Metal Forming Process in Manufacturing

Tylan Altan, The Ohio State University

Erman Tekkaya, Technische Universitat Dortmund, Germany

In a manufacturing process, a given material is transformed into a useful part having a complex geometry with
well-defined (a) shape, (b) size, (c) accuracy and tolerances, (d) appearance, and (e) properties. The material
usually begins in a shapeless form (such as liquid metal in casting) or of a simple geometry (such as a blank sheet
metal forming). The various manufacturing process have advantages and limitations in achieving the desired share,
size, tolerances, appearance, and properties of a part.

1.1. Classification of Manufacturing Processes. Manufacturing processes can be divided, in a simplified

manner, into five general areas:

1) Primary Shaping Processes. Such as casting, melt extrusion, die casting, and pressing of metal powder.
In all these processes, the material initially has no shape but obtains a well-defines geometry through
the process. Here the first shape is given to the material.

2) Forming Processes. Such as rolling, extrusion, cold and hot forging, bending, and deep drawing, where
metal is formed by plastic deformation, without destroying the cohesion of the metal.

3) Material Removal Processes. In which excess material is removed from the starting workpiece in
order to obtain the desired geometry. Some important processes in this category are turning, milling,
drilling, sawing, and electrodischarge machining.

4) Material Treatment Processes. Aim to change the properties and appearance of the part without
changing its shape. Heat treating, anodizing, and surface treatment are commonly used material
treatment processes.

5) Joining Processes. In which two or more parts are joined to form a new component or subassembly.
Metallurgical joining processes, such as welding, brazing, and soldering, form a permanent and robust
joint between components. Mechanical joining processes, such as riveting and mechanical assembly,
bring two or more parts together to build a subassembly that can be disassembled conveniently.

1.2. Characteristics of Manufacturing Processes. There are four main characteristics of any manufacturing
process: achievable geometry, tolerances, production rate, and environmental factors.

1) Geometry. Each manufacturing process is well suited for producing a particular type of geometry.
Other geometries may be produced in some cases, but usually not without considerable expense. For
example, manufacturing processes using dies and molds can produce parts that are easily removed
from a mold made from two halves. However, by using a “split-die” design, it is possible to manufacture
forgings, casting, or injection molding with undercuts and more complex shapes.
 2) Tolerances. When fabricating a given component, it is nearly impossible and very costly to make the
part to the exact dimensions specified by the designer. Therefore dimensions should be associated with
a tolerance. By using more sophisticated variations of the process and by means of new developments,
the quality of the tolerance, that is, precision can always be improved. For example, it is possible to
control sheet metal flow and obtain better parts with more uniform thickness distribution and tighter
tolerances with multipoint binder pressure control systems than with the conventional uniform
pressure distribution obtained with die cushion, dimensional tolerances serve a dual purpose. First,
they allow proper functioning of the manufacturing part; for example, an automotive brake drum must
be round, within specified acceptable limits, to avoid vibrations and to ensure proper functioning of the
brakes. Second, dimensional tolerances provide interchangeability. Modern mass production would be
unthinkable without interchangeability; the ability to replace a defective part or component (a bearing,
for example) with a new one, manufactured by a different supplier.

3) Production Rate. The rate of production, that is, number of parts produced per unit time, that can be
attained with a given manufacturing operation is probably the most significant feature of that
operation, because it indicates the economics of and the achievable productivity with that
manufacturing operation. In industrialized countries, manufacturing industries represent 15 to 25% of
gross national product. Consequently, manufacturing productivity, that is, production per unit time is
one of the most important factors influencing the standard of living in a country, as well as that
country’s competitive position in international trade in manufacturing goods.

The rate of production or manufacturing productivity can be increased by improving existing

manufacturing processes and by introducing new machines and new processes, all of which require
new investments. However, the most important ingredient for improving productivity lies in human
and managerial resources, because good decisions regarding investments (when, how much, and in
what) are made by people who are well trained and well-motivated. As a result, the present and future
manufacturing productivity in a plant, an industry, or a nation depends not only on the level of
investment in new plants and machinery but also on the level of training and availability of
manufacturing engineers and specialists in that plant, industry, or nation.

4) Environmental Factors. Every manufacturing process must be examined in view of (a) its effects on
the environment, that is, in terms of air, water, and noise pollution; (b) its interfacing with human
resources, that is, in terms of human safety, physiological effects, and psychological effects, and (c) its
use of energy and material resources, particularly in view of the changing world conditions concerning
scarcity of energy and materials. Consequently, the introduction and use of a manufacturing process
must also be preceded by a consideration of these environmental factors.

1.3. Metal Forming Processes in Manufacturing. Metal forming includes (a) bulk forming processes such as
forging, extrusion, rolling, and drawing and (b) sheet forming processes such as brake forming, deep
drawing, and stretch forming. Among the group of manufacturing processes discussed earlier,
metalforming represents a highly significant group of processes for producing industrial and military
components and consumer goods.

A common way of classifying metal forming processes is to consider cold (before the crystallization
temperature) and hot (above the recrystallization temperature) forming. Most materials behave differently
under different temperature conditions. Usually, the yield stress of a metal increases with increasing strain
(or deformation) during cold forming and with increasing strain rate (or deformation rate) during hot
forming.
 However, the general principles governing the forming of metals at various temperatures are basically the
same. Therefore, classification of forming processes based on initial temperature does not contribute a
great deal to the understanding and improvement of these processes. In fact, tool design, machinery,
automation, part handling, and lubrication concepts can be best considered by means of a classification
based not on temperature but rather on specific input and output geometries and material and production
rate conditions.

Complex geometries, in both massive and sheet forming processes, can be obtained equally well by hot or
cold forming. Of course, because of the lower yield strength of the deforming material at elevated
temperatures, tool stresses and machine loads are, in a relative sense, lower in hot forming than in cold
forming. However, part accuracy is usually higher in cold-formed parts.

Forming is especially attractive in cases where (a) the part geometry is of moderate complexity and the
production volumes are large, so that tooling costs per unit product can be kept low; for example, in
automotive r appliance applications; and (b) the part properties and metallurgical integrity are extremely
important, in examples such as load-carrying aircraft and jet engine and turbine components.

The design, analysis and optimization of forming processes require (a) analytical knowledge regarding
metal flow, stresses and heat transfer as well as (b) technological information related to lubrication,
heating and cooling techniques, material handling, die design and manufacture, and forming equipment.

1.4. Classification of Metal Forming Processes. Meatal forming processes can be classified as:

1) Bulk Deformation Processes. Such as forging, extrusion, rolling, and drawing.

2) Sheet-Metal Forming Processes. Such as brake forming, deep drawing, and stretch forming.
3) Hybrid Forming Processes. Such as drawing and ironing and bending and coining.

Bulk deformation (massive forming) processes are generally characterized by significant deformation and
massive shape change and considerable increase in the area-to-volume ratio occurring in the formed. The
term bulk indicates the low area-to-volume radio in the starting material. The starting material is in billet,
rod, or slab form.

Bulk forming processes have the following characteristics:

 The workpiece undergoes large plastic deformation, resulting in an appreciable change in shape or
cross section.
 The portion of the workpiece undergoing permanent (plastic) deformation is generally much larger
than portion undergoing elastic deformation, so elastic recovery after deformation is usually negligible.

In sheet forming, sheet blank are plastically deformed into a complex three-dimensional geometry, usually
without any significant change in sheet thickness and surface characteristics. The surface area-to-volume of
the starting metal is high; therefore radio is a useful means to distinguish bulk deformation from sheet
metal processes.

Sheet metal operations are nearly always performed as cold working processes and are accomplished using
a tool set consisting of a punch and a die, which are the positive (male) and negative (female) portion of the
tool set, respectively.
The characteristics of sheet metal forming processes are:

 The workpiece is a sheet or a part fabricated from a sheet.

 The deformation usually has the objective to cause section, of the sheet. Reduction in sheet thickness is
usually not desirable, but it is an unavoidable consequence of the process.
 In some cases, the magnitudes of permanent (plastic) and recoverable (elastic) deformation are
comparable; thus, elastic recovery or springback may be significant.

Some processes, known as hybrid forming processes, can fall under both sheet metal and bulk forming
categories according to the workpiece geometry. For example, a deep draw cup can be ironed in the same
die set to reduce the cup wall thickness. In this case, deep drawing is a sheet forming process while ironing
can be considered as a bulk forming process. Another example for hybrid forming processes is coining.
Bottoming in brake bending is a type of coining where bottoming pressure causes reduction in thickness at
the bending area as well as springback. In some cases, relatively thick sheet (or plate) is used as a blank.
The cross section of the part, formed from this blank, may be subsequently reduced by a bulk forming
process.

REFERENCES

1.1. T. Altan, S. Oh, and H.L. Gegel, Metal Forming: Fundamentals and Applications, American Society for
Metals, 1983
1.2. K. Lange, Handbook of Metal Forming, McGraw-Hill, 2000
1.3. E. Tekkaya, Metal Forming, Handbook pf Mechanical Engineering, Springer, 2005