2.

5 MEMORY SYSTEM IN A COMPUTER

There are two kinds of computer memory: primary and secondary. Primary
memory is accessible directly by the processing unit. RAM is an example of
primary memory. As soon as the computer is switched off the contents of the
primary memory is lost. You can store and retrieve data much faster with primary
memory compared to secondary memory. Secondary memory such as floppy disks,
magnetic disk, etc., is located outside the computer. Primary memory is more
expensive than secondary memory. Because of this the size of primary memory is
less than that of secondary memory. We will discuss about secondary memory later
on.

Computer memory is used to store two things: i) instructions to execute a program

and ii) data. When the computer is doing any job, the data that have to be
processed are stored in the primary memory. This data may come from an input
device like keyboard or from a secondary storage device like a floppy disk.

As program or the set of instructions is kept in primary memory, the computer is

able to follow instantly the set of instructions. For example, when you book ticket
from railway reservation counter, the computer has to follow the same steps: take
the request, check the availability of seats, calculate fare, wait for money to be
paid, store the reservation and get the ticket printed out. The programme containing
these steps is kept in memory of the computer and is followed for each request.

But inside the computer, the steps followed are quite different from what we see on
the monitor or screen. In computer’s memory both programs and data are stored in
the binary form. You have already been introduced with decimal number system,
that is the numbers 1 to 9 and 0. The binary system has only two values 0 and 1.
These are called bits. As human beings we all understand decimal system but the
computer can only understand binary system. It is because a large number of
integrated circuits inside the computer can be considered as switches, which can be
made ON, or OFF. If a switch is ON it is considered 1 and if it is OFF it is 0. A
number of switches in different states will give you a message like this:
110101....10. So the computer takes input in the form of 0 and 1 and gives output
in the form 0 and 1 only. Is it not absurd if the computer gives outputs as 0’s & 1’s
only? But you do not have to worry about. Every number in binary system can be
converted to decimal system and vice versa; for example, 1010 meaning decimal
10. Therefore it is the computer that takes information or data in decimal form
from you, convert it in to binary form, process it producing output in binary form
and again convert the output to decimal form.

The primary memory as you know in the computer is in the form of IC’s
(Integrated Circuits). These circuits are called Random Access Memory (RAM).
Each of RAM’s locations stores one byte of information. (One byteis equal to 8
bits). A bit is an acronym for binary digit, which stands for one binary piece of
information. This can be either 0 or 1. You will know more about RAM later. The
Primary or internal storage section is made up of several small storage locations
(ICs) called cells. Each of these cells can store a fixed number of bits called word
length.

Each cell has a unique number assigned to it called the address of the cell and it is
used to identify the cells. The address starts at 0 and goes up to (N-1). You should
know that the memory is like a large cabinet containing as many drawers as there
are addresses on memory. Each drawer contains a word and the address is written
on outside of the drawer.

Capacity of Primary Memory

You know that each cell of memory contains one character or 1 byte of data. So the
capacity is defined in terms of byte or words. Thus 64 kilobyte (KB) memory is
capable of storing 64  1024 = 32,768 bytes. (1 kilobyte is 1024 bytes). A memory
size ranges from few kilobytes in small systems to several thousand kilobytes in
large mainframe and super computer. In your personal computer you will find
memory capacity in the range of 64 KB, 4 MB, 8 MB and even 16 MB (MB =
Million bytes).

The following terms related to memory of a computer are discussed below:

1. Random Access Memory (RAM): The primary storage is referred to as

random access memory (RAM) because it is possible to randomly select and
use any location of the memory directly store and retrieve data. It takes same
time to any address of the memory as the first address. It is also called
read/write memory. The storage of data and instructions inside the primary
storage is temporary. It disappears from RAM as soon as the power to the
computer is switched off. The memories, which loose their content on
failure of power supply, are known as volatile memories .So now we can
say that RAM is volatile memory.
2. Read Only Memory (ROM): There is another memory in computer, which
is called Read Only Memory (ROM). Again it is the ICs inside the PC that
form the ROM. The storage of program and data in the ROM is permanent.
The ROM stores some standard processing programs supplied by the
manufacturers to operate the personal computer. The ROM can only be read
by the CPU but it cannot be changed. The basic input/output program is
stored in the ROM that examines and initializes various equipment attached
to the PC when the switch is made ON. The memories, which do not loose
their content on failure of power supply, are known as non-
volatile memories. ROM is non-volatile memory.
3. PROM There is another type of primary memory in computer, which is
called Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM). You know that it is not
 possible to modify or erase programs stored in ROM, but it is possible for
you to store your program in PROM chip. Once the programmes are written
it cannot be changed and remain intact even if power is switched off.
Therefore programs or instructions written in PROM or ROM cannot be
erased or changed.
4. EPROM: This stands for Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory,
which over come the problem of PROM & ROM. EPROM chip can be
programmed time and again by erasing the information stored earlier in it.
Information stored in EPROM exposing the chip for some time ultraviolet
light and it erases chip is reprogrammed using a special programming
facility. When the EPROM is in use information can only be read.
5. Cache Memory: The speed of CPU is extremely high compared to the
access time of main memory. Therefore the performance of CPU decreases
due to the slow speed of main memory. To decrease the mismatch in
operating speed, a small memory chip is attached between CPU and Main
memory whose access time is very close to the processing speed of CPU. It
is called CACHE memory. CACHE memories are accessed much faster than
conventional RAM. It is used to store programs or data currently being
executed or temporary data frequently used by the CPU. So each memory
makes main memory to be faster and larger than it really is. It is also very
expensive to have bigger size of cache memory and its size is normally kept
small.
6. Registers: The CPU processes data and instructions with high speed, there
is also movement of data between various units of computer. It is necessary
to transfer the processed data with high speed. So the computer uses a
number of special memory units called registers. They are not part of the
main memory but they store data or information temporarily and pass it on
as directed by the control unit.

1) Primary storage, also known as main storage or memory, is the main area in a computer in which data is
stored for quick access by the computer's processor. On today's smaller computers, especially personal
computers and workstations, the term random access memory (RAM) - or justmemory - is used instead of
primary or main storage, and the hard disk,diskette, CD, and DVD collectively describe secondary storage or
auxiliary storage.

The terms main storage and auxiliary storage originated in the days of themainframe computer to distinguish the
more immediately accessible data storage from storage that required input/output operations. An earlier term for
main storage was core in the days when the main data storage contained ferrite cores.

2) Primary storage is sometimes used to mean storage for data that is in active use in contrast to storage that is
used for backup purposes. In this usage, primary storage is mainly the secondary storage referred to in
meaning 1. (It should be noted that, although these two meanings conflict, the appropriate meaning
is usually apparent from the context.)
rimary memory is also called primary storage or simply memory. It is built in within the computer.

Primary Memory :-
It is also called as main memory or internal memory. It is faster than secondary memory but it is very expensive. There are
two types of primary memory:
1. RAM
2. ROM

RAM :-
RAM stands for Random Access Memory. We can read and write information in it. It is also called volatile or temporary
memory because when we switch off the power supply, the whole information stored in it is erased. RAM is the working
memory of the computer. All data and information must be in RAM, before processing.

ROM :-
ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The information of ROM is stored at manufacturing time but never altered afterwards.
ROM is also known as Non-volatile memory because when we switch off the power supply, the information in ROM will not
be erased. Basically, ROM stores the information which the computer needs all the time. The ROM basically stores computer
configuration information.
The common four types of ROM are:
1. Masked ROM (Masked read only Memory)
2. PROM(Programmable Read only Memory)
3. EPROM (Erasable Programmable Memory)
4. EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Read only Memory)

SRAM stands for Static Random Access Memory. The SRAM cell has two cross coupled
inverters and uses a standard CMOS process. "The Configuration cell drives the gates of
other transistors on the chip-either turning pass transistors or transmission gates on to make
a connection or off to break a connection."

In the case of SRAM, designers can use the the chip again at prototyping and the system can
be manufactured using ISP. This way a new configuration can be sent instead of sending a
totally new chip. System can be updated or changed in real time.

The power needs to be continously supplied to the programmable ASIC for the volatile
SRAM to retain the connection information. The configuration DATA can also be loaded
from a permanently programmed memory(PROM) every time the system is turned on.

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DRAM or Dynamic Random Access Memory is a type of RAM which holds the data as it is
continuously used by a the refresh circuit. Many hundreds of time each second, the content
of each memory cell is read and the reading action refreshes the contents of the memory.
Due to this refreshing action the memory is called Dynamic and hence DRAM.

DRAM can only hold the data for a fraction of a second and is slower and more complex
than SRAM. DRAM takes up less space and are much cheaper.

DRAM's are made from one transistor and one capacitor. The capacitor holds the electricals
charge if the bit contains "1" or no charge if the bit is "0". The transistor reads the contents
of the capacitor. The charge is held for only a short period of time and then it fades away.
That is when refresh circuitry comes in. It reads the content of every DRAM and refreshes
them with a new charge before the charge fades away and the data is lost. This is
accomplished by "reading every row in the memory chip one row at a time; the process of
reading the contents of each capacitor re-establishes the charge."

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CPU can only read from Read Only Memory but cannot write to its location. Read only
memories are also random access in nature, which means The CPU can randomly access any
location within ROM also. The unit of storage for a memory location is usually either a byte
which means eight bits. Improvement in technology for constructing flexible ROM has
brought, PROM, EPROM, and EEPROM into existence. PROM(Programmable read only
memory), EPROM(erasable programmable read only memory), EEPROM(Electrically
erasable Programmable read only memory.) Primary memory made up with RAM is volatile
in nature, the contents of RAM are lost when the power to it gets removed. The contents of
ROM are not lost even though power may not be available to it.

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