GCSF 2013 ASSIGNMENTS

Unit 1: Introduction to Human Body 1.1 Structural organization of human body.

1. State the definition of each level of the structural organization of the human body. (6m)
 Chemical level is the smallest units of matter that participate in chemical reactions,
and molecules, two or more atoms joined together. Certain atoms, such as carbon
(C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), calcium (Ca), and
sulfur (S), are essential for maintaining life. Two familiar molecules found in the
body are deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), the genetic material passed from one
generation to the next, and glucose, commonly known as blood sugar.
 Cellular level. Molecules combine to form cells, the basic structural and functional
units of an organism that are composed of chemicals. Cells are the smallest living
units in the human body. Among the many kinds of cells in your body are muscle
cells, nerve cells, and epithelial cells.
 Tissue Level. Tissues are groups of cells and the materials surrounding them that
work together to perform a particular function, similar to the way words are put
together to form sentences. There are just four basic types of tissues in human
body: epithelial tissue, connective tissue, muscular tissue, and nervous tissue.
 Organ level. Different types of tissues are joined together. Similar to the
relationship between senteces and paragraphs. Organs are structures that are
composed of two or more different types of tissues; they have specific functions
and usually have recognizable shapes. Examples of organs are the stomach, skin,
bones, heart, liver, lungs, and brain.
 System level. A system consists of related organs with a common function. An
example of the system level, also called the organ-system level, is the digestive
system, which breaks down and absorbs food. Its organ include the mouth, salivary
glands, pharynx(throat), esophagus(food tube), stomach, liver, and pancreas.
 Organismal level. All the parts of the human body functioning together constitute
the total organism.

2. Describe the definition of homeostasis. (2m)

The definition of homeostasis is to maintaining the volume and composition of body
fluids, dilute, watery solutions containing dissolved chemicals that are found inside cells
as well as surrounding them.

3. State the 3 components of feedback mechanism. (3m)

The feedback system includes three basic components: a receptor, a control
center, and an effector.
Unit 2: Cellular System: 2.1 Cell Stucture & Function
1. Describe one function for the following cell organelles:
a. Nucleus
Nuclear pores control the movement of the substances between the nucleus and
cytoplasm, nucleoli produce ribosomes, and chromosomes consist of genes that control
cellular structure and direct cellular functions.
b. Plasma Membrane
Protects cellular contents; makes contact with other cells; contains channels,
transporters, receptors, enzymes, cell-identity markers, and linker proteins; mediates
entry and exit of substances.
c. Golgi Apparatus
The Golgi apparatus is responsible for transporting, modifying, and packaging
proteins and lipids into vesicles for delivery to targeted destinations.
d. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
Synthesizes fatty acids and steroids, inactivates or detoxifies drugs, removes
phosphate group from glucose-6-phosphate, and stores and releases calcium ions in
muscle cells
e. Rough endoplasmic reticulum
Synthesizes glycoproteins and phospholipids that are transferred to cellular
organelles, inserted into plasma membrane, or secreted during exocytosis.
f. Lysosomes
Fuses with and digests contents of endosomes, phagosomes, and vesicles formed
during bulk-phase endocytosis and transports final products of digestion into cytosol;
digests worn-out organelles(autophagy), entire cells(autolysis), and extracellular
materials.
g. Mitochondria
Site of aerobic cellular respiration reactions that produce most of a cell’s ATP. Play
an important early role in apoptosis.
h. Ribosome
Protein synthesis.
i. Cytoskeleton
Maintains shape and general organization of cellular contents; responsible for cell
movements.
j. Peroxisome
Oxidizes amino acids and fatty acids; detoxifies harmful substances, such as
hydrogen peroxide and associated free radicals.
k. Proteasome
Degrades unneeded, damaged, or faulty proteins by cutting them into small
peptides.

2. Describe the following active and passive transport.

No Passive Transport Requires ATP
1 Simple diffusion No Simple diffusion can only move
material in the direction of a
concentration gradient
2 Facilitated diffusion Yes Facilitated diffusion moves
materials with and against a
concentration gradient.
3 Osmosis No A process by which molecules of
solvent pass through a semi
permeable membrane from less
concentrated.

No Active Transport Requires ATP

1 Sodium-potassium Yes This type of transport powered by
pump consuming ATP to pump moves
sodium and potassium ions in
opposite directions with each
against it concentration gradient.
2 Transport in vesicle Yes A type of active transport that
- Endocytosis moves particles, such as larger
molecules, parts of cells and even
whole cell into a cell.
Transport in vesicle Yes A type of process which is
- Exocytosis moving materials from within
a cell to the exterior of the
cell.
Unit 2: Cellular System: 2.3 Cell Structure & Function
1. Describe the cell life cycle (8m).
During interphase the cell replicates its DNA through a process that will be
described shortly. It also produces additional organelles and cytosolic components in
anticipation of cell division. Interphase is a state of high metabolic activity; it is during
this time that the cell does most of its growing. Interphase consists of three phases:
G1, S, G2.
The G1 phase is the interval between the mitotic phase and the S phase. During
G1, the cell is metabolically active; it replicates most of its organelles and cytosolic
components but not its DNA. Replication of centrosomes also begins in the G1 phase.
For a cell with a total cell cycle time of 24 hours, G1 lasts 8 to 10 hours. However, the
duration of this phase is quite variable. It is very short in man
y embryonic cells or cancer cells. Cells that remain in G1 for a very long time, perhaps
destined never to divide again, are said to be in the G0 phase. Most nerve cells are in
the G0 phase. Once a cell enters the S phase, however, it is committed to go through
the rest of the cell cycle.
The S phase, the interval between G1 and G2, lasts about 8 hours. During the S
phase, DNA replication occurs. As a result of DNA replication, the two identical cells
formed during cell division later in the cell cycle will have the same genetic material.
The G2 phase is the interval between the S phase and the mitotic phase. It lasts 4 to
6 hours. During G2, cell growth continues, enzymes and other proteins are
synthesized in preparation for cell division, and replication of centrosomes is
completed. When DNA replicates during the S phase, its helical structure partially
uncoilds, and the two strands separate at the points where hydrogen bonds connect
base pairs.
The mitotic (M) phase of the cell cycle, which results in the formation of two
identical cells, consists of a nuclear division(Mitosis) and a cytoplasmic
division(cytokinesis) to form two identical cells. The events that occur during mitosis
and cytokinesis are plainly visible under a microscope because chromatin condenses
into discrete chromosomes.
Unit 2: Cellular System: 2.4 Tissues
1. Describe the characteristic, 1 location & 1 function of each of the epithelial
tissues.

Description Characteristics Location Function

Simple Is a single layer Most commonly Present at sites of
Squamous of flat cells that lines the filtration or diffusion
Epithelium resembles a tiled cardiovascular and and at site of
floor when lymphatic system, secretion in serous
viewed from called endothelium membrane.
apical surface. and forms the
epithelial layer of
serous membranes
which is
mesothelium.
Simple A single layer of 1. Cover surface of Secretion and
Cuboidal cube-shaped ovary. absorption.
Epithelium cells; round, 2. Lines anterior
centrally located surface capsule of
nucleus. lens of the eye.
3. Make up
secreting portion of
some glands such
as thyroid gland
and duct of some
glands such as
pancreas.
Nonciliated A single layer of Lines 1. Secretion and
Simple nonciliated gastrointestinal absorption.
Columnar columnlike cells tract (from stomach 2. Helps prevent
Epithelium with oval nuclei to anus), ducts of destruction of
near base of many glands, and stomach lining by
cells gallbladder. acidic gastric juice
secreted by
stomach
Nonciliated It appears to Lines epididymis, Absorption and
Pseudostratified have several larger ducts of secretion.
Columnar layers because many glands, and
Epithelium the nuclei of the parts of male
cells are at urethra.
various levels.
Some cells do
 not extend to the
apical surface.
Ciliated Simple A single layer of Lines some Cilia beat in
Columnar ciliated column bronchioles some unison, moving
Epithelium like cells with paranasal sinuses, mucus and foreign
oval nuclei near central canal of particles toward
base of cells spinal cord, and throat, where they
ventricles of brain. can be coughed up
and swallowed or
spit out.
Cilia also help
move oocytes
expelled from
ovaries through
uterine.
Ciliated 1. Appears to Lines airways of Secretes mucus
Pseudostratified have several most of upper that traps foreign
Columnar layers because respiratory tract. particles, and cilia
Epithelium cell nuclei are at sweep away
various levels. mucus for
2. All cells are elimination from
attached to body
basement
membrane in a
single layer, but
some cells do not
extend to apical
surface.
Stratified 1. Has two or Keratinized variety Protection against
Squamous more layers of forms superficial abrasion, water
Epithelium cells. layer of skin; non loss, ultraviolet
2. Cells in deeper keratinized variety radiation, and
layers vary from lines wet foreign invasion.
cuboidal to surfaces(lining of Both types form
columnar. mouth, esophagus, first line of defence
part of epiglottis, against microbes.
part of pharynx,
and vagina) and
cover tongue.
Stratified Has two or more Ducts of adult Give protection
Cuboidal layers of cells sweat glands, also have limited
Epithelium esophageal glands secretion and
and part of male absorption.
urethra
Stratified Basal layers in 1. Lines part of Give protection and
Columnar stratified urethra; large secretion.
Epithelium columnar excretory ducts of
epithelium some glands.
usually consist of 2. Conjunctiva of
shortened eye.
irregularly
shaped cells.
Transitional 1. Has a variable Lines urinary 1. Allows urinary
Epithelium appearance. bladder and portion organs to stretch
(Urothelum) 2. In relaxed or of ureters and 2. Maintaining
unstretched urethra. protective lining
state, looks like while holding
stratified cuboidal variable amounts
epithelium, of fluid without
except apical rupturing.
layer cells tend to
be large and
rounded.
Endocrine A hormones 1. Include pituitary Hormones regulate
Gland which enter gland at base of many metabolic
interstitial fluid brain. and physiological
and then diffuse 2. Adrenal glands activities to
into bloodstream superior to kidneys. maintain
without flowing 3. Ovaries in pelvic homeostasis.
through a duct. cavity.
4. Testes in
scrotum
Exocrine Gland Exocrine gland Sweat oil, and Produce
secretory earwax glands of substances such
products are skin digestive as sweat to help
released into glands such as lower body
ducts that empty salivary temperature, oil,
onto surface of a glands(secrete into earwax, saliva, or
covering and mouth cavity) and digestive enzymes.
lining epithelium. pancreas (secretes
into small
intestine).
2. Describe the characteristic, 1 location & 1 function of each of the connective
tissues.
Description Characteristics Location Function
Embryonic Irregularly shaped Almost exclusively Forms almost
Mesenchym mesenchymal cells under skin and along all other types
e embedded in semifluid developing bones of of connective
ground substance that embryo; some in tissue.
contains delicate adult connective
reticular filbers. tissue, especially
along blood vessels.
Embryonic Widely scattered Umbilical cord of Support
Mucous fibroblasts embedded fetus.
(Muciod) in viscous, jellylike
ground substance that
contains fine collagen
fibers.
Areolar Consists of fibers, Layer deep to skin; Strength,
arranged randomly papillary(superficial) elasticity,
and several kinds of region of dermis of support.
cells embedded in skin; lamina propria
semifluid ground of mucous
substance. membranes; around
blood vessels,
nerves, and body
organs.
Adipose Cell fills up with a Subcutaneous layer Reduces heat
single, large deep to skin, around loss through
triglyceride droplet, heart and kidneys, skin; serves
and cytoplasm and yellow bone marrow, as an energy
nucleus are pushed to padding around jointsreserve;
periphery of cell. and behind eyeball insupports and
eyeball in eye socket.
protects
organs.
Reticular Fine interlacing Stroma(supporting Form stroma
Connective network of reticular framework) of liver, of organs;
Tissue fibers(thin form of spleen, lymph nodes; binds smooth
collagen fiber) and red bone marrow; muscle tissue
reticular cells. reticular lamina of cells; filters
basement membrane; and removes
around blood vessels worn-out
and muscles. blood cells in
spleen and
microbes in
lymph nodes.
Dense Form shiny white Form tendons(attach Provides
Regular extracellular matrix; muscle to bone), strong
Connective mainly collagen fibers most attachment
Tissue regularly arranged in ligaments(attach between
bundles with bone to bone), and various
fibroblasts in rows aponeuroses(sheetlik structures.
between them. e tendons that attach Tissue
muscle to muscle or structure
muscle to bone). withstands
pulling(tension
) along long
axis of fibers.
Dense Made up of collagen Tissue beneath skin Provides
Irregular fibers; usually and around muscles tensile(pulling)
Connective irregularly arranged and other organs, strength in
Tissue with a few fibroblasts. reticular(deeper) many
region of dermis of directions.
skin, fibrous
pericardium of heart,
periosteum of bone,
also in heart valves.
Elastic Contains Lung tissue, walls of Provides
Connective predominantly elastic elastic arteries, tensile(pulling)
Tissue fibers with fibroblasts trachea, bronchial strength in
between them; tubes, true vocal many
unstained tissue is cords, suspensory directions.
yellowish. ligaments of penis,
some ligaments
between vertebrae.
Hyaline Contains a resilient At ends of long Provides
Cartilage gel as ground bones, anterior ends smooth
substance and of ribs, nose, parts of surfaces for
appears in the body larynx, trachea, movement at
as bluish-white, shiny bronchi, bronchial joints,
substance. tubes, embryonic and flexibility, and
fetal skeleton. support;
weakest type
of cartilage
and can be
fractured.
Fibrocartilag Has chondrocytes Pubic symphysis Support and
e among clearly visible (where hip bones join joining
thick bundles of anteriorly), structures
collagen fibers within interverteble discs, together.
extracellular matrix; menisci(cartilage Strength and
lacks perichondrium pads) of knee, rigidity make it
 portions of tendons the strongest
that insert into type of
cartilage. cartilage.
Elastic Has chondrocytes in Lid on top of Provides
Cartilage threadlike network of larynx(epiglottis), part strength and
elastic fibers within of external elasticity;
extracellular matrix; ear(auricle), maintains
perichondrium auditory(eustachian) shape of
present. tubes. certain
structures.
Supporting Consists of thin Both compact and Support,
Connective columns called spongy bone tissue protection,
Tissue - trabeculae; spaces make up the various storage;
Bone Tissue between trabeculae parts of bones of the houses blood-
are filled with red bone body. forming tissue;
marrow. serves as
levers that act
with muscle
tissue to
enable
movement.
Liquid Consists of blood Within blood Red blood
Connective plasma and formed vessels(arteries, cells; transport
Tissue - elements: red blood arterioles, capillaries, oxygen and
Blood cells(erythrocytes), venules, veins), some carbon
white blood within chambers of dioxide; white
cells(leukocytes), heart. blood cells;
platelets(thrombocytes carry on
) phagocytosis
and mediate
allergic
reactions and
immune
system
responses;
platelets;
essential for
blood clotting.
4. Describe 3 different characteristics, location, function of skeletal muscle, smooth
muscle and cardiac muscle.
Description Skeletal Muscle Cardiac Muscle Smooth Muscle
Characteristics 1. Voluntary 1. Involuntary 1. Involuntarily
2. Striated 2. Intrinsically controlled
controlled 2. Not striated
3. Striated 3. Not branched
4. Branched 4. Singly nucleated
5. Single nucleated
Location 1. Usually 1. Heart wall. 1. Iris of eyes; walls
attached to of hollow internal
bones by structures such as
tendons. blood vessels,
airways to lungs,
stomach, intestines,
gallbladder, urinary
bladder,
and uterus.
Function 1.Motion, 1. Pumps blood to 1.Motion
posture, heat all parts of body (constriction of
production, blood vessels and
protection. airways, propulsion
of foods through
gastrointestinal
tract, contraction of
urinary bladder
and gallbladder).
Unit 4: Cardiovascular System: 4.1 Blood
1. Draw each of the following cells and describe 1 function for each of these cells
(20m)
I. Erythrocytes
II. Thrombocytes
III. Leukocytes
a. Agranulocytes
i. Monocytes
ii. Lymphocytes
1. B - lymphocytes
2. T- lymphocytes
3. Natural killer cells

b. Granulocytes
i. Basophils
ii. Eosinophils
iii. Neutrophils
2. Explain the process of hemostasis (20m)

Vascular Spasm
 The circularly arranged smooth muscle in the arteries or arterioles wall
contract immediately when its damaged.
 Blood loss will reduces for several minutes to several hours.
 Probably caused by the damaged to smooth muscle, by substance
released from the activated platelets and by reflexes initiated by pain
receptors.
Platelets Plug Formation
 Small sizes of platelets store an impressive array of chemicals such as
ADP, ATP, Ca2t, Serotonin, A2(for thromboxane), Prostaglandin(fibrin-
Stabilizing factor), Lysosome, Mitochondria and membrane system that
store calcium.
 Platelets contact and stick to pact of a damaged blood vessel called
platelet adhesion.
 Due to adhesion, platelet become active and liberate the content of thei
vesicles. Liberated ADP and thromboxane A2 play major role by activating
platelets.
 The release of ADP cause the newly recruited and activated platelets to
adhere to the originally activated platlets. This called the platelets
aggregation.