Waveguides

Waveguides, like transmission lines, are structures used to guide

electromagnetic waves from point to point. However, the fundamental
characteristics of waveguide and transmission line waves (modes) are
quite different. The differences in these modes result from the basic
differences in geometry for a transmission line and a waveguide.

Transmission line Waveguide

• Two or more conductors C Typically one enclosed conductor

separated by some insulating filled with an insulating medium
medium (two-wire, coaxial, (rectangular, circular, etc.).
microstrip, etc.). C Operating modes are TE or TM
• Normal operating mode is the modes (cannot support a TEM
TEM or quasi-TEM mode (can mode).
support TE and TM modes but C Must operate the waveguide at a
these modes are typically frequency above the respective
undesirable). TE or TM mode cutoff frequency
• No cutoff frequency for the TEM for that mode to propagate.
mode. C Lower signal attenuation at high
• Significant signal attenuation at frequencies than transmission
high frequencies due to lines.
conductor and dielectric losses.

Ideal Waveguide
(PEC tube, perfect insulator inside)

Waves propagate along the

waveguide (+z-direction) within the
waveguide through the lossless
dielectric. The electric and magnetic
fields of the guided waves must satisfy
the source-free Maxwell’s equations.
Assumptions:
(1) the waveguide is infinitely long, oriented along the z-axis,
and uniform along its length.
(2) the waveguide is constructed from ideal materials (enclosing
PEC conductor is filled with a perfect insulator).
(3) fields are time-harmonic.

The electric and magnetic fields associated with the waves propagating
inside the waveguide must satisfy the source free Maxwell’s equations
given by

These equations can be manipulated into wave equations for the electric
and magnetic fields as was shown in the case of unguided waves. These
wave equations are

For certain waveguide geometries, the individual components of the fields

can be determined using the separation of variables technique. For a wave
propagating along the waveguide in the z-direction, the electric and
magnetic fields may be written in rectangular coordinates as

The constant ( is the waveguide propagation constant defined by

where " is the waveguide attenuation constant and $ is the waveguide

phase constant. In general, the waveguide propagation constant has very
different characteristics than the transmission line propagation constant.
contain both transverse field components (ax, ay ) and longitudinal field
components (az ). By expanding the curl operator of Maxwell’s equations
in rectangular coordinates, the derivatives of the transverse components
with respect to z can be evaluated as

If we equate the vector components on each side of the two Maxwell curl
equations, we find

Equations (1) and (2) are valid for any wave (guided or unguided)
propagating in the z-direction in a source-free region with a propagation
constant of (. We may use Equations (1) and (2) to solve for the
longitudinal field components in terms of the transverse field components.
where the constant h is defined by

The equations for the transverse fields in terms of the longitudinal fields
describe the different types of possible modes for guided and unguided
waves.

Transverse electromagnetic Ezs = Hzs = 0 plane waves,

(TEM) modes transmission lines

Transverse electric (TE) Ezs = 0, Hzs … 0 waveguide modes

modes

Transverse magnetic (TM) Ezs … 0, Hzs = 0 waveguide modes

modes

Hybrid (EH or HE) modes Ezs … 0, Hzs … 0 waveguide modes

For TEM modes, the only way for the transverse fields to be non-zero with
Ezs = Hzs = 0 is for h = 0, which yields

For the waveguide modes, h cannot be zero since this would yield
unbounded results for the transverse fields. Thus, $ … k and the waveguide
propagation constant can be written as

The ratio of h/k can be written in terms of the cutoff frequency fc for the
given waveguide mode.

The waveguide propagation constant in terms of the waveguide cutoff

frequency is

If f < fc, ( = " (purely real) e!( z = e!" z waves are attenuated
(evanescent modes).

If f > fc, ( = j$ (purely imaginary) e!( z = e!j$ z waves are unattenuated

(propagating modes).
 TE and TM Modes in Waveguides

If the single non-zero longitudinal field component associated with a

given waveguide mode (Hzs for a TE mode or Ezs for a TM mode) can be
determined, the remaining transverse field components can be found using
the general wave equations for the transverse fields in terms of the
longitudinal fields. The longitudinal magnetic field of the TE mode and the
longitudinal electric field of the TM mode are determined by solving the
appropriate boundary value problem for the given waveguide geometry.

General Waves

TE Modes (Ezs = 0)

TM Modes (Hzs = 0)
 Rectangular Waveguide

The rectangular waveguide can support either TE or TM modes. The

rectangular cross-section (a > b) allows for single-mode operation. Single
-mode operation means that only one mode propagates in the waveguide
over a given frequency range. A square waveguide cross-section does not
allow for single-mode operation.

Rectangular Waveguide TM modes

The longitudinal electric field of the TM modes within the rectangular

waveguide must satisfy the wave equation

which expanded in rectangular coordinates is

The electric field function may be determined using the separation of

variables technique by assuming a solution of the form
Inserting the assumed solution into the governing differential equation
gives

where h2 = (2 + k2. Dividing this equation by the assumed solution gives

(1)

Note that the first term in (1) is a function of x only while the second term
is a function of y only. In order for (1) to be satisfied for every x and y
within the waveguide, each of the first two terms in the equation must be
constants.

The original second order partial differential equation dependent on two

variables has been separated into two second order pure differential
equations each dependent on only one variable. The general solutions to
the two separate differential equations are
The resulting longitudinal electric field for the rectangular waveguide TM
modes is

The TM boundary conditions for the rectangular waveguide are

The application of the boundary conditions yields

The resulting product of the constants A and C into combined into one
constant (Eo).

The transverse field components of the TM modes are

The index designation for the discrete TM modes is TMmn where
(m = 1, 2, 3, ...) and (n = 1, 2, 3, ...).

Rectangular Waveguide TE modes

The longitudinal magnetic field of the TE modes within the rectangular

waveguide must satisfy the same wave equation as the longitudinal electric
field of the TM modes:

which expanded in rectangular coordinates is

The same separation of variables technique used to solve for the

longitudinal TM electric field applies to the longitudinal TE magnetic field.
Thus, the longitudinal TE magnetic field may be written as

To determine the unknown coefficients, we apply the TE boundary

conditions. The transverse electric
field components are related to Hzs
through the previously defined TE
equations. The TE boundary
conditions are:
where

The application of the boundary conditions yields

Note that the case of n = m = 0 is not allowed since this would make all of
the transverse field components zero. The resulting product of the constants
B and D into combined into one constant (Ho) so that the longitudinal
magnetic field of the TEmn mode is
The resulting transverse fields for the waveguide TE modes are

where (m = 0, 1, 2, ...) and (n = 0, 1, 2, ...) but m = n … 0 for the TEmn mode.

TE and TM Mode Parameters

For both the TEmn and TMmn waveguide modes, we find that

The equation for the waveguide propagation constant (mn can be used to
determine the cutoff frequency for the respective waveguide mode. The
propagation characteristics of the wave are defined by the relative sizes of
the parameters hmn and k.
The propagation constant for either the TEmn or TMmn waveguide modes is
defined as
(mn = "mn + j$mn

If hmn = k Y (mn = 0 ("mn = $mn = 0) Y cutoff frequency

If hmn > k Y (mn (real), [(mn= "mn] Y evanescent modes

If hmn < k Y (mn (imag.), [(mn= j$mn] Y propagating modes

Therefore, the cutoff frequency is found by solving

The rectangular waveguide must be operated at a frequency above the

cutoff frequency for the respective mode to propagate. As previously
shown, the propagation constant for a given mode can be defined in terms
of the cutoff frequency for that mode by

The cutoff frequency of a particular mode in a particular rectangular

waveguide depends on the mode indices (values of m and n), the geometry
of the waveguide (a and b), and the medium inside the waveguide (: and
,). According to the cutoff frequency equation, the cutoff frequencies of
both the TE10 and TE01 modes are less than that of the lowest order TM
mode (TM11). Given a > b for the rectangular waveguide, the TE10 has the
lowest cutoff frequency of any of the rectangular waveguide modes and is
thus the dominant mode (the first to propagate). Note that the TE10 and
TE01 modes are degenerate modes (modes with the same cutoff frequency)
for a square waveguide. The rectangular waveguide allows one to operate
at a frequency above the cutoff of the dominant TE10 mode but below that
of the next highest mode to achieve single mode operation. A waveguide
operating at a frequency where more than one mode propagates is said to
be overmoded.
The cutoff frequency and fields associated with the TE10 mode (using
the TEmn equations with m =1, n = 0, and ( = j$ ) are:

The corresponding instantaneous fields of the TE10 mode are determined by

multiplying the phasor field components by e jT t and taking the real part of
the result.
 The waveguide wavelength is defined using the same definition as for
unguided (TEM) waves [2B/$]. However, the waveguide wavelength is
very different than that of an unguided wave.

The phase velocity of the TE and TM modes is

 Just as the characteristic (wave) impedance for the TEM modes on a
transmission line is defined by a ratio of the transverse electric field to the
transverse magnetic field, the wave impedance of the waveguide TE and
TM modes can also be defined in a similar manner. The waveguide TE and
TM wave impedances are defined by
 Waveguide Group Velocity and Phase Velocity

The field components of general TE and TM waveguide modes can be

written as sums and differences of TEM waves. Consider the Eys
component of the TE10 mode of the rectangular waveguide:

ÆÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÈÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÇ
TEM waves
uN ! medium velocity (velocity of the TEM wave)

ug ! group velocity (velocity of the wave sum)

up ! phase velocity (velocity of the constant phase points on the

component waves)
Example

Given a pair of degenerate modes (TEnm and TMmn) in an air-filled

rectangular waveguide with a cutoff frequency of 15 GHz, plot the
following parameters as a function of frequency: phase velocity and group
velocity, TE wave impedance and TM wave impedance, TEM wavelength
and mode wavelength, TEM phase constant and mode phase constant.
 3

2.5

up
u/u'

1.5

ug
0.5

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
f (GHz)

2.5

ηTE
η/η'

1.5

ηTM
0.5

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
f (GHz)
 5

4.5

3.5

3
λ (cm)

2.5
λmn
2
λ'
1.5

0.5

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
f (GHz)

12

10

8
β (m )
-1

6
β'

βmn

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
f (GHz)
 Cavity Resonators

At high frequencies where waveguides are used, lumped element tuned

circuits (RLC circuits) are very inefficient. As the element dimensions
become comparable to the wavelength, unwanted radiation from the circuit
occurs. Waveguide resonators are used in place of the lumped element
RLC circuit to provide a tuned circuit at high frequencies. The rectangular
waveguide resonator is basically a section of rectangular waveguide which
is enclosed on both ends by conducting walls to form an enclosed
conducting box. We assume the same cross-sectional dimensions as the
rectangular waveguide (a,b) and define the longitudinal length of the
resonator as c. Given the conducting walls on the ends of the waveguide,
the resonator modes may be described by waveguide modes which are
reflected back and forth within the resonator (+z and !z directions) to form
standing waves.

Waveguide (waves in one direction)

Cavity (waves in both directions, standing waves)

The separation equation for the cavity modes is

The cavity boundary conditions are

From the source-free Maxwell’s curl equations, the TE and TM boundary

conditions on the end walls of the cavity are satisfied if

Application of the TE and TM boundary conditions yields

The TE and TM modes in the rectangular cavity are then

The resonant frequency associated with the TEmnp or TMmnp mode is found
from the separation equation to be
 The lowest order modes in a rectangular cavity are the TM110, TE101, and
TE011 modes. Which of these modes is the dominant mode depends on the
relative dimensions of the resonator. The quality factor (Q) of a waveguide
resonator is defined the same way as that for an RLC network.

where the energy lost per cycle is that energy dissipated in the form of heat
in the cavity walls (ohmic losses). The resonator quality factor is inversely
proportional to its bandwidth. Given a resonator made from a conductor
such as copper or aluminum, the ohmic losses are very small and the
quality factor is large (high Q, small bandwidth). Thus, resonators are used
in applications such as oscillators, filters, and tuned amplifiers. Comparing
the modes of the rectangular resonator with the propagating modes in the
rectangular waveguide, we see that the waveguide modes exist over a wide
band (the rectangular waveguide acts like a high-pass filter) while the
rectangular resonator modes exist over a very narrow band (the rectangular
resonator acts like a band-pass filter).

Circular Waveguide

The same techniques used to analyze the rectangular waveguide may be

used to determine the modes that propagate within a circular waveguide.
The separations of variables technique yields solutions for the propagating
modes in terms of Bessel functions. One unique feature of the circular
waveguide is that some of the
higher order modes have
particularly low loss. Therefore,
this waveguide is commonly used
when signals are sent over
relatively long distances
(microwave antennas on tall
towers).
 Optical Fibers

An optical fiber is a dielectric waveguide (lightguide) with a very high

bandwidth and very low loss. The mechanism of wave propagation on an
optical fiber is very different than that of a metal waveguide. The optical
fiber confines the propagating wave inside the fiber by utilizing reflection
of the light waves from a dielectric interface formed by the core (inner
dielectric) and the cladding (outer dielectric).

Visible light (0.4 :m < 8 < 0.7 :m) f ~ 1014 Hz

Typical optical fiber dimensions

Glass fibers (low loss)

Core diameter 10 to 50 :m
Cladding diameter 125 :m

Plastic fibers
Core diameter ~1000 :m
Cladding diameter 2000 to 3000 :m
Step-Index (STIN) Fibers

Graded-Index (GRIN) Fibers