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Prestressed Concrete Design Lecture Notes

Prestressed Concrete Design (University of Liverpool)

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PRESTRESSED CONCRETE DESIGN

Lecture 1 – Introduction to Prestressed Concrete Structures

Principles of Prestressed Concrete

 In a reinforced concrete beam subject to bending, the tensile zone cracks and all the tensile resistance
is provided by the reinforcement.

 Stress that may be permitted in the reinforcement is limited only by the need to keep the cracks in
concrete to acceptable widths under working conditions (thus no need for use of very high strength
steels which are available)
 Design is therefore uneconomic in 2 respects:
◊ Dead weight includes ‘useless’ concrete in the tensile zone
◊ Economic use of steel resources is not possible
 ‘Prestressing’ means artificial creation of stresses in the structure before loading, so that the stresses
which then exist under loading are more favourable/efficient.
 As concrete is strong in compression the material in a beam will be used most efficiently if it can be
maintained in a state of compression throughout.
 Presence of a longitudinal compressive force acting on a concrete beam may therefore be overcome
the disadvantage of reinforced concrete listed above.
 Not only is the concrete fully utilised, but the need for conventional tension reinforcement is removed.
 The compressive strength is usually provided by tensioned steel wires or strands which are anchored
against the concrete and, since the stress in this steel is not an important factor in the behaviour of the
beam but merely a means of applying the appropriate force, full advantage may be made of very high
strength steels.

 The way in which the stresses due to bending and an applied compressive source may be combined is
demonstrated in pic. In the case of an axially applied force acting over the length of a beam, the stress
distribution at any section will be equal to sum of the compression and bending stresses.
 It is therefore possible to determine the applied force so that the combined stresses are always
compressive.

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 If the compressive force is applied eccentrically, a further stress distribution – due to the bending
effects of the couple thus created – is added.
 This offers further advantages when attempting to produce working stresses within required limits.
Methods of prestressing
 There are two basic techniques commonly employed in the construction of prestressed concrete.
 The difference between the two is primarily about whether the steel tensioning is carried about before
or after the hardening of the concrete.
 The choice of method is governed by the type and size of the member coupled with the specification of
either a precast element or an element constructed in situ.
 PRETENSIONING
◊ In this method the steel wires or strands are
stretched to the required tension and anchored to
the ends of the moulds for the concrete
◊ The concrete is cast around the tensioned steel, and
when it has reached sufficient strength, the anchors
are released and the force in the steel is transferred
to the concrete by bond,
◊ There is an immediate drop in prestress force due to
elastic shortening of the concrete as well as
occurrence of long-term losses due to creep,
shrinkage and relaxation.
◊ Due to the dependence on bond, the tendons for this form of construction generally consist of
small dimeter wires or small strands which have good bond characteristics
◊ Anchorage near the ends of these wires is often enhanced by the provision of small indentations in
the surface of the wire
◊ This method is ideally suited for factory production where many identical units economically made
under controlled conditions – e.g. long line system where several units can be cast at once, end-to-
end, and the tendons merely cut between each member.
◊ An advantage of factory production: specialised curing techniques such as steam curing can be
employed to increase the rate of hardening of the concrete and allow earlier transfer of prestress.

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 POST-TENSIONING
◊ This method is the most suitable for in situ construction
◊ It involves the stressing against the hardened concrete of tendons or steel bars which are not
bonded to the concrete.
◊ The tendons are passed through a flexible sheathing which is cast into the concrete into the correct
position.
◊ They are tensioned by jacking against the concrete and anchored mechanically by means of steel
thrust plates or anchorage blocks at each end of the member.
◊ Alternatively, steel bars threaded at their ends may be tensioned against bearing plates by means
of tightening nuts.
◊ It is necessary to wait for the concrete to become sufficiently strong under in situ conditions before
stressing.
◊ The use of tendons consisting of a number of strands passing through flexible sheathing offers
considerable upside in that curved tendon profiles can be used.

◊ A post-tensioned structural member may be constructed from an assembly of pre-cast units which
are constrained to act together by a means of tensioned cables which are often curved as
illustrated above.
◊ Alternatively, the member may be cast as one unit in the normal way but a light case of
untensioned reinforcing steel is necessary to hold the ducts in position during concreting.
◊ After casting, the remaining space in ducts may be filled via high pressure with grout (‘bonded’) or
left empty (‘unbonded’)
◊ Although the grouting assists in transferring forces between the steel and concrete under live loads
– and improves the ultimate strength of the member – the principal use is to protect steel from
corrosion
◊ The bonding of the highly stressed steel with the surrounding concrete beam also greatly assists
with demolition as the beam can be safely chopped up w/out release of stored energy (could be
dangerous).
 Prestressing Materials
◊ Prestressing Wire
 Types: smooth, indented, Crimped
 Diameter: 4-7mm dia.
 Characteristic Strength: 1510-1770MPa
 Force: up to 60kN
 Elastic Modulus: 205GPa
◊ Prestressing Strands
 Types: Standard, Super, Dyform
 All sizes: 8-18mm dia.
 Characteristic Strength: 1670-1860MPa
 Force: up to 380kN
 Elastic modulus: 195GPa

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◊ Prestressing Bars
 Types: smooth, ribbed
 All sizes: 20-75 mm dia.
 Characteristic strength: 1000-1100 MPa
 Elastic Modulus: 170 & 205Spa
 Standard Bridge beams include pre-cast Y-beams, pre-cast Y-beam deck, precast U-Beams, Precast U-
beam deck, Precast Double Tee Beams, Precast Floor Slabs (Hollowcore)
 Standard pre-tensioned precast beams such as the inverted T, I, M, Y and U beams are widely used in
the UK
 Hollowcore – very common for residential buildings. Precast floor slab called hollowcore. Optimised
cross section: number of different types of cores available.

Lecture 2 – Serviceability General Equations and Transfer Conditions

 Aims of Prestressing
◊ To make the concrete section fully elastic K3
K2
◊ More efficient use of the concrete
◊ To span greater distances
◊ To balance the applied loads
K1
◊ This graph shows difference in behaviour between
an RC beam and a PSC beam
◊ When a sagging bending is applied to a beam, the
top half is under compression and the bottom half
is under tension
◊ Concrete does not resist tension well – has a low tensile strength – we neglect it
◊ Under tension, cracks will form at the bottom of the beam in such a scenario: it’s why
reinforcement is used in this region.
◊ The beam starts with an initial stiffness where the load is proportional to the deflection. But the
beam loses stiffness when the cracks occur, changing the gradient of line/relationship between the
two variables.
◊ This is what happens at the ‘RC cracking’ point on the graph: the RC member starts to crack and
the beam loses stiffness.
◊ The next phase is when the beam reaches the ultimate limit state, which corresponds to the
ultimate moment.
◊ This is idealised behaviour – we like linear behaviour – we assume when the beam reaches
yielding, the system responds with no stiffness, i.e. a flat response. K3 = 0.
◊ This is a typical response of reinforced concrete structures.
◊ We don’t like this kind of response because cracks may be detrimental for the performant of the
structure, particularly in harsh environments.
◊ This is a benefit of using prestressed concrete. The formation of cracks can be avoided until
greater loads.
◊ In terms of response, we do not start from 0, because the system already has an initial stress: gives
us an initial deflection.
◊ As we have compressed the section – centrally or w/ eccentricity – the system has the same
stiffness compared to the RC beam, but start from a non-zero deflection.
◊ There is a translation of the response to the left of the graph.
◊ When the force is increased, the cracks occur, but at much larger forces. Delays the formation of
cracks.

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◊ Again, there is a reduction in stiffness, but a smaller zone/range as ~same ultimate moment.
◊ The important part is the initial stages. The concrete is used more efficiently and is more durable.
◊ It is more expensive to produce this type of component.
◊ Can have longer span with same height of beam.
 Sign Convention
◊ Stresses (/s)
 Compression: +ve
 Tension: -ve
◊ Moment (M):
 Positive if t>b, i.e. a sagging moment
◊ Eccentricity of prestress (e):
 +ve downwards
 Calculation of the 2nd Moment of area:

 Use a tabular format:

 Section Modulus
◊ Defined previously the section modulus, which is very important because it relates to the engineers
bending equation
◊ The Engineers bending equation:
◊ = =
 y is the elevation of the fibre considered with respect to the centroid
 R is the curvature
◊ From the first 2 terms, this gives 𝑀 =
◊ Easy derivation of the bending moment
◊ This is why the section modulus is important, because can be defined as 𝑍 =
◊ This a property of the member

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◊ Therefore, 𝑀 = 𝜎𝑍 or 𝜎 =
◊ Allows designer to easily determine stress in a given section or ultimate moment
 Beam with axial prestress.

◊ When a beam with a simple axial prestress is under a sagging bending moment, the stress
distribution shown is found. There is compression in the top and tension in the bottom
◊ The stress in the top and bottom may be related to the bending moment via the section modulus
◊ Elastic modulus different at top and bottom
◊ The notation dictates tensile stress signified by negative magnitude, hence minus sign

◊ When the force is introduced, centrally, the prestress is introduced as compressive stress in all
fibres. A uniform compressive stress.
◊ The end result is found by summing stress in each fibre.
◊ At the bottom, the compression from prestress and tension from bending strain distribution is
found. Results – in this case – with small net compressive force. This is the aim of prestressed
concrete design: want to have compression to avoid formation of cracks
◊ Means we can derive an expression for stress at top and bottom by summing contributions at top
and bottom.
◊ Second term negative as a tensile stress
◊ Under maximum loading conditions (Mmax)
 𝜎 = + (1)
 𝜎 = − (2)
◊ Under minimum loading conditions
 𝜎 = + (3)
 𝜎 = − (4)
◊ For MAXIMUM loading condition, guaranteeing no tension in the beam, equation 2 becomes
 𝜎 = − =0
◊ This can be rearranged to find the minimum value of prestress
 = , or 𝑃 =

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◊ Therefore, the maximum stress in the top of the section can be found via substitution of Mmax to be
 𝜎 = +
 𝜎 =
◊ We need to check the stress at the top in order to avoid crushing of the concrete
◊ Conclusions
» The top is always in considerable compression if prestress is applied axially w/out eccentricity
» More efficient use of concrete if the stress range at the top is similar to stress range at bottom.
This can be achieved with the use of eccentric prestress force
 Eccentric Prestress
◊ In this case we are interested in load applied to structure/section with a given eccentricity

◊ It can be decomposed as the summation of 2 contributions

» The first, p, is similar to what has been discussed so far
» The second is a bending moment, M, which is equal to the P – the applied force – times the
eccentricity

◊ In this case, following the same steps as before, we have the axial prestress – the first contribution
– and the additional strain – the second contribution – which is caused by the eccentricity of
prestress
◊ This additional prestress is in the form of tension at the top and compression at the bottom.
◊ As a final stress distribution, we have compression on top and at base
◊ New stresses at top and bottom given by
» 𝜎 = + −
» 𝜎 = − +

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 Outer Fibre stresses with eccentric prestress

◊ Under maximum loading conditions (Mmax)
» 𝜎 = + − (5)
» 𝜎 = − + (6)
◊ Under minimum loading conditions
» 𝜎 = + − (7)
» 𝜎 = − + (8)
 Concrete stresses with eccentric prestress
◊ Critical condition for no tension in the bottom of the beam, equation 6 becomes
» 𝜎 = − + =0
◊ So
» 𝑃=

◊ Or
» 𝑀 =𝑃 +𝑒
◊ In the axial prestress scenario, Mmax was found to be equal to 𝑀 =𝑃 , so the increase in
moment capacity is Pe.
◊ Therefore the value you obtain now is larger than you could previously: more efficient
◊ However, the max stress at the top – given equation 5 – is found to be
» 𝜎 =
◊ This is the same as for the axial prestress case
 Comparing axial and eccentric prestress
◊ The increase in moment capacity of the beam due to the presence of eccentricity of prestress = Pe
◊ The top fibre stress are the same axial and eccentric prestress cases – do not vary
◊ Eccentric prestress allows the moment capacity you increase for the same extreme fibre stresses.

Lecture 3 – Section Sizing and Prestress Design

 Transfer: how the forces are introduced in the beam considered

 Principle of Limit State Design – a general approach found in codes that considers 2 limit states:
ultimate limit state & serviceability limit state
 2 different conditions/ types of checks you have to deal with when designing a structure
 Ultimate limit states (ULS) are those associated with structural failure are concern
◊ Safety of people - priority
◊ Safety of the structure
 Serviceability limit sate (SLS) correspond to conditions beyond which specified service requirements are
no longer met and concern:
◊ The functioning of the structure (durability)
◊ The comfort of the people; and
◊ appearance
» In some cases need to define with the client
 Key serviceability limit states for structural concrete are
◊ Cracking
◊ Deflection
◊ Vibration – generally neglected for concrete, but relevant for long spans

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 The design of a prestressed concrete member is based on maintaining the concrete stresses within
specified limits at all stages of the life of the members
 Hence, the primary design is based on the serviceability limit state, with the concrete stress limits based
on the acceptable degree of flexural cracking, the necessity to prevent excessive creep and the need to
ensure that excessive compression does not result in longitudinal and micro cracking
 SLS equations with stress limits
◊ Under maximum loading conditions (Mmax)
» 𝜎 = + − ≤𝑓 (9)
» 𝜎 = − + ≥𝑓 (10)
◊ Under minimum loading conditions (Mmin)
» 𝜎 = + − ≥𝑓 (11)
» 𝜎 = − + ≤𝑓 (12)
◊ What are we doing when we are checking these equations? fmax corresponds to the value at which
concrete crushes, fmin the minimum value of resistance, i.e. tensile strength. Need to avoid
exceeding capacity of concrete.
◊ We aim to avoid cracks at the bottom.
 The allowable concrete compressive tress in bending is given in EC2 as limited to
◊ 0.6 fck under the action of characteristic loads
◊ 0.45 fck under the action of quasi-permanent loads
 Transfer
 At initial transfer of prestress to the concrete, the prestress force will be considerably higher than the
long-term value as a result of subsequent loses which are due to various causes including elastic
shortening, creep and shrinkage of the concrete member.
 Since these loses start immediately, the condition at transfer represents a transitionary stage in the life
of a member – must consider limiting both the compressive and tensile forces at this stage.
 The concrete at this stage is also usually relatively immature and not at full strength, hence transfer is
a critical stage and should be considered carefully
◊ Prestress force (at transfer): P0
◊ Permissible stresses: f’max & f’min
◊ Loss factor: K (Long term P=kP0) = approx. 0.8
◊ When forces are applied using either post or pre-tensioning, there is a loss of stress
◊ The properties of concrete at initial application of force are not the same through life – properties
change with time. The max/min stresses change – not constant but vary with time.
◊ Start from a smaller value of max/min stress when concrete is cast
◊ Conventional time at which concrete is cast s
◊ The compressive stress at transfer should be limited to 0.6 fck where fck is based on the strength
of the concrete at transfer.
◊ The tensile strength should be limited to 1 MPa for sections designed not to be in tension.

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 Transfer equations

◊ Common critical cases (condition you have to consider when designing):

» Minimum moment at transfer
» Maximum moment at transfer
◊ At transfer
» 𝜎′ = + − ≥ 𝑓′ (13)
» 𝜎′ = − + ≤ 𝑓′ (14)
◊ In service
» 𝜎 = + − ≤𝑓 (15)
» 𝜎 = − + ≥𝑓 (16)
 Applying same equation as derived in lecture 2, but under 2 conditions: the transfer and the service
 At transfer the stresses at top and bottom are named 𝜎′ & 𝜎′ , signifying the conditions of the applied
load, i.e. they correspond to the application of P0, the value of prestress before losses.
 Value of Mmin is used because under this condition, there is no application of external loads. Only need
to consider self-weight.
 f'min is different from fmin due to how concrete strengthens with time
 Stress limits
◊ The main Serviceability Limit State design criteria is stress limitation
◊ Deflection is also important, but considered later
◊ Also, vibration to lesser extent
◊ Stresses fmin and fmax are limited to
» Ensure an acceptable degree of flexural cracking - minimise
» Prevent excessive creep
» Prevent excessive compressive stresses to avoid crushing
◊ The stress limits are defined by EC2 and the UK national annex
◊ The stresses that need to be considered in design are:
» Tendon stresses – both during jacking and at transfer
» Concrete stresses (both compressive and tensile) at transfer and in service

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 Permissible steel stress limits:

◊ The steel used in chords is not ordinary steel – has high strength = not v. ductile
◊ Limiting stress 𝜎 ( ) in prestressing steel immediately after tensioning or transfer
» 𝜎 ( ) ≤ min 0.75𝑓 ; 0.85𝑓 .
» Should be a fraction of the maximum stress of the tendon, fpk
» Must take a minimum of 0.75 * yield stress of steel or 0.85* stress generated in steel for a
corresponding to strain of 0.002 (conventional value found in codes)
 Permissible concrete stress limits
◊ At transfer
» Compression: f’max = 0.6fck(t)
» Where fck(t) is the characteristic compressive strength at time of transfer
» Tension f’min = -1 MPa
◊ In service
» Compression: fmax = 0.6fck
» Compressive stresses under quasi-permanent loads should not exceed 0.45fck
» Tension: fmin = fctm (Though depends on exposure conditions)
» Economic solutions can be achieved by allowing tensile stresses or even limited cracking to
exist. But often concrete – especially highway structures – are design to remain in
compression, i.e. fmin = 0 MPa
» Design criteria must be agreed with the client.
 Design Process
◊ Application of SLS theory
◊ Involves manipulation of basic equations to determine
» Section size
» Amount of prestress
» Eccentricity
» Tendon profiles
 The transfer equations:
◊ At transfer
» 𝜎′ = + − ≥ 𝑓′ (13)
» 𝜎′ = − + ≤ 𝑓′ (14)
◊ In service
» 𝜎 = + − ≤𝑓 (15)
» 𝜎 = − + ≥𝑓 (16)
 The two pairs of expressions can be combined to form:
◊ (13) & (15)
» (𝑀 − 𝐾𝑀 ) ≤ (𝑓 − 𝐾𝑓 ) 𝑍 (17)

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◊ (14) & (16)

» (𝑀 − 𝐾𝑀 ) ≤ (𝐾𝑓 −𝑓 )𝑍 (18)
 Hence if 𝑀 = (𝑀 − 𝐾𝑀 ), the moment variation
◊ 𝑧 ≥( )
(19)
 And
◊ 𝑧 ≥( )
(20)
 In equations (19) and (20), for Zb and Zt, it can be assumed w/ sufficient accuracy that Mmax is
dependent on self-weight and imposed load and that Mmin is equal to self-weight only
 In effect, the calculations for Mv become independent of the dead load
 Our first aim is to size a section – don’t know what it will look like – must define the geometry of the
section. This is possible because in (19) and (20), we know all the variables in the second term
 For preliminary sizing, 𝑀 = 𝑀 −𝑀
» 𝑀 =

Example:

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 The maximum moment on the section has not directly been included in these figures, thus it is possible
that the resulting prestress force may not be economical or practical.
 It is found in most cases that if a section is chosen which satisfy these minimum requirements, coupled
with any other specified requirements regarding the shape of the section, then a satisfactory design is
usually possible.
 The ratio of acceptable span to depth for a prestressed beam cannot be categorised on the basis of the
deflections as easily as for reinforced concrete
 Rule of thumb: In the absence of other criteria, the following may be used as a guide and will generally
produce conservative designs for post-tensioned members.
◊ For spans <= 36m
» ℎ= + 0.1𝑚
◊ For spans > 36m
» ℎ=
 Another factor to be considered
» ≤( ⁄ ) ⁄
with ℎ⁄𝑏 ≤ 2.5 EC2
 In the case of short-span members can use much bigger span-depth ratios but resulting prestress
forces may become v high.
 Tables from fabricators can be used to size beams – details section size etc, load resistance

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Methods of tensioning

 Internal post-tensioning

◊ Cables are inserted into the cross section.

◊ When the reinforcement of your bridge deck is laid – the ordinary reinforcement that is always
present to resist shear – there have some points at the connection where the cables/tendons are
anchored.
◊ The cones are wedges that block/hold tendons after they are prestressed.
◊ Cross section shows tendons in their ducts. The tendons cannot be left exposed to the open air
because they are stretched to v high tensile stresses.
◊ Grout is introduced to provide protection by preventing the occurrence of corrosion – if cables
corrode, then the cables lose their effectiveness – can lose ability to withstand stresses anymore –
large reduction in cross section.
 External post-tensioning
◊ Strands can be placed outside of the cross-section
◊ 2 main cases – new construction and as retrofitting measures – number of bridges have been
retrofitted using this technique, don’t need to drill anything into the bridge deck.
◊ Advantages of external post-tensioning
» Ease of concrete placing due to the absence of tendons in the webs
» Ease of tendon installation – independent from the concrete works
» Webs can be made thinner – overall lighter structure
» Less prestress force required because more flexibility – can be placed in more appropriate
places
» Reduction of friction losses
» External tendons can be replaced – easier maintenance.
» Simplified structural detailing
» Strengthening capabilities – can retrofit and increase strength
 Flat slab – post tensioning
◊ Can be used when we want to minimise the use of columns
◊ Cables in 2 directions - biaxial
 Bonded tendons
◊ Defined in the UK, country you are in – patented system
◊ A way of connecting with cone, material that is used
 Unbonded tendons
◊ Means that not going to have the system that is bonded with the external part
◊ Strand coated for protection – steel requires high
maintenance because we want to avoid losing
prestress.

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 Design of prestress force

◊ Re-arranging the transfer equations (13) to (16) to find expression of allowable values of P0 to
ensure stress limits always met
» From equation (15) 𝑃 ≤ (21)

» From equation (13) 𝑃 ≥ (22)

» From equation (16) 𝑃 ≥ (23)

» From equation (14) 𝑃 ≤ (24)

◊ e can be an unknown
◊ In (21) & (22), it is possible that the denominator might be negative if e>zt/A. In this case, the type
(sense?) of inequality would have to change due the effect of dividing by a negative number.
◊ These equations give a range within which the prestress force must lie to ensure allowable stress
conditions met.
◊ Although a range of values of permissible prestress force can be found this makes no allowance
for the fact that the corresponding eccentricity must lie within the beam. Necessary to limit
eccentricity to a maximum practical value for the section under consideration. Such limits depend
on minimum cover which has several considerations like exposure and structural class when
determining.
 Maximum eccentricity
◊ The effect of this limitation above will be most severe when considering the maximum moments
acting on the section, i.e. under conditions of (15) and (16).
◊ If the limiting value for max eccentricity emax depends on cover requirements,
» From (15) 𝑀 ≤𝑓 𝑍 − 𝐾𝑃 −𝑒 (25)
» From (16) 𝑀 ≥ 𝐾𝑃 −𝑒 −𝑓 𝑍 (26)
◊ These are linear relationships
◊ Can be plotted on a graph

◊ Can be seen that providing a prestress force in excess of Y’ produces only small benefits in terms of
additional moment capacities
◊ The value of Y’ is given bu the intersection of (25) and (26), i.e when the two are set equal. Thus,
can be rearranged to find
» 𝑃 = (27)

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◊ Therefore, the value of prestress force P0=Y’ may be considered as a max economic value beyond
which any increase in prestress force would be matched by a diminishing rate of increase in
moment carrying capacity.
◊ If a force beyond limit is required, may be more economical to consider increasing size of section.

Design Example

 This is a cumversome method an is usually not used in design – Magnel diagram used instead.

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Lecture 4 – Magnel Diagram and Tendon Profiles

 Previously found the 4 inequalities for P0 – can now find possible values for an assumed eccentricity
 H/ need solving again and again for each value of eccentricity – very tedious and repetitive. Not
practical
 For some eccentricirties, no solutions for P0 – not complient with the cross section
 A much more successful approached proposeed by Magnel
 If equations (13) to (16) were rearranged, they can be expressed as liner realtions between 1/P0 and e.
 Eg, from equation (15)

» ≥

 All other terms are constants

 When all 4 inequalities are plotted on a single graph, they reveal an area where combinations of P0
and e satisfy all 4 inequalities
 This construction is known as a Magnel Diagram
 The four magnell inequalities:

» From (15) ≥ (28)

» From (16) ≥ (29)

» From (17) ≥ (30)

» From (18) ≥ (31)

 We can plot these on a graph, with 1/P0 on the vertical axis and e on the horizontal axis.
 The area on one side of the line, as defined by inequality, can be elimiminated.

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 Equation (28) and (29) intersects x-axis Zt/A from the origin

 If line (29) and line (28) do not meet on your diagram, then you have made an error. A check.
 (30) and (31) intersect the axis at the same point too, negative Zb/A away from origin too.
 Therefore, the intesections with the x-axis only depend on the geometry of the section
 Must also plot the maximum allowable eccentrcity – e cannot be outside cross-section
 The line (28) can have a positive or – as in this case – negative gradient. This is dependednt on whether
fmax is greater or less than Mmax/Zt.
 Permissable zone now has been identified where 1/P0 and e can be satisfied – compatible with all 4
inequalities.
 The value you should use from this zone depends on the design of beam and optimisation.
 Magnel diagram is a powerful design tool as it covers all possible solutions of the inequality equations
and enables a range of presstress force and ecentricity values to be investigated.
 The maximum value of P0 is found at the lowest single point in the area (remember, y axis is inverse of
P0)
 In practice, this value would mean you kad no tolerance for error – remember, dealing with RC, which
has some randomness: don’t want to rely on tolerance
 Also means more money necessary as must introduce a lot of presstress – the more prestress used in a
beam, the more energy needs to be expended and thus money.
 In the oter case – the minimum value of P0 – is found at highest single point in the permissable area.
 This is the optimum point from price consideration as lowest energy needed, but yet again no
tolerance.
 The range of possible eccentricity can be determined for a chosed presstress force.

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 The diagram shows that for a minimum prestress force (the largest value of 1/P0) corresponds to the
value of greatest eccentriciry and as eccentriciry is reduced, the presstress force must be increased to

compensate.
 Here, the Magnell diagram has been flipped by 90 degrees.
 Four lines plotted as normal.
 Shows nicely the physical range of eccentricity possible
 The further left a point is on the magnel diagram, the lower the presstress value needed.

Design Example.

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 Design of tendon profiles

◊ Having obtained a value of presstress froce which will
permit all stress conditions satisfied at a critical section, it is
necessary to determine the eccentricity at which this force
must be provided, not only at the critical section, but
throughout the entire length of the member.
◊ Bending moment in a simply supported beam w/ cantilever
part at one end & UDL . Sagging and hogging moments.
Where should the prestressing be placed? There are
different options.
◊ Option 1: prestressed tendons only placed at the bottom
» Constant depth across entire length of the beam with
no curve or variation across span makes for simple
construction
» Efficent only at midspan – only optimsed here
» Not effective when considering the condition at the
support; here, the top part of the beam is under
tension at due to the imposed load. This situation is
worsened by the prestress increasing the tensile
stress at the top. This profile is therefore counter
productive over the support.
◊ Option 2: prestressed tendons placed only at the top
» Similar to option 1 in that it is similarly easy to
construct with straight tendon at constant depth, but
above centroid, and no variation in profile over the
length of the section.
» Advantage of efficiency over the support – here
presstress now benificial to resisting bending
moment
» However, the layout is counter-productive at
midspan where tensile stress is exaceerbated.
◊ Option 3: Combination of the previous 2 solutions
» Again utilises straight horizontal profile - easiest way
of placing tendons.
» This has the physical benefits of benitfit of options 1
– optimised solution for both the midspan and the
at support. Cracks prevented from forming at these
locations.
» This is not an easy way to construct a prestressed
beam – there is no continuity along the length of the
beam – technological issues – want to go from 1
edge to the other – want anchorage on either end.
Technically possible but not practical

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◊ Option 4: Curved profile

» What is done in reality
» Complex – requires more workmanship
» Follows/mimics the bending moment diagram
because BMD by convention placed on the tension
face – in the zone most vulverable to cracking.
» Requires post tensioning – very hard to achieve
with pre-tensioning.
 At any section along the member, e is the only unknown term in the four equations (13) t0 (16).
 These equations – when rearranged - yield 2 upper and 2 lower limits which must be simultaneous ly
satisfied for every section along the length of the beam
 The design equations can be rewritten as
◊ At transfer
» From (13) 𝑒≤ − + (32)

» From (14) 𝑒≤ − + + (33)

◊ In service
» From (15) 𝑒≤ − + (34)

» From (16) 𝑒≤ − + + (35)

 If the cross-section is constant and small variation in P0 along the length of the beam are ignored, then
the terms bounded by [] are constant.
 Cable zone limits

◊ For a constant section, if the top stresses at transfer (32) and btm streses in service (35) are critical
◊ Minimum cable zone width (w) = e (eqn 32) – e (eqn 35)
◊ At the critical section, w is generally norrow. If P0 is the minimum theoretically allowable, then w =
0 at the critical section.
◊ This allows no tolerance.
◊ Therefore choose a P0 to ensure adequate w tendon tolerances:
» 50mm tolerance needed for post tensioning
» 20mm tolerance needed for pre tenisoning
◊ Equations 33 and 34 must also be checked
◊ At sections away from the critical section, the zone becomes increasingly wider than the minimum
required.
◊ In the case of uniform loading, the bending moment envelopes are parabolic, therefore normally a
parabolic tendon profiles is specified if a straight profile will not fit through the zone.
◊ From the Magnel diagram, it can be seen that for any chosen value of prestress force, there is an
eccentricity range within which the resultant tnedon force must lie.

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◊ As the force approaches a vlaue correspondig to the top and bottom limits of the diagram, the
width of the avaliable cable zone diminishes until at the very extremities the upper and loer limits
of eccentricity coincide, giving zero width of the cable zone.
◊ Practically, therefore, a prestress force will be chosen which has a value in between the upper and
lower limits of permissable force while ensuring that – for the chosen P0 – there is a resoably wide
cable zone.
◊ The prestressing cables must also satisfy the requirements of cover, minimum spacing between
tendons, availiable size of tendond and so on
◊ A number of options will be considered – the advantage of the Magnell diagram is that a range of
alternatives can be considered w/out necessity of many calculations

Lecture 5 - Losses and Deflections

 From the moment that the presstressing force is first applied to the concrete member, losses occur due
to:
◊ Elastic shortening of the concrete (immediate)
◊ Creep of th the concrete under sustained compression (long term)
◊ Relaxation of the prestressing steel under sustained tension (long term)
◊ Shrinkage of the concrete (long term)
 These loses will occur whatever the form of cnstrucution is uded, although the effects of elatic
shortening will generall be much reduced when post-tensioning is used.
 The main loss is due to effective shortening of the tendon (but also friction in the post tensioning ducts
in that case)
◊ Some losses are linked to instantaneous effect and long term effects – should keep in mind in
order to understand these 2 types of losses, some materials – like concrete – have mechanical
properties which are not constant with time. There can be significant variation.
◊ Must consider what happens when a force applied instantaneously – the instantanuous effect –
and when there is a delay – a period of time between the application of load and the time of the
check performed. This is a long term effect.
 In some cases there are common losses that occur in both Pre and Post tensioning – independent of
technology. Some are unique.
 Typically losses can be quantified in the range of 20-30% - a good approxiamation for initial design.
 Creep and shrinkgae losses depend mostly on the properties of the concrete w/ particular referance to
the maturity of concrete at time of stressing.
 In pretensioning – where the concrete is narmally relatively immature at transfer – the associted losses
can be bigger than expected in post-tensioning.
 Losses that occur only with post tensioning:
◊ Friction in the ducts (immediate)
◊ Losses at anchorage (immediate)
 NB: immediate losses affect transfer.
 Elastic shortening of concrete:
◊ Concrete will immediately shorten ellastically when compressed.
◊ The concrete and steel work & act together and therefore the elastic shortening in both must be
the same due to compatability. As a consequnce, there is a correpsonding loss in prestress.
◊ Steel is already stressed, so shortening the steel reduces the tension (i.e. prestress) it carries.
◊ To calculate this loss, it is necessary to obtain the compressive strain at the depth of the steel.
◊ If the transfer loss is P0 and the force after elastic forces is P’
» 𝑃 = 𝑃 − 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒

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◊ Stress, strain, Young’s Modulus and associated force are all related. If the strain at the level of the
tendons can be forund, the force can also be determined.
◊ Hence,
» 𝑃 =𝑃 −𝛼 𝑃 1+
◊ So that
» 𝑃 =

◊ Where
𝐸
» 𝛼 is the modular ratio: 𝐸
» 𝐸 is the modulus of elasticity of steel
» 𝐸 is the secant modulus of elasticity of concrete
◊ Note:
» In pretensioned concrete, this value is the full loss
» In post-tensioned concrete, this loss ranges from 0-50% of this value. This depends on whether
the all the tendons are stressed simultaneously (0%), or sequentially (50%)
» So, half this loss is often taken for post-tensioned.
 Creep of Concrete
◊ The sustained compressive stress on concrete will also cause long-
term shortening due to creep, which will similarly casuse a long
term reduction in prestress force
◊ As before, the concrete stress at the level of pre-stress is given by
» 𝜎 = 1+
◊ And loss of streel stress is
» 𝐸 𝜎 × specific creep strain
◊ Thus
» Loss of pre-stress force = 𝐸 𝑃 1+
( , )
◊ The value of specific creep strain can be found in EC2:
.

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 Steel Relaxation
◊ The steel is affected by another long-term phenomenon; relaxation.
◊ Relaxation is difficult to study
◊ Despite developments in prestressing steel manufacture, relaxation of the tendons under
sustained tension will still play significant toll.
◊ The precise value will depend on whether pre-tensioning or post-tensioning is used.
◊ EC2 provides a design guide on how to account for this effect.
◊ EC2, clause 3.3.2 (4)P defines three classes of pre-stressing steel:

◊ Relaxation is dependent upon the type of steel used

» Class 1 steel is where ordinary relaxation takes place
» As soon as you move into higher classes –class 2 & 3 – the level of relaxation is lower and
lower. Reflects progress of manufacturing better steel
» If dealing with class 2, still use wire strands but relaxation is lower. Obviously beneficial.
» Class 3 even less relaxation than class 2. Less significant with increased class.
» How to quantify class? Depends on the manufacturer.
◊ When using a strand, it is normal to specify class 2 – low relaxation

◊ The table provide relaxation losses as a percentage of the initial stress.

◊ Temperature is also very important – in this table, temp is 20 degrees C
◊ First select which type of steel you are using. Then, select value of the initial prestress – e.g. 60% of
the yield strength of the steel. If the desired value is between the given values, then linear
interpolation may be used. The losses are a function of time - owing to mechanics of relaxation –
and are thus given as a percentage of initial stress after a given timeframe.
◊ In most practical cases, the transfer steel stress is about 70% of the characteristic strength and
relaxation losses are likely to be ~4-10%.
 Shrinkage of Concrete
◊ The loss of prestress due to shrinkage depends on the curing conditions and concrete maturity of
transfer.
◊ The values are based on empirical figures for shrinkage/unit length of concrete (𝜀 ) for different
circumstances.
◊ Typical figures of the shrinkage strain (𝜀 ) range from
» 230 × 10 for UK outdoor exposure (80% relative humidity), to
» 550 × 10 for indoor exposure (50% relative humidity)
» Units typically given in micro strains, i.e. × 10 , so quite small (although can be significant
with large beam)
◊ Shrinkage depends upon the notional size of the member (h0)
◊ The loss is given by 𝜀 𝐸
◊ So, the loss of pre-stress force is 𝜀 𝐸 𝐴

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 Friction in ducts (post-tensioning only)

◊ When a post-tensioned cable is stressed, it will move relative to the duct and other cables within
the duct.
◊ Friction will tend to resist this movement, hence reducing effective prestress force at positions
remote from the jacking point.
◊ This friction has two components - may be divided into unintentional profile variation (wobble
effects) and those due to designed curvature of ducts.
◊ Profile variation:
» Wobble effects in straight ducts will usually be present. If P0 = jack force, and PX = cable force
at distance x from the jack then it is generally estimated that
» 𝑃 =𝑃 𝑒
» Where
- e is the base of Napierian logs (2.718)
- k is the unintentional angular displacement per unit length (generally in range 0.005 – 0.01
rads/m)
- x is the distance from the jack
◊ Curved ducts:
» Duct curvature will generally cause greater prestress force losses.
» It is given by
» 𝑃 =𝑃 𝑒
» Where:
- 𝜇 is the coefficient of friction (usually 0.17 for cold drawn wire & 0.19 for strand)
- 𝜃 is the sum of angular displacements over distance x.
- If the duct curvature is not constant, the profile must be subdivided into sections, each
assumed to have a constant curvature.
- In this case P0 is taken as the force at the jacking end of the section, x as the length of the
segment and Px as the force at the end remote from the jack, which then becomes P0 for the
next section and so on.
◊ Therefore, total friction loss at x is ∆𝑃 = 𝑃 1 − 𝑒 ( )

◊ The above effects may be combined to produce an effective prestress force diagram for a member
◊ If friction losses are high then it might be worthwhile to jack simultaneously from both ends - in
which case the 2 diagrams may be superimposed, maintaining symmetry of prestress force relative
to the length of the member.
 Losses of anchorages
◊ When post-tensioned tendons are ‘locked-off’ at the
anchorage there is invariably some loss of prestress
due to slippage or ‘wedge set’ occurs of the anchorage
◊ Causes a loss of stress in the system.
◊ System dependent - Advice should be sought from the
manufacturers of the anchorage systems or from
European technical approval documents
◊ Generally quantified by Approx. 4-6mm

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Design Example

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 Deflections
 Checks are required at 3 stages:
◊ At transfer (short-term)
◊ Dead load (before finishes)
◊ Full term (long term)
 When dealing with SLS, need to be conscious of time variable – must perform at least 3 checks.
 The difference between ordinary RC structures and PS structures is that PS structures are highly
sensitive to construction stage.
 Losses reduce pre-stress force P0 > kP0
 Creep increases deflections – sort of like material becomes softer with time.
◊ To allow for this – in the design standards – the effect of the creep is accounted for by using an
appropriate/effective value of E for that time.
◊ 𝐸 , = ( , )
» Where
» 𝐸, is the effective Young’s Modulus of the concrete
» 𝐸 is the initial value of the Concrete’s Young’s Modulus
» 𝜙(∞, 𝑡 ) is determinable from the previous graph in losses
◊ We reduce the stiffness of the material - system is becoming more flexible.
 Use appropriate values of pre-stress force and elastic modulus (allowing for relevant time dependent
losses.)
 SLS uses safety factor – but trivial because equal to 1 – unlike fore ULS
 We’ll look at three cases:
 Simple case – uniform section with straight tendons.

◊ The engineers bending equation gives us the correlation between the deflection between the
deflection and the bending moment
» 𝑀 = 𝑃𝑒 = 𝐸𝐼
◊ Integrate this equation to get slope
» 𝐸𝐼 = (𝑃𝑒)𝑥 + 𝐶
◊ This is a constant and can substitute values
◊ At midspan, x=L/2, and slope dy/dx=0
» 𝐸𝐼(0) = (𝑃𝑒) +𝐶
◊ Thus
» 𝐶 = −(𝑃𝑒)
◊ Therefore
» 𝐸𝐼 = (𝑃𝑒)𝑥 − (𝑃𝑒)
◊ Or
» = 𝑥−
◊ Integrate again to find the deflection
» 𝑦= − +𝐶
◊ At support, x=0 and y=0

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( ) ( )
» (0) = − +𝐶
◊ Thus
( )
» 𝑦= (𝑥 − 𝐿)
◊ So, at midspan where x=L/2
( )
» 𝑦= −𝐿
◊ Or
( )
» 𝑦=−
◊ Negative indicates an upward deflection due to pre-stress.
◊ Assumes no cracking.
◊ Add this deflection to the deflections due to self-weight and other external loads.
 Beam with curved tendons – zero end eccentricity.

◊ Beam of constant section with a symmetrical parabolic tendon profile

◊ The applied prestress has zero eccentricity at the ends of the beam
◊ The eccentricity varies across the length of the beam
◊ The moment due to prestress is always the same:
» 𝑀 = −𝑃𝑒
◊ Due to the parabolic profile, the applied load is equivalent to a UDL. The profile mirrors the
expression of bending moment due to UDL in a BMD.
◊ I.e. since ex is parabolic, the prestress loading equivalent to a udl we
◊ Thus, the midspan moment,
» 𝑀 = = −𝑃𝑒
◊ So
» 𝑤 =−
◊ The midspan deflection due to a udl over a span L is given by
» 𝑦=
◊ Substituting in the previous expression
» 𝑦=
◊ Thus
( )
» 𝑦=−
 Beam with Curved Tendons – with end eccentricity

◊ If the pre-stress force does not lie at the centroid of the section at the beam ends, but at an
eccentricity e0
◊ The deflection is the same as 2 separate components
» A force P acting at a constant eccentricity e0, plus
» A force P following a parabolic profile with midspan eccentricity e’c

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◊ The midspan deflection is therefore

( )
» 𝑦= −

Design Example

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 Lecture 6 – Ultimate moment of resistance & Shear Resistance

◊ After a prestressed member has been designed to satisfy serviceability requirements, a check must
be carried out to ensure the ultimate moment of resistance and shear resistance are adequate to
satisfy the requirements of the ULS
◊ The prestress should be multiplied be a partial factor of safety, 𝛾 , of 0.9 (UK NA) when the
prestress force is considered – as is usual – a ‘favourable effect’
◊ The partial material factors of safety – as for RC – are:
» 𝛾 = 1.5 for concrete
» 𝛾 = 1.15 for reinforcement
◊ As the loads on a prestressed member increase above the working values, cracking occurs, and the
prestressing steel begins to behave like conventional reinforcement.
◊ The capacity of the beam is checked using a similar procedure as for RC but must account for
initial strain.
◊ Prestressing steel (Bonded) acts as reinforcement
◊ May also have some prestressing steel which is unbonded – e.g. duct with internal steel, but
without ‘glue’ between the concrete and the Prestressing steel. Therefore, may find steel slips within
ducts. In this situation, only consider the prestrain and no variation due to bending strain, i.e.
when the beam deflects, the strain within the duct is not affected.
◊ Important to note
» Steel Strain = Prestrain + Bending Strain
» Does not necessarily yield
◊ The steel stress is calculated from the stress/strain curve –
can calculated the tension forces in each layer of steel
◊ The total steel strain is that due to bending, added to the
initial strain in the steel from the prestress
◊ The purpose of the check is to ensure that the applied ultimate moment of resistance is less than
the design ultimate moment.
◊ If this is not true, then untensioned reinforcement can be used to make up the shortfall.
 ULS section analysis assumptions
◊ Stresses in the flexural compressive zone may be derived from a design cure relating stress and
strain
» The ultimate strain for concrete is 0.0035
◊ Not easy to handle parabolic distribution of stresses.
◊ Alternatively, a simple rectangular stress block may be used to calculate the ultimate moment of
resistance.
» For grades of concrete up to C50/60, 𝜀 = 0.0035, 𝜂 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜆 = 0.8
0.85𝑓
» 𝑓 = 1.5 = 0.567𝑓
»

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 Distribution of stresses and strains.

o Must think not just about stresses, but strains as well

o The strain diagram – due to assumption – shows linear relationship from biggest compressive strain
to biggest tensile strain
o X is the distance from the top of the section to the neutral axis
o The stress block – varies depending on loading:
 While the member is carrying a very small load (a) – the stress distribution is linear and
triangular.
 As the stress and strain becomes greater (b), end up with the rectangular parabolic stress block.
Think the concrete stress-strain relationship flipped vertically. As strain increases from 0 at
neutral axis to max at top, stress increases according to relationship.
 Pretend the rectangular parabolic stress block is simply a rectangle – (c). We say the depth of
that rectangle is s; 0.8 times X. 80% of the neutral axis depth.
o Alternatively, a simple rectangular stress block may be used to calculate the ultimate moment of
resistance
o For grades of concrete up to C50/60, 𝜀 = 0.0035, 𝜂 = 1 & 𝜆 = 0.8

o When a bending moment by a section usually resisted by a couple. Going to be a tension force in the
bottom – from the steel – and compressive force in the top. That compressive force from the
concrete. The distance between is the lever arm – termed z.

o The strain in the extreme compressive fibre 𝜀 is defined at failure (𝜀 = 0.0035 for flexure in EC2)

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o The tensile strength of the concrete is neglected

o Easy to calculate the stress in the steel
 Determination of strain in reinforcing steel
o Want to find out the strain in the steel at failure

o Know the angle is 205GPA as that is the young’s modulus.

o It is often assumed that the steel is yielded when we try to assess the stress, so generally easy to
.
calculate as in such a case, the strain is such that the stress is constant and is equal to . This is
not always the case – always check if the total deformation is less that the yield strain.
o The total deformation in steel can be defined as 𝜀 and is given by 2 components.
 Steel strain 𝜀 = prestress strain + bending strain at level of tendons (𝜀 )
 Where prestress strain = (𝛾 × 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠)/𝜀
 In the typical distribution of a strain for a cross-section, assume that concrete is at ultimate
capacity, so ultimate stress will correspond to 0.0035. Don’t know bottom. So, must determine
𝜀 . We find this quantity is the evaluation of the position of the neutral axis. Once we know the
position of the NA – assuming concrete is at ultimate stress – 0.0035 strain – can find
distribution of strain and find
 Can therefore find bending strain if we know the stress.
𝑓 f .
𝛾 1.15
𝑦𝑒𝑖𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝜀 = =
𝐸 205000
o Therefore, RC fails in tension if the strain in steel is number or if the strain in the concrete is 0.0035.

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 Example:

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 Procedure
◊ Assume a trial value of x

◊ Calculate Fc and Fst and compare

◊ Adjust and repeat
◊ Continue until a reasonable balance is found

◊ A simple plot may usefully speed up this process by indicating a ‘best estimate’ of x

Design Example

◊ ULS shear resistance

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 Lecture 7 - Shear Resistances & End Blocks

 Number of analogies/similarities with reinforced concrete
 There are two distinct portions of a RC beam which have very different response
◊ Sections with shear reinforcement
◊ Sections without shear reinforcement
 Also dependent on the types of element considered. For example, not going to allocate any shear
reinforcement for a slab because the capacity of the concrete itself is sufficient to resist external
loading. In other cases, e.g. beams, always have shear reinforcement
 Variable Strut Inclination method – ‘Truss Analogy’ – typical method utilised for designing based on the
truss analogy
 Ultimate Limit State
◊ Let’s start with how a beam behaves

◊ Different crack patterns across the length of the beam.

◊ There are three different regions for a simply supported beam under a UDL that are characterised
by three different crack patterns.
» Flexural cracks. Occur due to presence of flexure. Cracks usually vertical due to principle of
stresses.
» Shear cracks. At the support where the shear is generally – for the case of simply supported
beam – maximal. Response: beam is showing a different crack pattern; the crack is inclined.
This is again related to the different principal stresses observed in the beam.
» Flexural shear cracks. In between the previous 2 cracks – in the intermediate, transition zone
between the support and midspan - there is an interaction between the shear and flexure. The
crack pattern is complicated: not simply vertical or inclined, but some combination of the two.
It is not possible to simplify by linear approximation. Cracking depends on the interaction
between flexure and shear.
◊ Shear Design in carried out at ULS ONLY (i.e., SLS checks not required)
◊ Shear failure is much MORE COMPLICATED than flexural failure
◊ It is still a subject of research
◊ However, current theories are adequate for design.
 Principle stresses in concrete
◊ Distribution of principle stresses in a beam:

◊ Directions of cracks along the beam are consistent with these principle stresses
◊ When a UDL is applied to a beam, 2 regions are created
» One region where there is a concentration of the compression forces – an area with relatively
high compressive principle stresses. The other region is the tensile principal stresses

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◊ The cracks are orthogonal to the principle stress direction.

◊ At the midspan, the tangent to the curves – representing the stress distribution at that point – is
horizontal. Therefore, the corresponding flexural crack is vertical.
◊ As we move towards the support, the curves are almost parabolic so direction of cracks change.
◊ The direction of cracks is dependent on the direction of the tensile vertical stresses.
◊ It is important to note that towards the ends – towards the supports, the boundary condition for
the beam – the cracks are inclined, and they vary wrt to theta, the angle relative to the horizontal.
◊ Inclined cracks generally have a value of theta within the range of 45-22 degrees
◊ This figure important because it shows crack pattern based on the stress distribution
◊ Shear problem is strictly related/strongly correlated to the tensile strength of concrete.
◊ If a concrete has a high tensile strength, then you will have higher shear capacity
 Concrete sections that do not require shear reinforcement
◊ Have grouped the response of beams into 2 large families: those with and without shear
reinforcement
◊ We can avoid use shear reinforcement, typically, in lightly loaded floor slabs and pad foundations
◊ Some elements that do not require use of links – stirrups – in construction. Important because
need to consider type of mechanism that can be relied upon and then can quantify the total shear
capacity
◊ This value not very high – not highly loaded components
◊ Where shear forces are small, the concrete section on its own might have sufficient shear capacity
(VRd,c) to resist the ultimate shear force (Ved)
◊ In beams, a minimum amount of shear reinforcement shall be provided
◊ The codes – EC e.g. – will usually require some minimum
◊ The shear capacity of the concrete, VRd,c in such situations is given by an empirical expression
» 𝑉 , = 0.12𝑘(100𝜌 𝑓 ) 𝑏 𝑑
◊ Shear capacity of the concrete only.
◊ Where

» 𝑘 = 1+ ≤ 2.0

◊ And
» 𝜌 = ≤ 2.0
◊ With a minimum value of
» 𝑉 , = 0.035𝑘 𝑓 𝑏 𝑑
◊ What are parameters that influence shear resistance:
» Shear resistance is dependent on the geometry - bw and d. bw is the thickness of the section
and d the net height (depth from compressive part up to height of tensile reinforcement). It
there is a T shaped cross section, bw is the width of the web.
» K: another parameter dependent on geometry. The only univariable is d.
» fck: the compressive resistance of concrete.
» 𝜌 : there is a dependency on 𝜌 , it correlates the shear resistance of concrete to the presence
of the longitudinal steel. I.e. there is a contribution from the flexural steel reinforcement. Non-
dimensional variable.
◊ Minimum value stated by Eurocodes. Must be abided by.

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 Concrete Sections where shear reinforcement is required

◊ The response in this case is a little more complex.
◊ There is a new contribution from the shear links,

◊ Considering the response at the support because here the shear is maximal
◊ There is a compressive to component with a total compressive force of C, resisted by the
compressive strength of concrete. The tensile component, T, is the tension in the steel.
◊ There is a shear response along the crack. Why? Because there is the presence of the aggregate,
not a smooth surface, so irregular response along crack.
◊ The shear resistance is given by
» The concrete in compression
» What is termed dowel action by the tensile steel – when shear stress applied, the horizontal
steel at the bottom bends. Due to this deformation, there is a contribution to the absorption
of the shear.
» More importantly, the presence of aggregate interlock. The smaller the aggregate, the smaller
this contribution.

◊ If we examine situation, there is the concrete beam with an inclined crack, the horizontal steel and
a vertical stirrup
◊ For each one of these, there is an associated force vector.
» Must consider presence of the stirrups under tension and the horizontal reinforcement which
is also under tension
» All components must be under equilibrium, so compressive vector generated in the concrete.
» End up with a truss mechanism which provides this equilibrium.
 The variable strut inclination method.

◊ Concentrate on the different terms.

◊ The compression is participating in the absorption of the shear.

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◊ The cross-section is typical of rectangular RC beams. Loaded vertically with a UDL and a support
on the left-hand side. The reaction force is VEd, the max shear the beam designed to resist.
◊ The lever arm is termed z (z=0.9d).
◊ At the cross-section Y-Y, there are 3 terms:
» The compressive contribution from the concrete, Fc
» The tensile force in the horizontal steel, FT
» The inclined shear term, VEd/sin𝜃
- 𝜃 is the inclination of this vector with respect to the horizontal tensile reinforcement.
◊ Therefore, what we must do to find the shear capacity of the beam is to take into consideration the
contributions from each of these 3 terms, to the vertical force
◊ The following analysis of the beam is carried out to find the ULS shear force – the design of the
truss is carried out in three stages
» 1) Check the compressive strength of the diagonal concrete strut and its angle 𝜃. The concrete
struct has a thickness zcos𝜃 – as can be seen on the diagram above.
» 2) Calculate the required shear reinforcement Asw/s. The contribution of the links.
» 3) Calculate additional area of tension steel Asl required in the bottom chord. The effect of the
tensile force in the base.
 (1) The diagonal compressive strut and the angle 𝜃
◊ The maximum design shear force that a section can carry (VRd,max) is governed by the requirement
that excessive compressive stresses should not occur in the diagonal compressive struts of the
assumed truss, leading possibly to compressive failure of the concrete.
◊ The effective cross-sectional area of concrete acting as the diagonal strut is taken as:
» 𝑏 × 𝑧 cos 𝜃
◊ The design ultimate concrete stress
» 𝑓 =
.
◊ The ultimate strength of the strut = ultimate design stress * area
» (𝑓 ⁄1.5) × (𝑏 × 𝑧 cos 𝜃)
◊ The vertical component of this strength:
» [(𝑓 ⁄1.5) × (𝑏 × 𝑧 cos 𝜃)] × sin 𝜃
◊ So that
» 𝑉 , = .
◊ By convention, the trigonometrical functions can be expressed as
» 𝑉 , =
. ( )
◊ In EC2, this equation is modified by the inclusion of a strength reduction factor (v1) for concrete
cracked in shear. Thus:
» 𝑉 , = . ( )
◊ Where
» 𝑣 = 0.6(1 − 𝑓 ⁄250)
◊ The lever arm, z, is equal to
» 𝑧 = 0.9𝑑
◊ Thus, combining the above equations
. × × . ( ⁄ )
» 𝑉 , =
. ( )
. ( ⁄ )
» 𝑉 , = ( )
(1)

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 There are 3 cases for theta EC2 limits 𝜃 to a value between 22° and 45°. It can be checked if the value
of 𝜃 is appropriate.
◊ With 𝜃 = 22° - the usual case for UDL loads
» 𝑉 , ( ) = 0.124𝑏 𝑑(1 − 𝑓 ⁄250) 𝑓
» If 𝑉 , ( ) < 𝑉 , then a larger 𝜃 must be used so that the diagonal concrete strut has a
larger vertical component to balance VEd.
◊ With 𝜃 = 45° - the maximum value of 𝜃 as allowed by EC2
» 𝑉 , ( ) = 0.18𝑏 𝑑(1 − 𝑓 ⁄250) 𝑓
» This is the upper limit of the compressive strength of the concrete diagonal member in the
analogous truss
» If 𝑉 , ( ) < 𝑉 , then a larger concrete section is required.
◊ With 𝜃 = 22° 𝑎𝑛𝑑 45°
» The required value of theta can be obtained by equating 𝑉 , and VEd
. ( ⁄ )
» 𝑉 =𝑉 , = ( )
» ultimately, this can be expressed as
» 𝜃 = 0.5 sin , ( )
≤ 45°
» The calculated angle theta can now be used to determine cot 𝜃 when calculating the required
shear reinforcement
 Vertical Shear Reinforcement
◊ Shear is resisted by shear links with no contribution from the concrete.
◊ Shear reinforcement must be provided to resist the shear force if it can not be sustained by the
concrete section.
◊ Using method of sections (cut at X-X), the force in the vertical link member (Vwd) must equal the
shear force (VEd), that is
» 𝑉 = 𝑉 = 0.87𝑓 𝐴
◊ If the links are spaced at a distance s apart, then the force in each link is reduced proportionately
and is given by
» 𝑉 = 0.87𝑓 𝐴
◊ Thus rearranging
» = .
◊ EC2 specifies a minimum area of links
.
» ,
=
 Additional Longitudinal Force
◊ Allowance must be made for the additional longitudinal force in the tension stee
◊ Resolving forces horizontally (cut at Y-Y), the longitudinal component of the force in the
compressive strut is given by:
» Longitudinal force = (𝑉 ⁄sin 𝜃 ) × cos 𝜃
» = 𝑉 cot 𝜃
◊ It is assumed that half this force is carried by the reinforcement in the tension zone of the beam
(the other half by the links), therefore
» 𝐹 = 0.5 𝑉 cot 𝜃
◊ This can be provided by additional longitudinal reinforcement above that required for bending
reinforcement. I.e. the extra steel needed in this zone to resist the shear.

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 Shear Rebar
◊ Stirrups or links are generally smaller in diameter than the longitudinal steelwork
◊ If too much congestion, then mebe not enough concrete. Max steel percentage.
◊ 8-12mm d generally,

Design Example

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 Shear in prestressed concrete

 Specialise previous case to the case of PS concrete
 Response of a beam is the same whether RC or PS – same crack pattern

 3 Regions as before.
◊ If the cross-section is not rectangular, then shear primarily resisted by web. Thus, in this case,
termed web-shear cracks.
 Design for Shear
◊ Considered at ULS – influences partial factors
◊ Similar procedure as for RC, but
» 1) Shear resistance is increased by effects of compression of concrete caused by the prestress
force – prestress enhances VRd,c (the shear capacity without shear reinforcement)
» 2) Vertical component of prestress force in inclined tendons resists shear (again use 𝛾 = 0.9).
This depends on the tendon profile.
» 3) Shear usually critical adjacent to supports but needs to be checked at a series of positions
along the length of a beam. In typical PS, can be different cross-sections over length of beam.
Different response at different cross-sections.
 Concrete Shear Capacity Without Shear Reinforcement
◊ In regions where shear forces are small, the concrete section may have sufficient capacity VRd,c to
resist the ultimate shear force VEd
◊ Minimum areas are usually provided in beams (but not for slabs)
◊ The concrete shear strength is given by the expression
» 𝑉 , = 0.12𝑘(100𝜌 𝑓 ) + 0.15𝜎 𝑏 𝑑
◊ With a minimum value of
» 𝑉 , = 0.035𝑘 𝑓 + 0.15𝜎 𝑏 𝑑
◊ Where

» 𝑘 = 1+ ≤ 2.0 (d in mm)

» 𝜌 = ≤ 2.0
» Asl = area of tensile steel with full anchorage + d
» Bw = smallest width of the section in tensile area (mm)
» 𝜎 = average axial stress due to prestress = 𝛾 𝐾𝑃 ⁄𝐴 (< 0.133𝑓 )
◊ Equations similar to RC with additional term +0.15𝜎
» i.e. shear resistance increased bu 15% of longitudinal prestress
 Shear strength without shear reinforcement – region uncracked in bending (special case)
◊ In the special case of a single span beam which is uncracked in bending
◊ The shear strength is governed by tensile stresses in the concrete where

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» Flexural tensile stress < (usually near beam ends)

◊ Consider the stresses in an uncracked beam element

◊ From a Mohr’s Circle analysis

» 𝑓 = +𝑉 −
◊ Which can be rearranged to give the shear stress

» 𝑉 = (𝑓 + 𝑓 𝑓 )
◊ The shear stress at any level in a beam subject to a shear force, V, can be shown to be:
( )
» 𝑉 =

◊ So, if fctd is the limiting principle tensile strength, the ultimate shear resistance of the uncracked
section is

» 𝑉 , = (𝑓 + 𝑓 𝑓 )
◊ This is the basis of the EC2 equation

» 𝑉 , = (𝑓 +𝛼 𝜎 𝑓 )
◊ Where
» 𝜎 is the average axial stress due to prestress = 𝛾 𝐾𝑃 ⁄𝐴
» 𝑓 is the design tensile strength of concrete
» 𝛼 = 1 for post-tensioned tendons, ≤ for pretensioned tendons depending on position in
relation to transmission length
◊ Only use this expression when the concrete is uncracked in bending, otherwise use the main
expression
◊ Take the lower value for design
 For sections requiring shear reinforcement Variable strut inclination method
◊ Similar to the method for RC
◊ A) Diagonal compressive strut:
◊ The max design shear force, VRd,max, is governed by limiting compressive stresses in the diagonal
struts of the assumed truss.
◊ Max shear given by
» 𝑉 , = . ( )
◊ Where
» 𝑣 = 0.6(1 − 𝑓 ⁄250)

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◊ The lever arm, z, is equal to

» 𝑧 = 0.9𝑑
◊ Thus, combining the above equations
. ( ⁄ )
» 𝑉 , = ( )
◊ The coefficient 𝛼 is a function of 𝜎
◊ Depends on the value of 𝜎 = mean compressive stress in concrete due to prestress

◊ B) Vertical Shear Reinforcement

◊ If shear reinforcement is provided then it is assumed to carry all the shear force, i.e. any
contribution from the concrete is neglected
.
.
» = .
≥ ,
=
◊ C) Additional Longitudinal Force
» ∆𝐹 = 0.5𝑉 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝜃
» ∆𝐹 = 0.87𝑓 𝐴
◊ Provide untensioned longitudinal reinforcement, Asl (and/or adjust tendon profile to provide
greater shear resistance.
 Vertical Component of Prestress Force
◊ For inclined tendons near beam ends:

◊ Vertical component of P is 𝑃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽 (= 𝑉 )

◊ This can be added to VRd,c to see if shear reinforcement is needed.
◊ If 𝑉 , + 𝑉 > 𝑉 (ULS SF) then no designed shear reinforcement needed.
◊ If 𝑉 , + 𝑉 < 𝑉 then provide ‘designed’ shear reinforcement to carry (VEd-Vt), i.e. ignore concrete
contribution
 Design Procedure for Shear Reinforcement
◊ Shear reinforcement usually in the form of vertical links
1. Calculate the ULS design shear forces, VEd, at critical sections for shear. From a structural
analysis factored for ULS. The max shear can be taken to be at the face of the support.
2. Check using 𝑉 , = 0.12𝑘(100𝜌 𝑓 ) + 0.15𝜎 𝑏 𝑑 that shear reinforcement is required.
The vertical component of the force in any inclined tendons should be considered
3. Check crushing strength VRd,max of the concrete diagonal strut. For most cases the angle of the
inclination of the strut, 𝜃 = 22°
. ( ⁄ )
- 𝑉 , = ( )
4. Determine the area of shear links required from
- =
.
5. Check the minimum area of links
.
.
- ,
=
6. Calculate the longitudinal force
- ∆𝐹 = 0.5𝑉 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝜃 = 0.87𝑓 𝐴

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Design Example

 Lecture 8 – End Blocks and Small Topics

◊ End blocks: important. When we apply the prestress, want to ensure this is not going to cause
localised failure.
 Pre-tensioned beams – Transmission length

◊ Gradual transfer of stress to the concrete

◊ There is a given bond length - that is the activation length – where forces from steel reinforcement
to concrete are gradually transferred.
◊ This is also applicable to PS beams. The stress distribution looks like shown.
◊ At the free ends of the beam there will be zero stress b/c nothing to be transferred.
◊ There are losses in stress in tendons with time, which is noted on the diagram.
◊ The zones at ends where the stresses decay to zero is called the bond or activation length.
◊ Need to quantify the length of this zone because need to know where the prestressed beam is
effective.
◊ This length is proportional to the diameter of the tendons. Usually ~50*strand diameter.
◊ Usually, therefore, better to use several smaller strands rather than few larger stands *if* you
want to decrease the bond length.
 End Blocks Post-Tensioned Beams
◊ General requirement to distribute an intense load into the whole section
◊ Applied load – concentrated load – introduced by e.g. hydraulic jacks. In this post-tensioned case,
there must be some device that locks the strands at the end of the beam.
◊ These types of blocks have different shapes, e.g. flat plate and conical plate.

◊ Flat plate anchorage is typically a thick steel plate placed at the end of the beam, outside of the
cross-section.
◊ Conical anchorage tends to be within the beam itself. Sometimes covered for protection - prevent
corrosion.

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◊ In diagrams above, there is a point force – the prestress – and it is the associated distribution of
stresses that we are interested in.
◊ In post-tensioned members, the point force is concentrated in a small area at the end of the
member, and this leads to high-tensile forces at right angles to the direction of the compression
force.
◊ This effect will extend some distance from the end of the member until the compression has
distributed itself across the full concrete cross-section. See stress flow lines.
◊ This region is known as the ‘end block’ and must be heavily reinforced
by steel to resist the bursting tension forces.
◊ This can cause concrete to spread laterally – see right
◊ Design total area of link legs to carry bursting force, Fbst at SLS with a
limiting stress of 300MPa. If unbonded, check ULS.
◊ End block reinforcement will generally consist of closed links which
surround the anchorages, and the quantities obtained will generally
obtained from empirical methods.
◊ The closer you are to the anchorage, the higher the stresses. As you move down beam, away from
anchorage, the stresses spread out to be distributed across the section. The bursting stresses cause
failure at the end blocks.
◊ The typical ‘flow lines’ of compressive stress are shown above. It can be seen whatever type of
anchorage is used, the required distribution can be expected to have been attained at a distance
from the loaded face equal to the lateral dimension of the member.
◊ This is relatively independent of the anchorage type.
 Struts and Ties for Structural concrete
◊ Fairly simple – based on equilibrium analysis

◊ Force applied at top, and method analysis how structure resists force through internal
compression and tension forces
◊ Tension requires reinforcement
◊ This is what occurs in plinths – same as in end blocks.
 Design Procedure
◊ 1) Bearing stress
◊ In designing the end block, it is necessary to check that the bearing stress behind anchorage plate
due to the prestressing force does not exceed the limiting stress, fRdu, given by
.
» 𝑓 = 0.67𝑓 ≤ 2.0𝑓
◊ Where
» Ac0 is the loaded area of the anchorage plate
» Ac1 is the maximum area, having the same shape as Ac

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◊ 2) The strut and tie model

◊ The lateral tensile bursting forces can be established by the use of a statically determinate strut
and tie model where it is assumed that the load is carried by a truss consisting of concrete struts
and links of reinforcement acting as steel ties.
◊ A partial factor of 𝛾 = 1.2 is used.
◊ EC2 says that in determining the geometry of this truss, the prestressing force can be assumed to
disperse at an angle of 33.7 degrees.

◊ In equilibrium, therefore:
» Tensile force in tie (bursting force) = 1.2 × 0.33𝑃 ≤ 0.4(1 − 𝑓 ⁄250 )𝑓
» Compressive stress in strut = 1.2 × 0.6𝑃 ≤ 0.4(1 − 𝑓 ⁄250 )𝑓
◊ No cracking check needed if reinforcement stress <= 300MPa
◊ If multiple anchorages, design separately, then combine and design extra steel.

Design Example

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 Precasting
 Good economics
 Key Issues
◊ Stability
» Especially during construction
◊ Handling
» Temporary/transition phase very important – e.g. a column not designed for lateral loads may
yield under bending while being moved.
» Weight and size – weight can change on site
» Lifting points (designed in)
◊ Jointing – joining systems possibly most important.
» Developing strength - Generally should be strongest element because want failure to happen
in elements.
» Easy construction
◊ Factory Conditions
» Good control – better quality, enhanced performance
» Fast production
» Better surface finish (steel moulds)
◊ Standardisation
» Repetition
◊ Speed on site
» Eliminates most joinery
» Minimises steel fixing and concreting
◊ Composite Construction
» Reduces temporary works and floor shuttering
 Tie Forces

◊ Has been neglected in the past

◊ Important in low redundancy components.
◊ Here element has forces designed to keep all components together.
◊ Columns should be properly connected to the slab – horizontal forces may cause system to fail
otherwise. E.g. Ronan point
◊ Vertical ties
» For structures with > 5 stories
» From foundation to rood
» To carry ULS capacity of the columns
» Especially precast construction, usually satisfied in situ design

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◊ Horizontal ties
» Provided in all buildings irrespective of height
» Tie force, Ft = lesser of {60kN; 20kN + 4*No. of Stories)
» Peripheral ties: provide reinforcement to carry Ft around perimeter.
» Internal ties: provide reinforcement ro carry Ft/m width. Must be anchored and in 2
perpendicular directions
» Column and wall ties: must be able to carry 3% of ULS vertical column load, or 2Ft
 Continuity in Prestressed Concrete
◊ A beam may be continuous – not always simply supported.
◊ Simply supported beams deflect upwards due to prestress force. Uplift.

◊ Continuous beams:
» Not great for prestressed beams – make profiles complex
» Deflections are restrained by internal supports
» Reactions at internal supports change
» Reactions change to resist upward deflection
» This creates secondary (artificial) moments due to interaction with new restraints and uplift
due to prestress. Beam not necessarily designed to accommodate this secondary moment –
designed to resist primary moment.

◊ Aim to create a ‘concordant’ profile to minimise secondary moments

◊ Definition: Concordant profile one which produces zero deflections at point of support
◊ This is achieved by matching the tendon profile to the shape of the bending moment diagram. This
means secondary moments – 0.

 Engineering Failures.
 Ronan Point (1968) – Progressive collapse failure
 Multistory, large oanel precast
 Block of flats
 Wall and floor panels – in situ joints
 Cause:
◊ Internal domestic gas explosion.
 Result:
◊ Wall panel displaced
◊ Progressive collapse of 1 corner

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◊ 4 deaths
 Reason: Poor design and construction of joints
 Outcome:
◊ Change in design regulations
◊ ‘Robustness’ provision (stability), i.e. Tie forces,
» Need to ensure structure will be stable, even for abnormal loads
» Guaranteed by sufficient tie forces – connect lateral and vertical resisting systems
» Otherwise, if large horizontal force (like explosion), then vertical elements separate from
horizontal. Causes domino effect in structure like Ronan point.
 Ronan point used the Larsen-Nielsen system
◊ Type of panel construction
◊ Fine for 3/4 story building
◊ Basically, all panels ‘glued’ together (in case of Ronan point,
they were not even properly glued together)
◊ System has weaknesses
 Further robustness example: Twin Towers, New York.
◊ Robustness was high, but not as high as expected
◊ Building designed for impact load, but not sufficient – lower value of horizontal force. (different
planes).
◊ Not effective because load went beyond design value.
 How to design for robustness
◊ Want to transform qualitive approach to quantitate approach.
◊ Can be done by removing a component, e.g. column
◊ Based on the catenary approach
» The structure should resist the applied load even without
column
» Should be able to redistribute load within structural system.
◊ Can even involve removing a wall
◊ If this approach taken in Ronan Point, system would not have failed.
◊ Will require additional reinforcement
 Ynys-y-Gwas Bridge, Wales (1985)
◊ Another example of insufficient robustness
◊ Post tensioned concrete
◊ Segmental Construction
◊ South Wales
◊ Cause:
» Problem not at design level, but technological level
» Unlike Ronan Point in this sense
» Corrosion of prestressing tendons
» Lack of maintenance or insufficient cover of strands
◊ Result:
» Sudden collapse of bridge deck overnight
◊ Reason
» Poor grouting – salt water penetrated through joints into duct and attacked tendons
» Critical for tensioned chords.
◊ Outcome
» Construction method banned until better grouting & quality-controlled procedures developed

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 High Alumina Concrete (1974)

◊ Precast Pre-tensioned floor and roof beams
◊ Swimming pool roof in London
◊ Based on material.
◊ High Alumina concrete fine provided not exposed to certain environments – high alumina concrete
should never be used in place with high humidity. E.g. roof of swimming pool
» Inadvisable, therefore because can’t guarantee avoidance of environment.
◊ Used because it cured and reached higher strengths much faster (>50 MPa within 24 hours)
◊ Used for precast pre-tensioned standard section beams from 1950 to 1970s
◊ Banned for structural used in 1975 after 2 major collapses
◊ All cases should have been identified from this date onwards.
◊ Cause:
» Loss of strength of hardened concrete
◊ Result:
» Collapse of roof beams (two separate incidents) in London
◊ Reason
» Use of specialist new material in unsuitable environment
◊ Outcome
» Banned for structural use and inspection/assessment of all
structures using material.
» Isolated beams with small flange and no composite slab at
greatest risk.
◊

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