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POLICE PHOTOGRAPHY

FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY- is defined as the study of the fundamentals of photography, its application to police
work and the preparation of photographic evidence. It consists of the legal aspects of photography that covers the
following phases:
a) Fundamental concepts of photography
b) Application to police work
c) Preparation of photographic evidence

According to (Redsicker 2001), Forensic Photography is the art or science of documenting

photographically a crime scene and evidence for laboratory examination and analysis for purposes of court trial.

Photography- is from Greek words “Phos” or Photo which means light and “grapho” which means to “Draw”
or graphia meaning “write”. Therefore photography best translates to “write with light”. (Herschel 1839). This
word is defined as an art or science that deals with the reproduction of images through the action of light upon
sensitized material (film and photographic paper) with the aid of the camera and its accessories and the chemical
process involved therein. (Modern definition)
Modern photography may be defined as any means for the chemical, thermal, electrical or electronic
recording of the images of scenes, or objects formed by some type of radiant energy, including gamma rays, X-
rays, ultra-violet rays, visible light and infrared rays.(Technical/Legal definition) This definition is broad enough
to include not only the conventional methods of photography but almost any new process that may be developed.
(Scott 1975)

Police Photography- is an art or science that deals with the study of the principles of photography, the
preparation of photographic evidence and its application to police work. (Aquino 1972).

PHOTOGRAPHY IN CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION:

Photography is an essential tool for the law-enforcement investigator. As a tool, it enables him to record
the visible and in any cases, the invisible evidence of crime. Special techniques employing infra-red, ultra-violet,
and x-ray radiation enable him to record evidence which is not visible. The photographic evidence can then
restored indefinitely and retrieve when needed. There is not other process which can be ferret, record, remember,
and recall criminal evidence as well as photography.

Photographs are also means of communication. It is a language sometimes defined as the “the most
universal of all. Photography has an advantage as languages because it does not rely upon abstract symbols-
words. Photography, thus, is more direct and less subject to misunderstanding. As a communication medium-has
few, if any, equal.

FUNCTIONS OF PHOTOGRAPHY IN INVESTIGATIVE WORK

1. Identification
A. Criminal
B. Missing person
C. Lost and stolen properties
D. Civilian

2. Communication and microfilm files

A. Transmission of photos (wire or photos)
B. Investigative report file

3. Evidence
A.) Recording and preserving
1. Crime scene
2. Vehicular accidence
3. Homicide or Murder
4. Robbery cases
5. Fires or Arson
6. Object of evidence
7. Evidential traces
B.) Discovering and proving
1. By contrast control (lightning, film and paper, filter)
2. By magnification (photo micrography, photo macrography)
3. By invisible radiation(infra-red, ultra-violet, X-ray)
4. Action of offenders (recording)

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4. Action of offenders (recording)

a) Surveillance
b) Burglary
c) Confessions
d) Reenactment of crime

5. Court Exhibits
a) Demonstration enlargements
b) Individual photos
c) Projection slides
d) Motion pictures

6. Crime prevention
a) Security clearance

7. Public relations

8. Police training
a) Prepared training films (police tactics, investigation techniques)
b) Traffic studies
c) Documentaries (Riots and mob control, disasters, prison disorders)

9. Reproduction and copying

a) Photographs
b) Official records

PRINCIPLES OF PHOTOGRAPHY

A photograph is both the mechanical and chemical result of photography. To produce a photograph, light
is needed aside from sensitized materials (film or papers). Light radiated or reflected by the subject must reach
the film while all other lights are excluded. The exclusion of all other lights is achieved by placing the film inside a
light tight box (camera).
The effect of light on the film is not visible in the formation of images of objects. To make it visible, we
need or require a chemical processing of the expose film called development.
The visual effect of light on the film after development varies when the quantity quality of light the reached
the emulsion of the film. To grant in greater amount of light will produce an opaque or very black shade after
development. Too little produces a transparent or white shade after a development.
The amount of light reaching the film is dependent upon several factors like lighting condition, lens
opening, shutter speed, & filter used.

HISTORY OF PHOTOGRAPHY

Equipment -1700 – Camera Obscura (dark chamber) was designed by Leonardo da Vinci for accurate perspective
and scale.

Chemicals-1725 – 1777 – Light sensitivity of silver nitrate and silver chloride solution had been discovered and
investigated.
1800 – Thomas Wedgewood and Humphery Davy – produced photograms.

True Photography accomplished by:

1. Joseph Nicephore Niepce-1816 – was able to obtain camera images on papers sensitized with silver
chloride solution.
2. Louis Jacques Daguerre-1839 – “Daguerreotype”- The first practical photography process. Image was
made permanent by the use of hypo.
3. William Henry Fox Talbot-1841 – he patented “Calotype” process negatives on paper sensitized with
silver-iodide and silver nitrate. These were contact on sensitized paper. As you tone and revolving
power, Daguerreo-type was better.

Sir John F.W. Herchel-1839 – he coined the word “photography”

James Clark Maxwell-1861 – he researched on colors.

a) 1907 – Lumiere color process was introduced, a panchromatic film was used but with blue, green,
and red filter.

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b) 1914 – US Eastman Kodak introduced two (2) color subtractive processes called Kodachrome.
Twenty one (21) years later, a three (3) color process came out.
c) 1935 – Electronic flash unit came out.
d) 1947 – Edwin H. Land introduced “POLAROID,” a one step photography.
e) 1960. Laser was invented making possible holography.

1482- The earliest known form of camera, Camera OBSCURA, was described by Leonardo da Vinci of Italy.

An Italian, Geronimo Cardano- fitted a biconvex lens to the Camera Obscura in 1550 and in 1568, Daniel
Barbaro suggested the use of a diaphragm to sharpen the image. By the end of the 17 th century, small portable
Camera Obscura that were equipped with reflex viewing system had been developed. The camera Obscura was
first used successfully for photography in 1820’s by the French Scientist Joseph Nicephore Niepce, a French
Chemist.

1727- Johann Heinrich Schulze- a German physician was credited with the discovery of the light sensitivity of
silver salt.

1777- Karl Wilhelm Scheele, a Swedish chemist investigated the darkening of silver chloride by light and found
out that the salt was reduced to metallic silver.

1816- Joseph Nicephore Niepce, a French chemist, experimented with silver nitrate. On the same year he
suppossedly produced image on paper from a negative, but he too was unable to remove the unexposed silver
salts and secure a permanent image. He discovered that bitumen of Judea an asphaltic material became
insoluble when exposed to light. Between 1824 to 1826, Niepce produce prints by coating the bitumen on metal
plates, exposing it to light under a drawing or transparency and dissolving the unexposed bitumen. The plates
was then etched with acid, which did not react with the remaining bitumen.1829- Niepce formed a partnership with
Louis Jacquis Mande Dagurre, a French painter, to proceed on bitumen process but later Niepce died in 1833
and the work was continued with the partnership of Niepce’s son, Isidore.
Daguerre discarded the bitumen process and worked on his own procedure with the exposure of a
polished silver plate to the vapor of iodine forming a sensitive layer of silver iodide After the plate had been
exposed in the camera, the image was developed with mercury vapor. The process is then called Dagurreotypy.

1835- French Dagurre discovered that mercury fume will develop an invisible (latent) image on a silver plate that
is sensitized with iodine fumes before exposure.

1835- William Henry Fox Talbot, an English archeologist and philologist, experimented with various salts of
silver and found that silver chloride was more sensitive to light than was silver nitrate.

Talbot process or Talbotype process, is a process wherein the paper was sensitized with silver iodide and after
exposure was developed in Gallic acid.

The modern photography is based on Talbot’s Negative – to - Positive principle.

1839- is generally known as the birth of photography. William Henry Fox Talbot explained a process he had
invented (Calotype) at the Royal Society of London.

The “Calotype” used paper with its surface fibers impregnated with light sensitive compounds.

Sir John F.W. Herschel coins the word “photography”; (suggest “negative” and “positive” in the following year)
and point out that image can be made permanent by dissolving away unexposed silver compounds with a solution
of hyposulfite of soda (hypo or sodium thiosulfate), which he had discovered in 1819.

1839- Daguerreotype consisted of two wooden boxes perfected his photographic process. Images are made
permanent by the use of hypo. The precision of details and exquisite beauty of these direct-positive images on
silver plates make the Daguerreotype an immediate success.

1840- U.S. J. W. Draper is also one to produce photographic portraits using a lens with a diameter of five inches
and a focus of seven inches.

1840, Australia-Hungary, J.M. Petzval designed the first lens specifically for photographic use. Its maximum
aperture if f/3.6 makes it possible to take portrait exposure of less than one minute, launching the most
widespread use of the Daguerreotype. The lens is produced the following year by Volglander for use in the first
all-metal camera.

1843-1848- Major achievements with the paper-negative process are made by Hill Adamson and by various
photographers on the continent beyond the reach of Talbot’s legal agents.

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1845- F Von Marten, France, Invented the panoramic camera, wherein the lens is rotated about its optical center
while a curved film is scanned by a slit.

1848- Abel Niepce de Saint Victor introduced a process of negatives on glass using albumen (egg white) as
binding medium.

1850 – Louis Desirie Blanquart Evard introduced a printing paper coated with albumen to achieve a glossy
surface.

1851- England. Frederick Scott Archer published a method of using collodion in place of albumen for negative
on glass, “wet plate”.
1853- England. JB Dancer makes the first model of a twin lens camera for stereo photography, suggested by Sir
David Brewster.

1858- France Nadar takes the first aerial photograph over Paris from a free balloon.

1861- First single lens reflex camera was patented by Thomas Sulton.
1861- Scotland. James Clerk Maxwell publishes research in color perception and the three color separation of
light. He also demonstrates additive color synthesis using hand colored materials in lantern slide projectors.

1880-The first twin-lens camera was produced by the British firm, R. & J. Beck.

Eastman George, an American inventor, manufactured a dry plate process in 1880, the roll film in 1884 and
made it available to market in 1889, and the Kodak camera in 1888, (6 ½ X 3 ½ X 3 ½) 3 ½ to infinity, 100
exposure.

1880- England. Sir William Abney discovers the use of hydroquinone as a developing agent.

1882. England Sir William Abney produces silver chloride gelatin emulsion for printing-out paper; it takes more
than ten years for this and similar materials to supplant albumen paper.

1884- US. Eastman negative paper is introduced, consisting of a light sensitive emulsion or paper which after
development is made transparent enough for printing by treating with hot castor oil.

1888- US John Carbutt begin the manufacture of celluloid base sheet film.

1890- full corrected lenses were introduced.

1895- The pocket camera was designed by Frank Brownell & called it “Brownie”.

1906- a plate was placed on the market that could reproduce all colors in equivalent shades of gray.

1907- Lummiere color process was introduced, a panchromatic film was used but with blue, green, and red filter.

1914- US Eastman Kodak Company introduce a two color subtractive process called Kodachrome.

1925- The German firm of Ernst Leitz brought our to market the popular camera, LIECA.

1928-The famous twin-lens reflex camera, the Rolleiflex was marketed by the German firm of Franke and
Heidecke.

1929- Germany. J. Ostermeier produce the first commercially acceptable self-contained flash bulb; an aluminu,
foil sealed in an oxygen-filled bulb.

1932- The first photoelectric exposure meter is produced by Weston Electric Instrument company.

1934- Holland. The first wire-filled bulb was introduced by Phillips.

1935- A gas discharge tube emitting white light is introduced for electronic flash photography.

1935- the color process came out together with the electronic flash.

1936, Germany. Agfacolor reversal films is introduced the first three monopack film in which subtractive dye-
formers are incorporated in each emulsion layer.

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1947, US. Edwin H. Land introduce the Polaroid Camera- a one step photography with a self-processing black-
and-white film that yields a positive print by the diffusion transfer reversal method.

1960- Laser was invented making possible holograms (three dimensional pictures).

1988- The arrival of true digital cameras. The first true digital camera that recorded the image as a computerized
file was likely the Fuji DS-1P of 1988, which recorded to a 16 MB internal memory card that used a battery to
keep the data in memory. This camera was never marketed in the USA.

1992-The first commercially available digital camera was the Kodak DCS-100. It used a 1.3 megapixel sensor
and was priced at 13,000 dollars.

1995 -The first consumer camera with a Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) on the back was the Casio QV 10.

1996- The first camera to use compact flash was the Kodak DC-25 .

1999- The Nikon D1, a 2.74 mega pixel camera was the first digital SLR with a price of under 6,000 dollars. This
camera also used Nikon F-mount lenses which means that film based photographers could use the same lenses
they already own. In 2003, Canon introduced the 300D camera also known as digital rebel, a six (6) mega pixel
and the first DSLR priced lesser than 1,000 dollars to consumers.

IMPORTANT TERMS IN PHOTOGRAPHY:

Accelarator - One of the four subparts of a developer solution; purpose is to increase the activity of reducing
agent.

Angle of View-The view of the subject subtended by two lines emerging from the corners of the film, extending to
the center of the lens.

Bellows-A light tight folding accordion type sleeve that connects the camera body and the lens, also provides
flexibility.

Bellows-The folding (accordion) portion in some cameras that connects the lens to the camera body (like the
Mamiya RZ). Also a camera accessory that, when inserted between lens and camera body, extends the lens-to-
film distance for close focusing or macro phtography. Some retains the automatic functions where some have to
stopdown the lens for manual exposure reading.

Bracketing-Taking a series of photographs of the same subject at different exposures to insure the "correct"
exposure; useful when shooting in situations where a normal metering reading is difficult to obtain. Taking
additional pictures of the subject through a range of exposures-both lighter and darker-when unsure of the correct
exposure.Some top cameras have provision for automatic bracketing, while manually you can bracket by the use
of, say, adjust apertures or shuttle speeds setting or both, manually influent the ASA setting or even adjust the
flash output power etc.

Bracket Exposures-Making one or more exposure calculated to be correct.

Burning-In- is a darkroom process that gives additional exposure to part of the image projected on an enlarger
easel to make that area of the print darker. This is accomplished after the basic exposure by extending the
exposure time to allow additional image-forming light to strike the areas in the print you want to darken while
holding back the image-forming light from the rest of the image. Sometimes called printing-in.

Circle of Confusion- A disc form image of a point in the object the allowable circle of confusion is usually 1/1000
of the focal length of the lens in inches.

Contrast Filter- Those intended to darken or lighten certain colors which would be produced of the same
brightness without the use of such.

Correction Filter- Those intended to alter the response of the film’s spectral sensitivity in term of brightness value
as seen by the naked eye.

Cropping- Printing only part of the image that is in the negative or slide, usually for a more pleasing composition,
in medium format, esp the 6 x 6, some form of cropping is necessary for publishing on A4 magazine format. It may
also refer to the framing of the scene in the viewfinder.

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Depth of Field – The distance between the nearest and the farthest object in apparent sharp focus when the lens
is focused at a given point.

Depth of Focus- The maximum permissible distance within which the film may be placed without exceeding the
circle of confusion in order to produce the image sharp.

Diaphragm- an adjustable device inside the lens which is similar to the iris in the human eye; comprised of six or
seven overlapping metal blades; continuously adjustable from "wide open" to "stopped down"; controls the
amount of light allowed to pass through the lens and expose the film when a picture is taken; a]so controls the
amount of depth of field the photograph will have.

Distortion- A general label referring to a particular distortion.

Dodging- holding back the image-forming light from a part of the image projected on an enlarger easel during
part of the basic exposure time to make that area of the print lighter.

Double Exposure- Two pictures taken on one frame of film, or two images printed on one piece of photographic
paper. Some cameras can have double exposure level depressed with multiple exposures one even with a motor
drive.
Electromagnetic-Spectrum- whole reange of radiant energy that includes radio waves, microwaves, infrared
light, visible light, ultraviolet light, x-rays, and gamma rays.

Filter- A homogeneous medium which (transmit and /or absorb) differentially wavelenght of the electromagnetic
energy.

Filter Factor-The ratio of the time of exposure with and without the filter for the same effective exposure.

Flash Meter-A hand held light sensing device used to measure the burst of light from one or more electric flash
unit.

Flash Synchronization- The mechanical or electrical adjustments to make the shutter open and the flash lamp
reach the peak of it’s flash at the same time.

Focal Length-The distance measured from the center of the lens to the film plane when the lens is set or focused
in infinity position.

Focus- The means by which the object distance is estimated or calculated to form the image sharp.

Haze Filters- Those which are intended to minimize haze of distant objects due to atmospheric haze or bluish
color of the sky.

Hyper Focal Distance- The nearest distance at which the lens is focused at a particular F# to give maximum
depth of field

Lens- A medium or system which converge or diverge the light passing through it to form images.

“LIGHT” It is a radiant electromagnetic energy that can be seen by naked eye.

186,000 miles/sec. – velocity/ speed of light
16,000 to 18,000 ft./sec. – bullets speed
“Effect” of light is what we see.
Electromagnetic spectrum – band of colors/energy

Light Meter- An instrument designed to measure the amount of light falling on or reflected from the subject. The
information is used to make the aperture and shutter settings on a camera.

Light Meter Acceptor- The eye of the camera metering system.

Magnification-Described as changing by the use of optical instrument, the ratio between photographic images
and the object.

Negative Lens- A diverging lens which is always thinner at the center than the edge. Form an image virtual on the
same side or source of light.

Neutral Density Filter-Those which are intended to reduce the intensity of brightness

Parallax Error- The displacement of an image point when viewed at different points of angle.
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Photon-Electromagnetic Radiation-energy wave produced by the oscillation or acceleration of an electric

charge.

Polar Screen Filters- An optical slit which transmits light vibrating in the plain of the slit. Used primarily to control
light reflected from highly polished surfaces, metallic objects & etc.

Positive Lens- A converging lens which is characterized by the fact that it is thicker at the center than the edges
and therefore has a positive focal length. Forms the real image on the opposite side of the lens or the source of
light.

Relative Aperture- The speed or light gathering power of the lens equal to the ratio of the focal length to the
diameter of it’s lens pupil or the relative brightness of the image produced by the lens as compared with the
brightness of the subject.

Resolution or Resolving Power-Is an expression of quality measured by visibly separated lines. It is expressed
as the maximum number of the lines per millimeter that can be resolved or seen as individual separated lines. Any
magnification beyond that required to make the line count for the resolution of the final print will decrease the
image quality.

Resolving Power of the Lens- The maximum angle of resolution.

Shadow- The absence or reduction of light in a given space; caused by an opaque object blocking light rays.

Shape- Relates the general form, configuration, or outline of an individual object.

Shutter- A contraption placed on the path of the light which passes through the lens.

Tone- refers to the brilliance with which light is reflected by an object without tone difference between
photographic images, the shape of the object obviously could not be discerned.

Tripod- a three-legged supporting stand used to hold the camera steady to prevent blurred image. This is useful
when using slow shutter speeds and/or telephoto lenses. Another is the monopod, single leg tripod.

Vignetting (/vɪnˈjɛtɪŋ/; French: "vignette") is a reduction of an image's brightness or saturation at

the periphery compared to the image center. The word vignette, from the same root as vine, originally referred to
a decorative border in a book. Later, the word came to be used for a photographic portrait which is clear in the
center, and fades off at the edges.

Visible light- radiation with wavelength ranging from 400 mu to 700 mu.

Visible Spectrum- a small part of the electromagnetic spectrum where the visible light is found; the portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum that affects the human sense of sight.

“WAVELENGHT”- is the distance measured from the crest (highest point) to the wave of the next
succeeding crest while frequency is the number of waves passing in a given point in one second. The product of
two is the speed of travel. Wavelenght is measured by the angstrom unit or in terms of milli-microns (English
system of measure) or nanometer (Metric system of measure) which is equivalent to one over one millionth of a
millimeter.

The final effect a radiant energy may have on an object is to be converted to another wavelength. This
conversion is known as luminescence. There are two (2) types of luminescence:

1. Fluorescence-is the ability of an object to convert one wavelength to another as long as the
active energy source is irradiating the object.
2. Phosphorescence-is when the object does not only converts the wavelength while being
irradiated but continuously reflect the new wavelengths for a period of time after the energy
source is removed.

Invisible light rays to our eyes:

1) Cosmic rays 5) Ultra-violet rays
2) Gamma rays 6) Infra-red rays
3) X-rays
4) Hertzian wave

.01-30nm.  X-rays
30-400nm.  ultra-violet rays (UV) (below the red wavelength)
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400-700nm.  visible light (VL)

700-1000-2000nm.  infra-red rays (IR)
This all are capable of introducing change into the photographic emulsion.

COLOR IN PHOTOGRAPHY
White light- is photographic ray without a tint of any color or shadow. Fundamentally and
photographically, the subdivisions of white light are the PRIMARY COLORS: Blue; Green; and Red

The respective complementary colors of the primaries are yellow, magenta, and cyan, each being
a combination of the other two primaries. When a primary color and its complementary (secondary) color
are combined to bring all basic color together again, the result is White Light.

The ADDITIVE PRINCIPLE

If we get three projectors with beams of lights projecting individually blue, green and red and have the
three beams overlap over the other, we will note that the portion where the blue and green lights merged over the
other it will produce a cyan color, the green and red lights a yellow color, and the red and blue lights a magenta
color. At the center where the blue, green, red light, were combined in proper ratio, we see white light. In this
aspect, cyan, yellow and magenta are known as the three secondary colors of light. For practical purpose, white is
the presence of all colors while black is the absence of all colors or absence of light.

a) Blue + Red ═ Magenta b) Green + Blue ═ Cyan c) Red + Green ═

Yellow

The SUBTRACTIVE PRINCIPLE

This time, the light beams of the three projectors will be covered each with cyan filter, yellow filter and
magenta filter and have the beams of light projected one over the other. The cyan filter will transmit blue and
green light but absorbs red from white light. A yellow filter will transmit green and red light but absorbs blue from
white light. Similarly, a magenta filter will transmit red and blue light but absorbs green from white light. At the
center where the three beams of light are merged together will produce black. In simple terms, cyan is the
complementary of red, yellow is the complementary of blue, and magenta is the complementary of green.

a) Magenta + Cyan ═ Blue Cyan + Yellow ═ Green c) Magenta +

Yellow ═ Red

“White” – presence of all colors

“Black” – absence of all colors

“RAT LAW”

R- Reflection
A- Absorption
T- Transmission

Characteristics of Light
1. Reflection – the rebounding or the deflection of light as it hits the surface.
a) Regular reflection b) Irregular reflection
2. Transmission-passes through an object, the light is transmitted.
a. Transparent-medium such as lens or clear window pane, through which the objects are clearly visible,
transmits 90% or more of incident light.
b. Translucent- mediums like frosted glass which transmits light scatters it to objects cannot be seen
clearly, transmit 50% or less of the incident light.
3. Absorption- light falls upon an object and is neither transmitted nor reflected, it is absorbed.
4. Refraction – bending of light rays when passing obliquely from one medium to another
5. Diffraction – bending of lights when it strikes the sharp edge of an opaque object. ( light does not pass
through)
- occurs when light passes through a narrow slit. If there were no diffraction, the image of the slit
would be geometrically similar to the slit itself.
ex. Double Diffraction

Types of materials:
1. Transparent – allows light to pass through its medium, objects on the opposite side is clearly visible.
2. Translucent – allow light to pass through but visible. Objects are not clearly visible.
3. Opaque – does not allow light to pas through its medium.
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Sources of light:
1. Natural – sunlight, moonlight, lightning & etc.
Daylight Classification According to Intensity:
a. Bright sunlight – objects in open space cast a deep & uniform or distinct shadow. Objects in open
space appear glossy & the colors are saturated.
b. Hazy sunlight – cast a transparent shadow.
C. Dull sunlight – no longer cast shadow.

2. Artificial – a) continuous radiant – fluorescent & candle

b) Short radiation – flash units
a. Photo floods – an electric lamp using an excess voltage for sustained illumination. (1930 –
panchromatic film)
- inserted in a metal reflector, fit with standard socket & operate in ordinary house current and has a life of 3
hours.
b. Flash bulb
c. Electronic flash

Sensitized Materials:
- a general term which refers to materials which are sensitive to light.
ex. a) Film b) Photographic paper

FILMS
-is a sheet or strip of thin, flexible transparent material (acetate or polyester plastic) coated on one side
with a light sensitive emulsion capable of recording an image as a result of exposure in camera.

Six (6) layers of black & white film

1. Top Coat – is a layer of hard gelatin that insulates the emulsion against scratches.
2. Emulsion layer – where the image forms, consists of gelatin containing light-sensitive crystals of silver
halides.
3. Subbing layer – special glue like gelatin, adheres the emulsion to its support below.
4. Support – provides a strong but flexible plastic (cellulose acetate) base for all the other component
layers of the film.
5. Second Adhesive layer – bonds the support to the anti-halation backing below.
6. Anti-halation Backing – contains dye that prevents light from reflecting off the support off the camera
itself and back onto the emulsion, which reflections could create halos around bright areas of the images.

Six (6) basic characteristics of black & white film

1. Color Sensitivity – the ability of the film to respond to certain wavelength of the light in the visible
portion of the electromagnetic spectrum – and therefore unable to represent these effectively in black & white.
2. Contrast – a films ability to record values of gray - that is white through gray to black.
a) Films - that record only a limited number of values are referred to as contrasty, while those that
record a greater number of values are considered to be not contrasty.
3. Light Sensitivity – or the film’s speed, as it is determined by the size of the silver halide crystals in the
film’s emulsion. The larger the crystals are, the greater sensitivity and the other way around.
4. Grain – (size of the light sensitive crystals in a film’s emulsion determine the nature of
its grain).
5. Resolving Power – refers to the film’s ability to distinguish between closely spaced lines or the ability
of the film to reproduce fine details.
6. Acutance – is a term that describes a film’s sharpness.

Types of Films according to use:

1. Black and white film- for B & W photography.
2. Color film- films that have names ending in Color- color negative for prints.
3. Chrome film- film with names ending in Chrome-for color transparency-for slides
4. X-ray film- is a material which is sensitive to X-ray region of the electromagnetic spectrum.

Types of film (black & white) according to Color or Spectral sensitivity:

1. Monochromatic (blue sensitivity) – sensitive to UV and blue color only.
2. Orthochromatic film – sensitive to UV to blue and green light.
3. Panchromatic – sensitive to UV, blue, green, red or all colors, it has a widest range of spectral sensitivity.
4. Infra-red films – sensitive to UV, blue, green, red or all colors or infra-red rays.
3 F’s Infra-red Photography
1. Film
2. Filter
3. Focus – to adjust to the longer wavelengths of infrared. (700 to 1000 nm)
“Suffix” color – negative material
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“Suffix” chrome – positive material

ex. Film of a Movie

Emulsion Speed - all films except those used in instamatic camera have a film speed or emulsion speed.

Indications for emulsion speed:

1. ASA rating – American Standard Association (expressed in arithmetical value)
2. DIN rating – Deutsche Industrie Normen (expressed in logarithmic value)
3. ISO rating – International Standard Organization (expressed in arithmetical value)
4. JSI – Japanese Institute of Standards
5. BSI- British Standard International.

Major Classifications of Film speed by average ASA & DIN ratings are:
a) Slow films – about 32 ASA (16/10 DIN), which require a high light level;
b) Medium films – about 125 ASA (22/10 DIN), which are used in average or normal light situations, such as
outdoors on a sunny day. (The most common).
c) Fast films – about 400 ASA (27/10 DIN) which are needed when the light level is low – very cloudy, rainy day,
or indoors under available light.
d) Extra-fast films – About 800 ASA (30/10 DIN) which are used only when the other types of film are too slow –
under the dimmest light conditions or when the fastest possible shutter speeds are necessary.

Different ASA Numbers:

25-lowest condition will permit for best color and sharpness 500
50 800
64 1000
100- for general purposes 1600
200- for general purposes 2000- for taking secret pictures at night
400- for dim light orwith moving objects and up-extremely low light condition
3200
6400
PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPERS

1. Chemical contents
a) Bromide papers (Silver Bromide) – with fast emulsion speed; for projection printing (enlarging); about
100-1000 times as sensitive as chloride papers; they give black tones in hydroquinone developers and take about
1 ½ mins to develop at 18-22degreesC; give neutral to cold black tone which is only affected by development type
and techniques.
b) Chloride papers (Silver Chloride) –with slow emulsion speed; for contact printing; image size is the
same as that of the negatives; they give blue black tones in a 65-58 degrees F to develop.
c) Chlorobromide papers (Silverchlorobromide) – the slow is used for contact and fast is for
enlargement/projection printing; they give an image tone from warm black to reddish brown, depending on length
of exposure, dilution and duration of developer
d) Variable contrast papers (contrast range)
 low contrast
 normal or medium contrast
 very hard or extra contrast
2. Contrast Range
No. 0 – extreme contrast negatives
No. 1 – high contrast negative
No. 2 – for printing normal contrast negative
No. 3 – for negatives that have weak contrast
No. 4 – provides sufficient contrast to compensate for very weak contrast
No. 5 – for flat negatives that are relatively unprintable
3. Physical Characteristics
a) Surface – glossy-semi matte, matte
b) Weight or thickness –light weight (involve folding), single weight (all ordinary photographic purposes),
double weight (forlarge prints)
c) Color – white cream.

CAMERA

Early forms of Camera

1. Pinhole Camera- simple design and construction, usually home-made consisting of a box having small
aperture functioning as a lens at one end, the image being projected on the film at the other end.
2. Box Camera- a simple camera is little more than a pinhole camera, the pinhole is replaced by the lens to
enable the photographer gather lighter to be recorded.

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3.
Camera Obscura- originally, it refers to a darkened chamber or small building in which images of outside objects
are projected onto a flat surface by a convex lens in a n aperture. Later, the term referred to a darkened boxlike
device in which images of external objects, received through an aperture, as with a convex lens, are exhibited in
their natural colors on a surface.

Types of Camera
1. View Camera – a large camera that is mostly used in studios for portrait pictures.
2. Graphic Camera – is also a view camera, but it is smaller and designed to be folded up when not in used. A 4
inch x 5 inch – graphic camera was the favorite camera of police & newspaper photographers.
3. Twin lens reflex camera – a roll film camera that uses two lenses: viewing lens, taking lens
4. Single lens reflex camera –
 a kind of camera where in the photographer looks through the lens the actually takes the picture by
means of a mirror.
 when taking picture, the mirror moves up out of the way just a fraction of a second before the shutter
opens.
5. Miniature 35 mm cameras
6. Digital Cameras

Five (5) Basic features of a Camera:

The following are the parts that enable the instrument to perform properly:
1. Viewing system 4. Aperture
2. Focusing system 5. Lens
3. Shutter

A) Viewing System – normally consisting of a lens or set of lenses, permits the photographer to see that
part of a scene the camera can record on the film. This will also view the scene it will record and will frame the
area his camera can record when pointed in a certain direction.
Note: There are significant differences between the eye and the camera – eye as it looks at the subject, it
is moving constantly from one point to another. (Composite of many individual views integrated into a single visual
experience) while the Still cameras as distinguish from a movie camera – record all that it views of a given subject
in one image.
Parallax Error – (in view finder camera) is the discrepancy between the view finder lens and that projected onto
the film by the camera’s picture taking lens.

B) Focusing System – the setting of the proper distance in order to form a sharp image.
Works mechanically to move the lens closer to or farther away from the film, & make the image sharp or blurred
as it strikes the film surface.
How to determine focus of camera:
1. Scale bed or focusing scale –
2. Range finders – (coupled with the mica finder)
a) Split image – out of focus using ground glass
b) Co-incident image
3. Ground glass with Penta prism

C) Shutter – a kind of shield or curtain, opens and closes at various speeds to control exposure; that is, it
measures the length of time during which light enters the camera and strikes the film surface.

Two (2) kinds of Shutter

1. Leaf Shutter – located in the lens (between the lens shutters). Consists of a series of tiny metal eaves or
blades which, in a closed position, overlap to prevent the light from entering the camera.
2. Focal Plane Shutter – (operate near the focal plane of the camera) directly in front of the film. Consisted of an
opaque curtain interrupted by a slit a spring mechanism pulled the slit past the film, in its transit exposing the film
to light.

D) Aperture – like a shutter is a device for controlling the amount of light. It works not in a measured unit
of time, but by the measured units of time, but by the measured size of the opening through which light enters the
camera via the lens. The aperture usually has a form of over lapping thin metal leaves arranged in a circle, which
are called the diaphragm.

Diaphragm – a mechanical device, it can be made to expand or contrast and thus to admit into the camera
greater and smaller amount of light.

E) Lens – gather light rays reflected from the scene or subject being photographed and project them onto
the film surface as a completely reversed image. Lens-is a medium or system which converges or diverges light
passing throw it to form images. Lens is considered as the eye of the camera.
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LENS DEFECTS:

Chromatic Aberration – a defect on simple lenses that causes the light ray of different colors to focus on
different planes, which results a blur on black & white and fringed or haloed with extraneous color on colored
images.

Spherical Aberration – occurs when the light rays that passed by the outer portion of a lens and those from the
lens center do not converge at the same focal point.

Coma Aberration - occurs when the light rays passed obliquely through the lens, instead of parallel to the lens
areas, resulting in poor marginal definition or the inability of a lens to produce, equal magnification in all areas of
the lens.

Astigmatism – an aberration that occurs when the lens cannot bring into common focus lines on the same plane
that are horizontal and those that are vertical or the in ability of the lens to project a sharp image of lines running
at angles to each other, almost as if the lens had one focal length for horizontal and another far vertical projection.

Anastigmat –a term given when the lens is corrected for a minimum separation between the horizontal and
vertical focuses. Astigmatism can be lessened by using a smaller opening, when the image is projected only by
the center area of the lens.

Curvature of the Field – when the flat-plane image comes out slightly curved, like a saucer.
Solution: A focus bet. The two point of sharpness and a relating small aperture.

Distortion – a general label refers to a particular kind of distortion.

Curvilinear Distortion – is an aberration that causes the lens to render straight lines in the subject as curved
lines in the image.
Two types of Curvilinear Distortion:
1. Barrel Distortion – when the image lines curve out forward the picture edges, caused by
placing the diaphragm in front of the lens.
2. Pincushion Distortion – when the image lines pinch inward like a warp waist, caused by
placing the diaphragm behind the lens.

Flare – a stray or scratched light not controlled by the lens

Optical Flare – internal reflection & double images. / pear shape called Coma

Ghost image – a secondary image sharp or not, caused by wrongly placed lamp, or due to window reflection.

Mechanical flare – reflection from a bright spot close to the lens - from camera lens mounting, caused by parts of
diaphragm, shutter or mount that have worn shiny and can be prevented by blackening inner surface thoroughly
attaining minimum distortion & fewer common lens defects.
`
Types of lenses as according to their degree of correction:
1. Achromatic lens – a lens corrected for chromatic aberration.
2. Rapid Rectilinear lens – lens corrected for distortion.
3. Anastigmat lens – lens corrected for astigmatism.
4. Apochromat lens – lens corrected for astigmatism but with a higher correction to color.

Classification of Lenses according to Focal length:

1. Wide Angle – focal length is less than the diagonal of its negative material.
2. Normal Lens – focal length is equal to but not more than twice the length of the diagonal of the
negative material.
3. Long or Telephoto lens –it has a focal length of more than twice the diagonal negative material.
4. Zoom Lenses – lens of variable focal length that can be adjusted continuously by the movement of
one or more groups of elements in the lens system – (variable focus lens).
5. Fisheye Lenses- a lens with 180 degree angle of coverage.

Exposure – is the product of illumination and time. (lens & diaphragm opening)

Composition- is the process of placing your subject into the frame.

Rule of thirds- this is when the photographer divides the frame into nine squares and place his/her subject in
proper proportion or angle.

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LABORATORY PROCESSING:
1. The print must stay in the solution for not less than 45 seconds but not more than 1 minute.
2. STOP BATH 10 – 15 seconds
3. Fixing
4. Washing

CHEMICAL PROCESSING:

1. Development – is the process of reduction. Exposed silver halides are reduced into metallic silver.
There is a separate developer for film (D-76), and another for paper (Dektol). The factors that affect
developing time are: agitation, temperature, concentration of chemicals, and exposure.
2. Stop-Bath – an intermediate bath between the developer and the fixer. It is usually a combination of
water plus acetic acid or just plain water. Primarily, its function is to prevent the concentration of the
two chemical solutions.
3. Fixation – the process of removing unexposed silver halide remaining in the emulsion after the first
stage of development of the latent image. The usual composition of an acid fixing solution are solvent
silver halide known as hypo, an anti-staining agent like acetic acid, a preservation like sodium sulfate,
and a hardening agent like potassium alum.
4. Washing on running water

Processing method – negative-positive method, reversal method

Film Processing: TRAY METHOD Film Processing: TANK

METHOD

Chemical composition of developer:

1. Reducers or developing agents – Elon, Hydroquinone
2. Preservative – sodium sulphite
3. Accelerator – sodium carbonate
4. Restrainer or (prevents fog) – Potassium bromide

FIXERS
Chemical components:
1. Hypo (sodium thiosulfate) – serves as the dissolving agent
2. Sodium sulfate – preservative
3. Boric acid - neutralizer
4. Acetic acid (with anti-staining agent)- neutralizer
5. Potassium aluminum (tawas) – hardener
The Fixer for film & paper are the same (10-15 minutes)

WASHING - -to remove hypo to prevent faded photograph

PRINTING –
The shiny sides of the negative and the photographic paper should be facing each other.
“Emulsion side of the negative facing emulsion or sensitive side of the photographic paper”

Factors that affect developing time:

1. Characteristics of Negative material
2. Strength and composition of the developer
3. Temperature of the developing solution

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4. Agitation or stirring during development

5.

M. ENLARGING TECHNIQUE
After processing an exposed film into a negative, the next step would be to turn the negative into a
positive print or copy. This could be done by either contact printing or projection printing. For contact printing, a
contact printer is used while in projection printing an enlarger is needed. There are four essential parts of an
enlarger: a base and stand, a lamp house, a condenser or diffuser, and a lens, accessories of the enlarger are: a
negative holder and an easel (paper holder). The following are the steps in enlarging:
1. Preparation of the darkroom, chemicals and the enlarger.
2. Put off white light, switch on red light.
3. Place the negative in the negative holder with the dull side of the negative facing down.
4. Insert the negative holder into the enlarger.
5. Switch on the enlarger’s light.
6. Adjust the easel to the desired size of the photograph.
7. Focus the lens of the enlarger. Focusing is done by first opening the lens diaphragm fully. If after the
image ha been focused, and the density of the negative lens of the enlarger
must be stopped down a little bit.
8. Switch off the light of the enlarger.
9. Insert the photographic paper in the easel with the shiny side facing up.
10. Make the exposure.
11. Immerse the exposed photographic paper in the developer. The usual developing time for a normally
exposed paper is about 1 to 1 ½ min.
12. Transfer the developed print in the stop bath for about 30 seconds.
13. Place the prints in the acid fixer. The fixing time is about to 30 minutes.
14. Wash the print in running water for about 20 to 30 minutes.
15. Drying
16. Mounting

Remedying chemical defects in negatives:

a) Underdevelopment –Intensifier
b) Overdevelopment – Reducer
c) Stains – Stain remover

Frequent faults in printing:

1. Blurred exhibits
2. Muddy and mottled exhibits
3. Yellowish exhibits
4. Dark exhibits
5. Light exhibits
6. Harsh exhibits
7. Flat exhibits
8. Fogged exhibits
9. Blemishes exhibits
10. Distorted prints

microdol x – film developer

dektol – paper developer

1 can or 1 pack of Dektol dissolved in One (1) gal of water Stock solution.
1 : . 2 1 part stock solution 2 parts – H2O
(2.5 to 3 minutes)-developing time.

1) 5.6 minutes developing time using D-76

Ratio of chemical 1:1
2) 10 seconds – stop bath

3) 10 minutes fixing time

5 – Students maximum / enlarger

Reflected Method – light source UV – light usually used to expose film also UV.

Fluorescence Method – by the use of a filter, (rotten filler #2B) visible lamp.
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
UV photography needs the use of the darkroom.

Infra-red – uses infra-red film, or infra-red

a) Rotten filter # 88, 89 – very deep red – in color

Totally Dark or Black – out Photography – does not need filter but you should use infra-red Flash.

Development for Infra-red Photography – should be done similarly the same with the development of black and
white film.

Crime Scene Photography: In some types of crimes, specifically those involving physical violence, the crime
scene, including the location of the relevant objects within it, is of vital importance in establishing points of proof. A
record of such a crime scene is indispensable to a successful presentation of the case in court. If the scene is
altered through haste or carelessness, it may never be restored to its exact original condition, the vital elements of
proof may thereby be lost. Moreover, in the initial stages of the investigation, the significance of a certain aspect of
the same may not be evident. Although later they may affect vitally the issues in the case.

The first step in the investigation of any crime is to photograph completely and accurately all the aspect of
the scene before any of the objects of evidence are removed or otherwise disturbed. Similar photographs should
also be made after the body or bodies have been removed. It is always prudent to take too many photograph
rather than too few.

A set of four photographs is the usual minimum to show a room adequately, and many more maybe made
in the case of major crime. Medium distant views as well as close up photographs should be made of important
objects. Two lenses are usually adequate. Occasionally existing room light may be satisfactory for photographic
purposes. However, the photographer will usually have to provide additional lighting for interior shots such as
photoflood, photoflash, or electronic flash.

Range Photographs
An important aspect of consideration regarding the various “range” photographs is the general point-of-view
established by the camera locations. These locations will enable the viewer of the pictures to orient the crime
scene in a logical manner. The three types of “range” photographs are:

10880. Long-range

Long-range photos of the overall scene fundamentally are taken to portray the areas as if a person viewing the
scene is viewing the scene is seeing it from the standing position. To obtain this result, the photographer takes
the photograph with the camera at eye level.

2. Mid-range

Mid-range photos are taken in a manner which portrays the scene from approximately ten to twenty feet of
distance from the subject matter. In order that the viewer be permitted to associate the crime scene with separate
areas of the scene photographed, these areas should contain sufficient detail to permit the viewer this
association.

3. Close-up range

Close-up range photos are normally taken approximately five feet or less from the subject matter. The attention of
close-up photography is directed to objects which could not effectively be seen in the long-range or mid-range
photos.

For general view of the scene, use the camera at eye level. These photographs give a presentation of the scene
as the average eye witness might have observed it naturally. Measuring devices such as yardstick, ruler or tape
measures can be used to show the relative size of a distance between objects or the degree of magnification of
an enlargement. They should not obscure any important part of an enlargement or any important part of evidence.

In document and small-object photographs, a 6- inch ruler or 15 centimeter ruler placed at the bottom or
just below the object will show the relative size of objection in a photograph exhibit. Photographs are necessary to
corroborate testimony of certain witnesses and usually add weight and credibility to their testimony.

In photographing the crime scene, the photographer should attempt to record all useful information series
of photographs that will help the viewer to understand how and where the crime was committed. The term crime

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scene refers not only to the immediate site of the crime, but also includes the adjacent areas which may be
significant site of the crime in establishing the location and surrounding of the immediate site.

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