ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This Report is the outcome of laborious and fruitful Survey carried by the Group
3 in Survey Camp 2070 from Baishak 6 to 18th organized by the Department of
Civil Engineering, Thapathali Engineering College, Thapathali, Kathmandu. The
purpose of this fieldwork was to make the each Student independent to carry out
the work in real problem. We think, the purpose is fruitful and which make us to
produce the report of the fieldwork in time.
We are sincerely indebted to Department of Civil Engineering, Thapathali
Campus, for providing opportunity to consolidate our theoretical and practical
knowledge in engineering surveying. We would like to express our sincere
gratitude to Camp coordinator and sub coordinator Er.Bharat dhakal & Er.
Toran Prasad Bhatta for their helpful suggestions and instructions, during the
fieldwork, with out which it was very difficult to do the work in the field and to
produce the report. We are equally indebted to our respected teachers cum
instructors , Er.,Er.,Er,Mr. ,Mrs.Durga Adhikari for their valuable instructions;
friendly behavior and guiding any time during the field work and also providing
prompt comments and rectification necessary before finalization of the report. We
cannot proceed further without thanking to Mr Prakash Pudashainee(account/
logistics),storekeeper Raju Bhandari and others for providing the instrument on
needy.

1
 PREFACE

This Report on Survey Camp is the brief Description of the works that were done in the Campsite during
the Period of 12 days. The Materials in this report are the outcomes of the unbelievable works of each and
every member of Group 3, who gave their valuable time and knowledge for this report. This report is
compilation of great efforts from the group members.

The main objective of this Survey Camp is to provide an opportunity to consolidate and update the
practical knowledge in engineering Surveying in the actual field condition and habituate to work in
different environment with different people. In this Survey Camp, We are supposed to survey a given plot
in all its aspect and work on road and bridge alignment with proper cross-section and profile and its
topography fulfilling all technical requirements.

This Report includes the entire description of the practical carried out during the Survey Camp. This
report includes the Topographic Map of the area which we surveyed. It also includes the profile and
cross-sections at different points of the Road Alignment and Bridge Site Survey. Also, this report includes
the determination of various orientations and curve fitting problems. This Report helps us in our further
Engineering Practice. The number of problems and calculations done in this report helps us to deal with
the similar problems in our further Engineering practice.

Every effort has been taken to ensure the accuracy in this report. However some errors might have
occurred. We will be very much grateful to the viewers who go through this report for bringing such
errors in our notice. Furthermore we would be very thankful for the examiners or viewers for their
suggestions in improving this report.

Survey Camp 2070

IOE Thapathali
GROUP: 3
Arjan Wagle 53/BCE/2067
Bhola Nath Silwal 61/BCE/2067
Manoj Adhikari 69/BCE/2067
Prajjwal Neupane 77/BCE/2067
Salina Maharjan 85/BCE/2067
Subash Adhikari 93/BCE/2067

2
 ABSTRACT

Surveying is the science and art of determining the relative positions of above, on, or
beneath the surface of earth, and is the most important part of Civil Engineering. The results of
surveys are used to map the earth, prepare navigational charts, establish property boundaries,
develop data of land used and natural resource information etc. Further survey maintains
highways, railroads, buildings, bridges, tunnels, canals, dams and many more. Thus, the
objective of survey camp was to make us gain the experience in this field by performing
topographic survey in a large area, learning to propose road alignment and select suitable site for
bridge axis.The report reflects the methodology, observations, and calculations made by the
students in the Camp with the corresponding drawings. The large portion of the course covered
with elements of topographic surveying, and then those of road alignment and bridge site survey
follow it.
The main objective of the Survey Camp organized for us is to take an opportunity to
consolidate and update our practical and theoretical knowledge in engineering surveying in the
actual field condition.. In this survey camp we have to prepare a topographic map of the given
area, road and bridge site survey fulfilling all technical requirements. In this regard, we are
required to carry out the necessary field works in our sub-group so that we will get ample
opportunity to the decision on planning and execution of field works for the preparation of
topographic map and detail road and bridge site survey. This survey camp helps us to build in
our confidence to conduct engineering survey on required accuracy. The summary of the
conduction of whole report is presented as follows:

Project Title : Survey Camp 2070

Location : TU Kirtipur, Kathmandu.
Duration : 6th Baishak to 17th 2070 (12 days)
Working Time : 07:00am to 05:00 pm
Surveyed by : Group No. 03 (Group captian :Bhola Nath Silwal)
2067(III-I) Batch Civil Engineering
Working Schedule for Group 03

S. N. Day Survey Field Work

1. 6th Baishak Reconnaissance for topography survey
2. 7th topography survey (major traverse)
3. 8th topography survey (Minor Traverse)
4. 9th topography survey(detailing) and Rl transfer Diff
leveling
5. 10th topography survey(Detailing)
6. 11th Bridge site and axis Selection surveying
7. 12rd Bridge site surveying

3
 8. 13th Bridge site surveying
9. 14th Road survey
10. 15th Road survey
11. 16th Road survey
12. 17th Presentation And viva

SALIENT FEATURES OF THE PROJECT.

Name of the project: Detail survey, Design and Complete report of

SURVEY CAMP-2068

Description of the project:

Location
i. Region : T.U. Kirtipur (metropolitan city)
ii. Zone : Bagmati
iii. District: Kathmandu

Sites:
i. For topographic survey of the area - Kirtipur (within the premises of Tribhuwan
University)
ii. Bridge site and road alignment within the same area.

Geographical Features:
i. Terrain: Hilly
ii. Climate: Mild Temperature
iii. Geology: Project area follows the geomorphic form of higher Himalayan of Mid-
Eastern Nepal of Kathmandu district.

Description of work:

Traversing:
i. No of Major Traverse Stations:20 (including CP1 & CP2)
ii. No of Minor Traverse Stations:13

4
Detailing:
i. Plot No: I
ii. Area: Central library, gandi bhawan, and up to Back face of Environment
Department

5
Road Alignment:
i. Starting point of the road: Bridge
ii. Length of the road 716.76 M
iii. Crosssection: 10m left and 10m right on Both side from center line

Bridge Site Survey:

i. Bridge span: 46.617M
ii. Surveyed area for Topography: 150m up stream and 50m downstream.
iii. Cross-section up to 150m on upstream and 50m on downstream.

6
 Acronym

R.L. = Reduced Level

BM = Bench Mark

TBM = Temporary Bench Mark

FS = Fore Sight

BS = Back Sight

RECCE = Reconnaissance

I.P. = Intersection Point

7
 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background
1.1.1 Surveying
Surveying is an art and science of determining the relative position of point on
above or beneath the surface of the earth by means of angular and linear
measurements. The application of surveying requires skills as well as knowledge
of mathematics, physics, to some extent, astronomy.

The knowledge of surveying is advantageous to many phase of engineering. The

earliest surveys were made in connection with the land surveying. Surveying is the
most essential subject matter before and during all engineering works like civil
engineering works such as designing and construction of highways, water supply
systems, irrigation projects, buildings etc. Land area surveys are made to determine
the relative horizontal and vertical position of topographic features and to establish
reference mark to guide construction.

In surveying, all measurement of lengths is horizontal, or else is subsequently

reduce to horizontal distance. The object of survey is to prepare plan or map so that
it may represent the area on a horizontal plane. A plan or map is horizontal
projection of an area and show only horizontal distance of the points. Vertical
distances between the points are shown on map by contour lines and are usually
represented by means of vertical sections drawn separately.

The main objectives of surveying courses allocated for civil engineering students is
to promote them the basic knowledge of different surveying techniques relevant to
civil engineering works in their professional practice. The completion of all
surveying courses including two weeks survey camp work organized by the
Department of Civil Engineering, Thapathali Engineering
College,Thapathali,Kathmandu will give better enhancement to students to use all
surveying technique covered in lecture classes.

8
This is a detail report of the works, which were performed by group no. 3, have six
members, during the camp period. It briefly explains the working procedures and
technique used by this group during that camp period. In addition, it also contain
observations, calculations, methods of adjustment of error, main problem faced
during work and their solution, results of all calculations and their assessments
with some comments is presented in a concise form.

1.1.2 Primary Division of Survey

As to whether the surveyor must regard the earth surface as curved or may regard it
is as plane depends upon the character and magnitude of the survey, and upon the
precision required. Primarily, surveying can be divided into plane and geodetic.

In plane surveying, mean surface of the earth is considered as a plane and

spheroidal shape is neglected, all triangle formed are considered as plane triangles,
level line is considered as straight and plumb line are considered parallel. It is
reasonable for the area involving less than 250 sq. km. since length of an arc 12
km. long lying on the earth surface is only 1 cm greater than the subs tended chord.
And the difference between the sum of angles in a plane triangle and sum of those
in spherical triangle is only 1 second for a triangle at the earth surface having area
of 195 sq. km.
In geodetic surveying, the shape of the earth is taken into account. All line are
curved line, all triangle are spherical triangle so it involves spherical trigonometry.
The object of geodetic survey is to determine the precise position on the surface of
the earth, of a system of widely distant point which forms the control station to
which survey of less precision may be referred.

Keeping in view the above fact in our survey camp we conduct plane
surveying since the area to be surveyed is small and precision required is
within the limit as that obtained by plane surveying.

9
1.1.3 Classification of Survey
Survey may be classified on the different heading depending upon the uses
or purpose of resulting map.
 Based on Nature of Field Survey
 Land survey: it includes topographical, cadastral and city survey.
 Hydrographic survey
 Astronomical survey
 Based on object of survey
 Engineering survey
 Military survey
 Mine survey
 Geological survey
 Archaeological survey
 Based on instrument used
 Chain survey
 Theodolite survey
 Traverse survey
 Triangulation survey
 Tachometric survey
 Plane table survey
 Photogrammetric survey
 Aerial survey

In our survey camp, the type of survey that we performed is engineering

survey which includes the preparation of topographic map, in which both
horizontal and vertical controls are necessary. As per instrument used we
perform theodolite traverse survey for fixing control points, tachometric
survey for detailing and triangulation survey for establishing control points in
bridge site survey.

1.1.4 Principle of Surveying

The fundamental principles of plane surveying are:
 Working from whole to part: it is very essential to establish first a
system of control points with higher precision. Minor control points
can then be established by less precise method and details can then be
located using minor control points by running minor traverse. This
10
 principle is applied to prevent the accumulation of error and to control
and localize minor error.
 Location of point by measurement from two points of reference:
the relative position of points to be surveyed should be located by
measurement from at least two (preferably three) points of reference,
the position of which have already been fixed.
 Consistency of work: The survey work should performed by keeping
consistency in method, instrument, observer etc. to get desired level of
accuracy.
 Independent check: Every measurement taken in the field must be
checked by some independent field observation so that the mistake is
not passed unnoticely.
 Accuracy required: Proper method and proper instrument should be
used depending upon amount of accuracy required. Accuracy of
angular and linear values should be compatible.
In our survey camp, survey work is performed by considering the above
fundamental principle of surveying.

11
 1.2 Accuracy and Errors:
1.2.1 General:
Precision is the degree of perfection used in the instrument, the methods and the
observations. Accuracy is the degree of perfection obtained which depend on
precise instrument to simplify the work, save time & provide economy, on precise
method to reduce the effect of all type of error, and good planning to save time &
reduce the possibility of errors. The important function of surveyor is to secure
measurements which are correct within a certain limit of error prescribed by nature
and purpose of particular survey. A discrepancy is the difference between two
measured values of the same quantity, it is not an error.

1.2.2 Source of errors:

Error may arise from three sources.
 Instrumental error: are those arising due to imperfection or faulty
adjustment of the instrument with which measurement is being taken.
E.g., a tape too short.
 Personal error: Are those arising due to want of perfection of human
sight in observing and of touch in manipulating instrument. E.g., error
in taking level reading.
 Natural error: Error due to variation in natural phenomenon such as
temperature, refraction, magnetic declination etc.
1.2.3 Kind of error
Error may be classified as:
 Mistake: are errors arising from inattention, inexperience,
carelessness and confusion in the mind of observer. If undetected, it
produces a serious effect. Hence, every measurement to be recorded in
the field must be checked by independent check.
 Systematic error: Are error that under the same condition will
always be of same size and sign, a correction can be determined and
applied, these make the result too great or too small accordingly treated
as positive or negative error.
 Accidental error: Are those which remain after mistake and
systematic error have been eliminated and caused by a combination of

12
 reason beyond the ability of observer to control. They tend sometimes
in one direction and sometimes in other. Accidental error represented
the limit of precision in the determination of value.
1.2.4 Permissible error:
It is the maximum allowable limit that a measurement may vary from the true
value or from a value previously adopted is correct. Its magnitude in any given
case depends upon the scale, purpose of the survey, the instrument available, class
of the work etc. The limit of error cannot be given once for all. The best surveyor
is not he, who is extremely accurate in all his work, but he who does it just
accurately enough for the purpose without waste of time & money.

13
 Objectives Of Survey Camp

The main objective of the camp is to provide a basic knowledge of practical

implementation of different survey work, which must be encountered in future. It
enhances the practical knowledge thereby implementing different work and in
other side it involves self-assured feeling everlastingly. It guides to tread on the
path ending with success.
The main objectives of the survey camp are as follows:
 To become familiar with the problems that may arise during the field
works.
 To became familiar with proper handling of instrument and their functions.
 To become familiar with the spirit and importance of teamwork, as
surveying is not a single person work.
 To complete the given project in scheduled time and thus knows the value
of time.
 To collect required data in the field in systematic ways.
 To compute and manipulate the observed data in the required accuracy and
present it in diagrammatic and tabular form in order to understand by
others.
 To tackle the mistake and incomplete data from the field during the office
work.
 To make capable for the preparation of final report.

14
 PROJECT AREA

Tribhuvan University was selected as the project area of Survey Camp-

2070. University lies in the north-west corner of the Kathmandu valley. The
typical features related to the site are as follows:

1.4.1 Location And Accesability

Kirtipur is about 6km North West of Kathmandu. The area allocated to us for
survey is about 50 sq. km .Of land with dense human settlement. The detail of
the area is:
Country: Nepal
Region: Central Development Region
Zone: Bagmati
District: Kathmandu
Location: Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur.

The major part of our survey camp work was done in the compound of
Tribhuvan University (T.U), founded in 1959, Nepal’s first university,
situated in Kirtipur, five kilometers away from Kathmandu.

With the rapid development of Katmandu and proximity of the capital to

Kirtipur, the town has come under increasing pressure for modern
development. It is a farming town. During the 1960’s, the paddy fields to the
north east of the town were chosen as the site for Tribhuvan University, and
were compulsorily purchased from their owners. With the university, came a
new-pitched road and bus transport to the edge of the town. Naya Bazaar,
which developed without any planning two decades ago to the south east of
the town, at the foot of the hill is now the main commercial center. It is of
course unrealistic to stop the development of new areas around Kirtipur but if

15
 the growth of Naya Bazaar is not supervised, it may develop to a large
unplanned township without appropriate infrastructures. With the
development of Naya Bazaar and because of the students commuting to T.U
transportation facility in and around Kirtipur is quite developed. There are
regular buses running to and from Kirtipur. Thus, our project area was quite
suitable and easily accessible.

1.4.2 Topography and Geology

Kirtipur has gently steep topography. It is said that the city is standing on a
huge hard rock. Especially the low land below the town is found to be good
for the agricultural product. The area contains ground features ranging from
step slopes to almost flat grounds. These features were shown by contours.
The area also shows a variation in the elevation.

The latitude and longitude of Nepal is as following:

Latitude 2622N to 3027N
Longitude 804E to 8812E
The latitude and longitude of Kirtipur is as follow:
Latitude 2953'06”N
Longitude 8455'00’E
1.4.3 Climate and Vegetation:
The climate of Kirtipur is temperate. The city is situated at the height of more
than 5000 ft. above the sea level. Hence summer is warm with the maximum
and minimum temperature 28C and 16C. Winter is cold with maximum and
minimum temperature of 17C and 0C. However, in winter days are sunny
and a bit warm.

16
 The average rainfall in Kirtipur area is 90 inches in summer and very little
rain in winter. Our survey camp was held on Falgun and Chaitra month. At
that time the temperature out there was moderate and we had no problem in
work regarding weather.

Vegetation of Kirtipur: The vegetation in Kirtipur is lush and ranges

from huge trees with thick trunk and deep-seated root to weeds. Plenty of
paddy fields were found out there. Similarly, most of the parts of the
university were covered with green grasses.
1.5 Others:
Kirtipur is a very old and historic city. It was a small kingdom. In 1821 B.S,
king Prithvi Narayan Shah conquered this little city in the course of unifying
Nepal. The people here are very religious. There are famous enshrines like
Bagh Bhairav, Bhagwati, and quite a few Buddhist Monasteries. Lots of
festival and cultural traditions are observed over there every year but we were
not lucky enough to see any of such processions.
Kirtipur municipality is the main administrative authority of this area, and is
very close to Kathmandu. Therefore, the education level of people is in increasing
trend. All modern facilities are available. The main occupation is agriculture and
some percentage is engaged in other business like transport, tourism and trade. It is
very well connected with Kathmandu by good metallic road. As an effect, the life-
style is changing, standard of living is rising and per capita income is also
increasing. Many new commercial and modern styled buildings are rising on the
eastern slopes of the mound. Tribhuwan University, the oldest and biggest
University of Nepal lies in its vicinity

17
 TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEY

Topographical surveying is the process of determining the positions of natural

and artificial features of the locality by means of conventional signs up on a
topographical map. Topographic surveys are three-dimensional; they provide
the techniques of plane surveying and other special techniques to establish
both horizontal and vertical control. Topographic is simply the graphical
representation of positions of the earth’s surface
Hence the fieldwork in a topographical surveying consists of three parts.
 It establishes both horizontal and vertical control.
 It locates the contours.
 It locates the details such as rivers, streams, lakes, roads, houses and trees
etc.

2.1 Objectives:
The main Objective is to prepare the topographic map of the given area with
horizontal control and vertical control with required accuracy. By topographic
survey we can determine the position of both on plan and elevation, of any
features of a locality for the purpose of delineating them by means of
conventional sign and symbol upon the topographic map.

Brief description of the area:

The area, where surveying was performed, is situated at TU Kirtipur,
Kathmandu. The major traverse was run throughout the campus area, which
cover the half area of the campus. Our objective was to prepare a topographic
map of the given small area, which is a part of the campus area. So, we were
assigned to prepare the topographic map of the area including Central

18
 Library, Gandi Bhawan and forest at Back face of Environment
Department that includes the entire natural and man-made features that may
come in the general survey work.

2.2 Norms (Technical specifications):

 Conduct reconnaissance survey of the given area. Form a close traverse
(major and minor) around the perimeter of the area by making traverse
station. In the selection of the traverse station maintain the ratio of
maximum traverse leg to minimum traverse leg less than 2:1 for major
and less than 3:1 for minor.
 Measure the traverse legs in the forward and reverse directions by means
of a tape calibrated against the standard length provided in the field, note
that discrepancy between forward and backward measurements should be
better than 1:2000.
 Measure traverse angle on two sets of reading by theodolite. Note that
difference between the mean angles of two sets reading should be within
the square root of no of station times least count of the instrument.
 Determine the R.L. of traverse stations by fly leveling from the given
B.M. Perform two-peg test before the start of fly leveling. Note that
collimation error should be less than 1:10000. Maintain equal foresight
and back sight distances to eliminate collimation error. Take R.L. of
T.B.M 2 is 1322.580. The Permissible error for fly leveling is (±25√k)
mm.
 Balance the traverse. The permissible angular error for the sum of interior
angles of the traverse should be less than ±√n x 1 minutes for Major
Traverse and ±√n x 1.5 minutes for Minor Traverse (n = no of traverse
station). For major and minor traverse the relative closing error should be
less than 1: 2000 and 1: 1000 respectively.
 Plot the traverse stations by coordinate method in appropriate scale, i.e.
1:1000 for major traverse and 1:500 for minor traverses.
 Carry out the detail survey of the given area by tachometric method with
reference to the major and minor traverse stations, which have been

19
 already plotted. Use conventional symbols for plotting.

2.3 Equipment:
The equipment used in the survey during the preparation of topographic map
are as follows:
1. Theodolite.
2. Staffs.
3. Ranging rods
4. Tapes
5. Leveling instruments
6. Nails, Pegs
7. Compass
8. Marker pen

2.4 Methodology:
The methodology of surveying is based on the principle of surveying. They
are as follows:
1. Working from whole to part
2. Independent check
3. Consistency of work
4. Accuracy Required

The different methodologies were used in surveying to solve the problems

arise in the field. These methodologies are as follows:

2.4.1 Reconnaissance (recci)

Reconnaissance (recci) means the exploration or scouting of an area. In
survey, it involves walking around the survey area and roughly planning the
number of stations and the position of the traverse stations. Recci is primarily
done to get an overall idea of the site. This helps to make the necessary
observations regarding the total area, type of land, topography, vegetation,
climate, geology and indivisibility conditions that help in detailed planning.
20
The following points have to be taken into consideration for fixing traverse
stations:
 The adjacent stations should be clearly intervisible
 The whole area should include the least number of stations possible.
 The traverse station should maintain the ratio of maximum traverse leg
to minimum traverse leg less than 1:2 for Major Traverse and 1:3 for
Minor Traverse.
 The steep slopes and badly broken ground should be avoided as far as
possible, which may cause inaccuracy in tapping.
 The stations should provide minimum level surface required for setting
up the instrument.
 The traverse line of sight should not be near the ground level to avoid
the refraction.

Taking the above given points into consideration, the traverse stations were
fixed. Then two way taping was done for each traverse leg. Thus, permanent
fixing of the control points completes recci.

2.4.2 Traversing:
Traversing is a type of surveying in which a number of connected survey lines
form the framework. It is also a method of control surveying. The survey
consists of the measurement of
 Angles between successive lines or bearings of each line
 The length of each line
There are two types of traverse. They are as follows:

(i) Closed traverse:

If the figure formed by the lines closes at a station i.e. if they form a
polygon or it starts and finishes at the points of known co-ordinates
then the traverse is called closed traverse.

(ii) Open traverse:

21
 If a traverse starts and finishes at points other than the starting point or
point of unknown co-ordinates, then the traverse is called open
traverse.

(a) Closed (a)

Loop Traverse (b) Closed Traverse (c) Open Traverse
Fig: Types of Traverses

(a) Theodolite traversing

Theodolite traversing is defined as the course taken when measuring a

connected series of straight lines, each line joining two points on the
ground. These points are called traverse station. The straight line between
two consecutive traverse stations is called a traverse leg. The angle at any
station between two consecutive traverse legs is known as traverse angle.

The directions and the lengths of the survey lines are measured with the
help of an angle-measuring instrument such as Theodolite and a tape. If
the co-ordinates of the first station and the bearing of the first line are
known, the co-ordinates of all successive points can be computed as
follows:
XB = XA + Lcosθ
YB = YA + Lsinθ
Where, L=Length of traverse leg

22
 (b) Measurement of Traverse Length:
After completion of recci survey, taping of the major traverse was
performed with the help of tapes. The distances between the adjacent
control points were measured accurately as far as possible for the
accuracy of the whole traverse. To attain the accuracy required i.e. 1:2000
ratio, a two way taping was done independently so that the length from
each measurement was found within specified range.

To measure the horizontal distances accurately on the slopping ground,

the short length was measured at a time so that the tape could be pulled
horizontally without sagging. For this ranging was done accurately to
divide the length into shorter length. Finally, all the lengths were added
to obtain the whole length, which is also, called stepping method. For
accuracy, traverse legs may be checked by electronic distance measuring
instrument (EDM).

Major Traverse
The skeleton of lines joining those control points, which covers the whole
entire area, is called Major Traverse. Work on Major traverse must be precise.
So two-set of reading should be taken for Major Traverse. For convenience,
the readings are taken by setting the theodolite at 00’0” for one set and
9000’00” for the second.

In the Kirtipur Survey Camp, two traverses - major and minor had to be
established. The major traverse had 20 control stations including two given
control points. The control stations were named as 3M1, 3M2 and so on along
with CP1 and CP2 (the two given control points) .The leg ratio of maximum
traverse leg to minimum traverse leg was maintained within 1:2. The
discrepancy in length between the forward measurements and the backward
measurements of all the traverse legs was within 1:1000. Two sets of
theodolite readings were taken for measuring the horizontal traverse angles.

23
The difference between the mean angles of two sets of readings was within a
minute for all the angles.

Minor Traverse
It is not sufficient to detail the area by enclosing with the help of major
traverse. Minor traverse is that one which runs through the area to make
detailing easy. Minor Traverse covers only small area. Less precise work than
that of major traverse is acceptable so that single set reading is sufficient. The
minor traverse had 13 control stations and enclosed the Gandhi Bhawan as the
major details. The control stations were named as 3m1, 3m2 and so on along
with the 1 control stations common for both the major and the minor traverses.
The leg ratio of maximum traverse leg to minimum traverse leg was
maintained within 1:3. The discrepancy in length between the forward
measurements and the backward measurements of all the traverse legs was
within 1:1000.
Measurement of Horizontal and Vertical
a) Two set of horizontal angle was measured at each station and one set of
vertical angle. And it was done in the following way-:
i) One the face left temporary adjustment was done.
ii) After setting zero to the first station the second station was sighted by
unclamping the upper screw.
iii) For better accuracy and exact bisection horizontal angle was measured at
the bottom of the arrow.
iv) And on the same setting or same face vertical angle at both the station
was taken.
v) Now again changing the face the horizontal angle was taken and vertical
angle too.
vi) Now setting the reading to ninety at the first station again one set of
horizontal angle was taken but the vertical angle is enough, taken earlier.
vii) Before shifting the instrument to the next station the height of instrument
was taken.

24
viii) Similarly the instrument was shifted to other station and in each station
one set of vertical angle and two set of horizontal angle and height of
instrument was measured.
ix) For comparison of the tape distance and the Tachometric distance the
stadia reading (top, mid, bottom) was taken at each station and for the
calculation of the reduce level of each station we need to read mid
reading which can be compared with the level transferred using auto
level.

2.4.3 TOTAL STATION:

Introduction:

A total station is an optical instrument used a lot in modern surveying and

archaeology and, in a minor way, as well as by police, crime scene
investigators, private accident reconstructionist and insurance companies to
take measurements of scenes. It is a combination of an electronic theodolite
(transit), an electronic distance meter (EDM) and software running on an
external computer known as a data collector.

With a total station one may determine angles and distances from the
instrument to points to be surveyed. With the aid of trigonometry and
triangulation, the angles and distances may be used to calculate the
coordinates of actual positions (X, Y, and Z or northing, easting and
elevation) of surveyed points, or the position of the instrument from known
points, in absolute terms.

25
Some total stations also have a GPS interface which combines these
two technologies to make use of the advantages of both (GPS - line of sight
not required between measured points; Traditional Total Station - high
precision measurement especially in the vertical axis compared with GPS) and
reduce the consequences of each technology's disadvantages (GPS - poor
accuracy in the vertical axis and lower accuracy without long occupation
periods; Total Station - requires line of sight observations and must be set up
over a known point or within line of sight of 2 or more known points).

26
Most modern total station instruments measure angles by means of electro-
optical scanning of extremely precise digital bar-codes etched on rotating
glass cylinders or discs within the instrument. The best quality total stations
are capable of measuring angles down to 0.5 arc-second. Inexpensive
"construction grade" total stations can generally measure angles to 5 or 10
arc-seconds.

Measurement of distance is accomplished with a modulated microwave or

infrared carrier signal, generated by a small solid-state emitter within the
instrument's optical path, and bounced off of the object to be measured. The
modulation pattern in the returning signal is read and interpreted by the
onboard computer in the total station. The distance is determined by emitting
and receiving multiple frequencies, and determining the integer number of
wavelengths to the target for each frequency. Most total stations use a
purpose-built glass Porro prism as the reflector for the EDM signal, and can
measure distances out to a few kilometers, but some instruments are
"reflector less", and can measure distances to any object that is reasonably
light in color, out to a few hundred meters. The typical Total Station EDM can
measure distances accurate to about 3 millimeters or 1/100th of a foot.

Some modern total stations are 'robotic' allowing the operator to control the
instrument from a distance via remote control. This eliminates the need for an
assistant staff member to hold the reflector prism over the point to be
measured. The operator holds the reflector him/herself and controls the total
station instrument from the observed point.

T/2
Target
Total D = (T/2)*Vel. Of Light
Station

Figure: Working Principle of Total Station

27
 The basic principle of Total Station is that the distance between any two
points can be known once the time light takes to travel the distance and back
and the velocity of light is known. Then the following relation, which is
already programmed in the memory of the instrument along with other
correction factors, calculates the required horizontal distance and is
displayed on the LCD screen.
Balancing the traverse:
There are different methods of adjusting a traverse such as Bow ditch’s
method, Transit method, Graphical method, and Axis method. Among them
during the survey camp, Bow ditch’s method was used to adjust the traverse.

The basis of this method is on the assumptions that the errors in linear
measurements are proportional to L and that the errors in angular
measurements are inversely proportional to L, where L is the length of a line.
The Bow ditch’s rule is mostly used to balance a traverse where linear and
angular measurements are of equal precision. The total error in latitude and in
the departure is distributed in proportion to the lengths of the sides.

2.4.4 COMPUTATION OF THE CO-ORDINATES

According to the accuracy aimed and the nature of the
ground, the lengths of traverse legs are measured
directly on the ground either by chaining or
taping. The traverse angles are measured with a
theodolite by setting up the instrument at each
station in turn and the vertical angle at each
station measured will help to find the tachometric distance and reduce level of
that point. And the bearing of the any one of the traverse leg measured and the
entire traverse angle measured, the bearing of all the legs can be calculated by:
Bearing of a line = (bearing of previous line +included angle) (180) or
(540)

28
 If  is the bearing of line (c.p,A say), and l be the length of the line and
provided that co-ordinate of the control point(c.p) is known then the co-
ordinate of the point ‘A’ can be calculated as follow-:
X-coordinate of A=x-coordinate of control point (c.p) +l*sin
Y-coordinate of A=y-coordinate of control point (c.p) +l*cos
R.L or z-coordinate of A=R.L of point (c.p) +H.I H*Tan-Height of signal.
Where, H.I=Height of instrument
H=horizontal distance

Balancing the consecutive coordinate:

The process of adjusting consecutive co-ordinates of each line by

applying correction to them in such a way that each algebraic sum of the latitude
and departure of a close circuit is equal to zero i.e. the sum of the northing should
be exactly equal to the sum of the southing and sum of the easting should be
exactly equal to the sum of the westing.
The closing error however is distributed through out the whole traverse
stations such that its effect is not apparent on the plotted location of the
station. And the error can be distributed among the stations if the closing error
is within the permissible limit, which is given by-:
Precision = √ (ΔX2+ΔY2) /P = e/P
This should be greater than 1:2000

Closing Error
If a closed traverse is plotted according to the field measurements, the end of
the traverse will not coincide exactly with the starting point. Such and error is
known as closing error.
Mathematically, Closing error (e) = √ {(L) 2 + (D) 2}
Direction, tan θ = D/L

29
The sign of L and D will thus define the quadrant in which the closing error
lies.
The relative error of closure = Error of Closure / Perimeter of the traverse
=e/p
= 1 / (p / e)
The error (e) in a closed traverse due to bearing may be determined by
comparing the two bearings of the last line as observed at the first and last
stations of traverse. If the closed traverse, has N number of sides then,
Correction for the first line = e/N
Correction for the second line = 2e/N
And similarly, correction for the last line = Ne/N = e
In a closed traverse, by geometry, the sum of the interior angles should be (2n-
4) x 90˚ where n is the number of traverse sides. If the angles are measured
with the same degree of precision, the error in the sum of the angles may be
distributed equally among each angle of the traverse.

2.5.5 Detailing:
Detailing means locating and plotting relief in a topographic map. Detailing
can be done by either plane table surveying or tachometric surveying. Plane
tabling needs less office work than tachometric survey. Nevertheless, during
our camp, we used the tachometric method

Tachometry
Tachometry is a branch of angular surveying in which the horizontal and
vertical distances of points are obtained by optical means. Though it only has
accuracy about 1/300 to 1/500, it is faster and convenient than the
measurements by tape or chain. It is very suitable for steep or broken ground,
deep ravines, and stretches of water or swamp where taping is impossible and
unreliable.

30
The objective of the tachometric survey is to prepare of contour maps or plans
with both horizontal and vertical controls. For the survey of high accuracy, it
provides a check on the distances measured by tape.

The formula for the horizontal distance is

H = 100*S*Cos2
The formula for the vertical distance is
V = 100 *S*(Sin2)/2
Where, S = staff intercept;  = Vertical Angle
If the angle used is zenithal angle then
H=100*S*Cos2
V = 100*S*(Sin2)/2
Where, =zenithal angle.

2.4.6 Leveling:
Leveling is a branch of surveying the object of which is:
(i) To find the elevation of given points with respect to given or assumed
datum.
(ii) To establish points at a given elevation or at different elevations with
respect to a given or assumed datum.

The first operation is required to enable the works to be designed while the
second operation is required in the setting out of all kinds of engineering
works. Leveling deals with measurements in a vertical plane.

To provide vertical controls in topographic map, the elevations of the relevant

points must be known so that complete topography of the area can be
explored.

31
Two types of leveling were performed at the site, namely direct leveling
(spirit leveling) and indirect leveling (trigonometric leveling).

1. Direct leveling:
It is the branch of leveling in which the vertical distances with respect to a
horizontal line (perpendicular to the direction of gravity) may be used to
determine the relative difference in elevation between two adjacent points. A
level provides horizontal line of sight, i.e. a line tangential to a level surface at
the point where the instrument stands. The difference in elevation between
two points is the vertical distance between two level lines. With a level set up
at any place, the difference in elevation between any two points within proper
lengths of sight is given by the difference between the rod readings taken on
these points. By a succession of instrument stations and related readings, the
difference in elevation between widely separated points is thus obtained.
Following are some special methods of direct (spirit) leveling:
a. Differential leveling:
It is the method of direct leveling the object of which is solely to
determine the difference in elevation of two points regardless of the
horizontal positions of the points with respect of each other. This type of
leveling is also known as fly leveling.
b. Profile leveling:
It is the method of direct leveling the object of which is to determine the
elevations of points at measured intervals along a given line in order to
obtain a profile of the surface along that line.
c. Cross-sectioning:
Cross-sectioning or cross leveling is the process of taking levels on each
side of main line at right angles to that line, in order to determine a
vertical cross-section of the surface of the ground, or of underlying strata,
or of both.
d. Reciprocal leveling:
It is the method of leveling in which the difference in elevation between
two points is accurately determined by two sets of reciprocal
32
 observations when it is not possible to set up the level between the two
points.

2. Indirect leveling:
Indirect method or trigonometric leveling is the process of leveling in which
the elevations of points are computed from the vertical angles and horizontal
distances measured in the field, just as the length of any side in any triangle
can be computed from proper trigonometric relations.
Two Peg Test
Before starting the fly leveling, two peg test was carried out to check the
accuracy of the level used. The collimation error was found to be 1: 10000
which satisfied the permissible error limit (1:10,000).

Temporary adjustments of Level:

The temporary adjustment for a level consists of the following:
1. Setting up the level: The operation of setting up includes fixing the
instrument on the stand and leveling the instrument approximately.
2. Leveling up: Accurate leveling is done with the help of foot screws and
with reference to the plate levels. The purpose of leveling is to make the
vertical axis truly vertical and horizontal line of sight truly horizontal.
3. Removal of parallax: Parallax is a condition when the image formed by
the objective is not in the plane of the cross hairs. Parallax is eliminated
by focusing the eyepiece for distinct vision of the cross hairs and by
focusing the objective to bring the image of the object in the plane of
cross hairs.
Permanent adjustments of Level:
To check for the permanent adjustments of level two-peg test method should
be performed. Two staffs were placed at A and B of known length (about 60
m). First the instrument was setup on the line near B and both staff readings
(Top, Middle, and Bottom) were taken. Then, the instrument was setup at the

33
middle C on the line and again both staff readings on A and B was taken.
Then computation was done in order to check whether the adjustment was
within the required accuracy or not. No permanent adjustment was required
since the error was within the permissible value.

Booking and reducing levels:

There are two methods of booking and reducing the elevation of points from
the observed staff reading
 Height of the Instrument method
 Arithmetic Check: ∑BS – ∑F.S. = Last R.L. – First R.L.
 Rise and Fall method
 Arithmetic Check: ∑ BS – ∑ F.S. = ∑ Rise – ∑fall = Last R.L. –
First R.L.
Fly Leveling:
The RL of Given TBM1 point was found by transferring the level from
Known BM located at Lab School by the process of fly leveling. In this
method auto level was used and the level was transferred directly by taking
BS and FS at every Turning Point.

34
Level transfer to the major and minor traverse stations:
The R. L of the temporary benchmark was then transferred to the control
stations of the major and minor traverse. The closing error was found to be
within the permissible limits. The misclosure was adjusted in each leg of the
leveling path by using the following formula:
Permissible error = ±25k mm.
Where k is perimeter in Km
Actual Error (e) = ∑BS – ∑F.S. = Last R.L. – First R.L.
Correction ith leg=-(e x (L1 + L2 +…. + Li)/P
Where L1, L2, Li Length of 1st, 2nd,….. ith leg.
P is perimeter
Relative Precision= 1/(p/e)
2.4.7 Contouring:
A contour is an imaginary line, which passes through the points of equal
elevation. It is a line in which the surface of ground is intersected by a level
surface. Every fifth contour lines must be made darken. While drawing the
contour lines, the characteristics of the contours should be approached.

The characteristics are as follows:

 Two contours of different elevations do not cross each other except in the
case of an overhanging cliff.
 Contours of different elevations do not unite to form one contour except
in the case of a vertical cliff.
 Contours drawn closer depict a steep slope and if drawn apart, represent a
gentle slope.
 Contours equally spaced depict a uniform slope. When contours are
parallel, equidistant and straight, these represent an inclined plane
surface.
 Contour at any point is perpendicular to the line of the steepest slope at
the point.
 A contour line must close itself but need not be necessarily within the
limits of the map itself.
35
 A set ring contours with higher values inside depict a hill whereas a set of
ring contours with lower values inside depict a pond or a depression
without an outlet.
 When contours cross a ridge or V-shaped valley, they form sharp V-
shapes across them. Contours represent a ridge line, if the concavity of
higher value contour lies towards the next lower value contour and on the
other hand these represent a valley if the concavity of the lower value
contour, lies toward the higher value contours.
 The same contour must appear on both the sides of a ridge or a valley.
 Contours do not have sharp turnings.

Taking the reading at the change point on the ground does the indirect method
of locating contours. The interpolation method is used to draw the contour
lines. Interpolation of contours is done by estimation, by arithmetic
calculations or by graphical method. The eye estimation method is extremely
rough and is used for small-scale work only. Generally, arithmetic calculation
method of interpolation is used to draw the contour lines and is performed as
follows:
X= (H/V) * Y
Where,
X= Horizontal distance of the point to be located.
H = Horizontal distance between two guide points
V = Vertical distance between the two guide points
Y = Vertical distance between lower elevation point and the point to be
located.

2.4.8 Computation and plotting

For the calculations as well as plotting, we applied the coordinate method
(latitude and departure method). In this method, two terms latitude and
departure are used for calculation. Latitude of a survey line may be defined as
its coordinate lengths measured parallel to an assumed meridian direction. The
latitude (L) of a line is positive when measured towards north, and termed

36
Northing and it is negative when measured towards south, and termed
Southing. The departure (D) of a line is positive when measured towards east,
and termed Easting and it is negative when measured towards south, and
termed Westing. The latitude and departures of each control station can be
calculated using the relation:

Latitude = L Cos
Departure = L Sin
Where, L=distance of the traverse legs
=Reduced bearing
If a closed traverse is plotted according to the field measurements, the end of
the traverse will not coincide exactly with the starting point. Such and error is
known as closing error.
Mathematically,
Closing error (e) = √ {(L) 2 + (D) 2}
The relative error of closure = e / p
The error (e) in a closed traverse due to bearing may be determined by
comparing the two bearings of the last line as observed at the first and last
stations of traverse. If the closed traverse, has N number of sides then,
Correction for the first line = e/N
Correction for the second line = 2e/N
And similarly, correction for the last line = Ne/N = e

In a closed traverse, by geometry, the sum of the interior angles should be

equal to (2n-4) x 90˚ where n is the number of traverse sides. If the angles are
measured with the same degree of precision, the error in the sum of the angles
may be distributed equally among each angle of the traverse.
Mathematically,
a) Correction in departure of a side of traverse
= - (Total departure misclosure / traverse perimeter) x length of that side

b) Correction in latitude of a side of traverse

37
 = - (Total latitude misclosure / traverse perimeter) x length of that side

In the case of length, the difference in values obtained by forward and

backward taping is called discrepancy. In addition, the reciprocal of the
discrepancy divided by the mean of the two measurements is called precision.
Both the discrepancy and the precision for each traverse leg should be within
the given limits.
Plotting of Major and Minor traverse:
After computing the co-ordinate of each of the control points, they were
plotted in A1 size grid paper. Both major and minor traverses were plotted to
1:1000 scales. The plotted traverse was made at the center of the sheet with the
help of least co-ordinates and highest co-ordinates. Minor Traverse was plotted in
similar way to scale 1:500 over which later detailing by tachometry was done.

2.5 Comments and conclusions:

The site for survey camping was the campus area of TU, Kirtipur. The pattern
was very suitable because all the facilities for engineering work were
available with the good environment of doing work except due to the rainfall
at a day for few hours.

The fooding facilities were not up to the task and not hygienic and fresh. The
briefing to be done as scheduled was not done as both the teachers and the students
were tired of their days work and could not concentrate on the briefing. In the field,
even though the teachers helped us a lot, we felt that their visiting is not sufficient.

We hope that above mentioned problems will be solved and the up coming camps
will run smoothly without any problems.
Some other problems during the field works were during fly leveling during
transferring the R.L. from given benchmark to the T.B.M. due to the disturbance
by traffics.
38
Conclusion:
The given Topography survey camp work was finished satisfactorily within
the given span of time. The subject survey needs practice as much as possible.
For surveying, theory can only taken as the introduction but if there is
practice, there will be much gain of knowledge about the techniques of
surveying. Thus, this camp helps us by practicing the survey work to gain the
much essential knowledge as far as possible. It is better to say that it provides
us a confidence to perform survey and apply the techniques at any type of
problem facing during the actual work in the future career.

All the groups prepared their topographic map of the given area of the TU
campus areas in the same scale. The whole area was divided in such a way
that area allocated for one group contains some part of the area allocated for
another group. One traverse leg is also common to all groups and hence the
combination of all groups' effort will provide a perfect and complete
topographic map of TU after combining it.

39
 BRIDGE SITE SURVEY

3.1 Objectives:
The adequate functioning of a road depends to a large extent on the effectiveness
of the cross drainage like bridges etc. The main objective of the bridge site survey
is to give the students the preliminary knowledge on selection and planning of
possible bridge site and axis for the future construction of the bridge. The purpose
of the bridge site survey was not only to prepare plan and layout of the bridge site
but also from the engineering point of view, the purpose is to collect the
preliminary data about the site such as normal water flow level, high flood level,
geological features of the ground for planning and designing of the bridge from the
details taken during the surveying. Moreover bridge construction is an important
aspect in the development of transportation network. Surveying is required for
topographical mapping, knowledge of longitudinal sections of the river and cross
sections at both the upstream and downstream side of the river for the construction
of a bridge.

3.2 Brief Description of the Area

Bridge site survey was conducted over a small rain spring on the T.U facility.
The spring collects water etc coming from the departments and flows through
a ravine formed by two hill slopes. Our site was between the physics and
chemistry departments and the coronation garden. The site was mossy and
swampy. No huge boulders are to be found near the site. It was damp and
hilly.

3.3 Hydrology, Geology and Soil Condition

Trees surrounded the site. There are no rocks. The ground was damp and
swampy. The soil was soft and clayey. It was brown in color. The hill slopes
on both sides are not very steep and are thus geologically stable. There is not
much water to be found on the bridge site. The only water is collected from
rain and other sources.

40
 3.4 Technical Specification (Norms):
A bridge site topographical survey was carried out and the alignment of the bridge
axis was fixed by triangulation. Two base lines were measured by tape with two
way linear measurement. Along with these we are also supposed to take L-section
and X-section of the river downstream and upstream. A topographic map was
prepared by tachometric surveying and longitudinal and cross-sectional profile of
the area was drawn. The scales for plotting are as follows:
Scale of topographic map =1:500
Scale of L-Section:
Horizontal scale =1:1000
Vertical scale = 1:100
Scale of Cross-section
Horizontal scale = 1:200
Vertical scale =1:200

3.5 Equipment:
The equipment used in the survey during the preparation of topographic map, are
as follows:
 Theodolite
 Ranging rods
 Leveling instruments
 Abney level
 Marker
 Arrow
 Staffs
 Compass
 Tapes
 Pegs
 Tripod

3.6 Methodology:
The various methods performed during the bridge site survey were triangulation,
leveling, tachometry, cross section, L-section etc. The brief descriptions of these
methodologies were given below:

41
 3.6.1 Recce:
The bridge site was observed and the overview of the placement of axis was made.
3.6.2 Site Selection:
The selection of bridge site is an art and requires considerable investigations. There
are various factors for the selection of bridge site such as geological condition,
socio-economical and ecological aspect etc. Therefore, the sites was chosen such
that it should be at well-defined and stable banks and not affect the ecological
balance of the flora and fauna of the site area. The site should be on a straight
reach of the stream. The site which is sufficiently away from the confluences of
large tributaries, which offers a square crossing & more advantageous foundation
conditions, which is sufficiently away from landslides & subsidences should be
preferred. The bridge axis should be so located that it should be fairly
perpendicular to the flow direction and at the same time, the river width should be
narrow from the economical point of view and the free board should be at least 5m.
The starting point of bridge axis should not in any way lie or touch the curve of the
road. A site which blends with the topography and landscape will be aesthetically
pleasing.

Keeping in minds the above factors, the bridge site was selected. For the purpose
of the shortest span, the stations were set perpendicular to the river flow direction.
The riverbanks were not eroded and were suitable for bridge construction. The
chance of change of direction of river on the selected axis line was nominal.

3.6.3 Fixing of control points and triangulation

For the topographic survey of the bridge site, triangulation was done. First the
bridge axis was set and horizontal control stations were fixed on either side for
detailing. Distances between stations on the same sides of river i.e. base line were
measured with tape precisely. Then the interconnecting triangles were formed and
horizontal angles (two set) were measured with theodolite. While doing so, first of
all the entire polygon having six sides is considered, then two adjacent
quadrilaterals are considered, finally eight triangles are considered. For each case,
they are adjusted to satisfy the geometrical condition since the closing angular
error is within the permissible limit. While applying the correction, only unaffected
angles are taken into account. The bridge axis length or span was calculated by
42
solving the triangles using the sine rule. From the measured bearing of the line, the
bearing of all traverse legs are computed, the coordinates of each legs is calculated,
and the closing error which is found to be within the permissible limit is adjusted
using the Bowditch’s method. Thus the horizontal control was set out.

For vertical control, the level was transferred from the TBM (located at right bank)
to the control points and was transferred to the stations on the next bank by
reciprocal leveling. For the same bank direct level transfer method was used.

Triangulation was performed for the determination of the approximate span of the
bridge axis. The triangulation stations can be taken as the control points for
detailing. Two points on either bank of the river were fixed as control points and
one of the sides of the triangle was taken as the bridge axis. Then two triangles
from each bank were fixed.

The base line was measured accurately by two ways linear measurement as well as
tachometry and interior angles were measured by taking two sets of HCR reading
by theodolite. The accurate span of bridge was computed by applying sine rule. To
minimize the plotting error as far as possible well-conditioned triangles were
constructed i.e. the angles greater than 30 degree, less then 120 degree and nearer
to 60 degree. The best triangle is equilateral triangle.

3.6.4 Topographic survey

The topographic survey of bridge site was done with the help of theodolite. The
important details, which were not included in the cross-section data, were taken.
Trigonometric leveling may be performed to find out the RL of the inaccessible
points, but this situation was not arrived in the given bridge site. All the detailing
points were noted for the topographic view of the bridge site.

3.6.5 Longitudinal Section

The L-Section of the river is required to give an idea about the bed slope, nature of
the riverbed, and the variation in the elevations of the different points along the
length of the river. Keeping the instrument at the control (traverse) stations on the
river banks, the staff readings were taken at different points along the center line of
the river up to a 80 meters upstream and 80 m downstream. The R.Ls of the
43
traverse stations being known previously; the levels of the different points on the
river were calculated. Then the L-Section of the riverbed was plotted on a graph
paper on scale 1:100 for vertical and 1:1000 for horizontal.

3.5.6 Cross-Section
For the cross-section of the river, the staff readings were taken at an interval of
20m. This was done up to 80m downstream and 80m upstream. While taking the
reading the staff was erected on the bed of river.

At every 20m chain age the readings were taken for cross sectioning. The spot
heights were taken where the change in slope was noticed or remarkable points
were noticed such as normal depth level flood depth level, riverbank, etc.
Theodolite was used for this purpose.

3.5.7 Leveling:
 Transferring R.L. from B.M. to control points:
The R.L of benchmark TBM= 1628.325m(located at right bank) was given and
was transferred to the triangulation stations by fly leveling along the turning points
by taking the back sight reading to the bench mark which should be within the
given accuracy.

Reciprocal Leveling:
When it is required to carry leveling across a river, ravine or any obstacle requiring
a long sight between two points so situated that no place for the level can be found
from which the lengths of foresight & back sight will be even approximately equal,
reciprocal leveling must be used to obtain accuracy and to eliminate the error in
instrument adjustment, combined effect of earth’s curvature & the refraction of the
atmosphere, and Variations in the average refraction.
Reciprocal leveling was carried out to transfer the R.L. from TBM to A.

44
True difference in elevation between A and B = H = ha- (hb-e)
Also the true difference in elevation = H = (ha '- e)-hb'
Taking the average of the two differences we get the difference in elevation
between A and B.

3.5.8 Computation and Plotting:

The following tachometric formulas were used for the calculation of the horizontal
distance and R.L. of different points:
Horizontal distance of any point from the traverse station,
D = 100 x S x cos2θ
Where, S = Staff intercept = Top - Bottom stadia reading
θ = Vertical Angle
And R.L. of a point = R.L. of station + H.I + D x Tan θ - axial hair reading

The topographic map, the longitudinal section and the cross section were
plotted on the respective scales after the completion of calculations. By forming
45
the grid lines of 10cm x 10cm, control stations were plotted accurately. Then all
ground details as well as contours were plotted with reference to the control
stations by the method of angle and distances.
The observation and calculation sheet are included in ANNEX-A
The topographic map, L-section of river bed and cross section are included in
ANNEX-B

3.6 Comments and Conclusion

The bridge axis was set keeping in mind all the requisites that the proper site for
the bridge has to be. The result of the computations of the triangulation gave the
axis span of 46.617M

During the selection of the site all the considerations like geological, socio-
economical and topographical considerations were made and the best site was
selected. The site was steep on both the banks and very little water flowed in there.
The site was deep and there was presence of trees along with bushes.

The bridge site survey was conducted to give broad knowledge about importance
of reciprocal leveling, necessities of triangulation concept for fixing bridge span &
to give wide concept about bridge site.

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 ROAD ALIGNMENT SURVEY

4.1 Introduction

Road is an important infrastructure for development. It occupies a pivotal position

in the growth of developing countries. The various civilizations of the world that
are known for their excellence and attainments have left traces of their art of road
construction. Roads can be constructed to penetrate the interior of any region and
to connect remote villages. The advantage becomes particularly evident when
planning the communications system in hilly regions & sparsely populated areas.
Road transport offers quick & assured deliveries, a flexible service free from fixed
schedules, door to door service, permits simpler packing, has a high employment
potential etc.
The safe, efficient and economic operation of a highway is governed to a large
extent by the care with which the geometric design has been worked out.
Geometric design includes the design elements of horizontal & vertical alignment,
sight distance, X-section components, lateral & vertical clearances, control of
access, etc.

The general guide-lines in selecting the alignment & locating route are:
 Should handle the traffic most efficiently & serve inhabited localities.
 Should have minimum Gradients & curvature, necessary for terrain.
 Should involve least impact on the environment.
 Should be located along the edge of properties.
In case of hill road,
 Should attain change in elevation by adopting ruling gradient in most of
length.
 Should avoid unstable hill features & areas prone to land slides.
 Should avoid steep terrain.
 Should avoid hair-pin bends.
 Should align preferably on the side of hill exposed to sun during winter.
 Should avoid deep cuttings & costly tunnels.
 Should develop alignment to suit obligatory points like passes, saddles,
valleys, crossing points of major rivers.

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In short, road should be short, easy, safe and economic as far as possible.

Roads are specially prepared ways between different places for the use of vehicles,
people & animals. In countries like Nepal, where there are less chances of airways
& almost negligible chances of waterway, roads form a major part of the
transportation system. Therefore, it would not be an exaggeration in saying that the
roads have an almost importance.
4.2 Brief description of the project area:
Road alignment includes the works to run a road between two far distance points
along the route. This specific job is essential for an engineer combating with the
mountainous topography of Nepal.
4.2.1 Brief Description of the Project Area
Road alignment is an important aspect in the development of the
transportation network of the country. Road alignment is important part of the
survey. Road alignment and bridge site survey goes side by side to run a road
between two terminals and to carry a survey for the bridge construction along
the route. This specific job is essential for an engineer combating with the
mountainous topography of Nepal.

4.2.2 Hydrology and Geology

The road had to go along a Dry route that was much undulated. The place
some was damp. There were no large boulders or rocks of any kind along
the proposed site.

4.2.3 Soil
When the soil surface is inclined, there is a component of gravity that tends to
move the soil downward. If along the potential slip surface in the soil the
stress produced by gravity exceeds the shear strength of the soil along the
potential failure surface, the slope will become unstable. Obviously, the shear
strength of soil is largely depends upon the type of soil. Cohesive soil has
more shear strength than others do. The hard and dense soil is best for slopes.
We found soft clayey soil that was very damp. Other kinds of soils were not
found along our proposed route.

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4.3 Norms (Technical Specifications)
Recci alignment selection was carried out of the road corridor considering
permissible gradient, obligatory points, bridge site and geometry of tentative
horizontal and vertical curves.
The road setting horizontal curve, cross sectional detail in 15m interval and
longitudinal profile were prepared.

The topographic map (scale 1:1000) of road corridor was prepared. Geometric
curves, road formation width, right of way, crossings and other details were
shown in the map.
While performing the road alignment survey, the following norms were
strictly followed:

 The road had to be designed starting at the side of Bridge and ending
Near tower 3
 If the external deflection angle at the I.P. of the road is less than 3°,
curves need not be fitted.
 Simple horizontal curves had to be laid out where the road changed its
direction, determining and pegging three points on the curve - the
beginning of the curve, the middle point of the curve and the end of the
curve along the centerline of the road.
 The radius of the curve had to be chosen such that it was convenient and
safe i.e. not less than 12 m radius.
 The gradient of the road had to be maintained below 12%.
 Cross sections had to be taken at 15 m intervals and at the beginning,
middle and end of the curve, along the centerline of the road -
observations being taken for at least 10 m on either side of the
centerline. If undulations are there then section at that place should be
taken.
 Plan of the road had to be prepared on a scale of 1:1000

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  L-Section of the road had to be plotted on a scale of 1:1000 horizontally
and 1:100 vertically.
 The cross section of the road had to be plotted on a scale of 1:100 (both
vertical and horizontal).
 The amount of cutting and filling required for the road construction had
to be determined from the L-Section and the cross sections. However, the
volume of cutting had to be roughly equal to the volume of filling.

4.4 Equipment
The equipment used in the survey of road alignment were as follows:
 Theodolite
 Staffs
 Ranging rods
 Tapes
 Leveling instruments
 Compass
 Abney level
 Pegs
 Marker

4.5 Design parameters

The design standards are adopted according to Nepal road standard. The design
parameters are as follows:
S.N Design Parameters Adopted Values
1 Type of Road Single lane Black topped
2 Minimum radius in horizontal curve (m) 15
3 Maximum gradient (%) 12
4 Minimum gradient (%) 1
5 Side slope of cutting 1:1
6 Side slope of embankment 1:1.5

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 4.6 Methodology:
4.6.1 Reconnaissance:
First of all reconnaissance were done by walking through the purposed road
alignment, where the actual alignment of road has to be run. After this pegging was
done on the proper position for instrument station for traversing ensuring that the
preceding and succeeding pegs were visible and simultaneously pegs were marked.

4.6.2 Horizontal alignment:

Horizontal alignment is done for fixing the road direction in horizontal plane.The
interior angles were observed using 10" Theodolite at each IP and then deflection
angles were calculated. The distance between two traverse stations was measured
in the desired precision by tape.

Deflection angle = (360 or 180) - observed angle

If +ve, the survey line deflects right (clockwise) with the prolongation of preceding
line and deflects left if –ve (anti-clockwise). The radius was assumed according to
the deflection angle. Then the tangent length, BC, M.C EC, along with their
chainage were found by using following formulae,
Tangent length (T L) = R * tan (/2)
Length of curve (L.C) = π* R * /180
Apex distance = R * 1/ (Cos (/2)-1)
Chain age of BC = Chain age of IP – TL
Chain age of MC = Chain age of BC +LC/2
Chain age of EC = Chain age of MC + LC/2
The BC and EC points were located along the line by measuring the tangent length
from the apex and the points were marked distinctly. The radius was chosen such
that the tangent does not overlap. The apex was fixed at the length of apex distance
from IP along the line bisecting the interior angle.

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 4.6.3 Topographic survey
Topographic survey of road corridor was done by taking the deflection angle at
each point where two straight roads meet. The chainage of intersection point,
tangent point and middle points were also taken by linear measurements and
applying formula. The staff readings of each of these points were also taken. The
staff points were chosen at every change of slope, important feature, existing
electrical pole etc.

4.6.4 Vertical Alignment

Vertical profile of the Road alignment is known by the vertical alignment. In the L-
section of the Road alignment, vertical alignment was fixed with maximum
gradient of 12 %. According to Nepal Road Standard, the minimum gradient of
road is about 1% so as to facilitate the flow of drainage to specified direction.
However the maximum of 12% was taken wherever not possible.

4.6.5 Leveling:
The method of fly leveling was applied in transferring the level from the given T.
B.M. to all the I.Ps. The R.L. of beginnings, mid points and ends of the curves as
well as to the points along the center line of the road where the cross sections were
taken, are taken by tachometry.

4.6.6 Longitudinal section:

For the longitudinal section of the road the staff reading was taken at the interval of
every 20m along the centerline of the road. Besides, these staff readings at
beginning of the curve, ending of the curve and apex were also taken. The RL of
each point were calculated.
The profile was plotted on the graph at the horizontal scale of 1:1000 and vertical
scale of 1:100.
4.6.7 Cross – section:
Cross section was run at right angles to the longitudinal profile at 20 m interval on
either side up to 10m distances wherever possible. For this, staffs reading of
respective points were taken using theodolite.
The cross section was plotted on graph paper using following scale.
Horizontal scale =1:100
Vertical scale =1:100
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 4.7 Comments and Conclusions:
Survey of the road alignment was done to make most economical, comfortable,
safe and durable. Extra care is taken to avoid any soil erosion and any other
ecological damage. Vertical and horizontal curves are set according to Road
Design Standards for comfort and other factors.

While setting the road alignment, it should be kept in mind that the minimum IP
points should be taken as far as possible and deflection angles should be minimum
as far as possible. The task was challengeable and tough due to the high altitude
along the route.

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 CURVES

5.1 Introduction
Curves are generally used on highways and railways where it is necessary to
change the direction of motion. A curve may be circular, parabola or spiral and is
always tangential to two straight directions. Circular curves may be simple,
compound, & reverse.

5.2 Simple Circular Curves

A simple circular curve is the curve, which consists of a single arc of a circle. It is
tangential to both the straight lines. The elements of simple circular curves are
tangent length, external distance, length of curve, length of long chord, mid
ordinate. The notations used are back tangent, forward tangent, point of
intersection, point of curve, point of tangency, external deflection angle, normal
chord, sub chord etc. The sharpness of the curve is either designated by its radius
or by its degree of curvature.
Setting out of curves can be done by two methods depending upon the instrument
used.
i) Linear method:
In this method, only a chain or a tape is used. Linear methods are used
when a high degree of accuracy is not required and the curve is short.
ii) Angular method:
In this method, an instrument like Theodolite is used with or without chain or tape.
Before a curve is set out, it is essential to locate the tangents, point of intersection,
point of curves and point of tangent.
The linear methods for setting out simple circular curves are:
 By ordinate from long chord.
 By successive bisection of arcs.
 By offsets from tangents.
 By offsets from chord produced.
The linear methods for setting out simple circular curves are:
 The Rankine’s method
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  The two theodolite method
 The tachometric method

5.3 Vertical Curves

A vertical curve is used to join two intersecting grade lines of railways, highways
or other routes to smooth out the chainage in vertical motion .The vertical curve
contributes to the safety, increase sight distance , give comfort in driving and have
a good appearance.

A grade, which is expressed as percentage or 1 vertical in N horizontal, is said to

be upgrade or + ve grade when elevation along it increases, while it is termed as
downgrade or -ve grade when the elevation decreases along the direction of
motion.

The vertical curves may be of following types:

 Summit curve: It is formed when an upgrade followed by a down
grade, an upgrade followed by another upgrade, a down grade
followed by another down grade.
 Valley curve: It is formed when a down grade followed by an
upgrade, an upgrade followed by another upgrade, a down grade
followed by another down grade.
In vertical curve all distance along the curve are measured horizontally and all
offsets from the tangent to the curve are measured vertically. The methods for
setting out vertical curve are:
 The tangent correction method
 Elevation by chord gradient method
 Co-ordinate method
The length of vertical method must be long enough to provide at least minimum
required sight distance throughout the vertical curve.

5.4 Transition Curves

Transition curve is a curve of varying radius introduced between a straight line and

55
a circular curve. While the vehicle moves on the straight line of infinite radius to
the curve of finite radius, the passenger feels uncomfortable and even the vehicle
may overturn. This is due to the causes of the centrifugal force couple with the
inertia of the vehicle .To avoid these effects , a curve of changing radius must be
introduced between the straight and the circular curve, which is known as the
transition curve.

The main functions of the transition curve are as follows:

 To accomplish gradually the transition curve from the tangent to the
circular curve, so that the curvature increased gradually from zero to a
specific value.
 To provide a medium for the gradual introduction or change of
required super elevation

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