Semiconductors

Fundamentals
Reference: Introduction to Electronics by Earl Gates

Philip Caesar L. Ebit, REE

Instructor, DME
Visayas State University
 Objectives
After completing this chapter, the student should be able to:
• Identify materials that act as semiconductors.
• Define covalent bonding.
• Describe the doping process for creating N- and P-type
semiconductor materials.
• Explain how doping supports current flow in a
semiconductor material.
 What is a Semiconductors?
• are the basic components of electronic equipment
• commonly used semiconductors are the diode (used to
rectify), the transistor (used to amplify), and the integrated
circuit (used to switch or amplify)
• primary function of semiconductor devices is to control
voltage or current for some desired result.
Commonly used Semiconductors

Source: Google Images

 Advantages of semiconductors include the following:
• Small size and weight
• Low power consumption at low voltages
• High efficiency
• Great reliability
• Ability to operate in hazardous environments
• Instant operation when power is applied
• Economic mass production
Disadvantages of semiconductors include:
• Great susceptibility to changes in temperature
• Extra components required for stabilization
• Easily damaged (by exceeding power limits, by reversing
polarity of operating voltage, by excess heat when
soldering into circuit)
Typically, semiconductors ….
• ….. materials have characteristics that fall between those
of insulators and conductors. Three pure semiconductor
elements are carbon (C), germanium (Ge), and silicon (Si).
Those suitable for electronic applications are
germanium and silicon.
Semiconduction in Germanium and Silicon
• Germanium is a brittle, grayish-
white element discovered in
1886. A powder, germanium
dioxide, is recovered from the
ashes of certain types of coal.
The powder is then reduced to
the solid form of pure
germanium.
Semiconduction in Germanium and Silicon

• Silicon was discovered in 1823.

It is found extensively in the
earth’s crust as a white or
sometimes colorless compound,
silicon dioxide. Silicon dioxide
(silica) can be found abundantly
in sand, quartz, agate, and flint.
It is then chemically reduced to
pure silicon in a solid form.
Silicon is the most commonly
used semiconductor material.
Semiconduction in Germanium and Silicon

• Once the pure or intrinsic material is available, it must be

modified to produce the qualities necessary for
semiconductor devices.
Recall: Atomic Structure

• the center of the atom is the nucleus, which contains

protons and neutrons. The protons have a positive
charge and the neutrons have no charge. Electrons
orbit around the nucleus and have a negative charge.
Atomic Structure of Silicon
Valence

• Valence is an indication
of the atom’s ability to
gain or lose electrons and
determines the electrical
and chemical properties
of the atom.

Simplified silicon atom shown with only valence electrons.

Hence,

• Materials that need electrons to complete their valence

shell are not stable and are referred to as active
materials. To gain stability, an active material must acquire
electrons in its valence shell. Silicon atoms are able to
share their valence electrons with other silicon atoms in a
process called covalent bonding.
Covalent bonding

• is the process of sharing

valence electrons, resulting
in the formation of crystals
• This covalent bond cannot
support electrical activity
because of its stability.

Crystalline structure of silicon with covalent bonding.

Basically,

• At room temperature, pure silicon crystals are poor

conductors. They behave like insulators. If heat energy is
applied to the crystals, however, some of the electrons
absorb the energy and move to a higher orbit, breaking the
covalent bond. This allows the crystals to support current
flow.
Silicon over Germanium
Silicon Germanium
the resistance is cut in half for every 6 degrees resistance is cut in half for every 10 degrees
Celsius of rise in temperature Celsius of temperature rise
four electrons in its valence shell and can form a four electrons in its valence shell and can form a
crystalline structure crystalline structure

requires large amount of heat energy to dislodge appears to be more stable with respect to
its electrons temperature change

thousand times more resistance than germanium

requires less heat energy to dislodge its electrons
at room temperature
Silicon over Germanium Applications

• Heat is a potential source of trouble for semiconductors

that is not easy to control. Good circuit design minimizes
heat changes. Its resistance is what makes silicon
preferable to germanium in most circuits.
Silicon over Germanium Applications

• In some applications, heat-sensitive devices are necessary.

In these applications the germanium temperature
coefficient can be an advantage; therefore, germanium is
used.
Silicon over Germanium
Applications
1948
• All early transistors
were made of
germanium. The first
silicon transistor was
not made until 1954.
Today, silicon is used
for most solid state
applications.
1954

Image source: Google Images

Electron-Hole

• When an electron breaks away

from its covalent bond, the
space previously occupied by
the electron is referred to as a
hole.
• Each corresponding electron
and hole are referred to as an
electron-hole pair. The number
of electron-hole pairs increases
with an increase in temperature.
A hole is created when an electron breaks its covalent bond.
Electron-Hole

• When pure semiconductor

material is subjected to a
voltage, the free electrons
are attracted to the positive
terminal of the voltage
source.
• Current flow in a
semiconductor consists of
the movement of both
electrons and holes. Current flow in pure semiconductor material.
Conduction in Doped Germanium And Silicon

• Doping is the process of adding impurities to a

semiconductor material.
• Two types of impurities are used.
• The first, called pentavalent, is made of atoms with five valence
electrons. Examples are arsenic and antimony.
• The other, called trivalent, is made of atoms with three valence
electrons. Examples are indium and gallium.
Pentavalent Material

• The arsenic atom is referred

to as a donor atom because
it gives its extra electron
away.
• This means that many free
electrons are available to
support current flow.

Silicon semiconductor material doped with an arsenic atom.

N-Type Material

• This means that there are more electrons than holes. The
electrons are therefore called the majority carrier. The
holes are minority carriers. Because the negative
charge is the majority carrier, the material is called N-
type.
N-Type Material

• If voltage is applied to N-
type material the free
electrons contributed by
the donor atoms flow
toward the positive
terminal.

Current flow in N-type material.

Trivalent Materials

• The presence of additional

holes allows the electrons to
drift easily from one covalent
bond to the next. Because
holes easily accept electrons,
atoms that contribute extra
holes are called acceptor
atoms.
Silicon semiconductor material doped with an indium atom.
P-Type Material

• Under normal conditions, the number of holes greatly

exceeds the number of electrons in such material.
Therefore, the holes are the majority carrier and the
electrons are the minority carrier. Because the positive
charge is the majority carrier, the material is called P-
type material.
P-Type Material

• If voltage is applied to P-
type material, it causes the
holes to move toward the
negative terminal and the
electrons to move toward
the positive terminal.

Current flow in P-type material.

Characteristics of N- and P-Type Semiconductor

• N- and P-type semiconductor materials have much higher

conductivity than pure semiconductor materials.
• This conductivity can be increased or decreased by the
addition or deletion of impurities.
• The more heavily a semiconductor material is doped, the
lower its electrical resistance.
End of Presentation.