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Chapter 4 Polynomial Functions PDF

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Chapter 4 Polynomial Functions PDF

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4

Chapter 4

Polynomial functions

Objectives
To revise the properties of quadratic functions.
To add, subtract and multiply polynomials.
To be able to use the technique of equating coefﬁcients.
To divide polynomials.
To use the remainder theorem, the factor theorem and the rational-root theorem to
identify the linear factors of cubic and quartic polynomials.
To draw and use sign diagrams.
To ﬁnd the rules for given polynomial graphs.
To apply polynomial functions to problem solving.

A polynomial function of degree 2 is called a quadratic function. The general rule for such
a function is
f (x) = ax2 + bx + c, a0
A polynomial function of degree 3 is called a cubic function. The general rule for such a
function is
f (x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d, a0
A polynomial function of degree 4 is called a quartic function. The general rule for such a
function is
f (x) = ax4 + bx3 + cx2 + dx + e, a0
In this chapter we revise quadratic functions, and build on our previous study of cubic and
quartic functions.

4A Quadratic functions
In this section, we revise material on quadratic functions covered in Mathematical Methods
Units 1 & 2.

Transformations of parabolas
Dilation from the x-axis yy = 2x2 y = x2 y = 1 x2
2
For a > 0, the graph of the function y = ax2 is 2 (1, 2)
obtained from the graph of y = x2 by a dilation of
factor a from the x-axis. 1 (1, 1)
(1, 0.5)
The graphs on the right are those of y = x2 , y = 2x2 x
and y = 12 x2 , i.e. a = 1, 2 and 12 . O 1

Translation parallel to the x-axis

The graphs of y = (x + 2)2 and y = (x − 2)2 are y
y = (x + 2)2 y = (x − 2)2
shown.
For h > 0, the graph of y = (x + h)2 is obtained from (0, 4)
the graph of y = x2 by a translation of h units in the
negative direction of the x-axis. x
−2 O 2
For h < 0, the graph of y = (x + h)2 is obtained from
the graph of y = x2 by a translation of −h units in y
the positive direction of the x-axis. y = x2 + 2

Translation parallel to the y-axis

y = x2 − 2
The graphs of y = x2 + 2 and y = x2 − 2 are shown.
For k > 0, the graph of y = x2 + k is obtained from
the graph of y = x2 by a translation of k units in the
2
positive direction of the y-axis.
x
O
For k < 0, the translation is in the negative direction
of the y-axis. −2

Combinations of transformations y
The graph of the function
f (x) = 2(x − 2)2 + 3 (0, 11)
is obtained by transforming the graph of the function
f (x) = x2 by:
dilation of factor 2 from the x-axis
translation of 2 units in the positive direction of
the x-axis (2, 3)
translation of 3 units in the positive direction of
x
the y-axis. O
Cambridge Senior Maths AC/VCE ISBN 978-1-107-56747-4 © Evans et al. 2016 Cambridge University Press
Mathematical Methods 3&4 Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
152 Chapter 4: Polynomial functions

Graphing quadratics in turning point form

By applying dilations, reﬂections and translations to the basic parabola y = x2 , we can
sketch the graph of any quadratic expressed in turning point form y = a(x − h)2 + k:
If a > 0, the graph has a minimum point.
If a < 0, the graph has a maximum point.
The vertex is the point (h, k).
The axis of symmetry is x = h.
If h and k are positive, then the graph of y = a(x − h)2 + k is obtained from the graph
of y = ax2 by translating h units in the positive direction of the x-axis and k units in the
positive direction of the y-axis.
Similar results hold for diﬀerent combinations of h and k positive and negative.

Example 1
Sketch the graph of y = 2(x − 1)2 + 3.

Solution
The graph of y = 2x2 is translated 1 unit in the positive y
direction of the x-axis and 3 units in the positive direction
of the y-axis.
The vertex has coordinates (1, 3). 5

The axis of symmetry is the line x = 1.

3
The graph will be narrower than y = x2 . (1, 3)

The range is [3, ∞).

x
To add further detail to our graph, we can ﬁnd the axis O 1 2
intercepts:
y-axis intercept
When x = 0, y = 2(0 − 1)2 + 3 = 5.
x-axis intercepts
In this example, the minimum value of y is 3, and so y cannot be 0. Therefore this graph
has no x-axis intercepts.
Note: Another way to see this is to let y = 0 and try to solve for x:
0 = 2(x − 1)2 + 3
−3 = 2(x − 1)2
− 32 = (x − 1)2
As the square root of a negative number is not a real number, this equation has no
real solutions.

Example 2
Sketch the graph of y = −(x + 1)2 + 4.

Solution
The vertex has coordinates (−1, 4) and so the y
axis of symmetry is the line x = −1.
When x = 0, y = −(0 + 1)2 + 4 = 3. (−1, 4)
∴ the y-axis intercept is 3.
(0, 3)
When y = 0,
−(x + 1)2 + 4 = 0 (1, 0)
x
(−3, 0) O
(x + 1) = 4
2

x + 1 = ±2
x = ±2 − 1
∴ the x-axis intercepts are 1 and −3.

The axis of symmetry

For a quadratic function written in polynomial form y = ax2 + bx + c, the axis of symmetry
b
of its graph has the equation x = − .
2a
b
Therefore the x-coordinate of the turning point is − . Substitute this value into the
2a
quadratic polynomial to ﬁnd the y-coordinate of the turning point.

Example 3
For each of the following quadratic functions, use the axis of symmetry to ﬁnd the turning
point of the graph, express the function in the form y = a(x − h)2 + k, and hence ﬁnd the
maximum or minimum value and the range:
a y = x2 − 4x + 3 b y = −2x2 + 12x − 7

Solution Explanation
a The x-coordinate of the turning point is 2. Here a = 1 and b = −4, so the axis of
−4
When x = 2, y = 4 − 8 + 3 = −1. symmetry is x = − = 2.
2
The coordinates of the turning point For the turning point form
are (2, −1). Hence the equation is y = a(x − h)2 + k, we have found
y = (x − 2)2 − 1. that a = 1, h = 2 and k = −1.
The minimum value is −1 and the range Since a > 0, the parabola has a
is [−1, ∞). minimum.

b The x-coordinate of the turning point is 3. Here a = −2 and b = 12, so the axis of
12
When x = 3, y = −2 × (3)2 + 12 × 3 − 7 = 11. symmetry is x = − = 3.
−4
The coordinates of the turning point For the turning point form
are (3, 11). Hence the equation is y = a(x − h)2 + k, we have found
y = −2(x − 3)2 + 11. that a = −2, h = 3 and k = 11.
The maximum value is 11 and the range Since a < 0, the parabola has a
is (−∞, 11]. maximum.

Graphing quadratics in polynomial form

It is not essential to convert a quadratic to turning point form in order to sketch its graph.

For a quadratic in polynomial form, we can ﬁnd the x- and y-axis intercepts and the axis
of symmetry by other methods and use these details to sketch the graph.
Step 1 Find the y-axis intercept.
Step 2 Find the x-axis intercepts.
Step 3 Find the equation of the axis of symmetry.
Step 4 Find the coordinates of the turning point.

Example 4
Find the x- and y-axis intercepts and the turning point, and hence sketch the graph of
y = x2 + x − 12.

Solution
Step 1 c = −12. Therefore the y-axis intercept is −12. y
Step 2 Let y = 0. Then
0 = x2 + x − 12
0 = (x + 4)(x − 3) x
−4 −1 O 3
∴ x = −4 or x = 3
The x-axis intercepts are −4 and 3.
−12
Step 3 The axis of symmetry is the line with equation − 12 , −12 14
−4 + 3 1
x= =−
2 2
Step 4 When x = − 12 , y = (− 12 )2 + (− 12 ) − 12
= −12 14
The turning point has coordinates (− 12 , −12 14 ).

Completing the square

By completing the square, all quadratics in polynomial form, y = ax2 + bx + c, may be
transposed into turning point form, y = a(x − h)2 + k. We have seen that this can be used to
sketch the graphs of quadratic polynomials.

To complete the square of x2 + bx + c:

b b2
Take half the coeﬃcient of x (that is, ) and add and subtract its square .
2 4
To complete the square of ax2 + bx + c:
First take out a as a factor and then complete the square inside the bracket.

Example 5
By completing the square, write the quadratic f (x) = 2x2 − 4x − 5 in turning point form,
and hence sketch the graph of y = f (x).

Solution
f (x) = 2x2 − 4x − 5
5
= 2 x2 − 2x −
2
5 b 2
= 2 x2 − 2x + 1 − 1 − add and subtract to ‘complete the square’
2 2
7
= 2 (x2 − 2x + 1) −
2
7
= 2 (x − 1)2 −
2
= 2(x − 1) − 7
2

The x-axis intercepts can be determined after completing the square:

2x2 − 4x − 5 = 0
2(x − 1)2 − 7 = 0
7
(x − 1)2 =
2
7 y
x−1=± y = 2x2 − 4x − 5
2
x
∴ x=1+
7
or x = 1 −
7 −1 O 1 2 3
2 2 7
1+
7 −2 2
This information can now be used to sketch 1−
the graph: 2
−4
The y-axis intercept is c = −5. −5
The turning point is (1, −7). −6

7 7 −7 (1, −7)
The x-axis intercepts are 1 + and 1 − .
2 2

The quadratic formula

The solutions of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, where a 0, are given by the
quadratic formula
√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x=
2a
It should be noted that the equation of the axis of symmetry can be derived from this
general formula: the axis of symmetry is the line with equation
b
x=−
2a

Example 6
Sketch the graph of f (x) = −3x2 − 12x − 7 by:
finding the equation of the axis of symmetry
finding the coordinates of the turning point
using the general quadratic formula to find the x-axis intercepts.

Solution
Since c = −7, the y-axis intercept is −7.
b
Axis of symmetry x = −
2a
−12
=−
2 × (−3)
= −2
Turning point
When x = −2, y = −3(−2)2 − 12(−2) − 7 = 5.
The turning point coordinates are (−2, 5).
x-axis intercepts y
−3x2 − 12x − 7 = 0
√ (− 2, 5) 6
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x= 4
2a

−(−12) ± (−12)2 − 4(−3)(−7) √15 √15 2
= −2 − −2 +
2(−3) 3 3
√ x
12 ± 60 −4 −3 −2 −1 O
= −2
−6
√
12 ± 2 15 −4
= y = −3x2 − 12x − 7
−6
√ −6
= −2 ± 13 15 −7
−8

The discriminant
The discriminant Δ of a quadratic polynomial ax2 + bx + c is
Δ = b2 − 4ac
For the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0:
If Δ > 0, there are two solutions.
If Δ = 0, there is one solution.
If Δ < 0, there are no real solutions.
For the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 where a, b and c rational numbers:
If Δ is a perfect square and Δ 0, then the equation has two rational solutions.
If Δ = 0, then the equation has one rational solution.
If Δ is not a perfect square and Δ > 0, then the equation has two irrational solutions.

Example 7
Without sketching graphs, determine whether the graph of each of the following functions
crosses, touches or does not intersect the x-axis:
a f (x) = 2x2 − 4x − 6
b f (x) = −4x2 + 12x − 9
c f (x) = 3x2 − 2x + 8

Solution Explanation
a Δ = b − 4ac
2

= (−4)2 − 4 × 2 × (−6) Here a = 2, b = −4, c = −6.

= 16 + 48
= 64 > 0
The graph crosses the x-axis twice. As Δ > 0, there are two x-axis intercepts.

b Δ = b2 − 4ac
= (12)2 − 4 × (−4) × (−9) Here a = −4, b = 12, c = −9.
= 144 − 144
=0
The graph touches the x-axis once. As Δ = 0, there is only one x-axis intercept.

c Δ = b2 − 4ac
= (−2)2 − 4 × 3 × 8 Here a = 3, b = −2, c = 8.
= 4 − 96
= −92 < 0
The graph does not intersect the x-axis. As Δ < 0, there are no x-axis intercepts.

Example 8
Find the values of m for which the equation 3x2 − 2mx + 3 = 0 has:
a one solution b no solution c two distinct solutions.

Solution
For the quadratic 3x2 − 2mx + 3, the discriminant is Δ = 4m2 − 36.
a For one solution: b For no solution:
Δ=0 Δ<0
i.e. 4m − 36 = 0
2
i.e. 4m − 36 < 0
2

m =9
2
From the graph, this is equivalent to
∴ m = ±3 −3 < m < 3
c For two distinct solutions: Δ
Δ>0
i.e. 4m − 36 > 0
2

m
From the graph it can be seen that −3 O 3
m > 3 or m < −3
−36

Section summary
The graph of y = a(x − h)2 + k is a parabola congruent to the graph of y = ax2 .
The vertex (or turning point) is the point (h, k). The axis of symmetry is x = h.
b
The axis of symmetry of the graph of y = ax2 + bx + c has equation x = − .
2a
By completing the square, all quadratic functions in polynomial form y = ax2 + bx + c
may be transposed into the turning point form y = a(x − h)2 + k.
To complete the square of x2 + bx + c:
b b2
• Take half the coeﬃcient of x (that is, ) and add and subtract its square .
2 4
To complete the square of ax2 + bx + c:
• First take out a as a factor and then complete the square inside the bracket.
The solutions of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, where a 0, are given by the
quadratic formula
√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x=
2a
From the formula it can be seen that:
• If b2 − 4ac > 0, there are two solutions.
• If b2 − 4ac = 0, there is one solution.
• If b2 − 4ac < 0, there are no real solutions.

Exercise 4A

Example 1, 2 1 Sketch the graphs of the following functions:

a f (x) = 2(x − 1)2 b f (x) = 2(x − 1)2 − 2
c f (x) = −2(x − 1)2 d f (x) = 4 − 2(x + 1)2
e f (x) = 4 + 2(x + 12 )2 f f (x) = 2(x + 1)2 − 1
g f (x) = 3(x − 2)2 − 4 h f (x) = (x + 1)2 − 1
i f (x) = 5x2 − 1 j f (x) = 2(x + 1)2 − 4

Example 3 2 For each of the following quadratic functions, use the axis of symmetry to ﬁnd the
turning point of the graph, express the function in the form y = a(x − h)2 + k, and hence
ﬁnd the maximum or minimum value and the range:
a f (x) = x2 + 3x − 2 b f (x) = x2 − 6x + 8
c f (x) = 2x2 + 8x − 6 d f (x) = 4x2 + 8x − 7
e f (x) = 2x2 − 5x f f (x) = 7 − 2x − 3x2
g f (x) = −2x2 + 9x + 11

Example 4 3 Find the x- and y-axis intercepts and the turning point, and hence sketch the graph of
each of the following:
a y = −x2 + 2x b y = x2 − 6x + 8
c y = −x2 − 5x − 6 d y = −2x2 + 8x − 6
e y = 4x2 − 12x + 9 f y = 6x2 + 3x − 18

Example 5 4 Sketch the graph of each of the following by ﬁrst completing the square:
a y = x2 + 2x − 6 b y = x2 − 4x − 10
c y = −x2 − 5x − 3 d y = −2x2 + 8x − 10
e y = x2 − 7x + 3

Example 6 5 Sketch the graph of f (x) = 3x2 − 2x − 1 by first finding the equation of the axis of
symmetry, then finding the coordinates of the vertex, and finally using the quadratic
formula to calculate the x-axis intercepts.

6 Sketch the graph of f (x) = −3x2 − 2x + 2 by first finding the equation of the axis of
symmetry, then finding the coordinates of the vertex, and finally using the quadratic
formula to calculate the x-axis intercepts.

7 Sketch the graphs of the following functions, clearly labelling the axis intercepts and
turning points:
a f (x) = x2 + 3x − 2 b f (x) = 2x2 + 4x − 7
c f (x) = 5x2 − 10x − 1 d f (x) = −2x2 + 4x − 1
e y = 2.5x2 + 3x + 0.3 f y = −0.6x2 − 1.3x − 0.1

8 a Which of the graphs shown could represent y = (x − 4)2 − 3?

b Which graph could represent y = 3 − (x − 4)2 ?
A y B y

13 13

x 4 x
O 4 O

C y D y

x x
O 4 O 4

−13 −13

9 Match each of the following functions with the appropriate graph below:
1 x
a y = (x + 4)(8 − x) b y = x2 − + 1
3 2
1
c y = −10 + 2(x − 1) 2
d y = (9 − x2 )
2
A y B y

10 4
2
x x
−2 2 4 1
−5 −2
x= 1
4
C y D y

10 10
5 5
x x
−5 5 10 −2 2 4
−5 −5

Example 7 10 Without sketching the graphs of the following functions, determine whether they cross,
touch or do not intersect the x-axis:
a f (x) = x2 − 5x + 2 b f (x) = −4x2 + 2x − 1 c f (x) = x2 − 6x + 9
d f (x) = 8 − 3x − 2x2 e f (x) = 3x2 + 2x + 5 f f (x) = −x2 − x − 1

Example 8 11 For which values of m does the equation mx2 − 2mx + 3 = 0 have:
a two solutions for x b one solution for x?
Cambridge Senior Maths AC/VCE ISBN 978-1-107-56747-4 © Evans et al. 2016 Cambridge University Press
Mathematical Methods 3&4 Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
4A 4B Determining the rule for a parabola 161

12 Find the value of m for which (4m + 1)x2 − 6mx + 4 is a perfect square.

13 Find the values of a for which the equation (a − 3)x2 + 2ax + (a + 2) = 0 has no
solutions for x.

14 Prove that the equation x2 + (a + 1)x + (a − 2) = 0 always has two distinct solutions.

15 Show that the equation (k + 1)x2 − 2x − k = 0 has a solution for all values of k.

16 For which values of k does the equation kx2 − 2kx = 5 have:

a two solutions for x b one solution for x?

17 For which values of k does the equation (k − 3)x2 + 2kx + (k + 2) = 0 have:

a two solutions for x b one solution for x?

18 Show that the equation ax2 − (a + b)x + b = 0 has a solution for all values of a and b.

4B Determining the rule for a parabola

In this section we revise methods for ﬁnding the rule of a quadratic function from information
about its graph. The following three forms are useful. You will see others in the worked
examples.

1 y = a(x − e)(x − f ) This can be used if two x-axis intercepts and the coordinates of
one other point are known.
2 y = a(x − h)2 + k This can be used if the coordinates of the turning point and one
other point are known.
3 y = ax2 + bx + c This can be used if the coordinates of three points on the
parabola are known.

Example 9
A parabola has x-axis intercepts −3 and 4 and it passes through the point (1, 24). Find the
rule for this parabola.

Solution Explanation
y = a(x + 3)(x − 4) Two x-axis intercepts are given. Therefore
When x = 1, y = 24. Thus use the form y = a(x − e)(x − f ).

24 = a(1 + 3)(1 − 4)
24 = −12a
∴ a = −2
The rule is y = −2(x + 3)(x − 4).

Example 10
The coordinates of the turning point of a parabola are (2, 6) and the parabola passes
through the point (3, 3). Find the rule for this parabola.

Solution Explanation
y = a(x − 2) + 6
2
The coordinates of the turning point and
When x = 3, y = 3. Thus one other point on the parabola are given.
Therefore use y = a(x − h)2 + k.
3 = a(3 − 2)2 + 6
3=a+6
∴ a = −3
The rule is y = −3(x − 2)2 + 6.

Example 11
A parabola passes through the points (1, 4), (0, 5) and (−1, 10). Find the rule for this
parabola.

Solution Explanation
y = ax + bx + c
2
The coordinates of three points on the
When x = 1, y = 4. parabola are given. Therefore we substitute
When x = 0, y = 5. values into the general polynomial form
When x = −1, y = 10. y = ax2 + bx + c to obtain three equations
in three unknowns.
Therefore
4=a+b+c (1)
5=c (2)
10 = a − b + c (3)
Substitute from equation (2) into
equations (1) and (3):
−1 = a + b (10 )
5=a−b (30 )
Add (10 ) and (30 ):
4 = 2a
∴ a=2
Substitute into equation (10 ):
−1 = 2 + b
∴ b = −3
The rule is y = 2x2 − 3x + 5.

Example 12
Find the equation of each of the following parabolas:
a y b y

(0, 3)

(2, 5) (−3, 1)
x
x O
O
c y d y

(−1, 8)
x x
O 3 −1 O 1

Solution
a This is of the form y = ax2 (since the b This is of the form y = ax2 + c (since the
graph has its vertex at the origin). graph is symmetric about the y-axis).
As the point (2, 5) is on the parabola, For (0, 3): 3 = a(0)2 + c
5 = a(2)2 ∴ c=3
5
∴ a= For (−3, 1): 1 = a(−3)2 + 3
4
5 2 1 = 9a + 3
The rule is y = x .
4 2
∴ a=−
9
2 2
The rule is y = − x + 3.
9
c This is of the form y = ax(x − 3). d This is of the form y = ax2 + bx + c.
As the point (−1, 8) is on the parabola, The y-axis intercept is 2 and so c = 2.
8 = −a(−1 − 3) As (−1, 0) and (1, 2) are on the parabola,

8 = 4a 0=a−b+2 (1)
∴ a=2 2=a+b+2 (2)

The rule is y = 2x(x − 3). Add equations (1) and (2):

2 = 2a + 4
2a = −2
∴ a = −1
Substitute a = −1 in (1) to obtain b = 1.
The rule is y = −x2 + x + 2.

Section summary
To find a quadratic rule to fit given points, first choose the best form of quadratic
expression to work with. Then substitute in the coordinates of the known points to
determine the unknown parameters. Some possible forms are given here:

i y ii y
y = ax2

x y = ax2 + c
O x
O

One point is needed to Two points are needed to

determine a. determine a and c.

iii y iv y
y = ax2 + bx
y = ax2 + bx + c
x x
O O

Two points are needed to Three points are needed to

determine a and b. determine a, b and c.

Exercise 4B

Example 9 1 A parabola has x-axis intercepts −3 and −2 and it passes through the point (1, −24).
Skillsheet Find the rule for this parabola.
3
2 A parabola has x-axis intercepts −3 and − and it passes through the point (1, 20). Find
2
the rule for this parabola.

Example 10 3 The coordinates of the turning point of a parabola are (−2, 4) and the parabola passes
through the point (4, 58). Find the rule for this parabola.

4 The coordinates of the turning point of a parabola are (−2, −3) and the parabola passes
through the point (−3, −5). Find the rule for this parabola.

Example 11 5 A parabola passes through the points (1, 19), (0, 18) and (−1, 7). Find the rule for this
parabola.

6 A parabola passes through the points (2, −14), (0, 10) and (−4, 10). Find the rule for this
parabola.

Example 12 7 Determine the equation of each of the following parabolas:

a y b y c y

2 x
4 (1, 3)
O

−4 x
x −2 O
O 5

d y e y f y

4
x x
(−1, −3) O 2 −1 O 5
x
O 1 4
−5

g y h y

(3, 2) 6
(−1, 2)
x
O
(2, 2)
(1, −2) x
O 4

8 Find quadratic expressions for the two curves in the diagram, given that the coeﬃcient
of x in each case is 1. The marked points are A(4, 3), B(4, 1), C(0, −5) and D(0, 1).
y
A
3
2
1 D B
x
−4 O 4

−5 C

9 The graph of the quadratic function f (x) = A(x + b)2 + B has a vertex at (−2, 4) and
passes through the point (0, 8). Find the values of A, b and B.

4C The language of polynomials

A polynomial function is a function that can be written in the form
P(x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0
where n ∈ N ∪ {0} and the coefficients a0 , . . . , an are real numbers with an 0.
The number 0 is called the zero polynomial.
The leading term, an xn , of a polynomial is the term of highest index among those terms
with a non-zero coefficient.
The degree of a polynomial is the index n of the leading term.
A monic polynomial is a polynomial whose leading term has coefficient 1.
The constant term is the term of index 0. (This is the term not involving x.)

Example 13
Let P(x) = x4 − 3x3 − 2. Find:
a P(1) b P(−1) c P(2) d P(−2)

Solution
a P(1) = 14 − 3 × 13 − 2 b P(−1) = (−1)4 − 3 × (−1)3 − 2
=1−3−2 =1+3−2
= −4 =2

c P(2) = 24 − 3 × 23 − 2 d P(−2) = (−2)4 − 3 × (−2)3 − 2

= 16 − 24 − 2 = 16 + 24 − 2
= −10 = 38

Example 14
a Let P(x) = 2x4 − x3 + 2cx + 6. If P(1) = 21, ﬁnd the value of c.
b Let Q(x) = 2x6 − x3 + ax2 + bx + 20. If Q(−1) = Q(2) = 0, ﬁnd the values of a and b.

Solution Explanation
a P(x) = 2x − x + 2cx + 6 and P(1) = 21.
4 3
We will substitute x = 1 into P(x)
P(1) = 2(1)4 − (1)3 + 2c + 6 to form an equation and solve.

= 2 − 1 + 2c + 6
= 7 + 2c
Since P(1) = 21,
7 + 2c = 21
∴ c=7

b Q(x) = 2x6 − x3 + ax2 + bx + 20 and First ﬁnd Q(−1) and Q(2) in terms
Q(−1) = Q(2) = 0. of a and b.
Q(−1) = 2(−1)6 − (−1)3 + a(−1)2 − b + 20
= 2 + 1 + a − b + 20
= 23 + a − b

Q(2) = 2(2)6 − (2)3 + a(2)2 + 2b + 20

= 128 − 8 + 4a + 2b + 20
= 140 + 4a + 2b
Since Q(−1) = Q(2) = 0, this gives Form simultaneous equations in a
23 + a − b = 0 (1) and b by putting Q(−1) = 0 and
Q(2) = 0.
140 + 4a + 2b = 0 (2)
Divide (2) by 2:
70 + 2a + b = 0 (3)
Add (1) and (3):
93 + 3a = 0
∴ a = −31
Substitute in (1) to obtain b = −8.

The arithmetic of polynomials

The operations of addition, subtraction and multiplication for polynomials are naturally
deﬁned, as shown in the following examples.
Let P(x) = x3 + 3x2 + 2 and Q(x) = 2x2 + 4. Then
P(x) + Q(x) = (x3 + 3x2 + 2) + (2x2 + 4)
= x3 + 5x2 + 6

P(x) − Q(x) = (x3 + 3x2 + 2) − (2x2 + 4)

= x3 + x2 − 2

P(x)Q(x) = (x3 + 3x2 + 2)(2x2 + 4)

= (x3 + 3x2 + 2) × 2x2 + (x3 + 3x2 + 2) × 4
= 2x5 + 6x4 + 4x2 + 4x3 + 12x2 + 8
= 2x5 + 6x4 + 4x3 + 16x2 + 8
The sum, diﬀerence and product of two polynomials is a polynomial.

Example 15
Let P(x) = x3 − 6x + 3 and Q(x) = x2 − 3x + 1. Find:
a P(x) + Q(x) b P(x) − Q(x) c P(x)Q(x)

Solution
a P(x) + Q(x) b P(x) − Q(x)
= x − 6x + 3 + x − 3x + 1
3 2
= x3 − 6x + 3 − (x2 − 3x + 1)
= x3 + x2 − 6x − 3x + 3 + 1 = x3 − 6x + 3 − x2 + 3x − 1
= x3 + x2 − 9x + 4 = x3 − x2 − 6x + 3x + 3 − 1
= x3 − x2 − 3x + 2
c P(x)Q(x) = (x3 − 6x + 3)(x2 − 3x + 1)
= x3 (x2 − 3x + 1) − 6x(x2 − 3x + 1) + 3(x2 − 3x + 1)
= x5 − 3x4 + x3 − 6x3 + 18x2 − 6x + 3x2 − 9x + 3
= x5 − 3x4 + (x3 − 6x3 ) + (18x2 + 3x2 ) − (6x + 9x) + 3
= x5 − 3x4 − 5x3 + 21x2 − 15x + 3

We use the notation deg( f ) to denote the degree of a polynomial f . For f , g 0, we have

deg( f + g) ≤ max deg( f ), deg(g)
deg( f × g) = deg( f ) + deg(g)

Equating coefﬁcients
Two polynomials P and Q are equal only if their corresponding coeﬃcients are equal. For
two cubic polynomials, P(x) = a3 x3 + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0 and Q(x) = b3 x3 + b2 x2 + b1 x + b0 ,
they are equal if and only if a3 = b3 , a2 = b2 , a1 = b1 and a0 = b0 .
For example, if
P(x) = 4x3 + 5x2 − x + 3 and Q(x) = b3 x3 + b2 x2 + b1 x + b0
then P(x) = Q(x) if and only if b3 = 4, b2 = 5, b1 = −1 and b0 = 3.

Example 16
The polynomial P(x) = x3 + 3x2 + 2x + 1 can be written in the form (x − 2)(x2 + bx + c) + r
where b, c and r are real numbers. Find the values of b, c and r.
Solution
Expand the required form:
(x − 2)(x2 + bx + c) + r = x(x2 + bx + c) − 2(x2 + bx + c) + r
= x3 + bx2 + cx − 2x2 − 2bx − 2c + r
= x3 + (b − 2)x2 + (c − 2b)x − 2c + r

If x3 + 3x2 + 2x + 1 = x3 + (b − 2)x2 + (c − 2b)x − 2c + r for all real numbers x, then by

equating coefficients:
coefficient of x2 3=b−2 ∴ b=5
coefficient of x 2 = c − 2b ∴ c = 2b + 2 = 12
constant term 1 = −2c + r ∴ r = 2c + 1 = 25
Hence b = 5, c = 12 and r = 25.
This means P(x) = (x − 2)(x2 + 5x + 12) + 25.

Example 17
a If x3 + 3x2 + 3x + 8 = a(x + 1)3 + b for all x ∈ R, ﬁnd the values of a and b.
b Show that x3 + 6x2 + 6x + 8 cannot be written in the form a(x + c)3 + b for real numbers
a, b and c.

Solution
a Expand the right-hand side of the equation:
a(x + 1)3 + b = a(x3 + 3x2 + 3x + 1) + b
= ax3 + 3ax2 + 3ax + a + b
If x3 + 3x2 + 3x + 8 = ax3 + 3ax2 + 3ax + a + b for all x ∈ R, then by equating
coefficients:
coefficient of x3 1=a
coefficient of x 2
3 = 3a
coefficient of x 3 = 3a
constant term 8=a+b
Hence a = 1 and b = 7.

b Expand the proposed form:

a(x + c)3 + b = a(x3 + 3cx2 + 3c2 x + c3 ) + b
= ax3 + 3cax2 + 3c2 ax + c3 a + b
Suppose x3 + 6x2 + 6x + 8 = ax3 + 3cax2 + 3c2 ax + c3 a + b for all x ∈ R. Then
coefficient of x3 1=a (1)
coefficient of x 2
6 = 3ca (2)
coefficient of x 6 = 3c a 2
(3)
constant term 8 = c3 a + b (4)
From (1), we have a = 1. So from (2), we have c = 2.
But substituting a = 1 and c = 2 into (3) gives 6 = 12, which is a contradiction.

Section summary
A polynomial function is a function that can be written in the form
P(x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0
where n ∈ N ∪ {0} and the coefficients a0 , . . . , an are real numbers with an 0.
The leading term is an xn (the term of highest index) and the constant term is a0 (the
term not involving x).
The degree of a polynomial is the index n of the leading term.
The sum, difference and product of two polynomials is a polynomial. Division does not
always lead to another polynomial.
Two polynomials P and Q are equal only if their corresponding coefficients are equal.
Two cubic polynomials, P(x) = a3 x3 + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0 and Q(x) = b3 x3 + b2 x2 + b1 x + b0 ,
are equal if and only if a3 = b3 , a2 = b2 , a1 = b1 and a0 = b0 .

Exercise 4C

Example 13 1 Let P(x) = x3 − 2x2 + 3x + 1. Find:

a P(1) b P(−1) c P(2) d P(−2) e P( 12 ) f P(− 12 )

2 Let P(x) = x3 + 3x2 − 4x + 6. Find:

a P(0) b P(1) c P(2) d P(−1) e P(a) f P(2a)

Example 14 3 a Let P(x) = x3 + 3x2 − ax − 30. If P(2) = 0, ﬁnd the value of a.

b Let P(x) = x3 + ax2 + 5x − 14. If P(3) = 68, find the value of a.
c Let P(x) = x4 − x3 − 2x + c. If P(1) = 6, find the value of c.
d Let P(x) = 2x6 − 5x3 + ax2 + bx + 12. If P(−1) = P(2) = 0, find a and b.
e Let P(x) = x5 − 2x4 + ax3 + bx2 + 12x − 36. If P(3) = P(1) = 0, find a and b.

Example 15 4 Let f (x) = 2x3 − x2 + 3x, g(x) = 2 − x and h(x) = x2 + 2x. Simplify each of the
following:
a f (x) + g(x) b f (x) + h(x) c f (x) − g(x)
d 3 f (x) e f (x) g(x) f g(x) h(x)
g f (x) + g(x) + h(x) h f (x) h(x)

5 Expand each of the following products and collect like terms:

a (x − 2)(x2 − 3x + 4) b (x − 5)(x2 − 2x + 3) c (x + 1)(2x2 − 3x − 4)
d (x + 2)(x2 + bx + c) e (2x − 1)(x2 − 4x − 3)

Example 16 6 It is known that x3 − x2 − 6x − 4 = (x + 1)(x2 + bx + c) for all values of x, for suitable

values of b and c.
a Expand (x + 1)(x2 + bx + c) and collect like terms.
b Find b and c by equating coeﬃcients.
c Hence write x3 − x2 − 6x − 4 as a product of three linear factors.

Example 17 7 a If 2x3 − 18x2 + 54x − 49 = a(x − 3)3 + b for all x ∈ R, ﬁnd the values of a and b.
b If −2x3 + 18x2 − 54x + 52 = a(x + c)3 + b for all x ∈ R, ﬁnd the values of a, b and c.
c Show that x3 − 5x2 − 2x + 24 cannot be written in the form a(x + c)3 + b for real
numbers a, b and c.

8 Find the values of A and B such that A(x + 3) + B(x + 2) = 4x + 9 for all real numbers x.

9 Find the values of A, B and C in each of the following:

a x2 − 4x + 10 = A(x + B)2 + C for all x ∈ R
b 4x2 − 12x + 14 = A(x + B)2 + C for all x ∈ R
c x3 − 9x2 + 27x − 22 = A(x + B)3 + C for all x ∈ R.

4D Division and factorisation of polynomials

The division of polynomials was introduced in Mathematical Methods Units 1 & 2.

When we divide the polynomial P(x) by the polynomial D(x) we obtain two polynomials,
Q(x) the quotient and R(x) the remainder, such that
P(x) = D(x)Q(x) + R(x)
and either R(x) = 0 or R(x) has degree less than D(x).
Here P(x) is the dividend and D(x) is the divisor.

The following example illustrates the process of dividing.

Example 18
Divide x3 + x2 − 14x − 24 by x + 2.

Solution Explanation
Divide x, from x + 2, into the leading term x3 to get x2 .

x − x − 12
2

x + 2 x3 + x2 − 14x − 24 Multiply x2 by x + 2 to give x3 + 2x2 .

x3 + 2x2 Subtract from x3 + x2 − 14x − 24, leaving −x2 − 14x − 24.
−x2 − 14x − 24 Now divide x, from x + 2, into −x2 to get −x.
−x2 − 2x Multiply −x by x + 2 to give −x2 − 2x.
−12x − 24 Subtract from −x2 − 14x − 24, leaving −12x − 24.
−12x − 24 Divide x into −12x to get −12.
0 Multiply −12 by x + 2 to give −12x − 24.
Subtract from −12x − 24, leaving remainder of 0.

In this example we see that x + 2 is a factor of x3 + x2 − 14x − 24, as the remainder is zero.
Thus (x3 + x2 − 14x − 24) ÷ (x + 2) = x2 − x − 12 with zero remainder.
x3 + x2 − 14x − 24
∴ = x2 − x − 12
x+2
Cambridge Senior Maths AC/VCE ISBN 978-1-107-56747-4 © Evans et al. 2016 Cambridge University Press
Mathematical Methods 3&4 Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
172 Chapter 4: Polynomial functions

Example 19
Divide 3x4 − 9x2 + 27x − 8 by x − 2.

Solution

3x + 6x + 3x + 33
3 2

x − 2 3x4 + 0x3 − 9x2 + 27x − 8

3x4 − 6x3
6x3 − 9x2 + 27x − 8
6x3 − 12x2
3x2 + 27x − 8
3x2 − 6x
33x − 8
33x − 66
58
Therefore
3x4 − 9x2 + 27x − 8 = (x − 2)(3x3 + 6x2 + 3x + 33) + 58
or, equivalently,
3x4 − 9x2 + 27x − 8 58
= 3x3 + 6x2 + 3x + 33 +
x−2 x−2

In this example, the dividend is 3x4 − 9x2 + 27x − 8, the divisor is x − 2, and the remainder
is 58.

Using the TI-Nspire

Use propFrac from menu > Algebra > Fraction
Tools > Proper Fraction as shown.

Using the Casio ClassPad

Enter and highlight
3x4 − 9x2 + 27x − 8
x−2
Select Interactive > Transformation > propFrac.

A second method for division, called equating coeﬃcients, can be seen in the explanation
column of the next example.

Example 20
Divide 3x3 + 2x2 − x − 2 by 2x + 1.

Solution Explanation
We show the alternative method here.
3 2
2x + 14 x − 5

8
2x + 1 3x + 2x2 − x − 2
3 First write the identity
3x3 + 2x2 − x − 2 = (2x + 1)(ax2 + bx + c) + r
3x3 + 32 x2
Equate coefficients of x3 :
1 2
2x −x−2
3 = 2a. Therefore a = 32 .
1 2
2x + 14 x
Equate coefficients of x2 :
− 54 x −2 2 = a + 2b. Therefore b = 12 (2 − 32 ) = 14 .
− 54 x − 5
8 Equate coefficients of x:
−1 38 −1 = 2c + b. Therefore c = 12 (−1 − 14 ) = − 58 .
Equate constant terms:
−2 = c + r. Therefore r = −2 + 5
8 = − 11
8 .

A third method, called synthetic division, is described in the Interactive Textbook.

Dividing by a non-linear polynomial

We give one example of dividing by a non-linear polynomial. The technique is exactly the
same as when dividing by a linear polynomial.

Example 21
Divide 3x3 − 2x2 + 3x − 4 by x2 − 1.

Solution Explanation

3x − 2 We write x2 − 1 as x2 + 0x − 1.
x + 0x − 1 3x3 − 2x2 + 3x − 4
2

3x3 + 0x2 − 3x
−2x2 + 6x − 4
−2x2 + 0x + 2
6x − 6
Therefore
3x3 − 2x2 + 3x − 4 = (x2 − 1)(3x − 2) + 6x − 6
or, equivalently,
3x3 − 2x2 + 3x − 4 6x − 6
= 3x − 2 + 2
x −1
2 x −1

The remainder theorem and the factor theorem

The following two results are recalled from Mathematical Methods Units 1 & 2.

The remainder theorem

Suppose that, when the polynomial P(x) is divided by x − α, the quotient is Q(x) and the
remainder is R. Then
P(x) = (x − α)Q(x) + R
Now, as the two expressions are equal for all values of x, they are equal for x = α.
∴ P(α) = (α − α)Q(α) + R ∴ R = P(α)
i.e. the remainder when P(x) is divided by x − α is equal to P(α). We therefore have
P(x) = (x − α)Q(x) + P(α)
More generally:

Remainder theorem
α
When P(x) is divided by βx + α, the remainder is P − .
β

Example 22
Find the remainder when P(x) = 3x3 + 2x2 + x + 1 is divided by 2x + 1.

Solution
By the remainder theorem, the remainder is
1 1 3 1 2 1
P − =3 − +2 − + − +1
2 2 2 2
3 2 1 5
=− + − +1=
8 4 2 8

The factor theorem

Now, in order for x − α to be a factor of the polynomial P(x), the remainder must be zero. We
state this result as the factor theorem.

Factor theorem
For a polynomial P(x):
If P(α) = 0, then x − α is a factor of P(x).
Conversely, if x − α is a factor of P(x), then P(α) = 0.

More generally: α
If βx + α is a factor of P(x), then P − = 0.
α β
Conversely, if P − = 0, then βx + α is a factor of P(x).
β

Example 23
Given that x + 1 and x − 2 are factors of 6x4 − x3 + ax2 − 6x + b, ﬁnd the values of a and b.
Solution
Let P(x) = 6x4 − x3 + ax2 − 6x + b.
By the factor theorem, we have P(−1) = 0 and P(2) = 0. Hence
6+1+a+6+b=0 (1)
96 − 8 + 4a − 12 + b = 0 (2)
Rearranging gives:
a + b = −13 (1 )
4a + b = −76 (2 )
Subtract (1 ) from (2 ):
3a = −63
Therefore a = −21 and, from (1 ), b = 8.

Example 24
Show that x + 1 is a factor of x3 − 4x2 + x + 6 and hence find the other linear factors.
Solution Explanation
Let P(x) = x − 4x + x + 6
3 2 We can use the factor theorem to find one
Then P(−1) = (−1)3 − 4(−1)2 + (−1) + 6 factor, and then divide to find the other two
linear factors.
=0
Here is an alternative method:
Thus x + 1 is a factor (by the factor
theorem). Once we have found that x + 1 is a factor,
we know that we can write
Divide by x + 1 to find the other factor:
x3 − 4x2 + x + 6 = (x + 1)(x2 + bx + c)

x − 5x + 6
2

x + 1 x3 − 4x2 + x + 6 By equating constant terms, we have

x3 + x2 6 = 1 × c. Hence c = 6.
−5x2 + x + 6 By equating coeﬃcients of x2 , we have
−5x2 − 5x −4 = 1 + b. Hence b = −5.
6x + 6 ∴ x3 − 4x2 + x + 6 = (x + 1)(x2 − 5x + 6)
6x + 6
0
∴ x3 − 4x2 + x + 6 = (x + 1)(x2 − 5x + 6)
= (x + 1)(x − 3)(x − 2)
The linear factors of x3 − 4x2 + x + 6 are
(x + 1), (x − 3) and (x − 2).

Sums and differences of cubes

If P(x) = x3 − a3 , then x − a is a factor and so by division:

x3 − a3 = (x − a)(x2 + ax + a2 )

If a is replaced by −a, then

x3 − (−a)3 = x − (−a) x2 + (−a)x + (−a)2
This gives:

x3 + a3 = (x + a)(x2 − ax + a2 )

Example 25
Factorise:
a 8x3 + 64 b 125a3 − b3

Solution
a 8x3 + 64 = (2x)3 + (4)3 b 125a3 − b3 = (5a)3 − b3
= (2x + 4)(4x2 − 8x + 16) = (5a − b)(25a2 + 5ab + b2 )

The rational-root theorem

Consider the cubic polynomial
P(x) = 2x3 − x2 − x − 3
If the equation P(x) = 0 has a solution α that is an integer, then α divides the constant
term −3. We can easily show that P(1) 0, P(−1) 0, P(3) 0 and P(−3) 0. Hence the
equation P(x) = 0 has no solution that is an integer.
Does it have a rational solution, that is, a fraction for a solution?
The rational-root theorem helps us with this. It says that if α and β have highest common
factor 1 (i.e. α and β are relatively prime) and βx + α is a factor of 2x3 − x2 − x − 3, then β
divides 2 and α divides −3.
α
Therefore, if − is a solution of the equation P(x) = 0 (where α and β are relatively prime),
β
then β must divide 2 and α must divide −3. So the only value of β that needs to be considered
is 2, and α = ±3 or α = ±1.
1 3
We can test these through the factor theorem. That is, check P ± and P ± . We ﬁnd
2 2
3 3 3 3 2 3
P =2 − − −3
2 2 2 2
27 9 3
=2× − − −3
8 4 2
=0

We have found that 2x − 3 is a factor of P(x) = 2x3 − x2 − x − 3.

Dividing through we ﬁnd that
2x3 − x2 − x − 3 = (2x − 3)(x2 + x + 1)
We can show that x2 + x + 1 has no linear factors by showing that the discriminant of this
quadratic is negative.

Example 26
Use the rational-root theorem to help factorise P(x) = 3x3 + 8x2 + 2x − 5.

Solution Explanation
P(1) = 8 0, P(−1) = −2 0, The only possible integer solutions
P(5) = 580 0, P(−5) = −190 0, are ±5 or ±1. So there are no
5 integer solutions. We now use the
P − =0 rational-root theorem.
3 α
Therefore 3x + 5 is a factor. If − is a solution, the only value of β
β
that needs to be considered is 3 and
Dividing gives
α = ±5 or α = ±1.
3x3 + 8x2 + 2x − 5 = (3x + 5)(x2 + x − 1)
We complete the square for x2 + x − 1 to
factorise:
1 1
x2 + x − 1 = x2 + x + − − 1
4 4

1 2 5
= x+ −
2 4
√ √
1 5 1 5
= x+ + x+ −
2 2 2 2
Hence
√ √
1 5 1 5
P(x) = (3x + 5) x + + x+ −
2 2 2 2

Here is the complete statement of the theorem:

Rational-root theorem
Let P(x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 be a polynomial of degree n with all the
coeﬃcients ai integers. Let α and β be integers such that the highest common factor
of α and β is 1 (i.e. α and β are relatively prime).
If βx + α is a factor of P(x), then β divides an and α divides a0 .

Solving polynomial equations

The factor theorem may be used in the solution of equations.

Example 27
Factorise P(x) = x3 − 4x2 − 11x + 30 and hence solve the equation x3 − 4x2 − 11x + 30 = 0.

Solution
P(1) = 1 − 4 − 11 + 30 0
P(−1) = −1 − 4 + 11 + 30 0
P(2) = 8 − 16 − 22 + 30 = 0
Therefore x − 2 is a factor.
Dividing x3 − 4x2 − 11x + 30 by x − 2 gives
P(x) = (x − 2)(x2 − 2x − 15)
= (x − 2)(x − 5)(x + 3)
Now we see that P(x) = 0 if and only if
x−2=0 or x−5=0 or x+3=0
∴ x = 2 or x = 5 or x = −3

Using the TI-Nspire

Use factor ( menu > Algebra > Factor) and
solve ( menu > Algebra > Solve) as shown.

Using the Casio ClassPad

Enter and highlight x3 − 4x2 − 11x + 30.
Select Interactive > Transformation >
factor.
Copy and paste the answer to the next
entry line.
Select Interactive > Equation/Inequality
> solve and ensure the variable is x.

Section summary
Division of polynomials When we divide the polynomial P(x) by the polynomial D(x)
we obtain two polynomials, Q(x) the quotient and R(x) the remainder, such that
P(x) = D(x)Q(x) + R(x)
and either R(x) = 0 or R(x) has degree less than D(x).
Two methods for dividing polynomials are long division and equating coefficients.
α
Remainder theorem When P(x) is divided by βx + α, the remainder is P − .
β
Factor theorem α
• If βx + α is a factor of P(x), then P − = 0.
α β
• Conversely, if P − = 0, then βx + α is a factor of P(x).
β
A cubic polynomial can be factorised by using the factor theorem to find the first linear
factor and then using polynomial division or the method of equating coefficients to
complete the factorisation.
Rational-root theorem Let P(x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 be a polynomial
of degree n with all the coefficients ai integers. Let α and β be integers such that the
highest common factor of α and β is 1 (i.e. α and β are relatively prime). If βx + α is a
factor of P(x), then β divides an and α divides a0 .
Difference of two cubes: x3 − a3 = (x − a)(x2 + ax + a2 )
Sum of two cubes: x3 + a3 = (x + a)(x2 − ax + a2 )

Exercise 4D

Skillsheet 1 For each of the following, divide the ﬁrst polynomial by the second:
Example 18 a x3 − x2 − 14x + 24, x + 4
b 2x3 + x2 − 25x + 12, x − 3

Example 19 2 For each of the following, divide the ﬁrst polynomial by the second:
a x3 − x2 − 15x + 25, x + 3
b 2x3 − 4x + 12, x − 3

Example 20 3 For each of the following, divide the ﬁrst polynomial by the second:
a 2x3 − 2x2 − 15x + 25, 2x + 3
b 4x3 + 6x2 − 4x + 12, 2x − 3

4 For each of the following, divide the ﬁrst expression by the second:
a 2x3 − 7x2 + 15x − 3, x − 3
b 5x5 + 13x4 − 2x2 − 6, x + 1

Example 21 5 For each of the following, divide the ﬁrst expression by the second:
a x4 − 9x3 + 25x2 − 8x − 2, x2 − 2
b x4 + x3 + x2 − x − 2, x2 − 1

Example 22 6 a Find the remainder when x3 + 3x − 2 is divided by x + 2.

b Find the value of a for which (1 − 2a)x2 + 5ax + (a − 1)(a − 8) is divisible by x − 2
but not by x − 1.

7 Given that f (x) = 6x3 + 5x2 − 17x − 6:

a Find the remainder when f (x) is divided by x − 2.
b Find the remainder when f (x) is divided by x + 2.
c Factorise f (x) completely.

8 a Prove that the expression x3 + (k − 1)x2 + (k − 9)x − 7 is divisible by x + 1 for all

values of k.
b Find the value of k for which the expression has a remainder of 12 when divided
by x − 2.

Example 23 9 The polynomial f (x) = 2x3 + ax2 − bx + 3 has a factor x + 3. When f (x) is divided by
x − 2, the remainder is 15.
a Calculate the values of a and b.
b Find the other two linear factors of f (x).

10 The expression 4x3 + ax2 − 5x + b leaves remainders of −8 and 10 when divided by

2x − 3 and x − 3 respectively. Calculate the values of a and b.

11 Find the remainder when (x + 1)4 is divided by x − 2.

12 Let P(x) = x5 − 3x4 + 2x3 − 2x2 + 3x + 1.

a Show that neither x − 1 nor x + 1 is a factor of P(x).
b Given that P(x) can be written in the form (x2 − 1)Q(x) + ax + b, where Q(x) is a
polynomial and a and b are constants, hence or otherwise, ﬁnd the remainder when
P(x) is divided by x2 − 1.

Example 24 13 Show that x + 1 is a factor of 2x3 − 5x2 − 4x + 3 and ﬁnd the other linear factors.
√ √
14 a Show that both x − 3 and x + 3 are factors of x4 + x3 − x2 − 3x − 6.
b Hence write down one quadratic factor of x4 + x3 − x2 − 3x − 6, and ﬁnd a second
quadratic factor.

Example 25 15 Factorise each of the following:

a 8a3 + 27b3 b 64 − a3
c 125x3 + 64y3 d (a − b)3 + (a + b)3

Example 26 16 Use the rational-root theorem to help factorise each of the following:
a 12x3 + 20x2 − x − 6
b 4x3 − 2x2 + 6x − 3

17 Use the rational-root theorem to help factorise each of the following:

a 4x3 + 3x − 18
b 8x3 − 12x2 − 2x + 3

Example 27 18 Solve each of the following equations for x:

a (2 − x)(x + 4)(x − 2)(x − 3) = 0 b x3 (2 − x) = 0
c (2x − 1)3 (2 − x) = 0 d (x + 2)3 (x − 2)2 = 0
e x4 − 4x2 = 0 f x4 − 9x2 = 0
g 12x4 + 11x3 − 26x2 + x + 2 = 0 h x4 + 2x3 − 3x2 − 4x + 4 = 0
i 6x4 − 5x3 − 20x2 + 25x − 6 = 0

19 Find the x-axis intercepts and y-axis intercept of the graph of each of the following:
a y = x3 − x2 − 2x b y = x3 − 2x2 − 5x + 6
c y = x3 − 4x2 + x + 6 d y = 2x3 − 5x2 + x + 2
e y = x3 + 2x2 − x − 2 f y = 3x3 − 4x2 − 13x − 6
g y = 5x3 + 12x2 − 36x − 16 h y = 6x3 − 5x2 − 2x + 1
i y = 2x3 − 3x2 − 29x − 30

20 The expressions px4 − 5x + q and x4 − 2x3 − px2 − qx − 8 have a common factor x − 2.

Find the values of p and q.

21 Find the remainder when f (x) = x4 − x3 + 5x2 + 4x − 36 is divided by x + 1.

22 Factorise each of the following polynomials, using a calculator to help ﬁnd at least one
linear factor:
a x3 − 11x2 − 125x + 1287 b x3 − 9x2 − 121x + 1089
c 2x3 − 9x2 − 242x + 1089 d 4x3 − 367x + 1287

23 Factorise each of the following:

a x4 − x3 − 43x2 + x + 42
b x4 + 4x3 − 27x − 108

24 Factorise each of the following polynomials, using a calculator to help ﬁnd at least one
linear factor:
a 2x4 − 25x3 + 57x2 + 9x + 405 b x4 + 13x3 + 40x2 + 81x + 405
c x4 + 3x3 − 4x2 + 3x − 135 d x4 + 4x3 − 35x2 − 78x + 360

4E The general cubic function

Not all cubic functions can be written in the form f (x) = a(x − h)3 + k. In this section we
consider the general cubic function. The form of a general cubic function is
f (x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d, where a 0
It is impossible to fully investigate cubic functions without the use of calculus. Cubic
functions will be revisited in Chapter 10.
The ‘shapes’ of cubic graphs vary. Below is a gallery of cubic graphs, demonstrating the
variety of ‘shapes’ that are possible.

y y y

2 4
1 2

x x x
O −2 −1 O 1 2 −2 −1 O 1 2
−1 −2
−2 −4
f (x) = x + x3
f (x) = x − x
3
f (x) = x3 − 3x − 2

y y y
4
2
x x x
−2 −1 O 1 2 O −2 −1 O 1 2
−2
−4
f (x) = x3 − 3x + 2 f (x) = −x3 − x f (x) = −x3 + 3x + 2

Notes:
A cubic graph can have one, two or three x-axis intercepts.
Not all cubic graphs have a stationary point. For example, the graph of f (x) = x3 + x
shown above has no points of zero gradient.
The turning points do not occur symmetrically between consecutive x-axis intercepts as
they do for quadratics. Diﬀerential calculus must be used to determine them.
If a cubic graph has a turning point on the x-axis, this corresponds to a repeated factor.
For example, the graph of f (x) = x3 − 3x − 2 shown above has a turning point at (−1, 0).
The factorisation is f (x) = (x + 1)2 (x − 2).

Sign diagrams
A sign diagram is a number-line diagram that shows when an expression is positive or
negative. For a cubic function with rule f (x) = (x − α)(x − β)(x − γ), where α < β < γ,
the sign diagram is as shown.
+ x
− α β γ

Example 28
Draw a sign diagram for the cubic function f (x) = x3 − 4x2 − 11x + 30.

Solution
From Example 27, we have
f (x) = (x + 3)(x − 2)(x − 5)
Therefore f (−3) = f (2) = f (5) = 0. We note that
f (x) > 0 for x > 5
f (x) < 0 for 2 < x < 5
f (x) > 0 for −3 < x < 2
f (x) < 0 for x < −3
+ x
Hence the sign diagram may be −
−3 2 5
drawn as shown.

Example 29
For the cubic function with rule f (x) = −x3 + 19x − 30:
a Sketch the graph of y = f (x) using a calculator to ﬁnd the coordinates of the turning
points, correct to two decimal places.
1
b Sketch the graph of y = f (x − 1).
2

Solution
a f (x) = −x3 + 19x − 30
+ x
= (3 − x)(x − 2)(x + 5) − −5 2 3
= −(x + 5)(x − 2)(x − 3)
The x-axis intercepts are at x = −5, x = 2 and y
x = 3 and the y-axis intercept is at y = −30.
(2.52, 1.88)
The turning points can be found using a CAS
x
calculator. The method is described following −5 O 2 3
this example. −30

(−2.52, −61.88)
Cambridge Senior Maths AC/VCE ISBN 978-1-107-56747-4 © Evans et al. 2016 Cambridge University Press
Mathematical Methods 3&4 Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
184 Chapter 4: Polynomial functions

b The rule for the transformation is y

1
(x, y) → x + 1, y
2 (3.52, 0.94)
1
This is a dilation of factor from the x-axis x
2 −4 O 3 4
followed by a translation 1 unit to the right.
Transformations of the turning points: −25
(2.52, 1.88) → (3.52, 0.94)
(−2.52, −61.88) → (−1.52, −30.94) (−1.52, −30.94)

Using the TI-Nspire

Enter the function in a Graphs page.
Use menu > Window/Zoom > Window
Settings to set an appropriate window.
Use either menu > Trace > Graph Trace
or menu > Analyze Graph > Maximum
or Minimum to display the approximate
(decimal) coordinates of key points on
the graph.

In Graph Trace, the tracing point (×) can be

moved either by using the arrow keys ( )
or by typing a speciﬁc x-value then enter .
When the tracing point reaches a local
minimum, it displays ‘minimum’.
Pressing enter will paste the coordinates to
the point on the graph.
Press esc to exit the command.

Here Graph Trace has been used to ﬁnd the

turning points of the cubic function.
If you use Analyze Graph instead, select the
lower bound by moving to the left of the key
point and clicking ( x ) and then select the
upper bound by moving to the right () of
the key point and clicking.

Using the Casio ClassPad

a In the M screen, define the function f .
Tap $ to open the graph window.
Highlight the function and drag into the graph
window.
To find the local minimum, select Analysis >
G-Solve > Min.
To find the local maximum, select Analysis >
G-Solve > Max.

b Enter the transformed function as 12 f (x − 1).

Highlight the transformed function and drag into the graph window.
The coordinates of the turning points can be found as above.

Section summary
The graph of a cubic function can have one, two or three x-axis intercepts.
The graph of a cubic function can have zero, one or two stationary points.
To sketch a cubic in factorised form y = a(x − α)(x − β)(x − γ):
• Find the y-axis intercept.
• Find the x-axis intercepts.
• Prepare a sign diagram.
• Consider the y-values as x increases to the right of all x-axis intercepts.
• Consider the y-values as x decreases to the left of all x-axis intercepts.
If there is a repeated factor to the power 2, then the y-values have the same sign
immediately to the left and right of the corresponding x-axis intercept.

Exercise 4E

Example 28 1 Draw a sign diagram for each of the following expressions:

a (3 − x)(x − 1)(x − 6) b (3 + x)(x − 1)(x + 6)
c (x − 5)(x + 1)(2x − 6) d (4 − x)(5 − x)(1 − 2x)
e (x − 5)2 (x − 4) f (x − 5)2 (4 − x)

2 First factorise and then draw a sign diagram for each of the following expressions:
a x3 − 4x2 + x + 6 b 4x3 + 3x2 − 16x − 12
c x3 − 7x2 + 4x + 12 d 2x3 + 3x2 − 11x − 6

Example 29 3 a Use a calculator to plot the graph of y = f (x) where f (x) = x3 − 2x2 + 1.
b On the same screen, plot the graphs of:
i y = f (x − 2) ii y = f (x + 2) iii y = 3 f (x)

4 a Use a calculator to plot the graph of y = f (x) where f (x) = x3 + x2 − 4x + 2.

b On the same screen, plot the graphs of:
x
i y = f (2x) ii y = f iii y = 2 f (x)
2

4F Polynomials of higher degree

The general form for a quartic function is
f (x) = ax4 + bx3 + cx2 + dx + e, where a 0
A gallery of quartic functions is shown below.

20 4

10 2

O −2 −1 O 1 2
−2 −1 1 2

f (x) = x4 f (x) = x4 − x2

15
10

4 5

2 −2 −1 O 1 2 3
−5
−3 −2 −1 O 1 2 −10
f (x) = (x − 1)2 (x + 2)2 f (x) = (x − 1)3 (x + 2)
Cambridge Senior Maths AC/VCE ISBN 978-1-107-56747-4 © Evans et al. 2016 Cambridge University Press
Mathematical Methods 3&4 Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
4F Polynomials of higher degree 187

The techniques that have been developed for cubic functions may now be applied to quartic
functions and to polynomial functions of higher degree in general.
For a polynomial P(x) of degree n, there are at most n solutions to the equation P(x) = 0.
Therefore the graph of y = P(x) has at most n x-axis intercepts.
The graph of a polynomial of even degree may have no x-axis intercepts: for example,
P(x) = x2 + 1. But the graph of a polynomial of odd degree must have at least one x-axis
intercept.

Example 30
Draw a sign diagram for each quartic expression:
a (2 − x)(x + 2)(x − 3)(x − 5)
b x 4 + x2 − 2

Solution
a
+ x
− −2 2 3 5

b Let P(x) = x4 + x2 − 2.
Then P(1) = 1 + 1 − 2 = 0.
Thus x − 1 is a factor.

x + x + 2x + 2
3 2

x − 1 x + 0x3 + x2 + 0x − 2
4

x4 − x3
x3 + x2 + 0x − 2
x3 − x2
2x2 + 0x − 2
2x2 − 2x
2x − 2
2x − 2
0

∴ P(x) = (x − 1)(x3 + x2 + 2x + 2)

= (x − 1) x2 (x + 1) + 2(x + 1)
= (x − 1)(x + 1)(x2 + 2)

+ x
− −1 1

Example 31
For p(x) = x4 − 2x2 + 1, ﬁnd the coordinates of the points where the graph of y = p(x)
intersects the x- and y-axes, and hence sketch the graph.

Solution Explanation
Note that Alternatively, we can factorise p(x) by
p(x) = (x2 )2 − 2(x2 ) + 1 using the factor theorem and division.

= (x2 − 1)2 Note that

= (x − 1)(x + 1) 2 p(1) = 1 − 2 + 1 = 0
= (x − 1)2 (x + 1)2 Therefore x − 1 is a factor.
Therefore the x-axis intercepts are 1 and −1. p(x) = (x − 1)(x3 + x2 − x − 1)

When x = 0, y = 1. So the y-axis intercept is 1. = (x − 1) x2 (x + 1) − (x + 1)
= (x − 1)(x + 1)(x2 − 1)
y
= (x − 1)2 (x + 1)2

(0, 1)

x
(−1, 0) O (1, 0)

Section summary
The graph of a quartic function can have zero, one, two, three or four x-axis intercepts.
The graph of a quartic function can have one, two or three stationary points.
To sketch a quartic in factorised form y = a(x − α)(x − β)(x − γ)(x − δ):
• Find the y-axis intercept.
• Find the x-axis intercepts.
• Prepare a sign diagram.
• Consider the y-values as x increases to the right of all x-axis intercepts.
• Consider the y-values as x decreases to the left of all x-axis intercepts.
If there is a repeated factor to an even power, then the y-values have the same sign
immediately to the left and right of the corresponding x-axis intercept.

Exercise 4F

Example 30 1 Draw a sign diagram for each quartic expression:

a (3 − x)(x + 4)(x − 5)(x − 1) b x4 − 2x3 − 3x2 + 4x + 4

Example 31 2 For h(x) = 81x4 − 72x2 + 16, ﬁnd the coordinates of the points where the graph
of y = h(x) intersects the x- and y-axes, and hence sketch the graph.
Hint: First express h(x) as the square of a quadratic expression.

3 a Use a calculator to plot the graph of y = f (x), where f (x) = x4 − 2x3 + x + 1.

b On the same screen, plot the graphs of:
x
i y = f (x − 2) ii y = f (2x) iii y = f
2
4 The graph of y = 9x2 − x4 is as shown. Sketch y
the graph of each of the following by applying
suitable transformations: 9 81 9 81
− , ,
2 4 2 4
a y = 9(x − 1)2 − (x − 1)4
b y = 18x2 − 2x4
c y = 18(x + 1)2 − 2(x + 1)4
81 x
d y = 9x2 − x4 − −3 O 3
4
e y = 9x2 − x4 + 1
(Do not ﬁnd the x-axis intercepts for part e.)

5 Sketch the graph of f (x) = x6 − x2 . (Use a calculator to ﬁnd the stationary points.)

6 Sketch the graph of f (x) = x5 − x3 . (Use a calculator to ﬁnd the stationary points.)

4G Determining the rule for the graph of a polynomial

A straight line is determined by any two points on the line. More generally, the graph of a
polynomial function of degree n is completely determined by any n + 1 points on the curve.
For example, for a cubic function with rule y = f (x), if it is known that f (a1 ) = b1 ,
f (a2 ) = b2 , f (a3 ) = b3 and f (a4 ) = b4 , then the rule can be determined.
Finding the rule for a parabola has been discussed in Section 4B.
The method for finding the rule from a graph of a cubic function will depend on what
information is given in the graph.
If the cubic function has rule of the form f (x) = a(x − h)3 + k and the point of inflection (h, k)
is given, then one other point needs to be known in order to find the value of a.
For those that are not of this form, the information given may be some or all of the x-axis
intercepts as well as the coordinates of other points including possibly the y-axis intercept.

Example 32
a A cubic function has rule of the form y = a(x − 2)3 + 2. The point (3, 10) is on the graph
of the function. Find the value of a.
b A cubic function has rule of the form y = a(x − 1)(x + 2)(x − 4). The point (5, 16) is on
the graph of the function. Find the value of a.
c A cubic function has rule of the form f (x) = ax3 + bx. The points (1, 16) and (2, 30) are
on the graph of the function. Find the values of a and b.

Solution Explanation
In each of these problems, we substitute the
given values to ﬁnd the unknowns.
a y = a(x − 2)3 + 2 The coordinates of the point of inﬂection
When x = 3, y = 10. Solve for a: of a graph which is a translation of y = ax3
are known and the coordinates of one
10 = a(3 − 2)3 + 2 further point are known.
8 = a × 13
∴ a=8

b y = a(x − 1)(x + 2)(x − 4) Three x-axis intercepts are known and the
When x = 5, y = 16 and so coordinates of a fourth point are known.

16 = a(5 − 1)(5 + 2)(5 − 4)

16 = 28a
4
∴ a=
7
c f (x) = ax3 + bx Form simultaneous equations in a and b.
We know f (1) = 16 and f (2) = 30:
16 = a + b (1)
30 = a(2)3 + 2b (2)
Multiply (1) by 2 and subtract from (2):
−2 = 6a
1
∴ a=−
3
Substitute in (1):
1
16 = − + b
3
49
∴ b=
3

Example 33
For the cubic function with rule f (x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d, it is known that the points with
coordinates (−1, −18), (0, −5), (1, −4) and (2, −9) lie on the graph. Find the values of a, b,
c and d.
Solution
The following equations can be formed:
−a + b − c + d = −18 (1)
d = −5 (2)
a + b + c + d = −4 (3)
8a + 4b + 2c + d = −9 (4)
Adding (1) and (3) gives
2b + 2d = −22
Since d = −5, we obtain b = −6.
There are now only two unknowns.
Equations (3) and (4) become:
a+c=7 (3 )
8a + 2c = 20 (4 )
Multiply (3 ) by 2 and subtract from (4 ) to obtain
6a = 6
Thus a = 1 and c = 6.

Using the TI-Nspire

Deﬁne f (x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d.
Use the simultaneous equations template
( menu > Algebra > Solve System of
Equations > Solve System of Equations) to
solve for a, b, c, d given that f (−1) = −18,
f (0) = −5, f (1) = −4 and f (2) = −9.

Alternatively, enter: solve(−a + b − c + d = −18 and d = −5 and a + b + c + d = −4

and 8a + 4b + 2c + d = −9, {a, b, c, d}). The word ‘and’ can be typed directly or found
in the catalog ( k 1 A ).

Using the Casio ClassPad

Open the main screen and deﬁne the function
f (x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d using the Var keyboard.
Tap the simultaneous equations icon ~ three
times.
Enter f (−1) = −18, f (0) = −5, f (1) = −4 and
f (2) = −9 as the simultaneous equations to be
solved, with variables a, b, c, d. Tap EXE .
Note: The function name f must be selected from
the abc keyboard.

Example 34
y
The graph shown is that of a cubic function. Find the
rule for this cubic function.
(0, 4)

x
−3 O 1 4

Solution Explanation
From the graph, the function is of the form The x-axis intercepts are −3, 1 and 4.
y = a(x − 4)(x − 1)(x + 3) So x + 3, x − 1 and x − 4 are linear factors.

The point (0, 4) is on the graph. Hence

4 = a(−4)(−1)3
1
∴ a=
3
1
The rule is y = (x − 4)(x − 1)(x + 3).
3

Example 35
y
The graph shown is that of a cubic function. Find the rule
for this cubic function.

(0, 9)

x
−3 O 1

Solution Explanation
From the graph, the function is of the form The graph touches the x-axis at x = −3.
y = k(x − 1)(x + 3)2 Therefore x + 3 is a repeated factor.

The point (0, 9) is on the graph. Hence

9 = k(−1)(9)
∴ k = −1
The rule is y = −(x − 1)(x + 3)2 .

Example 36
The graph of a cubic function passes through the points (0, 1), (1, 4), (2, 17) and (−1, 2).
Find the rule for this cubic function.
Solution
The cubic function will have a rule of the form
y = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d
The values of a, b, c and d have to be determined.
As the point (0, 1) is on the graph, we have d = 1.
By using the points (1, 4), (2, 17) and (−1, 2), three simultaneous equations are produced:
4=a+b+c+1
17 = 8a + 4b + 2c + 1
2 = −a + b − c + 1
These become:
3=a+b+c (1)
16 = 8a + 4b + 2c (2)
1 = −a + b − c (3)
Add (1) and (3):
4 = 2b
∴ b=2
Substitute in (1) and (2):
1=a+c (4)
8 = 8a + 2c (5)
Multiply (4) by 2 and subtract from (5):
6 = 6a
∴ a=1
From (4), we now have c = 0. Hence the rule is y = x3 + 2x2 + 1.

Exercise 4G

Skillsheet 1 a A cubic function has rule of the form y = a(x − 5)3 − 2. The point (4, 0) is on the
graph of the function. Find the value of a.
Example 32 b A cubic function has rule of the form y = a(x − 1)(x + 1)(x + 2). The point (3, 120) is
on the graph of the function. Find the value of a.
c A cubic function has rule of the form f (x) = ax3 + bx. The points (2, −20) and
(−1, 20) are on the graph of the function. Find the values of a and b.

Example 33 2 For the cubic function with rule f (x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d, it is known that the points
with coordinates (−1, 14), (0, 5), (1, 0) and (2, −19) lie on the graph of the cubic. Find
the values of a, b, c and d.

Example 34 3 Determine the rule for the cubic function with the graph shown below.
y

O x
−5 −2 6
(0, −11)

Example 35 4 Determine the rule for the cubic function with the graph shown below.
y

(0, 5)
(−1, 0)
x
O 3

Example 36 5 Find the rule for the cubic function that passes through the following points:
a (0, 1), (1, 3), (−1, −1) and (2, 11)
b (0, 1), (1, 1), (−1, 1) and (2, 7)
c (0, −2), (1, 0), (−1, −6) and (2, 12)

6 Find expressions which deﬁne the following cubic curves:

a y b y

2
(2, 3)

(1, 0.75)
x
x O
−0.5 O 1 2
(−2, −3)

Note that (0, 0) is not a point of

zero gradient.

c y d y

2 (1, 2)
x
−2 −1 O 1
−1
x
−1 O 1 −2

e y

x
−2 O 3

7 Find the rule of the cubic function for which the graph passes through the points with
coordinates:
a (0, 135), (1, 156), (2, 115), (3, 0)
b (−2, −203), (0, 13), (1, 25), (2, −11)

8 Find the rule of the quartic function for which the graph passes through the points with
coordinates:
a (−1, 43), (0, 40), (2, 70), (6, 1618), (10, 670)
b (−3, 119), (−2, 32), (−1, 9), (0, 8), (1, 11)
c (−3, 6), (−1, 2), (1, 2), (3, 66), (6, 1227)

4H Solution of literal equations and systems of equations

Literal equations
We solved linear literal equations in Section 2B. We now look at non-linear equations. They
certainly can be solved with a CAS calculator, but full setting out is shown here.

Example 37
Solve each of the following literal equations for x:
a x2 + kx + k = 0 b x3 − 3ax2 + 2a2 x = 0 c x(x2 − a) = 0, where a > 0

Solution
a The quadratic formula b x3 − 3ax2 + 2a2 x = 0 c x(x2 − a) = 0 implies x = 0
√ √
gives √ x(x2 − 3ax + 2a2 ) = 0 or x = a or x = − a.
−k ± k − 4k
2
x= x(x − a)(x − 2a) = 0
2
A real solution exists only Hence x = 0 or x = a or
for k − 4k ≥ 0, that is,
2
x = 2a.
for k ≥ 4 or k ≤ 0.

In the next example, we use the following two facts about power functions:
1
If n is an odd natural number, then bn = a is equivalent to b = a n .
1
If n is an even natural number, then bn = a is equivalent to b = ±a n , where a ≥ 0.
√
Note that care must be taken with even powers: for example, x2 = 2 is equivalent to x = ± 2.

Example 38
Solve each of the following equations for x:
a ax3 − b = c b a(x + b)3 = c c x4 = c, where c > 0
1
d ax 5 = b e x5 − c = d

Solution
a ax3 − b = c b a(x + b)3 = c c x4 = c
c √ √
ax3 = b + c (x + b)3 = ∴ x = 4 c or x = − 4 c
a
b+c
x3 = c1
a 3
x+b=
b + c1 a
3
∴ x= c1
a ∴ x=
3
−b
a
1
d ax 5 = b e x5 − c = d
1
x5 =
b x5 = c + d
a 1
b 5 ∴ x = (c + d) 5
∴ x=
a

Simultaneous equations
We now look at methods for ﬁnding the coordinates of the points of intersection of diﬀerent
graphs.

Example 39
Find the coordinates of the points of intersection of the parabola with equation
y = x2 − 2x − 2 and the straight line with equation y = x + 4.

Solution y
Equate the two expressions for y:
B
y = x +4 y = x2 −2x −2
x2 − 2x − 2 = x + 4
x2 − 3x − 6 = 0 4
A
x
3 ± 9 − 4 × (−6) −4 O
∴ x= −2
2
√
3 ± 33
=
2
3 − √33 11 − √33 3 + √33 11 + √33
The points of intersection are A , and B , .
2 2 2 2

Using the TI-Nspire

Use the simultaneous equations template
( menu > Algebra > Solve System of
Equations > Solve System of Equations)
and complete as shown.
Use the up arrow () to move up to the
answer and then use the right arrow () to
display the remaining part of the answer.
Alternatively, equate the two expressions
for y and solve for x as shown.

Using the Casio ClassPad

Select the simultaneous
equations template ~.
Enter the equations
y = x2 − 2x − 2 and y = x + 4.
Set the variables as x, y.

Tap q to rotate the screen, and tap the right-arrow button () to view the solutions.

Example 40
Find the points of intersection of the circle with equation (x − 4)2 + y2 = 16 and the line
with equation x − y = 0.

Solution
y
Rearrange x − y = 0 to make y the subject.
Substitute y = x into the equation of the circle:
(x − 4)2 + x2 = 16 (4, 4)
x2 − 8x + 16 + x2 = 16
2x2 − 8x = 0 x
2x(x − 4) = 0 O (4, 0)

∴ x = 0 or x = 4
The points of intersection are (0, 0) and (4, 4).

Example 41
1 2
Find the point of contact of the line with equation x + y = and the curve with equation
9 3
xy = 1.

Solution
1 2 1
Rewrite the equations as y = − x + and y = . y
9 3 x
Equate the expressions for y:
1 2 1 y= 1
− x+ = x
9 3 x
−x2 + 6x = 9 y=− 1 x+ 2
9 3
x
x2 − 6x + 9 = 0 O
(x − 3)2 = 0
∴ x=3
The point of intersection is (3, 13 ).

Using the TI-Nspire

Two methods are shown:
Use the simultaneous equations template
( menu > Algebra > Solve System of
Equations > Solve System of Equations).
Alternatively, use menu > Algebra > Solve.
Note: The multiplication sign is required
between x and y.

Using the Casio ClassPad

Select the simultaneous equations template ~.
x 2
Enter the equations + y = and xy = 1 and set
9 3
the variables as x, y.
Note: Tap N to enter the fractions.

Exercise 4H

Example 37 1 Solve each of the following literal equations for x:

a kx2 + x + k = 0 b x3 − 7ax2 + 12a2 x = 0 c x(x3 − a) = 0
d x2 − kx + k = 0 e x3 − ax = 0 f x 4 − a4 = 0
g (x − a)5 (x − b) = 0 h (a − x)4 (a − x3 )(x2 − a) = 0

Example 38 2 Solve each of the following equations for x:

a ax3 + b = 2c b ax2 − b = c, where a, b, c > 0
1
c a − bx2 = c, where a > c and b > 0 d x3 = a
1
e x n + c = a, where n ∈ N and a > c f a(x − 2b)3 = c
1
g ax 3 =b h x3 − c = d

Example 39 3 Find the coordinates of the points of intersection for each of the following:
a y = x2 b y − 2x2 = 0 c y = x2 − x
y=x y−x=0 y = 2x + 1

Example 40 4 Find the coordinates of the points of intersection for each of the following:
a x2 + y2 = 178 b x2 + y2 = 125 c x2 + y2 = 185
x + y = 16 x + y = 15 x−y=3

d x2 + y2 = 97 e x2 + y2 = 106
x + y = 13 x−y=4

Example 41 5 Find the coordinates of the points of intersection for each of the following:
a x + y = 28 b x + y = 51 c x−y=5
xy = 187 xy = 518 xy = 126

6 Find the coordinates of the points of intersection of the straight line with equation
y = 2x and the circle with equation (x − 5)2 + y2 = 25.

7 Find the coordinates of the points of intersection of the curves with equations
1
y= + 3 and y = x.
x−2
Cambridge Senior Maths AC/VCE ISBN 978-1-107-56747-4 © Evans et al. 2016 Cambridge University Press
Mathematical Methods 3&4 Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
200 Chapter 4: Polynomial functions 4H

y x
8 Find the coordinates of the points of intersection of the line with equation − =1
4 5
and the circle with equation x2 + 4x + y2 = 12.
1
9 Find the coordinates of the points of intersection of the curve y = − 3 and the
x+2
line y = −x.

10 Find the coordinates of the point where the line with equation 4y = 9x + 4 touches the
parabola with equation y2 = 9x.
√
11 Find the coordinates of the point where the line with equation y = 2x + 3 5 touches the
circle x2 + y2 = 9.
1
12 Find the coordinates of the point where the straight line with equation y = x + 1
1 4
touches the curve with equation y = − .
x
2
13 Find the coordinates of the points of intersection of the curve with equation y =
x−2
and the line y = x − 1.

14 Solve the simultaneous equations:

a 5x − 4y = 7 and xy = 6
b 2x + 3y = 37 and xy = 45
c 5x − 3y = 18 and xy = 24

15 What is the condition for x2 + ax + b to be divisible by x + c?

160
16 Solve the simultaneous equations y = x + 2 and y = .
x
17 Find the equations of the lines that pass through the point (1, 7) and touch the parabola
y = −3x2 + 5x + 2.
Hint: Form a quadratic equation and consider when the discriminant Δ is zero.

18 Find the values of m for which the line y = mx − 8 intersects the parabola
y = x2 − 5x + m twice.
9
19 The line y = x + c meets the hyperbola y = once. Find the possible values of c.
2−x
1
20 a Solve the simultaneous equations y = mx and y = + 5 for x in terms of m.
x
1
b Find the value of m for which the graphs of y = mx and y = + 5 touch, and give
x
the coordinates of this point.
c For which values of m do the graphs not meet?

21 Show that, if the line with equation y = kx + b touches the curve y = x2 + x + 4, then
k2 − 2k + 4b − 15 = 0. Hence ﬁnd the equations of such lines that also pass through the
point (0, 3).

Review
Chapter summary

Spreadsheet Quadratic polynomials

Turning point form
AS

Nrich
• By completing the square, all quadratic functions in polynomial form y = ax2 + bx + c
may be transposed into turning point form y = a(x − h)2 + k.
• The graph of y = a(x − h)2 + k is a parabola congruent to the graph of y = ax2 .
The vertex (or turning point) is the point (h, k). The axis of symmetry is x = h.
Axis of symmetry
The axis of symmetry of the graph of the quadratic function y = ax2 + bx + c is the line
b
with equation x = − .
2a
Quadratic formula
The solutions of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, where a 0, are given by the
quadratic formula
√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x=
2a
From the formula it can be seen that:
• If b2 − 4ac > 0, there are two solutions.
• If b2 − 4ac = 0, there is one solution.
• If b2 − 4ac < 0, there are no real solutions.
The quantity Δ = b2 − 4ac is called the discriminant of the quadratic ax2 + bx + c.
Polynomials in general
A polynomial function is a function that can be written in the form
P(x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0
where n ∈ N ∪ {0} and the coefficients a0 , . . . , an are real numbers with an 0.
The leading term is an xn (the term of highest index) and the constant term is a0 (the term
not involving x).
The degree of a polynomial is the index n of the leading term.
• Polynomials of degree 1 are called linear functions.
• Polynomials of degree 2 are called quadratic functions.
• Polynomials of degree 3 are called cubic functions.
• Polynomials of degree 4 are called quartic functions.
The sum, difference and product of two polynomials is a polynomial. Division does not
always lead to another polynomial.
Two polynomials P and Q are equal only if their corresponding coefficients are equal.
Two cubic polynomials, P(x) = a3 x3 + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0 and Q(x) = b3 x3 + b2 x2 + b1 x + b0 ,
are equal if and only if a3 = b3 , a2 = b2 , a1 = b1 and a0 = b0 .

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Mathematical Methods 3&4 Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
202 Chapter 4: Polynomial functions
Review
Division of polynomials
When we divide the polynomial P(x) by the polynomial D(x) we obtain two polynomials,
Q(x) the quotient and R(x) the remainder, such that
P(x) = D(x)Q(x) + R(x)
and either R(x) = 0 or R(x) has degree less than D(x).
Two methods for dividing polynomials are long division and equating coefficients.
Remainder theorem α
When P(x) is divided by βx + α, the remainder is P − .
β
Factor theorem α
• If βx + α is a factor of P(x), then P − = 0.
α β
• Conversely, if P − = 0, then βx + α is a factor of P(x).
β
A cubic polynomial can be factorised by using the factor theorem to find the first linear
factor and then using polynomial division or the method of equating coefficients to
complete the factorisation.
Rational-root theorem
Let P(x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 be a polynomial of degree n with all the
coefficients ai integers. Let α and β be integers such that the highest common factor of α
and β is 1 (i.e. α and β are relatively prime). If βx + α is a factor of P(x), then β divides an
and α divides a0 .
Difference and sum of two cubes
• x3 − a3 = (x − a)(x2 + ax + a2 )
• x3 + a3 = (x + a)(x2 − ax + a2 )

Technology-free questions
1 Sketch the graph of each of the following quadratic functions. Clearly indicate
coordinates of the vertex and the axis intercepts.
a h(x) = 3(x − 1)2 + 2 b h(x) = (x − 1)2 − 9 c f (x) = x2 − x + 6
d f (x) = x2 − x − 6 e f (x) = 2x2 − x + 5 f h(x) = 2x2 − x − 1

2 The points with coordinates (1, 1) and (2, 5) lie on a parabola with equation of the form
y = ax2 + b. Find the values of a and b.

3 Solve the equation 3x2 − 2x − 10 = 0 by using the quadratic formula.

4 Sketch the graph of each of the following. State the coordinates of the point of zero
gradient and the axis intercepts.
a f (x) = 2(x − 1)3 − 16 b g(x) = −(x + 1)3 + 8 c h(x) = −(x + 2)3 − 1
d f (x) = (x + 3)3 − 1 e f (x) = 1 − (2x − 1)3

Review
5 Express each of the following in turning point form:
a x2 + 4x b 3x2 + 6x c x2 − 4x + 6
d 2x2 − 6x − 4 e 2x2 − 7x − 4 f −x2 + 3x − 4

6 Draw a sign diagram for each of the following:

a y = (x + 2)(2 − x)(x + 1) b y = (x − 3)(x + 1)(x − 1)
c y = x3 + 7x2 + 14x + 8 d y = 3x3 + 10x2 + x − 6

7 Without actually dividing, ﬁnd the remainder when the ﬁrst polynomial is divided by
the second:
a x3 + 3x2 − 4x + 2, x + 1
b x3 − 3x2 − x + 6, x − 2
c 2x3 + 3x2 − 3x − 2, x + 2

8 Determine the rule for the cubic function shown in y

the graph.

−3 −2
x
O 7

(0, −42)

9 Factorise each of the following:

a x3 + 2x2 − 5x − 6 b x3 − 3x2 − x + 3
c x4 − x3 − 7x2 + x + 6 d x3 + 2x2 − 4x + 1

10 Find the quotient and remainder when x2 + 4 is divided by x2 − 2x + 2.

11 Find the value of a for which x − 2 is a factor of 3x3 + ax2 + x − 2.

12 The graph of f (x) = (x + 1)3 (x − 2) is shown. y

Sketch the graph of:
a y= f (x − 1)
b y= f (x + 1) O
x
c y= f (2x) −1 2
(0, −2)
d y= f (x) + 2
5 , −2187
4 256

13 For what value of k is 2x2 − kx + 8 a perfect square?

14 Find the coordinates of the points of intersection of the graph of y = 2x + 3 with the
graph of y = x2 + 3x − 9.

16 Expand (3 + 4x)3 .

17 Given that x3 − 2x2 + 5 = ax(x − 1)2 + b(x − 1) + c for all real numbers x, ﬁnd the values
of a, b and c.

18 Find the values of p for which the equation 4x2 − 2px + p + 3 = 0 has no real solutions.

19 Find the rule for the cubic function, the graph of which passes through the points (1, 1),
(2, 4), (3, 9) and (0, 6).

Multiple-choice questions
1 By completing the square, the expression 5x2 − 10x − 2 can be written in turning point
form a(x − h)2 + k as
A (5x + 1)2 + 5 B (5x − 1)2 − 5 C 5(x − 1)2 − 5
D 5(x + 1)2 − 2 E 5(x − 1)2 − 7

2 For which value(s) of m does the equation mx2 + 6x − 3 = 0 have two real solutions?
A m = −3 B m=3 C m=0 D m > −3 E m < −3

3 x3 + 27 is equal to
A (x + 3)3 B (x − 3)3 C (x + 3)(x2 − 6x + 9)
D (x − 3)(x2 + 3x + 9) E (x + 3)(x2 − 3x + 9)

4 The equation of the graph y

shown on the right is
A y = x(x − 2)(x + 4)
B y = x(x + 2)(x − 4) x
−6 −4 −2 O 2 4 6
C y = (x + 2)2 (x − 4)
D y = (x + 2)(x − 4)2
E y = (x + 2)2 (x − 4)2

5 If x − 1 is a factor of x3 + 3x2 − 2ax + 1, then the value of a is

2 2 5
A 2 B 5 C D − E
5 5 2

6 6x2 − 8xy − 8y2 is equal to

A (3x + 2y)(2x − 4y) B (3x − 2y)(6x + 4y) C (6x − 4y)(x + 2y)
D (3x − 2y)(2x + 4y) E (6x + y)(x − 8y)

Review
7 The diagram shows a part of the graph of a cubic 1
x
polynomial function f , near the point (1, 0).
Which of the following could be the rule for f ?

A f (x) = x2 (x − 1) B f (x) = (x − 1)3 C f (x) = −x(x − 1)2

D f (x) = x(x − 1)2 E f (x) = −x(x + 1)2

8 The coordinates of the turning point of the graph of the function p(x) = 3 (x − 2)2 + 4
are
A (−2, 12) B (−2, 4) C (2, −12) D (2, 4) E (2, 12)

9 The diagram shows part of the graph of a y

polynomial function. A possible equation for the
graph is
A y = (x + c)(x − b)2
B y = (x − b)(x − c)2 x
C y = (x − c)(b − x)2 c b
D y = −(x − c)(b − x)2
E y = (x + b)2 (x − c)

10 The number of solutions of the equation (x2 + a)(x − b)(x + c) = 0, where a, b, c ∈ R+ , is

A 0 B 1 C 2 D 3 E 4

11 The graph of y = kx − 3 meets the graph of y = −x2 + 2x − 12 at two distinct points for

A k ∈ [−4, 8] B k ∈ −4, −8 C k ∈ (−∞, −4) ∪ (8, ∞)
D k ∈ (−4, 8) E k ∈ (−∞, −8) ∪ (4, ∞)

12 The function f is a quartic polynomial. Its y

graph is shown on the right. It has x-axis
intercepts at (a, 0) and (b, 0), where a > 0
and b < 0. A possible rule for this function is O x
A f (x) = (x − a) (x + b)
2 2

B f (x) = (x − a)3 (x − b)
C f (x) = (x − a)(x − b)2
D f (x) = (x + a)2 (x − b)2
E f (x) = (x − b)3 (x − a)

Extended-response questions
1 The rate of flow of water, R mL/min, into a vessel is R
described by the quartic expression
R = kt3 (20 − t), for 0 ≤ t ≤ 20
(15, 20)
where t minutes is the time elapsed from the
beginning of the flow. The graph is shown.
a Find the value of k.
b Find the rate of flow when t = 10.
t
c The flow is adjusted so that the new expression for O 20
the flow is
Rnew = 2kt3 (20 − t), for 0 ≤ t ≤ 20
i Sketch the graph of Rnew against t for 0 ≤ t ≤ 20.
ii Find the rate of flow when t = 10.
d Water is allowed to run from the vessel and it is found that the rate of flow from the
vessel is given by
Rout = −k(t − 20)3 (40 − t), for 20 ≤ t ≤ 40
i Sketch the graph of Rout against t for 20 ≤ t ≤ 40.
ii Find the rate of flow when t = 30.
Hints: The graph of Rnew against t is given by a dilation of factor 2 from the x-axis. The
graph of Rout against t is given by the translation with rule (t, R) → (t + 20, R) followed
by a reflection in the t-axis.

2 A large gas container is being deﬂated. The volume V (in m3 ) at time t hours is
given by
V = 4(9 − t)3 , for 0 ≤ t ≤ 9
a Find the volume when:
i t=0 ii t = 9
b Sketch the graph of V against t for 0 ≤ t ≤ 9.
c At what time is the volume 512 m3 ?

3 A hemispherical bowl of radius 6 cm contains water. The volume of water in the

hemispherical bowl, where the depth of the water is x cm, is given by
1
V = πx2 (18 − x) cm3
3
a Find the volume of water when:
i x=2 ii x = 3 iii x = 4
b Find the volume when the hemispherical bowl is full.
c Sketch the graph of V against x.
325π
d Find the depth of water when the volume is equal to cm3 .
3
Cambridge Senior Maths AC/VCE ISBN 978-1-107-56747-4 © Evans et al. 2016 Cambridge University Press
Mathematical Methods 3&4 Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
Chapter 4 review 207

Review
4 A metal worker is required to cut a circular cylinder from a
solid sphere of radius 5 cm. A cross-section of the sphere
and the cylinder is shown in the diagram. 5
h
a Express r in terms of h, where r cm is the radius of the O
cylinder and h cm is the height of the cylinder. Hence
show that the volume, V cm3 , of the cylinder is given by
1 r
V = πh(100 − h2 ).
4
b Sketch the graph of V against h for 0 < h < 10.
Hint: The coordinates of the maximum point are approximately (5.77, 302.3).
c Find the volume of the cylinder if h = 6.
d Find the height and radius of the cylinder if the volume of the cylinder is 48π cm3 .

5 An open tank is to be made from a sheet x cm x cm

of metal 84 cm by 40 cm by cutting x cm x cm
congruent squares of side length x cm from
each of the corners.
x cm x cm
a Find the volume, V cm3 , of the box in
terms of x. x cm x cm
b State the maximal domain for V when it
is considered as a function of x.
c Plot the graph of V against x using a calculator.
d Find the volume of the tank when:
i x=2 ii x = 6 iii x = 8 iv x = 10
e Find the value(s) of x, correct to two decimal places, for which the capacity of the
tank is 10 litres.
f Find, correct to two decimal places, the maximum capacity of the tank in cubic
centimetres.

6 A rectangle is deﬁned by vertices N and P(x, y) y

on the curve with equation y = 16 − x2 and
vertices M and Q on the x-axis.
N P(x, y)
a i Find the area, A, of the rectangle in terms
y =16 − x2
of x. x
ii State the implied domain for the function M O Q
deﬁned by the rule given in part i.
b i Find the value of A when x = 3.
ii Find the value of x, correct to two decimal places, when A = 25.
c A cuboid has volume V given by the rule V = xA.
i Find V in terms of x.
ii Find the value of x, correct to two decimal places, such that V = 100.

Cambridge Senior Maths AC/VCE ISBN 978-1-107-56747-4 © Evans et al. 2016 Cambridge University Press
Mathematical Methods 3&4 Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
208 Chapter 4: Polynomial functions
Review
7 The plan of a garden adjoining a wall
is shown. The rectangle BCEF is A xm F E xm D
of length y m and width x m. The x m x m
borders of the two end sections are B ym C
quarter circles of radius x m and
centres at E and F.
A fence is erected along the curves AB and CD and the straight line BC.
a Find the area, A m2 , of the garden in terms of x and y.
b If the length of the fence is 100 m, ﬁnd:
i y in terms of x
ii A in terms of x
iii the maximal domain of the function with the rule obtained in part ii.
c Find, correct to two decimal places, the value(s) of x if the area of the garden is to
be 1000 m2 .
x
d It is decided to build the garden up to a height of metres. If the length of the
50
fence is 100 m, ﬁnd correct to two decimal places:
i the volume, V m3 , of soil needed in terms of x
ii the volume of soil needed for a garden of area 1000 m2
iii the value(s) of x for which 500 m3 of soil is required.

8 A mound of earth is piled up against h (m)

a wall. The cross-section is as shown.
The coordinates of several points on the
surface are given. C(40, 3)
a Find the rule of the cubic function for
which the graph passes through the B(30, 2)
A(10, 1)
points O, A, B and C. x (m)
O 10 20 30 40
b For what value of x is the height of the
mound 1.5 metres?
c The coeﬃcient of x3 for the function is ‘small’. Consider the quadratic formed when
the x3 term is deleted. Compare the graph of the resulting quadratic function with
the graph of the cubic function.
d The mound moves and the curve describing the cross-section now passes through
the points O(0, 0), A(10, 0.3), B(30, 2.7) and D(40, 2.8). Find the rule of the cubic
function for which the graph passes through these points.
e Let y = f (x) be the function obtained in part a.
i Sketch the graph of the piecewise-deﬁned function
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨ f (x) for 0 ≤ x ≤ 40
g(x) = ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩ f (80 − x) for 40 < x ≤ 80
ii Comment on the appearance of the graph of y = g(x).

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