team members a special opportunity to
open up to each other and build strong bonds of friendship over time.

Types of Inter-personal Relationship:

The different types of Inter-personal Relationship are:
1. Peer Relationship: Is a relationship that exists among people within the same age bracket,
political or social group, classmates, etc.
2. Platonic Relationship: This is the type of relationship that exists between people of the same
or different genders without any intention of marriage or intimate affairs. It can exist between a
man and a woman, boy and girl, etc.
3. Relationship between man and God: This is the relationship between a creator and His
creatures.
4. Family Relationship: This exists between members of the same family. It is known as
biological relationship.
5. Relationship between man and man: It is a friendship between two people of the same
gender who agreed to become friends. They share similar interests. It can also exist between
woman and woman , girl and girl or boy and boy.
6. Opposite gender relationship: Most times, this exists between unmarried man and unmarried
woman.

Stages of Inter-personal Relationship:

There are 5 stages of Inter-personal Relationship - according to a Psychologist, George Levinger.
They are:
1.Acquaintance stage:
Inter-personal relationship starts from the point when two people meet each other.

2.The building up stage: This is the stage where relationship extends beyond knowing each
other. At this stage people develop strong and deep trust for each other.

3.Continuation stage: It is the deepening stage of a relationship. Here, there exist deep down
level of closeness , joy and passion for each other.

4. Deterioration stage: This is the stage where all the flakes of the relationship begin to wane i.e
a stage when you begin to get tired of your relationship

5.Termination stage: This is the stage where the relationship ends either by event of death of
one partner, separation or divorce.

Skills that can promote Inter-personal Relationship:

The various skills that can promote inter-personal relationship include:
1. Respect /cheerfulness: for any relationship to work out well, the people involved must learn
to respect one another and be cheerful at all times.

2. Tolerance: For any relationship to last, people must learn to tolerate one another.

3. Patience/ Endurance: Anybody involved in any kind of inter-personal relationship should

learn to be patient and endure in any situation.
4. Honesty: Honesty is a key to a successful relationship; Partners of any form of inter-personal
relationship should learn to be truthful and honest to each other for a lasting relationship.

5. Appreciation and contentment: Friends should learn to appreciate one another for any little
assistance rendered and should learn to be contented with the little things that they have.

6. Forgiveness: To avoid hatred, friends in inter-personal relationship should forgive one

another for any offence or else such relationship will not last. Counting and recording mistakes
will not help any type of relationship.

Obstacles to Inter-personal relationship:

1. Lack of Communication

2. Inability to forgive

3. Deceit

4. Malice and Gossip

5. Bad Character and Behaviours.