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Chapter 2
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Line Source Solution for a Vertical Well

in an Infinite Reservoir
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One of the most basic and important problems in petroleum reservoir

engineering, and the cornerstone of well test analysis, is to calculate
the pressures in the reservoir, and at the well, when fluid is flowing
into a vertical well at a constant rate, from an homogeneous, laterally
infinite reservoir. To simplify the problem mathematically, the well is
assumed to have an infinitely small radius, i.e. the well is essentially
represented by a vertical line. The mathematical solution to this
important problem will be derived in this chapter.
If fluid were injected into the reservoir from the well, this “line”
would serve as a source of fluid for the reservoir; hence, the solution
to this problem is referred to the “line source solution”. Although
the resulting solution for the pressure is more frequently used, by an
appropriate change of signs, for the case when fluid is produced from
the reservoir, in which case the well actually serves as a sink as far
as the reservoir is concerned, rather than a source of fluid, the term
“line source” solution is typically used in both cases.

2.1. Derivation of the Line Source Solution

The problem of the flow of a single-phase, slightly compressible fluid
to a vertical well in a laterally infinite, homogeneous reservoir can be

23
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24 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

formulated precisely, as follows:

Geometry: A vertical well that fully penetrates a reservoir which
is of uniform thickness, H, and which extends infinitely far in all
horizontal directions.
Reservoir Properties: The reservoir is assumed to be isotropic
and homogeneous with uniform properties (i.e. permeability, porosity,
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etc.) that do not vary with pressure.

Initial and Boundary Conditions: The reservoir is initially at
a uniform pressure. Starting at t = 0, fluid is produced from the
wellbore at a constant rate, Q.
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Wellbore Diameter: The diameter of the wellbore is assumed to be

infinitely small; this leads to a much simpler problem than the more
realistic finite-diameter case, but with little loss of applicability, as
we will see below.
Problem: To determine the pressure at all points in the reservoir,
including at the wellbore, as a function of the elapsed time since the
start of production.
The governing differential equation for this problem is the
pressure diffusion equation in radial coordinates, Eq. (1.7.8):
 
φμct ∂P 1 ∂ ∂P
= R . (2.1.1)
k ∂t R ∂R ∂R
The assumptions that are inherent in this equation are:
(1) The reservoir is homogeneous and isotropic, i.e. k, φ, etc., do not
vary with position in the reservoir, and so these parameters can
be assumed to be constant.
(2) The thickness of the reservoir is uniform; this implies that the
flow to the well will be horizontal, with no vertical component.
(3) The well, and the casing perforations, fully penetrate the entire
thickness of the reservoir; if not, there would be a vertical flow
component.
(4) The fluid is only slightly compressible; this is implicit in treating
the compressibility term ct = cf + cφ as a constant.
If the reservoir is anisotropic, the equations can be put into the
form of Eq. (2.1.1) by a change of variables that stretches the x and
y coordinates (see de Marsily (1986), pp. 178–179).
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Line Source Solution for a Vertical Well in an Infinite Reservoir 25

Inhomogeneity (i.e. spatial variation in k or φ) causes great

mathematical complications, and methods to treat inhomogeneous
reservoirs are still being developed. Variation of the thickness of the
reservoir is somewhat equivalent to having a spatial variation in k.
If the well is not perforated over the entire depth of the reservoir,
then there would be a vertical flow component. To account for this
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situation, we would need to add the term ∂ 2 P/∂z 2 to the right-hand

side of Eq. (2.1.1). The solution to this much more difficult problem
is discussed by de Marsily (1986, pp. 179–190).
The case of a highly compressible fluid, such as a gas, whose
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compressibility varies with pressure, will be discussed in detail in

Chapter 9.
To solve the line source problem, or to solve any partial differ-
ential equation, we not only need a governing equation, but we also
need initial conditions and boundary conditions. In the present case,
these subsidiary conditions are as follows:
Initial Condition: At the start of production, the pressure in the
reservoir is assumed to be at some uniform value, Pi .
Boundary Condition at Infinity: Infinitely far from the well, the
pressure will always remain at its initial value, Pi .
Boundary Condition at the Wellbore: At the wellbore, which is
assumed to be infinitely small, the flow rate must be equal to Q at
all times t > 0, defined here so that Q > 0 for the case of production
of fluid from the reservoir.
We can therefore formulate the problem in precise mathematical
terms as follows, where for notational simplicity we replace ct with c:
 
1 ∂ ∂P φμc ∂P
Governing PDE: R = , (2.1.2)
R ∂R ∂R k ∂t
Initial condition: P (R, t = 0) = Pi , (2.1.3)
 
2πkH ∂P
BC at wellbore: lim R = Q, (2.1.4)
R→0 μ ∂R
BC at infinity: lim P (R, t) = Pi . (2.1.5)
R→∞

Strictly speaking, we cannot impose the boundary condition at

R = 0, since at R = 0 the term R inside the parenthesis in Eq. (2.1.4)
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26 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

goes to zero, and the term ∂P/∂R actually goes to infinity. Hence,
we need to first multiply these two terms together, and then take the
“limit” as R → 0.
There are many ways to solve this equation, but we will solve
it using a method that does not require advanced techniques such
as Laplace transforms, Green’s functions, etc. First, we define a
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new variable η that combines, in a clever way, the spatial variable

R and the time variable t. This “trick” for simplifying a diffusion
equation was discovered by the German physicist Ludwig Boltzmann
in 1894, and this transformation is now referred to as the Boltzmann
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transformation:
φμcR2
η= . (2.1.6)
kt
We now assume that P will be a function of this single variable, η.
Next, we rewrite Eq. (2.1.2) in terms of η. The left-hand side
transforms as follows:
∂P dP ∂η 2φμcR dP φμcR2 2 dP 2η dP
= = = = . (2.1.7)
∂R dη ∂R kt dη kt R dη R dη
Note that since P is a function of the single variable η, the
derivative dP/dη is an ordinary derivative, not a partial derivative.
We therefore see from Eq. (2.1.7) that differentiation with respect
to R is equivalent to differentiation with respect to η, followed by
multiplication by 2η/R. Hence,
     
1 ∂ ∂P 1 2η d dP 4η d dP
R = 2η = 2 η . (2.1.8)
R ∂R ∂R R R dη dη R dη dη
The right-hand side of Eq. (2.1.2) transforms as follows:
∂P dP ∂η φμcR2 dP −η dP
= =− 2
= ,
∂t dη ∂t kt dη t dη
φμc ∂P −φμc η dP 2
−φμcR η dP −η 2 dP
→ = = = . (2.1.9)
k ∂t k t dη kt R2 dη R2 dη
Using Eqs. (2.1.8) and (2.1.9) in Eq. (2.1.2) yields
 
d dP η dP
η =− . (2.1.10)
dη dη 4 dη
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Line Source Solution for a Vertical Well in an Infinite Reservoir 27

Since it contains only one independent variable, η, rather than the

two independent variables R and t, Eq. (2.1.10) is an ordinary
differential equation (ODE) for P as a function of η.
We must now also transform the boundary/initial conditions, so
that they apply to the function P (η). First, note that both limits,
R → ∞ and t → 0, correspond to the same limit, η → ∞. Hence,
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conditions (2.1.3) and (2.1.5) take the form

lim P (η) = Pi . (2.1.11)
η→∞

Using Eq. (2.1.7) in Eq. (2.1.4) leads to a second BC:

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4πkH dP
lim η =Q
η→0 μ dη
 
dP μQ
→ lim η = . (2.1.12)
η→0 dη 4πkH
The problem is now a two-point ODE boundary-value problem,
defined by Eqs. (2.1.10–2.1.12).
To solve this problem, we first note that although Eq. (2.1.10)
appears to be a second-order differential equation for P (η), it is
actually a first-order equation for the function η (dP/dη). If we
temporarily denote η (dP/dη) by the new variable y, we can write
Eq. (2.1.10) as
dy y
=− , (2.1.13)
dη 4
where
dP
y=η .
dη
Now separate the variables, and integrate from η = 0 out to an
arbitrary value of η:
dy dη
=−
y 4
 y(η)  η
dy dη
→ =−
y(0) y 0 4
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28 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

 
y(η) η
→ ln =−
y(0) 4
→ y(η) = y(0)e−η/4 . (2.1.14)

Now note that the boundary condition (2.1.12) is equivalent to

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μQ
y(0) = , (2.1.15)
4πkH
which implies that Eq. (2.1.14) can be written as
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μQ −η/4
y(η) = e . (2.1.16)
4πkH
Now recall that y = η(dP/dη), and rewrite Eq. (2.1.16) as

dP (η) μQ e−η/4
= . (2.1.17)
dη 4πkH η
Equation (2.1.17) can now be directly integrated to find P (η), which
will give us the pressure in the reservoir as a function of η, and
therefore as a function of R and t. We cannot start the integral at
η = 0, because we do not know the pressure at the wellbore. We do,
however, know from Eq. (2.1.11) that the pressure at η = ∞ must
be equal to the initial reservoir pressure, Pi . Therefore, we start the
integral at η = ∞:
 P (η)  η
μQ e−η/4
dP = dη
Pi ∞ 4πkH η
 ∞ −η/4
μQ e
→ P (η) = Pi − dη. (2.1.18)
4πkH η η

Now recall that η = φμcR2 /kt. We replace η with φμcR2 /kt on the
left-hand side of Eq. (2.1.18), and also at the lower limit of integration
on the right, but not inside the integral because inside the integral
η is merely a dummy integration variable:
   ∞
φμcR2 μQ e−η/4
P = Pi − dη. (2.1.19)
kt 4πkH φμcR2 η
kt
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Line Source Solution for a Vertical Well in an Infinite Reservoir 29

Simplify the integrand by defining u = η/4, in which case dη/η =

du/u, and the lower limit of integration becomes u = φμcR2 /4kt:
   ∞
φμcR2 μQ e−u
P = Pi − du. (2.1.20)
4kt 4πkH φμcR2 u
4kt

The integral in Eq. (2.1.20) is the “exponential integral function”,

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which is defined as (see Pressure Buildup and Flow Tests in Wells,

Matthews and Russell (1967), p. 131)
 ∞ −u
e
−Ei(−x) = du. (2.1.21)
u
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Unfortunately, this function was defined by mathematicians long

before it was first used to solve the problem of a well in an infinite
reservoir, and so it contains two extraneous minus signs that are
awkward, but are now traditional.
Equations (2.1.20) and (2.1.21) give us the pressure as a function
of distance from the well and the elapsed time since the start of
production. This solution was first presented by the American hydrol-
ogist Charles Theis (1935), albeit using a different mathematical
approach, and so the line source solution is also frequently referred
to as the Theis solution.
We can summarise the solution to this problem as follows:
μQ
P (R, t) = Pi + Ei(−x), (2.1.22)
4π kH
where
 ∞
e−u
−Ei(−x) = du, (2.1.23)
x u
and
x = φμcR2 /4kt. (2.1.24)
Numerical values for the pressure at some location in the reservoir
are found as follows. Assume that we want to know the pressure at a
certain distance R from the centre of the well, at some time t. We use
these values of R and t to compute x from Eq. (2.1.24). We then look
up the value of −Ei(−x) from a table or graph of the exponential
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30 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

integral function (see below). The pressure at (R, t) is then given by

Eq. (2.1.22).
The more common situation is that the pressure is measured
at some distance from the well, or at the well itself, as a function
of time, and the pressure data are used to infer the values for the
reservoir parameters, by fitting the data to the analytical solution.
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This procedure will be demonstrated later, after we first analyse the

line source solution in more detail.
Note: To find the pressure at the wellbore, we merely plug R = Rw
into Eqs. (2.1.22–2.1.24)! This is because R = Rw corresponds to the
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point in the reservoir located just at wellbore wall, where the pressure
must be the same as the pressure of the fluid in the wellbore.
Numerical values of the Ei function are shown in Table 2.1, taken
from Quantitative Hydrogeology by de Marsily (1986).
For example, if x = 5 × 10−7 , then −Ei(−x) = 13.93.

2.2. Dimensionless Pressure and Time

Although the pressure seems to depend on many variables and
parameters, there are actually only two independent, dimensionless
mathematical variables in the line source solution. This can be proven
from the pi-theorem of dimensional analysis, or can be seen directly
from Eqs. (2.1.22–2.1.24).
Traditionally, these variables are defined as the dimensionless
time
kt
tD = , (2.2.1)
φμcR2
and the dimensionless pressure drawdown,
2πkH(Pi − P )
ΔPD = . (2.2.2)
μQ
In terms of these dimensionless parameters, the line source solution
takes the form (see Figure 2.1)
1
ΔPD = − Ei(−1/4tD ). (2.2.3)
2
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14:33
Line Source Solution for a Vertical Well in an Infinite Reservoir
Table 2.1. Exponential integral function, −Ei(−x).
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x 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Fluid Flow in Porous Media - 9in x 6in

×1 0.219 0.049 0.013 0.0038 0.0011 3.6e–4 1.2e–4 3.8e–5 1.2e–5
×10−1 1.82 1.22 0.91 0.70 0.56 0.45 0.37 0.31 0.26
×10−2 4.04 3.35 2.96 2.68 2.47 2.30 2.15 2.03 1.92
×10−3 6.33 5.64 5.23 4.95 4.73 4.54 4.39 4.26 4.14
×10−4 8.63 7.94 7.53 7.25 7.02 6.84 6.69 6.55 6.44
×10−5 10.94 10.24 9.84 9.55 9.33 9.14 8.99 8.86 8.74
×10−6 13.24 12.55 12.14 11.85 11.63 11.45 11.29 11.16 11.04
×10−7 15.54 14.85 14.44 14.15 13.93 13.75 13.60 13.46 13.34
×10−8 17.84 17.15 16.74 16.46 16.23 16.05 15.90 15.76 15.65
×10−9 20.15 19.45 19.05 18.76 18.54 18.35 18.20 18.07 17.95
×10−10 22.45 21.76 21.35 21.06 20.84 20.66 20.50 20.37 20.25
×10−11 24.75 24.06 23.65 23.36 23.14 22.96 22.81 22.67 22.55
×10−12 27.05 26.36 25.96 25.67 25.44 25.26 25.11 24.97 24.86
×10−13 29.36 28.66 28.26 27.97 27.75 27.56 27.41 27.28 27.16

b3114-ch02
×10−14 31.66 30.97 30.56 30.27 30.05 29.87 29.71 29.58 29.46
×10−15 33.96 33.27 32.86 32.58 32.35 32.17 32.02 31.88 31.76

31

page 31
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32 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

Dimensionless Drawdown, ΔPD ΔPD = 2πkH(Pi-P)/μQ

1 tD = kt/φμ cR2

2
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4
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0 200 400 600 800 1000

Dimensionless Time, tD

Figure 2.1. Line source solution plotted in terms of dimensionless time and
dimensionless drawdown.

Recall that the line source solution allows us to calculate the

pressure at any radius R. Hence, by the above definitions, the dimen-
sionless time is different at each location R in the reservoir. Most
often, however, we are interested in the pressure at the well, in which
case R = Rw , and the dimensionless time at the well is given by
tDw = kt/φμcRw 2.

The usefulness of dimensionless variables is that they allow the

pressure drawdown to be plotted and discussed in a form that
is applicable to all reservoirs, without being restricted to specific
values of the permeability, porosity, etc. These latter parameters are
accounted for by the definitions of the dimensionless variables.
Note: It follows from Eq. (1.6.12) that, aside from a factor of 4, the
dimensionless time at a distance R from the centre of the borehole
is equal to the actual physical time t, normalised against the time
required for the peak of the pressure pulse to travel from the borehole
out to radial location R. Hence, values of 4tD  1 correspond to
times at which the pressure pulse has not yet arrived at location R,
whereas times such that 4tD  1 correspond to times at which the
pressure pulse has penetrated much farther than a distance R into
the reservoir.
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Line Source Solution for a Vertical Well in an Infinite Reservoir 33

2.3. Range of Applicability of the Line Source

Solution
The line source solution assumes that the wellbore radius is “zero”,
when in reality it is of course non-zero. Does this cause a problem
in practice? Fortunately, the answer is: no, not really! We can use
the line source solution as soon as the “radius of penetration” of the
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pressure pulse, as predicted by the line source solution, is greater

than Rw , the actual wellbore radius. This seems reasonable and
can be proven rigorously by examining the solution to the diffusion
equation with finite wellbore radius (which will be presented in
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Chapter 6).
According to Eq. (1.6.12), the time required for the pressure pulse
to travel at least a distance Rw , starting from the hypothetically
“infinitely-small” borehole at R = 0, is

φμcRw2
t> . (2.3.1)
4k

If we use “typical” values for the parameters, such as φ = 0.2

(a typical reservoir value), μ = 0.001 Pa s (order of magnitude for
liquid hydrocarbons), c = 10−10 Pa−1 (reasonable value for liquid
hydrocarbons), Rw = 0.1 m (order of magnitude of typical borehole),
k = 10−14 m2 (10 mD; somewhat low, but possible), then Eq. (2.3.1)
predicts that the line source approximation will become valid after
an elapsed time of only 0.005 s!
In terms of the dimensionless time defined by Eq. (2.2.1), the
condition given above by Eq. (2.3.1) is equivalent to tDw > 0.25,
where the subscript w denotes the fact that this is the dimensionless
time relative to the wellbore, where R = Rw .
Hence, the validity of the line source approximation is not
compromised by the mathematical assumption of an “infinitely small
wellbore radius”. However, other physical effects, such as wellbore
storage, cause the line source solution to be inaccurate at small times;
these effects are discussed in Chapter 5.
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34 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

2.4. Logarithmic Approximation to the Line Source

Solution
The exponential integral function is unfamiliar to most engineers and
is difficult to calculate. Fortunately, for sufficiently small values of x,
which is to say, large values of t, the exponential integral essentially
becomes a logarithmic function, which makes it very easy to use.
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To derive this “late-time” approximation, we proceed as follows.

For large times, x will be small, and we can break up the integral
into two parts:
 ∞ −u  1 −u  ∞ −u
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e e e
−Ei(−x) = du = du + du. (2.4.1)
x u x u 1 u
Use the Taylor series for exp(−u) in the first integrand on the right:
 1  1 u u2 u3
e−u 1− 1! + 2! − 3! + ···
du = du. (2.4.2)
x u x u
Break up the integral on the right side of Eq. (2.4.2) into a series of
integrals, and evaluate them term-by-term:
 1 −u
e
du
x u
 1   
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2
= du − du + udu + u du − · · ·
x u 1! x 2! x 3! x
1 1
1 1 1 u2 1 u3
= ln u]x − u]x + − + ···
2! 2 x 3! 3 x
1 1
= (ln 1 − ln x) − (1 − x) + (1 − x2 ) − (1 − x3 ) + · · ·
2!2 3!3
 
1 2 1 3 1 1
= − ln x + x − x + x + ··· − 1 − + + ··· .
2!2 3!3 2!2 3!3
(2.4.3)

Substituting this result this back into Eq. (2.4.1) allows us to say
1 2 1 3
−Ei(−x) = − ln x − ln γ + x − x + x + ··· , (2.4.4)
2!2 3!3
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Line Source Solution for a Vertical Well in an Infinite Reservoir 35

where
   ∞ −u
1 1 e
ln γ = 1− + + ··· − du.
2!2 3!3 1 u

Equation (2.4.4) looks messy, but the important point is that ln γ

is merely a number, and does not depend on x, so we can evaluate it
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numerically, once and for all, to find

ln γ = ln(1.781) = 0.5772. (2.4.5)

Note: Both γ and ln γ are sometimes known as “Euler’s number”

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in the petroleum engineering literature, so care must be taken when

reading other papers and books. Although most mathematicians use
γ to denote the number 0.5772, in these notes, γ will always denote
1.781.
We can further simplify Eq. (2.4.4) if we can find conditions under
which the power series terms are negligible. If this is the case, we will
be left with only a logarithmic term and a constant. First, recall that
large t implies small x, and so
1 2 1 3
x− x + x + · · · < x. (2.4.6)
2!2 3!3
If we want the power series terms to be, say, two orders of magnitude
less than γ, which itself is roughly on the order of 1, then we need

φμcR2 kt
x= < 0.01 → > 25. (2.4.7)
4kt φμcR2
So, if the dimensionless time is greater than about 25, we have, from
Eqs. (2.1.22) and (2.4.4):
μQ
P (R, t) = Pi + (ln x + ln γ)
4πkH
μQ
→ P (R, t) = Pi + ln(xγ)
4πkH
 
μQ φμcR2 γ
→ P (R, t) = Pi + ln
4πkH 4kt
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36 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

 
μQ 4kt
→ P (R, t) = Pi − ln
4πkH φμcR2 γ
 
μQ 2.246kt
→ P (R, t) = Pi − ln (2.4.8)
4πkH φμcR2
   
μQ kt
→ P (R, t) = Pi − ln + 0.80907 . (2.4.9)
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4πkH φμcR2

The form given in Eq. (2.4.8) is used in groundwater hydrology,

and is called Jacob’s approximation; the equivalent form of Eq. (2.4.9)
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is used in petroleum reservoir engineering, where it is called the

logarithmic approximation.
By comparing Eq. (2.4.9) with Eqs. (2.2.1–2.2.3), we see that the
dimensionless form of the logarithmic approximation is

1
ΔPD = [ln(tD ) + 0.80907] . (2.4.10)
2
For values of the dimensionless time that are typically of interest
at the well, the logarithmic approximation is very accurate. It can
be seen in Figure 2.2 that the range of validity of the logarithmic
approximation is consistent with the criterion given in Eq. (2.4.7),

Figure 2.2. Comparison of the logarithmic approximation to the full exponential

integral solution.
 March 1, 2018 14:33 Fluid Flow in Porous Media - 9in x 6in b3114-ch02 page 37

Line Source Solution for a Vertical Well in an Infinite Reservoir 37

i.e. there is excellent agreement for tD > 25. Although smaller values
of tD are usually not of interest at the well, they are needed if one
wants to calculate the drawdown at a location far from the well. For
values of tD < 1, the logarithmic approximation is actually quite
inaccurate. Please verify this for yourself for, say, tD = 0.25, by
evaluating Eq. (2.4.9), and comparing the result to that obtained
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from Table 2.1.

2.5. Instantaneous Pulse of Injected Fluid

Insight can be gained into the diffusive nature of flow through a
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porous medium by considering the problem of a finite amount of fluid

injected into a well over a very small period of time. This problem
also introduces the important concept of superposition, which will
be described more fully in Chapter 3.
Note: The problem of “injecting” fluid is mathematically equivalent
to that of “producing” fluid, except for the sign, but it is probably
easier to visualise a positive pressure pulse propagating into the
reservoir, as occurs during injection, rather than a “negative”
pressure pulse propagating into the reservoir during production.
If we start injecting fluid at a rate Q (m3 /s) at time t = 0,
then, according to Eq. (2.1.22), the pressure at a distance R into the
reservoir will be
 ∞ −u
μQ e
P (R, t) = Pi + du, x = φμcR2 /4kt, (2.5.1)
4πkH x u
where t is the elapsed time since the start of injection, and Q
is defined here to be a positive number. The + sign appears in
Eq. (2.5.1) because, if we are injecting rather than extracting fluid,
the pressure in the reservoir should be greater than the initial
reservoir pressure.
Now imagine that we stop injecting fluid after a small amount
of time, δt. This is equivalent to injecting fluid at a rate Q starting
at t = 0, and then producing fluid at a rate Q (or, equivalently,
injecting at a rate −Q) starting at time δt. The pressure drawdown
in the reservoir due to this fictitious production would be given by
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38 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

the same line source solution, except that:

(1) For extraction of fluid we must use a “−” sign in front of the
integral;
(2) If t is the elapsed time since the start of injection, then t − δt will
be the elapsed time since the start of the fictitious extraction of
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fluid (i.e. since the end of the actual injection!)

Hence, the full expression for the pressure at location R and time
t will be
 ∞  ∞
μQ e−u μQ e−u
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P (R, t) = Pi + du − du
4πkH x= φμcR2 u 4πkH x= φμcR2 u
4kt 4k(t−δt)

 φμcR2
x= 4k(t−δt)
μQ e−u
= Pi + 2
du. (2.5.2)
4πkH x= φμcR u
4kt

But if δt is small, then the two limits of integration in the integral

on the right-hand side of Eq. (2.5.2) are close together, and we can
use the following approximation:
 x2
f (x)dx ≈ f (x1 )[x2 − x1 ], (2.5.3)
x1

which in the present case gives

 
μQ 4kt − φμcR
2
φμcR2 φμcR2
P (R, t) ≈ Pi + · · e 4kt · −
4πkH φμcR2 4k(t − δt) 4kt
 
μQ 4kt − φμcR
2
φμcR2 δt
≈ Pi + · · e 4kt ·
4πkH φμcR2 4kt2
μQδt − φμcR2
≈ Pi + e 4kt . (2.5.4)
4πkHt
As Q is the rate of injection in (m3 /s), and δt is the duration of
the injection, the total volume of injected fluid is Qδt, which we can
hereafter denote as Q∗, with units of (m3 ).
Imagine now that we are monitoring the pressure at some fixed
distance R from the borehole, for example, with a pressure gauge in
an observation well. Equation (2.5.4) shows that the pressure buildup
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Line Source Solution for a Vertical Well in an Infinite Reservoir 39

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Figure 2.3. Pressure buildup due to an injected pulse of fluid.

at R will be the product of two terms: an exponential term that

increases with t, and then levels off to the value of 1 as t → ∞; and a
term proportional to 1/t, that decays to zero as t → ∞. The product
of these increasing and decreasing terms creates a function that first
increases with time, and then decreases, as shown in Figure 2.3.
It seems reasonable to identify the “time at which the pressure
pulse has arrived at location R” with the time at which the pressure
buildup reaches its maximum value at R. This time can be found by
setting ∂P/∂t = 0 in Eq. (2.5.4):
 
∂P μQ∗ −1 φμcR2 − φμcR2
= + e 4kt , (2.5.5)
∂t R 4πkH t2 4kt3

∂P φμcR2
=0⇒t= , (2.5.6)
∂t R 4k
which provides a derivation of Eq. (1.6.12).

2.6. Estimating Permeability and Storativity

from a Drawdown Test
In Sections 2.1–2.4, we derived the line source solution, and showed
how to use it to calculate the pressure drawdown, based on assumed
knowledge of the reservoir properties. However, the most common
use of this solution, and the other solutions that we will derive in
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40 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

subsequent chapters, is for the inverse problem:

• We use measured wellbore pressures, in conjunction with the
mathematical solutions, to estimate reservoir properties such as
permeability, porosity, etc.
• This process, known as well test analysis, is the subject of a
subsequent module of this MSc course. For now, we will do one
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simple example to see how to calculate the reservoir permeability

from a drawdown test.
Recall from Eq. (2.4.8) that, in the late-time regime,
 
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μQ 2.246kt
P (R, t) = Pi − ln . (2.6.1)
4π kH φμcR2
At the wellbore wall,
  
μQ 2.246k
P (Rw , t) = Pi − ln t + ln 2
. (2.6.2)
4π kH φμcRw
In general, we will not know the values of most of the parameters
on the right-hand side of Eq. (2.6.2); we will only know Q, and
the wellbore pressure as a function of time, P (Rw , t) ≡ Pw (t). In
particular, we do not know k or φμc, so we cannot use criterion
(2.4.7) to find out when our data fall into the late-time regime.
However, the second logarithmic term, although unknown, is a
constant. Hence, if we plot Pw (t) versus ln t, the data will eventually,
at large enough values of t, fall on a straight line! The slope of this
line on a semi-log plot gives kH, i.e.

dPw ΔPw μQ
=
d ln t Δ ln t ≡ m = 4πkH , (2.6.3)

μQ
→ kH = . (2.6.4)
4πm
In practice, Q is known, and μ can be measured, so the semi-log
slope m gives us the permeability-thickness product, kH.
Note that this method is unable to distinguish separately between
the effects of permeability and thickness; i.e. a thick reservoir of low
permeability can give the same drawdown as a more permeable but
thinner reservoir.
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Line Source Solution for a Vertical Well in an Infinite Reservoir 41

Table 2.2. Drawdown data used to illustrate the

method for determining permeability.

t (mins) 1 5 10 20 30 60

Pw (psi) 4740 4667 4633 4596 4573 4535

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Figure 2.4. Semi-log straight line method for estimating the permeability from a
drawdown test.

Now, let us do a simple example to learn how to calculate the

permeability of a reservoir from a drawdown test.

Example: A well with 4 in. radius produces oil with viscosity 0.3 cP,
at a constant rate of 200 bbl/day, from a reservoir that is 15 ft. thick.
The wellbore pressure as a function of time is given in Table 2.2. Use
the “semi-log straight line” method to estimate the permeability, k.

(1) Plot wellbore pressure against the logarithm of time, as in

Figure 2.4.
(2) Look for a straight line at late times, and find its slope:

ΔP 4760 − 4510
m= = = 54.3 psi
Δ ln t 2 × 2.303
6895Pa
= 54.3 psi × = 374, 400 Pa.
psi
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42 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

Note: Δ ln t will have the same value, regardless of which units

are used for t!
(3) Calculate k from Eq. (2.6.4), first converting all data to SI:
0.001 Pa s
μ = 0.3 cP × = 0.0003 Pa s,
cP
0.1589 m3 m3
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bbl day hr
Q = 200 × × × = 3.68 × 10−4 ,
day bbl 24 hr 3600 s s
0.3048 m
H = 15ft × = 4.572 m
ft
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μQ (0.0003 Pa s)(3.68 × 10−4 m3 /s)

→k= =
4πmH 4π(4.572 m)(374, 400 Pa)
1mD
= 5.13 × 10−15 m2 × = 5.1 mD.
0.987 × 10−15 m2
We can also use a semi-log plot to estimate the storativity term,
φc. To see how this works, first note that on a semi-log plot of Pw
versus ln t, there are two asymptotic straight lines (see Figure 2.2).
At early times, Pw = Pi (i.e. a horizontal line). At late times, Pw
slopes downward as a function of ln t, according to Eq. (2.6.3).
At what time t∗ do these straight lines intersect? This occurs
when Pw (early t asymptote) = Pw (late t asymptote), i.e.
 
μQ 2.246kt∗
Pi = Pi − ln 2
4π kH φμcRw
 
2.246kt∗
→ ln 2
=0
φμcRw
2.246kt∗
→ 2
=1
φμcRw
φμcRw2
→ t∗ = ,
2.246k
which can be inverted to give the storativity
2.246kt∗
φc = 2
. (2.6.5)
μRw
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Line Source Solution for a Vertical Well in an Infinite Reservoir 43

Problems for Chapter 2

Problem 2.1. A well with 3 in. radius is located in a 40 ft. thick
reservoir that has a permeability of 30 mD and a porosity of 0.20. The
total compressibility of the oil-rock system is 3×10−5 /psi. The initial
pressure in the reservoir is 2800 psi. The well produces 448 bbl/day
of oil that has a viscosity of 0.4 cP. Conversion factors can be found
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in Problem 1.1.
(a) How long will it take in order for the line source solution to be
applicable at the wellbore wall?
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(b) What is the pressure at the wellbore after six days of production,
according to the line source solution?
(c) How long will it take in order for Jacob’s logarithmic approxi-
mation to be valid at the wellbore?
(d) What is the pressure at the wellbore after six days of production,
according to the logarithmic approximation?
(e) Answer questions (b)–(d) for a location that is 800 ft. (horizon-
tally) away from the wellbore.
Problem 2.2. A well with a radius of 0.3 ft. produces 200 bbl/day of
oil, with viscosity 0.6 cP, from a 20 ft. thick reservoir. The wellbore
pressures are given in the table below. Estimate the permeability and
the storativity of the reservoir, using the semi-log method described
in Section 2.6.

t(mins) 0 5 10 20 60 120 480 1440 2880 5760

Pw (psi) 4000 3943 3938 3933 3926 3921 3911 3904 3899 3894