Audio Recording,

Editing and Playback

A Quick Look Back:

Turntables and Reel-to-Reel Tape Machines

Records and reel-to-reel tape machines used to be the primary source of prerecorded
material in TV production. Part of a reel-to-reel machine is shown on the right.

Today, they have almost all been replaced by CDs (compact discs), DAT (digital audiotape)
machines, and computer-type hard drives.

"Vinyl," a term that refers mostly to LP (long playing) records, was the primary medium for
commercially recorded music for several decades. (Note photo below.)

Most vinyl records were either 45 or 33 1/3 rpm (revolutions per minute) and had music recorded
on both sides. Records had a number of disadvantages — primarily the tendency to get
scratched and worn, which quickly led to surface noise.

Unlike vinyl records, some of the newer media can be electronically cued, synchronized, and
instantly started — things that are important in precise audio work.

Reel-to-reel analog 1/4-inch tape machines, which were relied upon for several decades in audio
production, have also almost all been replaced — first by cart machines (below) and then
by DAT machines and computer hard drives.
The Return of Vinyl?

Although digital equipment has a multitude of advantages, especially in TV production, in

recent years some audiophile purists have been returning to analog recordings -- especially vinyl
LP recordings. (Note photo above.)

They say that analog equipment, including tube-based amplifiers, renders a fuller, richer tone to
music. Unfortunately, this latest generation of analog equipment tends to cost many times what it
originally did. Then again, the people for whom such fine nuances of difference are that
important can probably afford it.

Cart Machines

Cart machines (cartridge machines), which are still used in a few facilities, inco Unlike an
audio cassette that you have to rewind, in a cart the tape is in a continuous loop. This means that
you don't have to rewind it, you simply wait until the beginning point recycles again. At that
point the tape stops and is cued up to the beginning.

Most carts record and playback 30- and 60-second segments (primarily used for commercials
and public service announcements) or about three minutes (for musical selections).

Audio carts are now well on their way to ▲Museums of Broadcasting along with other exhibits
of broadcast technology used in earlier years. Today, audio is primarily recorded and played
back on hard drives, CDs, and DAT recorders.rporate a continuous loop of 1/4-inch (6.4mm)
audiotape within a plastic cartridge.

Compact Discs
Because of their superior audio quality, ease of control, and small size, CDs (compact discs)
have been the a preferred medium for prerecorded music and sound
effects. (However, today, radio stations typically transfer CD selections to a computer disk for
repeated use.)

Although the overall diameter of a typical audio CD is

only about five inches (12.7 centimeters) across, a CD
is able to hold more information than both sides of a
12-inch (30.5cm) LP phonograph record. Plus, the
frequency response (the audio's pitch from high to low)
and dynamic range (the audio range from loud to soft
that can be reproduced) are significantly better.

Although CDs containing permanently recorded audio

are most common, CDRs (recordable compact discs)
are also used in production. These offer all of the
advantages of using CDs, plus the discs can be re-
recorded multiple times.
Radio stations that must quickly handle dozens of CDs use Cart/Tray CD players, such as
the one shown on the right.

As we've noted, for repeated use, CD audio tracks are commonly transferred to computer disks
where they can be better organized and quickly selected and played with a few strokes on a
keyboard. A computer screen displays the titles and artists, and the time remaining for a selection
that's being played.

In mass producing CDs an image of the digital data is "stamped" into the surface of the CD
in a process similar to the way LP records (with their analog signals) are produced.

When a CD is played, a laser beam is used to illuminate the microscopic digital pattern encoded
on the surface. The reflected light, which is modified by the digital pattern, is read by a
photoelectric cell.

The width of the track is 1/60th the size of the groove in an LP record, or 1/50th the size of a
human hair. If "unwound" this track would come out to be about 3.5 miles (5.7 km) long. Of
course, DVDs take this technology even further, but that's a story for another module.

In 2004, MP3 CDs appeared that have the capacity of as many as 10 standard CDs.

CD Defects and Problems

 If the surface of the CD is sufficiently warped because of a manufacturing problem or
improper handling or storage, the automatic focusing device in the CD player will not be able to
adjust to the variation. The result can be mistracking and loss of audio information.

Automatic Error Correction

Manufacturing problems and dust and dirt on the CD surface can cause a loss of digital data.
professional CD players attempt to compensate for the signal loss in three ways:

• error-correction,
• error concealment (interpolation)
• muting

Error-correcting circuitry within the CD player can detect momentary loses in data (dropouts)
and, based on the existing audio at the moment, supply missing data that's close enough to the
original not to be readily noticed.

If the loss of data is more significant, error-correcting circuits can instantly generate data that
more or less blends in with the existing audio. If this type of error concealment has to be
invoked repeatedly within a short time span, you may hear a series of clicks or a ripping sound.

Finally, if things get really bad and a large block of data is missing or corrupted, the CD player
will simply mute (silence) the audio until good data again appears — a solution that's clearly
obvious to listeners.

Audio Recording, Editing and Playback

DAT
DATs (digital audiotapes) are capable of
audio quality that exceeds what's possible with
CDs.

The 2-inch by 2-7/8 inch (5 X 7.6 cm) DAT

cassette contains audiotape 3.81mm wide. The
cassette (shown below) is about two-thirds the
size of a standard analog audiocassette. The
two-hour capacity of a DAT cassette is 66
percent greater than a standard 80-minute CD.

RDAT (recordable digital audiotape) is

designed for professional applications, as are
the very high quality ADAT machines (types I
and II).

DAT systems use a headwheel that spins at 2,000 rpm (revolutions per minute), similar to what's
found in a videocassette recorder.

Various types of data can be recorded with the audio. Examples are time code and the MIDI
machine control data used in sophisticated postproduction audio work.

DAT Time Code

The DAT time code system, referred to as the IEC Sub-code Format, also insures that tapes
recorded on one DAT machine can be played back without problems on any other machine. DAT
time code is similar to the SMPTE time code that we'll discuss in the sections on videotape
editing.
Computer Hard Drives
Today, radio stations and professional production facilities rely primarily on computer hard
drives for recording and playing back music, commercials, sound effects, and general audio
tracks. Recording audio material on computer hard drives has several advantages.

First, the material can be indexed in an electronic "table of contents" display that makes it easy to
find what you need. This index can also list all of the relevant data about the "cuts" (selections) --
durations, artists, etc. Second, by scrolling up or down the index you have (with the help of a
mouse or keyboard) instant access to the selections.

Once recorded on a hard drive, there is no wear and tear on the recording medium as the audio
tracks are repeatedly played. Another advantage is that the selections can't be accidentally
misfiled after use. (If you've ever put a CD back in the wrong case, you know the problems this
can represent.) And, finally, unlike most CDs, hard drive space can easily be ▲ erased and re-
used.

Data Compression

Both digital audio and video are routinely compressed by extracting

data from the original signal that will not be missed by most listeners
or viewers.

This makes it possible to record the data in much less space, and, thus,
faster and more economically.

As we will see in the chapters on video where this process is discussed

in more detail, data can be compressed to various degrees using
different compression schemes.

Although hard drives are extremely reliable today, they do occasionally "crash," especially
after thousands of hours of use or a major jolt ends up damaging the delicate drive and head
mechanism.

Unless anti-virus measures are instituted, and assuming the computer is connected to the
Internet or "the outside world," the computer operating system can also be infected with viruses,
which can result in a complete loss of recorded material. With these things in mind, critical files
and information should always be "backed up" on other recording media.

C and PC Card Recorders

 Some audio production is now being done with PC card and IC recorders. These and similar
audio and video recorders use a variety of solid-state devices, referred to as ▲flash memory.

These memory cards contain no moving parts and are impervious to shock and temperature

changes.

The data in these memory modules can be transferred directly to a computer for editing.

These units typically give you the choice of two basic

recording formats: MPEG-2, a compressed data format, and
PCM (pulse code modulation) which is an uncompressed
digital format. The latter is used with CD players, DAT
recorders, and on computer editing programs that use wave
( .wav) files.

RAM Audio Recorders

As shown on the right, this new generation of recorders can
be a fraction of the size of other types of recorders.

However, unlike recorders with removable media, the stored

audio must generally be played back from the unit, itself.
The iPod Era
When iPod-type devices and computers that could "rip" (copy) musical selections from CDs
and Internet sources arrived on the scene, consumer audio recording and playback changed in a
major way.

Users can assemble hours of their favorite music (up to 2,000 songs) on a computer and transfer
it to a pocket-sized, solid-state listening device such as an iPod (on the left) or to one of the new
generation cell phones (on the right).

"Podcasts" of broadcasts from TV networks

(photo on the left) can also be downloaded and
listened to or viewed at the user's
convenience.

With the iPod nano you can watch up to 5

hours of TV shows, music videos, movies, and
podcasts.

Although Apple Computer initially popularized

these devices, many manufacturers now
produce their own versions.

Audio Editing Systems

Audio editing used to require physically cutting and splicing audiotape — an arduous
process.
Today, there are numerous computer-based audio editing programs available. Many are
shareware that can be downloaded from the Internet.

Shareware can be downloaded and tested, generally for about a month, before the program
quits working and you need to pay for it.

Once you pay, you may be given an unlock code that will enable you to use the program for an
unlimited time.

Often, minor updates to the program are free; major updates will probably involve an update
charge.

In addition to basic editing, audio editing programs offer audio filtering, manipulation, and an
endless range of special audio effects.

The audio line above shows how a single channel of sound appears in an audio editor. The
vertical red line indicates the cursor (selector) position.

Much as a cursor is used to mark words in a word processing program to make changes as
needed, the cursor in an audio time line provides a point of reference for making audio changes.

The display above shows how the time lines are integrated into a typical audio editor. Most
programs use a computer mouse to drag-and-drop segments and special effects onto a time-line
(the longitudinal graphical representation of the audio along a time continuum).

Audio editing in television production is typically handled along with the video on a video
editing system. This will be covered in more detail in Module 56.

The hard drives on computer-based audio editing systems can also store a wide range of sound
effects that can be pulled down to a time line to accompany narration and music.
 Wrapping Up Audio

Audio Level
Control Devices
Although manually maintaining audio levels is generally the best approach, there are some
automatic devices that can help, and even do some things that you can't do manually.

AGC Circuits

We'll start with a simple audio control circuit, one that is built into most consumer audio
equipment.

If the average audio level is low, an AGC (automatic gain control) circuit will raise it; if the
average level is too high, the circuit will bring it down.

Even though AGC circuits can free you from having to worry about manually controlling audio
levels, they can't intelligently respond to different audio needs.

When no other sound is present, as, for example, during a pause in dialogue, an AGC circuit will
in an attempt to bring an audio level up to a standard setting. This can momentarily make
annoying background sounds louder.

If subsequent audio processing circuits (in editing equipment, for example) have AGC circuits,
the problem can get progressively worse as each piece of equipment further increases
background noise.
 AGC circuits can also introduce a reverse problem. Since they respond to loud noises by
quickly pulling down audio levels, this means that words can be lost when an AGC circuit reacts
to a loud sound, such as someone bumping the microphone.

In professional camcorders audio levels can be manually controlled, but in many consumer
(nonprofessional) camcorders the AGC circuit can't be switched off.

Because of the effect of the AGC circuit in bringing up sound levels during a period of silence,
the first few seconds of audio may be distorted until the AGC sets the proper level.

To get around this problem, many videographers (stuck with an AGC circuit they can't switch to
manual control) have the on-camera talent say a few words just before the actual start of the
segment. This can be simply counting, "5, 4, 3, 2, 1," to allow the AGC to adjust proper audio
level. This countdown is then deleted during editing.

Compressors

Audio compressors also bring up low amplitude sounds and pull down the amplitude of loud
sounds -- but they are much more sophisticated than AGC circuits.

Unlike AGC circuits, compressors can be adjusted so that many of the negative effects of
automatic control go unnoticed. Program audio that has been compressed seems louder to the ear
than non-compressed audio, a feature that hasn't escaped the attention of the producers of TV
commercials.

Compressors typically have three controls:

• threshold, which establishes the audio level were compression begins

• compression ratio, which determines the amount of compression (which would be like
expanding or narrowing the area on the right side of the illustration above)
• gain, which is simply the maximum output level

Some compressors have only two controls: input and output levels.

By raising the input level while keeping

the output the same, a greater compression
is achieved, at least until major distortion
becomes evident. The compressor shown
here has VU meters for input and output
levels.
Compressors and AGC circuits can create problems with music. Although AM rock radio
stations of the 1960s and 1970s may have preferred a maximum-loud sound, the artists often
complained that their carefully balanced audio levels were destroyed. Everything in the
recording, whether intended to be loud or soft, came out sounding about the same.

Limiters, Peak Limiters

A basic audio limiter isn't as sophisticated as a

compressor or even an AGC circuit. As the name suggests,
limiters simply keep the audio from exceeding a set
maximum level.

By setting a limiter at 0dB, for example, you can be assured

that a sudden loud noise, such as a door slamming, will not "pin" the VU meter and cause major
audio distortion (and possibly jar listeners out of their seats!).

Audio Expanders

Although they have more limited use, audio expanders

increase the dynamic (loudness) range of audio that has been
overly processed. Audio that has gone through satellite relays, for
example, often ends up being overly compressed.

Expanders can restore the audio to its normal range and in the
process, reduce noticeable background noise.

Audio Filters
An audio filter can be used to cut or attenuate audio frequencies either above or below
certain points or within the audio range.

For example, you may need to reduce or eliminate the low rumble of air conditioning or the hum
of alternating current. In both cases a filter that eliminates frequencies below about 120Hz may
solve the problem.

On the other end of the frequency range, you may want to try to eliminate upper range
frequencies associated with the rustle of clothes or paper. For this you can try cutting off
everything above about 8,000Hz.

By cutting all frequencies below about 2,000Hz, you can simulate the sound of a telephone
conversation -- or possibly a radio or TV in the background of a dramatic scene. You can use a
graphic equalizer to do this, or on some audio boards, you can switch a specific filter into an
audio channel.

Production Communication Systems

PL Systems

Since a live, multi-camera TV production involves the closely coordinated efforts of

numerous people, reliable behind-the-scenes communication links are critical.

Using a PL (private line or production line) headset such as the ones shown here, production
personnel can talk to each other and receive instructions from a director.

Most PL or intercom systems are wired together on a kind of party line. In this way, each
member can hear and talk to everyone else.

Normally, the headset microphones are always on so that both hands can be kept free to operate
equipment.

But, for high-noise situations some PL headsets have a push-to-talk feature, which means that
everyone's headset mic isn't on at the same time and contributing to the overall noise level.

Another feature that's useful in high noise situations is a large padded earphone, which will help
screen out competing sound.

IFB Systems

In ENG (electronic newsgathering) and EFP (electronic field production) it may be

necessary for a director to relay messages directly to on-air talent while they are on the air. This
can be done if the talent uses a small earphone, or earpiece. This system is referred to as IFB
(variously called interrupted feedback or interruptible feedback, or more accurately, interrupted
foldback, because, technically, the signal comes from a foldback bus of the audio console).

When switched to program audio (or the basic audio being recorded or transmitted during the
production) IFB systems allow on-air talent to hear questions or comments from studio anchors.

Video Recording Media

Although the concept of "live" may have exciting connotations, recording a production has many
advantages.

• the length of a program or segment can be shortened or lengthened during editing

• mistakes on the part of the talent or crew can be corrected, either by restarting the show,
or to some degree during postproduction

• program segments can be reorganized and rearranged for optimum pacing and dramatic
effect

• program content can be embellished through the use of a wide array of special effect and
editing techniques

• production costs can be saved by scheduling production talent, crew, and production
facilities for optimum efficiency, and

• once recorded, programs can be time-shifted or played back to meet the needs of time
zones and the programming preferences of local stations

With the exception of some prime-time dramatic productions that are still done on film, most of
today's television programming is recorded on videotape or computer hard disks. Even when
productions are produced on film, they are routinely converted to a video recording before
broadcast.

The Videotape Recording Process

Although videotape is being replaced by various configurations of solid-state memory, it's
still widely used and, generally speaking, it still represents the highest quality recording and
playback medium.

Videotape resembles audiotape in its makeup. It consists of a strip of plastic backing coated with
a permanent layer of microscopic metal particles embedded in a resin base. These particles are
capable of holding a magnetic charge.

The videotape recording process was first demonstrated in 1953, and the first machines went
into service in 1956.

Video recording revolutionized TV production.

Two-inch wide videotape (pictured at the left) was the first practical
video recording medium and one that was used for several decades.
Because it used four video heads to scan a complete
video picture on two-inch wide tape, this system was referred to as the 2-inch
quad system.

At the other end of the size spectrum is this Hi8 camcorder (right) that uses
videotape that's only 8mm wide.

All videotape formats use video heads that travel across the surface of the tape
and leave magnetic traces in the tape's coating.

To be able to record the very high frequencies associated with video, not only
must the tape be moving, but also the heads, themselves, must spin over the surface of the
tape. This ends up being a little like walking along a moving sidewalk; the two speeds are added
together.

A top view of a headwheel with six record and playback heads is

shown at the left. In a VCR this spins at a high rate of speed while
the videotape (wrapped around the side) moves across the spinning
surface.

This whole scanning process is reversed when videotape is played

back.

The magnetic imprints left in the surface of the tape induce

magnetic changes in the video heads, which are then converted into minute voltages. These are
amplified millions of times before being passed on to various pieces of video equipment