—

T EC H N I C A L N OT E 2 .0

Overvoltages – origin and magnitudes

Overvoltage protection
The TECHNICAL NOTES (TN) are intended to be used in
conjunction with the

APPLICATION GUIDELINES
Overvoltage protection
Metal-oxide surge arresters in medium-voltage systems.

Each TECHNICAL NOTE gives in a concentrated form

additional and more detailed information about
various topics of MO surge arrester and their application
under normal and special service conditions.

First published March 2019

 O V E R V O LTA G E P R OT E C T I O N 3

—
Overvoltages in electrical
power systems
Overvoltages in electrical supply systems result from lightning and switching
actions and endanger electrical equipment. They can lead to electrical
breakdown or a reduction of the lifetime of equipment.

1 Introduction On-grid overvoltages (TOV) are due to short cir-

cuits or earth faults in the system, load rejections
An overvoltage is per definition any voltage be- or resonances. These overvoltages with power
tween phase and earth or between phases having frequency generally do not endanger the insula-
a peak value exceeding the peak of the highest tion of equipment and are therefore not dis-
voltage of the system divided by √3 or exceeding cussed in the following.
the amplitude of the highest voltage of the
system, respectively. 2 Origin of overvoltages

Overvoltage values are expressed in 2.1 From lightning to overvoltage

p.u., 1 p.u. = Us × √2/√3 Figure 1 shows the principle of the global electric
(IEC 60071-1) circuit. It is assumed that the earth is charged
negatively and the atmosphere in a height of
This means that overvoltages are in any case about 50 km is charged positively. The electro-
related to the system voltage. sphere as indicated in Figure 1 is conducting. Due
to the electric field between the electrosphere
Voltages and overvoltages are classified accord- and the earth a “fair-weather current” flows be-
ing their shape and duration. We must distinguish tween the electrosphere and the earth. If a light-
between continuous voltage and temporary over- ning strike occurs the thundercloud will be
voltage (TOV) with power frequency, and tran- discharged to earth. At the same time a charge
sient overvoltages due to lightning effects and equalization will take place due to the fair-
switching operations in the time range of micro- weather current. With this very simplified model
seconds to milliseconds. of a closed current circuit the phenomenon of
lightning can be illustrated. Shown schematically
under the thundercloud are precipitation, light-
ning, and corona.
—
Figure 1: Illustration Lightning can be defined as a transient, high-­
of the global electric
circuit (adapted from
current (typically tens of kiloamperes) electrical
Rakov and Uman). discharge in air whose length is measured in kilo-
Electrosphere meters. The lightning discharge in its entirety is
usually termed a “lightning flash” or a “flash”.

+ +
+ +
- +
- + -
- - -

Fair-weather current

Earth
4 T E C H N I C A L N O T E O V E R V O LTA G E S

A lightning discharge that involves an object on A lightning flash consists of one or more dis-
ground or in the atmosphere is referred to as a charges. For downward negative lightnings 3 to 4
“lightning strike”. The terms “stroke” or “compo- discharges (strokes) per flash are t­ ypically. The
nent stroke” apply only to components of cloud- time duration of a stroke is in the range of some
to-ground discharges. Cloud-to-ground dis- ten microseconds, the time duration between the
charges constitute about 25% of global lightning strokes is in the range of 30 to 40 milliseconds.
activity. It is believed that downward negative The lightning current parameters are taken from
lightning flashes account for about 90% or more lightning statistics. Figure 3 shows a statistical
of global cloud-to-ground lightning, and that 10% evaluation of worldwide measured lightning cur-
— or less of cloud-to-ground discharges are down- rents. The curve of the mean value shows the
Figure 2: Cloud-to-
ground lightning cat-
ward positive lightning flashes. Upward lightning probability of the occurred lightning current peak
egorization according discharges are thought to occur only from tall values.
to Berger. Top left:
downward negative; top
­objects (higher than 100 m or so) or from objects
right: upward positive; of moderate height located on mountain tops. The mostly negative cloud-to-ground lightning
bottom left: downward
positive; bottom right:
The types of lightning are shown in Figure 2 strikes that occur have current peak values be-
upward negative. (Cigré TB 549). tween app. 14 kA (95% probability) and 80 kA (5%
probability). With a probability of 50% the follow-
ing values are reached or exceeded:

Current peak value: 30 kA

+ + + + + + + +
- + - + Rise time: 5.5 µs
- - - -
- - + - - - + - Time to half value: 75 µs

- + A peak value of 20 kA with a probability of 80% is

- +
+ often used in standardization work, and for test
-
and co-ordination purposes of MO surge arrest-
+ + + + ers. Lightning currents with peak values above
+ + + + + + + +
100 kA are very rare.

+ + + + + + + +
- + - +
- - -
- - + -
- - - + -

+ +
-
+ - -

+ - - ++ - - - -
+ + - - + +

—
Figure 3: Statistical evalua-
tion of lightning measure-
ments all over the world. De-
scribed is the probability of
occurrence above the light-
ning current’s peak values
(adapted from Cigré survey).
P%

99.0

90.0

70.0

50.0

20.0
10.0

2.0

0.2

0 10.0 100.0 I kA
 O V E R V O LTA G E P R OT E C T I O N 5

— 2.1.1 Possible points of lightning strike

Overvoltages in distribution systems occur due
However, in geographical regions to direct lightning strikes to a phase wire, light-
where winter thunderstorms oc- ning strikes to a pole, or lightning strikes to earth
or earthed objects near an overhead line. Figure 4
cur, extreme lightning strikes can gives an overview about the possible points of
reach peak values above 250 kA, lightning strikes. It is worth to mention that the
earthing of the poles and substations is of high
with half-time values of 2,000 µs. importance and must be in all cases as low as
These are typically downward possible. The lower the footing resistance of the
poles and the earth mat of substations is, the
positive discharges. better will be the protection. An earth resistance
of less than 10 Ω is generally recommended. In
Assuming that in medium-voltage systems a
some special cases earth resistance values of 1 Ω
lightning current of 30 kA diverts in the case of a
or 2 Ω are requested.
far-distance direct lightning strike, and that
flash-overs between phases and at insulators
­occur, one can get a nominal discharge current of
In = 5 kA. A wave shape of approximately 8/20 µs
results for the lightning current if a flashover
­occurred at one or more insulators.

A worst case to be considered is a direct lightning

strike in a phase wire in front of a substation
without an insulator between the point of strike
and the substation. In this case it can be assumed
that a lightning current of e.g. 20 kA diverts in
both directions of the line and half of the light-
ning current (10 kA) travels undamped into the
substation.

—
Figure 4: Points of Far-distance lightning Lightning to the Lightning to the Direct lightning to a
lightning strikes to to the phase wire top of a pole phase wire close substation or the phase
an overhead line. to the substation

LPS

Phase wire

Pole Pole Pole

Earth
R E, P R E, P Near-by lightning R E, P Earth
into the earth mat
R E, S

Substation

LPS Lightning protection system

R E,P Earth resistance of the pole
R E,S Earth resistance of the substation
6 T E C H N I C A L N O T E O V E R V O LTA G E S

2.1.1.1 Direct lightning to a substation or to the 2.1.1.2 Lightning to the phase wire close to the
phase wire in front of a substation substation and far-distance lightning strike
A substation must be protected by a lightning Figure 6a shows the case that a lightning strikes
protection structure (LPS) to avoid any direct the phase wire and only one pole is between the
lightning to equipment in the substation. This can point of strike and the transformer. The same val-
be done by Franklin Rods or earth shielding wires ues as in the case shown in Figure 5 are assumed.
above the substation. The total lightning current The voltage u travels along the line in direction of
ib must be diverted directly to earth, see the right the substation. In the moment when the voltage
part of Figure 5. The earth resistance R E,S of the arrives at the insulator of the pole and becomes
substation has to be as low as possible. MO surge higher than the flashover voltage of the insulator
arresters can protect only against surges travel- the insulator will flash over and a part of the light-
ling along the line into the substation. ning current will be diverted via the pole to the
earth, which results to a break-down of the volt-
The worst case of a lightning strike is the direct age. As long as the earth resistance R E,P is not
strike to the phase wire in front of the substation zero the voltage will rise again and travel with a
without any insulator between the point of strike wave shape as indicated in Figure 6a in direction
and the equipment to be protected. In Figure 5 of the transformer.
the principle is shown. Assuming the lightning
strike has a lightning current ib = 20 kA. The light- Figure 6b shows again a lightning strike in the
ning current will be divided, so that a current im- phase wire, in this case some spans away from
pulse with a peak value of 10 kA appears on both the substation. The same will happen as ex-
sides of the point of strike, travelling along the plained in the example above: in the moment the
line in both directions. voltage wave reaches the flashover voltage of the
insulator, a flashover occurs and the voltage will
The current is coupled with the surge impedance break down and rise again, depending on the
Z and this results in a lightning overvoltage u earth resistor R E,P. This happens at each insulator,
­travelling with the speed of light along the line. as indicated in Figure 6b.
Assuming a surge impedance of Z = 450 Ω a volt-
age with a peak value of u = 4,500 kV will occur. Finally, a voltage wave shape limited to the flash-
This is too high and will destroy the transformer. over value of the insulators, will arrive at the sub-
station. Depending on the distance between the
— point of strike and the substation a considerable
Therefore, MO surge arresters at damping of the voltage wave will occur, which re-
sults in a reduction of the steepness of the over-
the entrance of the substation are voltage.
a must.
 O V E R V O LTA G E P R OT E C T I O N 7

—
Figure 5: Principle
of lightning strike
to a substation
ib

ib U
LPS

Phase wire Z ib ib Z
2 2
ib
Pole

Earth
R E, P Earth
mat
R E, S

Substation

U U
—
Figure 6a: Lightning
strike to the phase wire
close to the substation ib LPS

Phase wire i

Pole Pole

Earth
R E, P R E, P Earth
mat
R E, S

Substation

—
Figure 6b:
Far-distance lightning
to the phase wire
LPS

Phase wire

Pole Pole Pole

Earth
Earth
R E, P R E, P R E, P
mat
R E, S

U U U Substation

U
8 T E C H N I C A L N O T E O V E R V O LTA G E S

—
Figure 7: Direct lightning
to the top of a pole
ib

U U
LPS

Phase wire

Pole Pole ib Pole

Earth
R E, P R E, P R E, P
Earth
mat
R E, S

Upole Substation

—
Figure 8: Principle of ib
Ui Ui
near-by lightning
LPS

Phase wire

Pole Pole
H
T

Earth
R E, P R E, P Earth
mat
R E, S

Substation

—
Figure 9: Principle of
switching overvoltages
U sw U sw

Phase wire

Pole Pole

Earth
R E, P R E, P

Usw Switching overvoltage

O V E R V O LTA G E P R OT E C T I O N 9

2.1.1.3 Lightning strike to the top of the pole 2.2 Switching overvoltages
Figure 7 shows the case of a direct lightning to Switching overvoltages occur due to circuit
the top of a pole (or an earthed shielding wire). breaker operations, disconnector operations, re-
If the earth resistance R E,P of the pole is assumed strikes of circuit breakers and operation of fuses,
to be zero the whole lightning current ib would go to mention the main reasons. Switching actions
directly into the earth. Because the earth resis- may be intended or unintended. They depend
tance of a pole is never zero, a potential rise strongly on the circuit breaker characteristics and
Upole will occur due to the lightning current, as the line configuration and can be estimated by
indicated in Figure 7. system simulations.

Assuming again a lightning current of ib = 20 kA In medium-voltage systems switching overvolt-

and an unfavorable high earth resistance of ages are not so critical. They can reach values up
RE,P = 100 Ω, an overvoltage of Upole = 2,000 kV will to 3.5 p.u. in a worst case. For a 24 kV-system it
arise on the pole. This voltage exceeds by far the would result to app. 68 kV. This value is normally
voltage withstand value of the insulators, and a not critical for the insulation. However, vacuum
“back-flash” from the pole to the phase wire will breakers can produce very steep overvoltages. In
occur. Consequently, an overvoltage travels along this case, and due to reflections critical overvolt-
the line in direction of the substation, as shown. ages may occur.

2.1.1.4 Near-by lightning into the earth

The principle of overvoltages induced in an
­overhead line is shown in Figure 8. If a lightning
current ib hits the earth, or an earthed object
close to the line, a voltage Ui will be induced into
→
the phase wire because of the magnetic field H
around the lightning current. The magnitude of
the induced voltage can be approximated with
the equation from Rusck:
h
Umax,i = Z0 x ib x  ------
x
Umax,i Peak value of induced voltage
Z0 Mutual impedance between point of
strike and overhead line
h Height of overhead phase wire
x Shortest distance between point
­ofstrike and line
i b Lightning current

Assuming a lightning current of ib = 20 kA, a

mutual impedance of Z0 = 30 Ω, a height of h = 5 m
and a distance of x = 100 m, an induced overvolt-
age of Umax,i = 30 kV will appear on the phase wire.
 10 T E C H N I C A L N O T E O V E R V O LTA G E S

3 Standardized voltage wave shapes This is because of the voltage breakdown (high
dU/dt) that stresses the windings of the trans-
The voltages and the overvoltages that stress the former and may lead to unacceptable high voltage
insulation are determined in amplitude, shape resonances in the transformer. Switching over-
and time duration. For each class of voltages and voltages with the wave shape of 250/2500 µs are
overvoltages standard voltage shapes are deter- not used for testing medium-­voltage equipment.
mined that represent the effects of the original
voltages with respect to test purposes and insu- 4 Summary
lation coordination, see Table 1.
Overvoltages in electrical systems result from
It must be understood that the wave shapes and lightning flashes and switching operations. They
magnitudes of the overvoltages occurring in the can be power frequency overvoltages (TOV) or
system due to lightning incidents and switching transient overvoltages. Power frequency over-
operations are never known. The standardized voltages (TOV) generally do not endanger the in-
voltage wave shapes represent the critical para­ sulation of electrical equipment. Most critical in
meters and are used for test purposes. Standard- medium-voltage systems are transient overvolt-
ized voltages and overvoltages with power ages due to lightning flashes. Their magnitude
­frequency (TOV) are used in labs for insulation depends only on the lightning current and can be
withstand tests of the arrester housings, and for extremely high. Depending on the point of strike
evaluation of the TOV performance of MO surge of the lightning different wave shapes and magni-
arresters. tudes may occur.

Lightning overvoltages with the wave shape Switching overvoltages and induced overvoltages
1.2/50 µs are used for voltage withstand tests of can occur quite frequently in medium-voltage
insulators, and therefore also for tests of the systems, but their magnitude is generally not so
­arrester housing. It is worth to mention that a high to lead to a flashover or to endanger the in-
very critical test for transformers is a voltage sulation of equipment. However, due to the high
withstand test with a chopped lightning voltage occurrence rate they may weaken liquid and solid
impulse. insulation (aging), which results finally in a reduc-
tion of the lifetime of the insulation.

—
Table 1: Classes and shapes of overvoltages, Standard voltage shapes and Standard withstand voltage tests (IEC 60071-1).

Class Low frequency Transient

1/f 1/f 1/f 1/f Continuous
1/f 1/f 1/f
Temporary 1/f Slow front Fast-front Tf
Very-fast-front Tf

Voltage or
1/f 1/f
overvoltage 1/f 1/f 1/f 1/f 1/f 1/f 1/f Tf Tf Tf

shapes
Tp Tp Tp T1 Tp T1 T1 1/fT11 1/f2

t Tt Tt Tt Tt Tt Tt T2 Tt T2 T2 T2 T 2 T2 T2 T2
Tp Tp Tp T1 Tp T1 Tp T1 1/fT11 1/f2 1/fT11 1/f2

t Tt Tt Tt Tt Tt Tt T2 Tt T2 Tt T2 T2 T2 T2 T2 T2 T2 T2

Range of
voltage or Tt ≤ 100 ns
overvoltage f = 50 Hz or 60 Hz 10 Hz < f < 500 Hz 20 µs < Tp ≤ 500 µs 0.1 µs < T1 ≤ 20 µs 0.3 MHz < f1 < 100 MHz
shapes Tt ≥ 3600 s 0,02 s ≤ Tt ≤ 3600 s T2 ≤ 20 ms T2 ≤ 300 µs 30 kHz < f2 < 300 kHz
Standard
/f voltage
1/f shapes 1/f
1/f
1/f
1/f 1/f 1/f

1/f 1/f 1/f 1/f 1/f

/f 1/f 1/f 1/f

Tp Tp Tp T1 Tp T1 T1 T1

Tp Tp Tp T 1 Tp T1 Tp T1 T1 T1
Tt Tt Tt T2 Tt T2 T2 T2 T2 T2 T2 T2
t Tt Tt Tt

f = 50 Hz or 60 Hz 48 Hz ≤ f ≤ 62 Hz Tp = 250 µs T1 = 1.2 µs a
Tt Tt T T2 Tt Tt
t Tt Tt Tt Tt a t Tt = 60T2s T2 T2
T2 = 2500 µs T2 T2 T2
T2 = 50 µs T2 T2 T2

Standard
withstand a Short-duration Switching Lightning a
voltage test power frequency test impulse test impulse test
a
To be specified by the relevant apparatus committees.
—
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PGHV
Surge Arresters
Jurastrasse 45
CH-5430 Wettingen/Switzerland
Tel. + 41 58585 2911
Fax + 41 58585 5570
Email: [email protected]

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