Transformer

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This article is about the electrical device. For the media and toy
franchise, see Transformers
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformers>. For other uses, see
Transformer (disambiguation)
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformer_(disambiguation)>.
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Polemount-singlephase-closeup.jpg>
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Polemount-singlephase-closeup.jpg>
Pole-mounted distribution transformer
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distribution_transformer> with
center-tapped <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_tap> secondary
winding used to provide "split-phase
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Split-phase_electric_power>" power for
residential and light commercial service, which in North America is
typically rated 120/240 V.^[1] <#cite_note-Mack_(2006)-1>

A *transformer* is a passive electrical device that transfers electrical

energy from one electrical circuit to one or more circuits
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_network>. A varying current in
any one coil of the transformer produces a varying magnetic flux
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_flux>, which, in turn, induces a
varying electromotive force
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromotive_force> across any other
coils wound around the same core. Electrical energy can be transferred
between the (possibly many) coils, without a metallic connection between
the two circuits. Faraday's law of induction
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faraday%27s_law_of_induction> discovered
in 1831 described the induced voltage effect in any coil due to changing
magnetic flux encircled by the coil.

Transformers are used for increasing alternating voltages at low current

(Step Up Transformer) or decreasing the alternating voltages at high
current (Step Down Transformer) in electric power applications, and for
coupling the stages of signal processing circuits.

Since the invention of the first constant-potential transformer

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constant-potential_transformer> in 1885,
transformers have become essential for the transmission
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_power_transmission>,
distribution
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_power_distribution>, and
utilization of alternating current electric power.^[2]
<#cite_note-Bedell_(1942)-2> A wide range of transformer designs is
encountered in electronic and electric power applications. Transformers
range in size from RF <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_Frequency>
transformers less than a cubic centimeter in volume, to units weighing
hundreds of tons used to interconnect the power grid
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_grid>.

Contents

* 1 Principles <#Principles>
o 1.1 Ideal transformer <#Ideal_transformer>
o 1.2 Real transformer <#Real_transformer>
 + 1.2.1 Deviations from ideal transformer
<#Deviations_from_ideal_transformer>
+ 1.2.2 Leakage flux <#Leakage_flux>
+ 1.2.3 Equivalent circuit <#Equivalent_circuit>
o 1.3 Transformer EMF equation <#Transformer_EMF_equation>
o 1.4 Polarity <#Polarity>
o 1.5 Effect of frequency <#Effect_of_frequency>
o 1.6 Energy losses <#Energy_losses>
* 2 Construction <#Construction>
o 2.1 Cores <#Cores>
+ 2.1.1 Laminated steel cores <#Laminated_steel_cores>
+ 2.1.2 Solid cores <#Solid_cores>
+ 2.1.3 Toroidal cores <#Toroidal_cores>
+ 2.1.4 Air cores <#Air_cores>
o 2.2 Windings <#Windings>
o 2.3 Cooling <#Cooling>
o 2.4 Insulation <#Insulation>
o 2.5 Bushings <#Bushings>
* 3 Classification parameters <#Classification_parameters>
* 4 Applications <#Applications>
* 5 History <#History>
o 5.1 Discovery of induction <#Discovery_of_induction>
o 5.2 Induction coils <#Induction_coils>
o 5.3 First alternating current transformers
<#First_alternating_current_transformers>
o 5.4 Early series circuit transformer distribution
<#Early_series_circuit_transformer_distribution>
o 5.5 Closed-core transformers and parallel power distribution
<#Closed-core_transformers_and_parallel_power_distribution>
o 5.6 Westinghouse improvements <#Westinghouse_improvements>
o 5.7 Other early transformer designs
<#Other_early_transformer_designs>
* 6 See also <#See_also>
* 7 Notes <#Notes>
* 8 References <#References>
* 9 Bibliography <#Bibliography>
* 10 External links <#External_links>

Principles[edit
<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transformer&action=edit&section=1>]

*Ideal transformer equations*

By Faraday's law of induction:

V P = − N P d Φ d t {\displaystyle V_{\text{P}}=-N_{\text{P}}{\frac
{\mathrm {d} \Phi }{\mathrm {d} t}}} V_\text{P} = -N_\text{P}
\frac{\mathrm{d}\Phi}{\mathrm{d}t} . . . (eq. 1)^[a] <#cite_note-3> ^[3]
<#cite_note-4>

V S = − N S d Φ d t {\displaystyle V_{\text{S}}=-N_{\text{S}}{\frac
{\mathrm {d} \Phi }{\mathrm {d} t}}} V_\text{S} = -N_\text{S}
\frac{\mathrm{d}\Phi}{\mathrm{d}t} . . . (eq. 2)

Where V {\displaystyle V} V is the instantaneous

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derivative> voltage
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltage>, N {\displaystyle N} N is the
number of turns in a winding, dΦ/dt is the derivative
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derivative> of the magnetic flux Φ
through one turn of the winding over time (/*t*/), and subscripts _*P*
and _*S* denotes primary and secondary.

Combining the ratio of eq. 1 & eq. 2:

Turns ratio = V P V S = N P N S = a {\displaystyle ={\frac

{V_{\text{P}}}{V_{\text{S}}}}={\frac {N_{\text{P}}}{N_{\text{S}}}}=a}
{\displaystyle ={\frac {V_{\text{P}}}{V_{\text{S}}}}={\frac
{N_{\text{P}}}{N_{\text{S}}}}=a} . . . (eq. 3)

Where for a step-down transformer /a/ > 1, for a step-up transformer /a/
< 1, and for an isolation transformer
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isolation_transformer> /a/ = 1.

By law of conservation of energy

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_of_energy>, apparent
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apparent_power>, real
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_power> and reactive
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reactive_power> power are each conserved
in the input and output:

S = I P V P = I S V S {\displaystyle
S=I_{\text{P}}V_{\text{P}}=I_{\text{S}}V_{\text{S}}} {\displaystyle
S=I_{\text{P}}V_{\text{P}}=I_{\text{S}}V_{\text{S}}} . . . . (eq. 4)

Where S {\displaystyle S} S is conserved power and I {\displaystyle I} I

is current <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_current>.

Combining eq. 3 & eq. 4 with this endnote^[b] <#cite_note-5> ^[4]

<#cite_note-Brenner18-1-6> gives the ideal transformer identity
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_function>:

V P V S = I S I P = N P N S = L P L S = a {\displaystyle {\frac
{V_{\text{P}}}{V_{\text{S}}}}={\frac
{I_{\text{S}}}{I_{\text{P}}}}={\frac
{N_{\text{P}}}{N_{\text{S}}}}={\sqrt {\frac
{L_{\text{P}}}{L_{\text{S}}}}}=a} \frac{V_\text{P}}{V_\text{S}} =
\frac{I_\text{S}}{I_\text{P}}=\frac{N_\text{P}}{N_\text{S}}=\sqrt{\frac{L_\text{P}}
{L_\text{S}}}=a
. (eq. 5)

Where L {\displaystyle L} L is winding self-inductance.

By Ohm's law <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ohm%27s_law> and ideal

transformer identity:

Z L = V S I S {\displaystyle Z_{\text{L}}={\frac
{V_{\text{S}}}{I_{\text{S}}}}} Z_\text{L}=\frac{V_\text{S}}{I_\text{S}}
. . . (eq. 6)

Z L ′ = V P I P = a V S I S / a = a 2 V S I S = a 2 Z L {\displaystyle
Z'_{\text{L}}={\frac {V_{\text{P}}}{I_{\text{P}}}}={\frac
{aV_{\text{S}}}{I_{\text{S}}/a}}=a^{2}{\frac
{V_{\text{S}}}{I_{\text{S}}}}=a^{2}{Z_{\text{L}}}} Z'_\text{L} =
\frac{V_\text{P}}{I_\text{P}}=\frac{aV_\text{S}}{I_\text{S}/a}=a^2\frac{V_\text{S}}
{I_\text{S}}=a^2{Z_\text{L}}
. (eq. 7)
Where Z L {\displaystyle Z_{\text{L}}} {\displaystyle Z_{\text{L}}} is
the load impedance of the secondary circuit & Z L ′ {\displaystyle
Z'_{\text{L}}} {\displaystyle Z'_{\text{L}}} is the apparent load or
driving point impedance of the primary circuit, the superscript ′
{\displaystyle '} ' denoting referred to the primary.

Ideal transformer[edit
<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Transformer&action=edit&section=2>]

An ideal transformer is a theoretical linear

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linearity> transformer that is lossless
and perfectly coupled
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inductive_coupling>. Perfect coupling
implies infinitely high core magnetic permeability
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permeability_(electromagnetism)> and
winding inductances and zero net magnetomotive force
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetomotive_force> (i.e. i_p n_p - i_s
n_s = 0).^[5] <#cite_note-Brenner18-6-7> ^[c] <#cite_note-9>

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ideal_transformer.svg>
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ideal_transformer.svg>
Ideal transformer connected with source V_P on primary and load
impedance Z_L on secondary, where 0 < Z_L < ∞.
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Transformer3d_col3.svg>
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Transformer3d_col3.svg>
Ideal transformer and induction law

A varying current in the transformer's primary winding attempts to

create a varying magnetic flux in the transformer core, which is also
encircled by the secondary winding. This varying flux at the secondary
winding induces a varying electromotive force
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromotive_force> (EMF, voltage) in
the secondary winding due to electromagnetic induction and the secondary
current so produced creates a flux equal and opposite to that produced
by the primary winding, in accordance with Lenz's law
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenz%27s_law>.

The windings are wound around a core of infinitely high magnetic

permeability so that all of the magnetic flux passes through both the
primary and secondary windings. With a voltage source
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltage_source> connected to the primary
winding and a load connected to the secondary winding, the transformer
currents flow in the indicated directions and the core magnetomotive
force cancels to zero.

According to Faraday's law

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faraday%27s_law_of_induction>, since the
same magnetic flux passes through both the primary and secondary
windings in an ideal transformer, a voltage is induced in each winding
proportional to its number of windings. The transformer winding voltage
ratio is directly proportional to the winding turns ratio.^[7]
<#cite_note-10>

The ideal transformer identity

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_function> shown in eq. 5 is a
reasonable approximation for the typical commercial transformer, with
voltage ratio and winding turns ratio both being inversely proportional
to the corresponding current ratio.

The load impedance /referred/ to the primary circuit is equal to the

turns ratio squared times the secondary circuit load impedance.^[8]
<#cite_note-Flanagan1993-1-11>

Real transformer[edit
<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Transformer&action=edit&section=3>]

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Transformer_Flux.svg>
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Transformer_Flux.svg>
Leakage flux of a transformer

Deviations from ideal transformer[edit

<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Transformer&action=edit&section=4>]

The ideal transformer model neglects the following basic linear aspects
of real transformers:

(a) Core losses, collectively called magnetizing current losses,

consisting of^[9] <#cite_note-Say1983-12>

* Hysteresis <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_hysteresis>
losses due to nonlinear magnetic effects in the transformer core, and
* Eddy current <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddy_current> losses due
to joule heating in the core that are proportional to the square of
the transformer's applied voltage.

(b) Unlike the ideal model, the windings in a real transformer have
non-zero resistances and inductances associated with:

* Joule losses <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joule_heating> due to

resistance in the primary and secondary windings^[9]
<#cite_note-Say1983-12>
* Leakage flux that escapes from the core and passes through one
winding only resulting in primary and secondary reactive impedance.

(c) similar to an inductor <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inductor>,

parasitic capacitance and self-resonance phenomenon due to the electric
field distribution. Three kinds of parasitic capacitance are usually
considered and the closed-loop equations are provided ^[10] <#cite_note-13>

* Capacitance between adjacent turns in any one layer;

* Capacitance between adjacent layers;
* Capacitance between the core and the layer(s) adjacent to the core;

Inclusion of capacitance into the transformer model is complicated, and

is rarely attempted; the ‘real’ transformer model’s equivalent circuit
<https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/39/TREQCCT.jpg> does
not include parasitic capacitance. However, the capacitance effect can
be measured by comparing open-circuit inductance, i.e. the inductance of
a primary winding when the secondary circuit is open, to a short-circuit
inductance when the secondary winding is shorted.
 Leakage flux[edit
<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Transformer&action=edit&section=5>]

Main article: Leakage inductance

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leakage_inductance>

The ideal transformer model assumes that all flux generated by the
primary winding links all the turns of every winding, including itself.
In practice, some flux traverses paths that take it outside the
windings.^[11] <#cite_note-McLaren1984-68-14> Such flux is termed
/leakage flux/, and results in leakage inductance
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leakage_inductance> in series
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Series_and_parallel_circuits> with the
mutually coupled transformer windings.^[12] <#cite_note-calvert2001-15>
Leakage flux results in energy being alternately stored in and
discharged from the magnetic fields with each cycle of the power supply.
It is not directly a power loss, but results in inferior voltage
regulation <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltage_regulation>, causing
the secondary voltage not to be directly proportional to the primary
voltage, particularly under heavy load.^[11]
<#cite_note-McLaren1984-68-14> Transformers are therefore normally
designed to have very low leakage inductance.

In some applications increased leakage is desired, and long magnetic

paths, air gaps, or magnetic bypass shunts may deliberately be
introduced in a transformer design to limit the short-circuit
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_circuit> current it will
supply.^[12] <#cite_note-calvert2001-15> Leaky transformers may be used
to supply loads that exhibit negative resistance
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative_resistance>, such as electric
arcs <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_arc>, mercury-
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury-vapor_lamp> and sodium-
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium-vapor_lamp> vapor lamps and neon
signs <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neon_sign> or for safely handling
loads that become periodically short-circuited such as electric arc
welders <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arc_welding>.^[9]
<#cite_note-Say1983-12> ^:485

Air gaps are also used to keep a transformer from saturating, especially
audio-frequency transformers in circuits that have a DC component
flowing in the windings.^[13] <#cite_note-16> A saturable reactor
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturable_reactor> exploits saturation of
the core to control alternating current.

Knowledge of leakage inductance is also useful when transformers are

operated in parallel. It can be shown that if the percent impedance
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Per-unit_system> ^[d] <#cite_note-18> and
associated winding leakage reactance-to-resistance (/X///R/) ratio of
two transformers were the same, the transformers would share the load
power in proportion to their respective ratings. However, the impedance
tolerances of commercial transformers are significant. Also, the
impedance and X/R ratio of different capacity transformers tends to
vary.^[15] <#cite_note-Knowlton6-97-19>

Equivalent circuit[edit
<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Transformer&action=edit&section=6>]
See also: Steinmetz equivalent circuit
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Induction_motor#Steinmetz_equivalent_circuit>

Referring to the diagram, a practical transformer's physical behavior

may be represented by an equivalent circuit
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equivalent_circuit> model, which can
incorporate an ideal transformer.^[16] <#cite_note-daniels1985-47-20>

Winding joule losses and leakage reactances are represented by the

following series loop impedances of the model:

* Primary winding: /R/_P , /X/_P

* Secondary winding: /R/_S , /X/_S .

In normal course of circuit equivalence transformation, /R/_S and /X/_S

are in practice usually referred to the primary side by multiplying
these impedances by the turns ratio squared, (/N/_P //N/_S )^ 2 = a^2 .

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TREQCCT.jpg>
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TREQCCT.jpg>
Real transformer equivalent circuit

Core loss and reactance is represented by the following shunt leg

impedances of the model:

* Core or iron losses: /R/_C

* Magnetizing reactance: /X/_M .

/R/_C and /X/_M are collectively termed the /magnetizing branch/ of the
model.

Core losses are caused mostly by hysteresis and eddy current effects in
the core and are proportional to the square of the core flux for
operation at a given frequency.^[9] <#cite_note-Say1983-12> ^:142–143
The finite permeability core requires a magnetizing current /I/_M to
maintain mutual flux in the core. Magnetizing current is in phase with
the flux, the relationship between the two being non-linear due to
saturation effects. However, all impedances of the equivalent circuit
shown are by definition linear and such non-linearity effects are not
typically reflected in transformer equivalent circuits.^[9]
<#cite_note-Say1983-12> ^:142 With sinusoidal
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinusoidal> supply, core flux lags the
induced EMF by 90°. With open-circuited secondary winding, magnetizing
branch current /I/_0 equals transformer no-load current.^[16]
<#cite_note-daniels1985-47-20>

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Instrument_Transformer.jpg>
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Instrument_Transformer.jpg>
Instrument transformer, with polarity dot and X1 markings on LV side
terminal

The resulting model, though sometimes termed 'exact' equivalent circuit

based on linearity <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linearity>
assumptions, retains a number of approximations.^[16]
<#cite_note-daniels1985-47-20> Analysis may be simplified by assuming
that magnetizing branch impedance is relatively high and relocating the
branch to the left of the primary impedances. This introduces error but
allows combination of primary and referred secondary resistances and
reactances by simple summation as two series impedances.

Transformer equivalent circuit impedance and transformer ratio

parameters can be derived from the following tests: open-circuit test
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-circuit_test>, short-circuit test
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short-circuit_test>, winding resistance
test, and transformer ratio test.

Transformer EMF equation[edit

<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Transformer&action=edit&section=7>]

If the flux in the core is purely sinusoidal

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinusoidal>, the relationship for either
winding between its *rms
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Root_mean_square> voltage* /E/_rms of the
winding, and the supply frequency /f/, number of turns /N/, core
cross-sectional area /a/ in m^2 and peak magnetic flux density /B/_peak
in Wb/m^2 or T (tesla) is given by the universal EMF equation:^[9]
<#cite_note-Say1983-12>

E rms = 2 π f N a B peak 2 ≈ 4.44 f N a B peak {\displaystyle

E_{\text{rms}}={\frac {2\pi fNaB_{\text{peak}}}{\sqrt {2}}}\approx
4.44fNaB_{\text{peak}}} E_\text{rms} = {\frac {2 \pi f N a
B_\text{peak}} {\sqrt{2}}} \approx 4.44 f N a B_\text{peak}

Polarity[edit
<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Transformer&action=edit&section=8>]

A dot convention <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dot_convention> is often

used in transformer circuit diagrams, nameplates or terminal markings to
define the relative polarity of transformer windings. Positively
increasing instantaneous current entering the primary winding's ‘dot’
end induces positive polarity voltage exiting the secondary winding's
‘dot’ end. Three-phase transformers used in electric power systems will
have a nameplate that indicate the phase relationships between their
terminals. This may be in the form of a phasor
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phasor> diagram, or using an
alpha-numeric code to show the type of internal connection (wye or
delta) for each winding.

Effect of frequency[edit
<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Transformer&action=edit&section=9>]

The EMF of a transformer at a given flux increases with frequency.^[9]

<#cite_note-Say1983-12> By operating at higher frequencies, transformers
can be physically more compact because a given core is able to transfer
more power without reaching saturation and fewer turns are needed to
achieve the same impedance. However, properties such as core loss and
conductor skin effect <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skin_effect> also
increase with frequency. Aircraft and military equipment employ 400 Hz
power supplies which reduce core and winding weight.^[17]
<#cite_note-21> Conversely, frequencies used for some railway
electrification systems
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Railway_electrification_system> were much
lower (e.g. 16.7 Hz and 25 Hz) than normal utility frequencies
(50–60 Hz) for historical reasons concerned mainly with the limitations
of early electric traction motors
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traction_motor>. Consequently, the
transformers used to step-down the high overhead line voltages were much
larger and heavier for the same power rating than those required for the
higher frequencies.

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Power_Transformer_Over-Excitation.gif>
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Power_Transformer_Over-Excitation.gif>
Power transformer over-excitation condition caused by decreased
frequency; flux (green), iron core's magnetic characteristics (red) and
magnetizing current (blue).

Operation of a transformer at its designed voltage but at a higher

frequency than intended will lead to reduced magnetizing current. At a
lower frequency, the magnetizing current will increase. Operation of a
large transformer at other than its design frequency may require
assessment of voltages, losses, and cooling to establish if safe
operation is practical. Transformers may require protective relays
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protective_relay> to protect the
transformer from overvoltage at higher than rated frequency.

One example is in traction transformers used for electric multiple unit

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_multiple_unit> and high-speed
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-speed_rail> train service operating
across regions with different electrical standards. The converter
equipment and traction transformers have to accommodate different input
frequencies and voltage (ranging from as high as 50 Hz down to 16.7 Hz
and rated up to 25 kV).

At much higher frequencies the transformer core size required drops

dramatically: a physically small transformer can handle power levels
that would require a massive iron core at mains frequency. The
development of switching power semiconductor devices made switch-mode
power supplies <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switch_mode_power_supply>
viable, to generate a high frequency, then change the voltage level with
a small transformer.

Large power transformers are vulnerable to insulation failure due to

transient voltages with high-frequency components, such as caused in
switching or by lightning.

Energy losses[edit
<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Transformer&action=edit&section=10>]

Transformer energy losses are dominated by winding and core losses.

Transformers' efficiency tends to improve with increasing transformer
capacity. The efficiency of typical distribution transformers is between
about 98 and 99 percent.^[18] <#cite_note-De_Keulenaer2001-22> ^[19]
<#cite_note-23>

As transformer losses vary with load, it is often useful to tabulate

no-load loss, full-load loss, half-load loss, and so on. Hysteresis and
eddy current <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddy_current> losses are
constant at all load levels and dominate at no load, while winding loss
increases as load increases. The no-load loss can be significant, so
that even an idle transformer constitutes a drain on the electrical
supply. Designing energy efficient transformers
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_efficient_transformer> for lower
loss requires a larger core, good-quality silicon steel
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_steel>, or even amorphous
steel <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_steel#Amorphous_steel>
for the core and thicker wire, increasing initial cost. The choice of
construction represents a trade-off
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade-off> between initial cost and
operating cost.^[20] <#cite_note-Heathcote1998-41-24>

Transformer losses arise from:

*Winding joule losses*

Current flowing through a winding's conductor causes joule heating
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joule_heating> due to the resistance
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_resistance> of the wire.
As frequency increases, skin effect and proximity effect
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proximity_effect_(electromagnetism)>
causes the winding's resistance and, hence, losses to increase.
Core losses <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_core#Core_loss>

*Hysteresis losses*
Each time the magnetic field is reversed, a small amount of
energy is lost due to hysteresis
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_hysteresis> within the
core, caused by motion of the magnetic domains
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_domain> within the
steel. According to Steinmetz's formula, the heat energy due to
hysteresis is given by

W h ≈ η β max 1.6 {\displaystyle W_{\text{h}}\approx \eta

\beta _{\text{max}}^{1.6}} W_{{\text{h}}}\approx \eta \beta
_{{{\text{max}}}}^{{1.6}}, and,

hysteresis loss is thus given by

P h ≈ W h f ≈ η f β max 1.6 {\displaystyle

P_{\text{h}}\approx {W}_{\text{h}}f\approx \eta {f}\beta
_{\text{max}}^{1.6}} P_{{\text{h}}}\approx
{W}_{{\text{h}}}f\approx \eta {f}\beta _{{{\text{max}}}}^{{1.6}}

where, /f/ is the frequency, /η/ is the hysteresis coefficient

and /β/_max is the maximum flux density, the empirical exponent
of which varies from about 1.4 to 1.8 but is often given as 1.6
for iron.^[20] <#cite_note-Heathcote1998-41-24>
*Eddy current losses*
Eddy currents <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddy_current> are
induced in the conductive metal transformer core by the changing
magnetic field, and this current flowing through the resistance
of the iron dissipates energy as heat in the core. The eddy
current loss is a complex function of the square of supply
frequency and inverse square of the material thickness.^[20]
<#cite_note-Heathcote1998-41-24> Eddy current losses can be
reduced by making the core of a stack of laminations (thin
plates) electrically insulated from each other, rather than a
solid block; all transformers operating at low frequencies use
laminated or similar cores.
*Magnetostriction related transformer hum*
Magnetic flux in a ferromagnetic material, such as the core, causes
it to physically expand and contract slightly with each cycle of the
magnetic field, an effect known as magnetostriction
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetostriction>, the frictional
energy of which produces an audible noise known as mains hum
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mains_hum> or "transformer hum".^[21]
<#cite_note-PF_(nd)-25> This transformer hum is especially
objectionable in transformers supplied at power frequencies
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utility_frequency> and in
high-frequency <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-frequency>
flyback transformers
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flyback_transformer> associated with
television CRTs <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathode_ray_tube>.
*Stray losses*
Leakage inductance is by itself largely lossless, since energy
supplied to its magnetic fields is returned to the supply with the
next half-cycle. However, any leakage flux that intercepts nearby
conductive materials such as the transformer's support structure
will give rise to eddy currents and be converted to heat.^[22]
<#cite_note-nailen-26>
*Radiative*
There are also radiative losses due to the oscillating magnetic
field but these are usually small.
*Mechanical vibration and audible noise transmission*
In addition to magnetostriction, the alternating magnetic field
causes fluctuating forces between the primary and secondary
windings. This energy incites vibration transmission in
interconnected metalwork, thus amplifying audible transformer
hum.^[23] <#cite_note-Pansini1999-23-27>

Construction[edit
<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Transformer&action=edit&section=11>]

Cores[edit
<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Transformer&action=edit&section=12>]

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Transformer_winding_formats.jpg>
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Transformer_winding_formats.jpg>
Core form = core type; shell form = shell type

Closed-core transformers are constructed in 'core form' or 'shell form'.

When windings surround the core, the transformer is core form; when
windings are surrounded by the core, the transformer is shell form.^[24]
<#cite_note-Del_Vecchio2002-10-28> Shell form design may be more
prevalent than core form design for distribution transformer
applications due to the relative ease in stacking the core around
winding coils.^[24] <#cite_note-Del_Vecchio2002-10-28> Core form design
tends to, as a general rule, be more economical, and therefore more
prevalent, than shell form design for high voltage power transformer
applications at the lower end of their voltage and power rating ranges
(less than or equal to, nominally, 230 kV or 75 MVA). At higher voltage
and power ratings, shell form transformers tend to be more
prevalent.^[24] <#cite_note-Del_Vecchio2002-10-28> ^[25]
<#cite_note-HRTSG_(2005)-29> ^[26]
<#cite_note-US_Army_Corps_of_Engineers1994-30> Shell form design tends
to be preferred for extra-high voltage and higher MVA applications
because, though more labor-intensive to manufacture, shell form
transformers are characterized as having inherently better kVA-to-weight
ratio, better short-circuit strength characteristics and higher immunity
to transit damage.^[26] <#cite_note-US_Army_Corps_of_Engineers1994-30>

Laminated steel cores[edit

<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Transformer&action=edit&section=13>]

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Transformer.filament.agr.jpg>
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Transformer.filament.agr.jpg>
Laminated core transformer showing edge of laminations at top of photo

Transformers for use at power or audio frequencies typically have cores

made of high permeability silicon steel
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicon_steel>.^[27]
<#cite_note-Hindmarsh1977-29-31> The steel has a permeability many times
that of free space <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_space> and the
core thus serves to greatly reduce the magnetizing current and confine
the flux to a path which closely couples the windings.^[28]
<#cite_note-Gottlieb-32> Early transformer developers soon realized that
cores constructed from solid iron resulted in prohibitive eddy current
losses, and their designs mitigated this effect with cores consisting of
bundles of insulated iron wires.^[29] <#cite_note-allan-33> Later
designs constructed the core by stacking layers of thin steel
laminations, a principle that has remained in use. Each lamination is
insulated from its neighbors by a thin non-conducting layer of
insulation.^[30] <#cite_note-Kulkarni2004-36-34> The transformer
universal EMF equation <#Transformer_universal_EMF_equation> can be used
to calculate the core cross-sectional area for a preferred level of
magnetic flux.^[9] <#cite_note-Say1983-12>

The effect of laminations is to confine eddy currents to highly

elliptical paths that enclose little flux, and so reduce their
magnitude. Thinner laminations reduce losses,^[27]
<#cite_note-Hindmarsh1977-29-31> but are more laborious and expensive to
construct.^[31] <#cite_note-McLyman2004-3-9-35> Thin laminations are
generally used on high-frequency transformers, with some of very thin
steel laminations able to operate up to 10 kHz.

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Laminering_av_k%C3%A4rna.svg>
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Laminering_av_k%C3%A4rna.svg>
Laminating the core greatly reduces eddy-current losses

One common design of laminated core is made from interleaved stacks of

E-shaped <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-shaped> steel sheets capped
with I-shaped <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I-shaped> pieces, leading
to its name of 'E-I transformer'.^[31] <#cite_note-McLyman2004-3-9-35>
Such a design tends to exhibit more losses, but is very economical to
manufacture. The cut-core or C-core type is made by winding a steel
strip around a rectangular form and then bonding the layers together. It
is then cut in two, forming two C shapes, and the core assembled by
binding the two C halves together with a steel strap.^[31]
<#cite_note-McLyman2004-3-9-35> They have the advantage that the flux is
always oriented parallel to the metal grains, reducing reluctance.
A steel core's remanence <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remanence> means
that it retains a static magnetic field when power is removed. When
power is then reapplied, the residual field will cause a high inrush
current <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inrush_current> until the effect
of the remaining magnetism is reduced, usually after a few cycles of the
applied AC waveform.^[32] <#cite_note-Harlow2004-2-36> Overcurrent
protection devices such as fuses
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuse_(electrical)> must be selected to
allow this harmless inrush to pass.

On transformers connected to long, overhead power transmission lines,

induced currents due to geomagnetic disturbances
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomagnetically_induced_current> during
solar storms <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomagnetic_storm> can cause
saturation of the core
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturation_(magnetic)> and operation of
transformer protection devices.^[33] <#cite_note-37>

Distribution transformers can achieve low no-load losses by using cores

made with low-loss high-permeability silicon steel or amorphous
(non-crystalline) metal alloy
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amorphous#Metallic_glass>. The higher
initial cost of the core material is offset over the life of the
transformer by its lower losses at light load.^[34] <#cite_note-38>

Solid cores[edit
<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Transformer&action=edit&section=14>]

Powdered iron cores are used in circuits such as switch-mode power

supplies that operate above mains frequencies and up to a few tens of
kilohertz. These materials combine high magnetic permeability with high
bulk electrical resistivity <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resistivity>.
For frequencies extending beyond the VHF band
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Very_high_frequency>, cores made from
non-conductive magnetic ceramic <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceramic>
materials called ferrites
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferrite_(magnet)> are common.^[31]
<#cite_note-McLyman2004-3-9-35> Some radio-frequency transformers also
have movable cores (sometimes called 'slugs') which allow adjustment of
the coupling coefficient
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coupling_coefficient_(inductors)> (and
bandwidth <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandwidth_(signal_processing)>)
of tuned radio-frequency circuits.

Toroidal cores[edit
<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Transformer&action=edit&section=15>]

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Small_toroidal_transformer.jpg>
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Small_toroidal_transformer.jpg>
Small toroidal core transformer

Toroidal transformers are built around a ring-shaped core, which,

depending on operating frequency, is made from a long strip of silicon
steel <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicon_steel> or permalloy
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permalloy> wound into a coil, powdered
iron, or ferrite <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferrite_(magnet)>.^[35]
<#cite_note-McLyman2004-3-1-39> A strip construction ensures that the
grain boundaries <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grain_boundary> are
optimally aligned, improving the transformer's efficiency by reducing
the core's reluctance <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reluctance>. The
closed ring shape eliminates air gaps inherent in the construction of an
E-I core.^[9] <#cite_note-Say1983-12> ^:485 The cross-section of the
ring is usually square or rectangular, but more expensive cores with
circular cross-sections are also available. The primary and secondary
coils are often wound concentrically to cover the entire surface of the
core. This minimizes the length of wire needed and provides screening to
minimize the core's magnetic field from generating electromagnetic
interference <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_interference>.

Toroidal transformers are more efficient than the cheaper laminated E-I
types for a similar power level. Other advantages compared to E-I types,
include smaller size (about half), lower weight (about half), less
mechanical hum (making them superior in audio amplifiers), lower
exterior magnetic field (about one tenth), low off-load losses (making
them more efficient in standby circuits), single-bolt mounting, and
greater choice of shapes. The main disadvantages are higher cost and
limited power capacity (see Classification parameters
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformer#Classification_parameters>
below). Because of the lack of a residual gap in the magnetic path,
toroidal transformers also tend to exhibit higher inrush current,
compared to laminated E-I types.

Ferrite toroidal cores are used at higher frequencies, typically between

a few tens of kilohertz to hundreds of megahertz, to reduce losses,
physical size, and weight of inductive components. A drawback of
toroidal transformer construction is the higher labor cost of winding.
This is because it is necessary to pass the entire length of a coil
winding through the core aperture each time a single turn is added to
the coil. As a consequence, toroidal transformers rated more than a few
kVA are uncommon. Relatively few toroids are offered with power ratings
above 10 kVA, and practically none above 25 kVA. Small distribution
transformers may achieve some of the benefits of a toroidal core by
splitting it and forcing it open, then inserting a bobbin containing
primary and secondary windings.^[36] <#cite_note-40>

Air cores[edit
<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Transformer&action=edit&section=16>]

A transformer can be produced by placing the windings near each other,

an arrangement termed an "air-core" transformer. An air-core transformer
eliminates loss due to hysteresis in the core material.^[12]
<#cite_note-calvert2001-15> The magnetizing inductance is drastically
reduced by the lack of a magnetic core, resulting in large magnetizing
currents and losses if used at low frequencies. Air-core transformers
are unsuitable for use in power distribution,^[12]
<#cite_note-calvert2001-15> but are frequently employed in
radio-frequency applications.^[37] <#cite_note-41> Air cores are also
used for resonant transformers
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resonant_inductive_coupling> such as
Tesla coils, where they can achieve reasonably low loss despite the low
magnetizing inductance.
 Windings[edit
<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Transformer&action=edit&section=17>]

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Transformer-hightolow_smaller.jpg>
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Transformer-hightolow_smaller.jpg>
Windings are usually arranged concentrically to minimize flux leakage.
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Transformer_min_stray_field_geometry.svg>

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Transformer_min_stray_field_geometry.svg>
Cut view through transformer windings. Legend:
*White*: Air, liquid or other insulating medium
*Green spiral*: Grain oriented silicon steel
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_steel>
*Black*: Primary winding
*Red*: Secondary winding

The electrical conductor used for the windings depends upon the
application, but in all cases the individual turns must be electrically
insulated from each other to ensure that the current travels throughout
every turn. For small transformers, in which currents are low and the
potential difference between adjacent turns is small, the coils are
often wound from enamelled magnet wire
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enameled_wire>. Larger power transformers
may be wound with copper rectangular strip conductors insulated by
oil-impregnated paper and blocks of pressboard
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformerboard>.^[38]
<#cite_note-CEGB1982-42>

High-frequency transformers operating in the tens to hundreds of

kilohertz often have windings made of braided Litz wire
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Litz_wire> to minimize the skin-effect
and proximity effect losses.^[39] <#cite_note-dixon-43> Large power
transformers use multiple-stranded conductors as well, since even at low
power frequencies non-uniform distribution of current would otherwise
exist in high-current windings.^[38] <#cite_note-CEGB1982-42> Each
strand is individually insulated, and the strands are arranged so that
at certain points in the winding, or throughout the whole winding, each
portion occupies different relative positions in the complete conductor.
The transposition equalizes the current flowing in each strand of the
conductor, and reduces eddy current losses in the winding itself. The
stranded conductor is also more flexible than a solid conductor of
similar size, aiding manufacture.^[38] <#cite_note-CEGB1982-42>

The windings of signal transformers minimize leakage inductance and

stray capacitance to improve high-frequency response. Coils are split
into sections, and those sections interleaved between the sections of
the other winding.

Power-frequency transformers may have /taps/ at intermediate points on

the winding, usually on the higher voltage winding side, for voltage
adjustment. Taps may be manually reconnected, or a manual or automatic
switch may be provided for changing taps. Automatic on-load tap changers
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tap_changer> are used in electric power
transmission or distribution, on equipment such as arc furnace
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arc_furnace> transformers, or for
automatic voltage regulators for sensitive loads. Audio-frequency
transformers, used for the distribution of audio to public address
loudspeakers, have taps to allow adjustment of impedance to each
speaker. A center-tapped transformer
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_tap> is often used in the output
stage of an audio power amplifier
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplifier> in a push-pull circuit
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Push-pull_converter>. Modulation
transformers in AM <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplitude_modulation>
transmitters are very similar.

Cooling[edit
<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Transformer&action=edit&section=18>]

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Drehstromtransformater_im_Schnitt_Hochspannung.
jpg>

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Drehstromtransformater_im_Schnitt_Hochspannung.
jpg>
Cutaway view of liquid-immersed transformer. The conservator (reservoir)
at top provides liquid-to-atmosphere isolation as coolant level and
temperature changes. The walls and fins provide required heat dissipation.

It is a rule of thumb that the life expectancy of electrical insulation

is halved for about every 7 °C to 10 °C increase in operating
temperature <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_temperature> (an
instance of the application of the Arrhenius equation
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arrhenius_equation>).^[40]
<#cite_note-Harlow2004-3-44>

Small dry-type and liquid-immersed transformers are often self-cooled by

natural convection and radiation
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiation> heat dissipation. As power
ratings increase, transformers are often cooled by forced-air cooling,
forced-oil cooling, water-cooling, or combinations of these.^[41]
<#cite_note-Pansini1999-32-45> Large transformers are filled with
transformer oil <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformer_oil> that
both cools and insulates the windings.^[42] <#cite_note-willis2004-46>
Transformer oil is a highly refined mineral oil
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineral_oil> that cools the windings and
insulation by circulating within the transformer tank. The mineral oil
and paper <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_insulation_paper>
insulation system has been extensively studied and used for more than
100 years. It is estimated that 50% of power transformers will survive
50 years of use, that the average age of failure of power transformers
is about 10 to 15 years, and that about 30% of power transformer
failures are due to insulation and overloading failures.^[43]
<#cite_note-Hartley_(2003)-47> ^[44] <#cite_note-Hartley_(~2011)-48>
Prolonged operation at elevated temperature degrades insulating
properties of winding insulation and dielectric coolant, which not only
shortens transformer life but can ultimately lead to catastrophic
transformer failure.^[40] <#cite_note-Harlow2004-3-44> With a great body
of empirical study as a guide, transformer oil testing
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformer_oil_testing> including
dissolved gas analysis
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissolved_gas_analysis> provides valuable
maintenance information.
Building regulations in many jurisdictions require indoor liquid-filled
transformers to either use dielectric fluids that are less flammable
than oil, or be installed in fire-resistant rooms.^[18]
<#cite_note-De_Keulenaer2001-22> Air-cooled dry transformers can be more
economical where they eliminate the cost of a fire-resistant transformer
room.

The tank of liquid filled transformers often has radiators through which
the liquid coolant circulates by natural convection or fins. Some large
transformers employ electric fans for forced-air cooling, pumps for
forced-liquid cooling, or have heat exchangers
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_exchangers> for water-cooling.^[42]
<#cite_note-willis2004-46> An oil-immersed transformer may be equipped
with a Buchholz relay <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buchholz_relay>,
which, depending on severity of gas accumulation due to internal arcing,
is used to either alarm or de-energize the transformer.^[32]
<#cite_note-Harlow2004-2-36> Oil-immersed transformer installations
usually include fire protection measures such as walls, oil containment,
and fire-suppression sprinkler systems.

Polychlorinated biphenyls
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polychlorinated_biphenyl> have properties
that once favored their use as a dielectric coolant
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coolant>, though concerns over their
environmental persistence
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persistent_organic_pollutant> led to a
widespread ban on their use.^[45] <#cite_note-49> Today, non-toxic,
stable silicone <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicone>-based oils, or
fluorinated hydrocarbons <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorocarbon>
may be used where the expense of a fire-resistant liquid offsets
additional building cost for a transformer vault.^[18]
<#cite_note-De_Keulenaer2001-22> ^[46] <#cite_note-Kulkarni2004-2-50>

Some transformers, instead of being liquid-filled, have their windings

enclosed in sealed, pressurized tanks and cooled by nitrogen
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen> or sulfur hexafluoride
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfur_hexafluoride> gas.^[46]
<#cite_note-Kulkarni2004-2-50>

Experimental power transformers in the 500‐to‐1,000 kVA range have been

built with liquid nitrogen
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid_nitrogen> or helium
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid_helium> cooled superconducting
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superconductivity> windings, which
eliminates winding losses without affecting core losses.^[47]
<#cite_note-Mehta_(1997)-51> ^[48] <#cite_note-Pansini1999-66-52>

Insulation[edit
<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Transformer&action=edit&section=19>]

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Substation_transfomer.jpg>
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Substation_transfomer.jpg>
Substation transformer undergoing testing.

Insulation must be provided between the individual turns of the

windings, between the windings, between windings and core, and at the
terminals of the winding.
Inter-turn insulation of small transformers may be a layer of insulating
varnish on the wire. Layer of paper or polymer films may be inserted
between layers of windings, and between primary and secondary windings.
A transformer may be coated or dipped in a polymer resin to improve the
strength of windings and protect them from moisture or corrosion. The
resin may be impregnated into the winding insulation using combinations
of vacuum and pressure during the coating process, eliminating all air
voids in the winding. In the limit, the entire coil may be placed in a
mold, and resin cast around it as a solid block, encapsulating the
windings.^[49] <#cite_note-Lane_(2007)-53>

Large oil-filled power transformers use windings wrapped with insulating

paper, which is impregnated with oil during assembly of the transformer.
Oil-filled transformers use highly refined mineral oil to insulate and
cool the windings and core. Construction of oil-filled transformers
requires that the insulation covering the windings be thoroughly dried
of residual moisture before the oil is introduced. Drying may be done by
circulating hot air around the core, by circulating externally heated
transformer oil, or by vapor-phase drying (VPD) where an evaporated
solvent transfers heat by condensation on the coil and core. For small
transformers, resistance heating by injection of current into the
windings is used.

Bushings[edit
<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Transformer&action=edit&section=20>]

Larger transformers are provided with high-voltage insulated bushings

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bushing_(electrical)> made of polymers or
porcelain. A large bushing can be a complex structure since it must
provide careful control of the electric field gradient
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_field_gradient> without letting
the transformer leak oil.^[50] <#cite_note-Ryan2004-416-54>

Classification parameters[edit
<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Transformer&action=edit&section=21>]

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Melbourne_Terminal_Station.JPG>
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Melbourne_Terminal_Station.JPG>
An electrical substation
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_substation> in Melbourne
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melbourne>, Australia
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia> showing three of five 220 kV –
66 kV transformers, each with a capacity of 150 MVA

Transformers can be classified in many ways, such as the following:

* /Power rating <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_rating>/: From a

fraction of a volt-ampere (VA) to over a thousand MVA.
* /Duty of a transformer/: Continuous, short-time, intermittent,
periodic, varying.
* /Frequency range/: Power-frequency
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utility_frequency>, audio-frequency
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio_frequency>, or radio-frequency
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_frequency>.
 * /Voltage class/: From a few volts to hundreds of kilovolts.
* /Cooling type/: Dry or liquid-immersed; self-cooled, forced
air-cooled;forced oil-cooled, water-cooled.
* /Application/: power supply, impedance matching, output voltage and
current stabilizer, pulse
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulse_transformer>, circuit
isolation, power distribution
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricity_distribution>, rectifier
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rectifier>, arc furnace
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arc_furnace>, amplifier output, etc..
* /Basic magnetic form/: Core form, shell form, concentric, sandwich.
* /Constant-potential transformer descriptor/: Step-up, step-down,
isolation <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isolation_transformer>.
* /General winding configuration/: By IEC vector group
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_group>, two-winding
combinations of the phase designations delta, wye or star, and
zigzag <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zigzag_transformer>;
autotransformer <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autotransformer>,
Scott-T <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scott-T_transformer>
* /Rectifier phase-shift winding configuration/: 2-winding, 6-pulse;
3-winding, 12-pulse; . . . n-winding, [n-1]*6-pulse; polygon; etc..

Applications[edit
<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Transformer&action=edit&section=22>]

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Transformer-Limestone-Generating-Station.JPG>

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Transformer-Limestone-Generating-Station.JPG>
Transformer at the Limestone Generating Station
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limestone_Generating_Station> in Manitoba
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manitoba>, Canada
Main article: Transformer types
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformer_types>

Various specific electrical application designs require a variety of

transformer types <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformer_types>.
Although they all share the basic characteristic transformer principles,
they are customized in construction or electrical properties for certain
installation requirements or circuit conditions.

In electric power transmission

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_power_transmission>,
transformers allow transmission of electric power at high voltages,
which reduces the loss due to heating of the wires. This allows
generating plants to be located economically at a distance from
electrical consumers.^[51] <#cite_note-Heathcote1998-1-55> All but a
tiny fraction of the world's electrical power has passed through a
series of transformers by the time it reaches the consumer.^[22]
<#cite_note-nailen-26>

In many electronic devices, a transformer is used to convert voltage

from the distribution wiring to convenient values for the circuit
requirements, either directly at the power line frequency or through a
switch mode power supply
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switch_mode_power_supply>.

Signal and audio transformers are used to couple stages of amplifiers

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplifier> and to match devices such as
microphones <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microphone> and record
players <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Record_player> to the input of
amplifiers. Audio transformers allowed telephone
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephone> circuits to carry on a two-way
conversation <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybrid_coil> over a single
pair of wires. A balun <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balun> transformer
converts a signal that is referenced to ground to a signal that has
balanced voltages to ground
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balanced_line>, such as between external
cables and internal circuits. Isolation transformers prevent leakage of
current into the secondary circuit and are used in medical equipment and
at construction sites. Resonant transformers are used for coupling
between stages of radio receivers, or in high-voltage Tesla coils.

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vermogentransformator_1.GIF>
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vermogentransformator_1.GIF>
Schematic of a large oil filled power transformer 1. Tank 2. Lid 3.
Conservator tank 4. Oil level indicator 5. Buchholz relay for detecting
gas bubbles after an internal fault 6. Piping 7. Tap changer 8. Drive
motor for tap changer 9. Drive shaft for tap changer 10. High voltage
(HV) bushing 11. High voltage bushing current transformers 12. Low
voltage (LV) bushing 13. Low voltage current transformers 14. Bushing
voltage-transformer for metering 15. Core 16. Yoke of the core 17. Limbs
connect the yokes and hold them up 18. Coils 19. Internal wiring between
coils and tapchanger 20. Oil release valve 21. Vacuum valve

History[edit
<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Transformer&action=edit&section=23>]

Discovery of induction[edit
<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Transformer&action=edit&section=24>]

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Induction_experiment.png>
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Induction_experiment.png>
Faraday's experiment with induction between coils of wire^[52]
<#cite_note-56>

Electromagnetic induction
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_induction>, the principle
of the operation of the transformer, was discovered independently by
Michael Faraday <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Faraday> in 1831,
Joseph Henry <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Henry> in 1832, and
others.^[53] <#cite_note-57> ^[54] <#cite_note-58> ^[55]
<#cite_note-MacPhersonRC-59> ^[56] <#cite_note-Guarnieri2013-56-60> The
relationship between EMF and magnetic flux is an equation now known as
Faraday's law of induction
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faraday%27s_law_of_induction>:

| E | = | d Φ B d t | , {\displaystyle |{\mathcal
{E}}|=\left|{{\mathrm {d} \Phi _{\text{B}}} \over \mathrm {d}
t}\right|,} {\displaystyle |{\mathcal {E}}|=\left|{{\mathrm {d} \Phi
_{\text{B}}} \over \mathrm {d} t}\right|,}

where | E | {\displaystyle |{\mathcal {E}}|} |\mathcal{E}| is the

magnitude of the EMF in volts and Φ_B is the magnetic flux through the
circuit in webers <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weber_(unit)>.^[57]
<#cite_note-Chow171-61>

Faraday performed early experiments on induction between coils of wire,

including winding a pair of coils around an iron ring, thus creating the
first toroidal <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toroid_(geometry)>
closed-core transformer.^[56] <#cite_note-Guarnieri2013-56-60> ^[58]
<#cite_note-62> However he only applied individual pulses of current to
his transformer, and never discovered the relation between the turns
ratio and EMF in the windings.

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Induktionsapparat_hg.jpg>
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Induktionsapparat_hg.jpg>
Induction coil, 1900, Bremerhaven, Germany

Induction coils[edit
<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Transformer&action=edit&section=25>]

Main article: Induction coil <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Induction_coil>

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Faradays_transformer.png>
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Faradays_transformer.png>
Faraday's ring transformer

The first type of transformer to see wide use was the induction coil
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Induction_coil>, invented by Rev.
Nicholas Callan <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas_Callan> of
Maynooth College <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maynooth_College>,
Ireland in 1836.^[56] <#cite_note-Guarnieri2013-56-60> He was one of the
first researchers to realize the more turns the secondary winding has in
relation to the primary winding, the larger the induced secondary EMF
will be. Induction coils evolved from scientists' and inventors' efforts
to get higher voltages from batteries. Since batteries produce direct
current (DC) <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_current> rather than
AC, induction coils relied upon vibrating electrical contacts
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_contact> that regularly
interrupted the current in the primary to create the flux changes
necessary for induction. Between the 1830s and the 1870s, efforts to
build better induction coils, mostly by trial and error, slowly revealed
the basic principles of transformers.

First alternating current transformers[edit

<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Transformer&action=edit&section=26>]

By the 1870s, efficient generators

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_generator> producing alternating
current (AC) <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternating_current> were
available, and it was found AC could power an induction coil directly,
without an interrupter <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interrupter>.

In 1876, Russian engineer Pavel Yablochkov

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pavel_Yablochkov> invented a lighting
system based on a set of induction coils where the primary windings were
connected to a source of AC. The secondary windings could be connected
to several 'electric candles'
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yablochkov_candle> (arc lamps) of his own
design. The coils Yablochkov employed functioned essentially as
transformers.^[59] <#cite_note-maglab-63>

In 1878, the Ganz factory <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganz_Works>,

Budapest, Hungary, began producing equipment for electric lighting and,
by 1883, had installed over fifty systems in Austria-Hungary. Their AC
systems used arc and incandescent lamps, generators, and other
equipment.^[56] <#cite_note-Guarnieri2013-56-60> ^[60]
<#cite_note-Hughes1993-95-64>

Lucien Gaulard <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucien_Gaulard> and John

Dixon Gibbs <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Dixon_Gibbs> first
exhibited a device with an open iron core called a 'secondary generator'
in London in 1882, then sold the idea to the Westinghouse
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westinghouse_Electric_Corporation>
company in the United States.^[29] <#cite_note-allan-33> They also
exhibited the invention in Turin, Italy in 1884, where it was adopted
for an electric lighting system.^[61] <#cite_note-Uppenborn1889-65>

Early series circuit transformer distribution[edit

<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Transformer&action=edit&section=27>]

Induction coils with open magnetic circuits are inefficient at

transferring power to loads
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_load>. Until about 1880, the
paradigm for AC power transmission from a high voltage supply to a low
voltage load was a series circuit. Open-core transformers with a ratio
near 1:1 were connected with their primaries in series to allow use of a
high voltage for transmission while presenting a low voltage to the
lamps. The inherent flaw in this method was that turning off a single
lamp (or other electric device) affected the voltage supplied to all
others on the same circuit. Many adjustable transformer designs were
introduced to compensate for this problematic characteristic of the
series circuit, including those employing methods of adjusting the core
or bypassing the magnetic flux around part of a coil.^[61]
<#cite_note-Uppenborn1889-65> Efficient, practical transformer designs
did not appear until the 1880s, but within a decade, the transformer
would be instrumental in the war of the currents
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_of_the_currents>, and in seeing AC
distribution systems triumph over their DC counterparts, a position in
which they have remained dominant ever since.^[62]
<#cite_note-Coltman1988-66>

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Trafo1885.jpg>
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Trafo1885.jpg>
Shell form transformer. Sketch used by Uppenborn to describe ZBD
engineers' 1885 patents and earliest articles.^[61]
<#cite_note-Uppenborn1889-65>
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DBZ_trafo.jpg>
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DBZ_trafo.jpg>
Core form, front; shell form, back. Earliest specimens of ZBD-designed
high-efficiency constant-potential transformers manufactured at the Ganz
factory in 1885.
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ZBD_team.jpg>
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ZBD_team.jpg>
The ZBD team consisted of Károly Zipernowsky
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%A1roly_Zipernowsky>, Ottó Bláthy
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ott%C3%B3_Bl%C3%A1thy> and Miksa Déri
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miksa_D%C3%A9ri>
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:StanleyTransformer.png>
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:StanleyTransformer.png>
Stanley's 1886 design for adjustable gap open-core induction coils

Closed-core transformers and parallel power distribution[edit

<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Transformer&action=edit&section=28>]

In the autumn of 1884, Károly Zipernowsky

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%A1roly_Zipernowsky>, Ottó Bláthy
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ott%C3%B3_Bl%C3%A1thy> and Miksa Déri
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miksa_D%C3%A9ri> (ZBD), three engineers
associated with the Ganz Works
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganz_Works>, had determined that
open-core devices were impracticable, as they were incapable of reliably
regulating voltage.^[60] <#cite_note-Hughes1993-95-64> In their joint
1885 patent applications for novel transformers (later called ZBD
transformers), they described two designs with closed magnetic circuits
where copper windings were either wound around an iron wire ring core or
surrounded by an iron wire core.^[61] <#cite_note-Uppenborn1889-65> The
two designs were the first application of the two basic transformer
constructions in common use to this day, termed "core form" or "shell
form" .^[63] <#cite_note-Lucas_(2000)-67> The Ganz factory had also in
the autumn of 1884 made delivery of the world's first five
high-efficiency AC transformers, the first of these units having been
shipped on September 16, 1884.^[64] <#cite_note-Halacsy1961-68> This
first unit had been manufactured to the following specifications: 1,400
W, 40 Hz, 120:72 V, 11.6:19.4 A, ratio 1.67:1, one-phase, shell
form.^[64] <#cite_note-Halacsy1961-68>

In both designs, the magnetic flux linking the primary and secondary
windings traveled almost entirely within the confines of the iron core,
with no intentional path through air (see Toroidal cores
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformer#Toroidal_cores> below). The
new transformers were 3.4 times more efficient than the open-core
bipolar devices of Gaulard and Gibbs.^[65] <#cite_note-Jeszenszky-69>
The ZBD patents included two other major interrelated innovations: one
concerning the use of parallel connected, instead of series connected,
utilization loads, the other concerning the ability to have high turns
ratio transformers such that the supply network voltage could be much
higher (initially 1,400 to 2,000 V) than the voltage of utilization
loads (100 V initially preferred).^[66] <#cite_note-Ideal_(2008)-70>
^[67] <#cite_note-BUTE-OMIKK-BlathyOtto-71> When employed in parallel
connected electric distribution systems, closed-core transformers
finally made it technically and economically feasible to provide
electric power for lighting in homes, businesses and public spaces.
Bláthy had suggested the use of closed cores, Zipernowsky had suggested
the use of parallel shunt connections
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shunt_(electrical)>, and Déri had
performed the experiments;^[68] <#cite_note-Smil-72>

Transformers today are designed on the principles discovered by the

three engineers. They also popularized the word 'transformer' to
describe a device for altering the EMF of an electric current ^[69]
<#cite_note-73> although the term had already been in use by 1882.^[70]
<#cite_note-74> ^[71] <#cite_note-75> In 1886, the ZBD engineers
designed, and the Ganz factory supplied electrical equipment for, the
world's first power station
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_station> that used AC generators to
power a parallel connected common electrical network, the steam-powered
Rome-Cerchi power plant.^[72] <#cite_note-76>

Westinghouse improvements[edit
<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Transformer&action=edit&section=29>]

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Blachy_transformatorowe.jpg>
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Blachy_transformatorowe.jpg>
"E" shaped plates for transformer cores developed by Westinghouse

Although George Westinghouse

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Westinghouse> had bought Gaulard
and Gibbs' patents in 1885, the Edison Electric Light Company
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edison_Electric_Light_Company> held an
option on the US rights for the ZBD transformers, requiring Westinghouse
to pursue alternative designs on the same principles. He assigned to
William Stanley <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Stanley,_Jr.> the
task of developing a device for commercial use in United States.^[73]
<#cite_note-Skrabec-77> Stanley's first patented design was for
induction coils with single cores of soft iron and adjustable gaps to
regulate the EMF present in the secondary winding (see image). This
design^[74] <#cite_note-Coltman2002-78> was first used commercially in
the US in 1886^[75] <#cite_note-IEC_History-79> but Westinghouse was
intent on improving the Stanley design to make it (unlike the ZBD type)
easy and cheap to produce.^[74] <#cite_note-Coltman2002-78>

Westinghouse, Stanley and associates soon developed an easier to

manufacture core, consisting of a stack of thin 'E-shaped' iron plates,
insulated by thin sheets of paper or other insulating material. Prewound
copper coils could then be slid into place, and straight iron plates
laid in to create a closed magnetic circuit. Westinghouse otained a
patent for the new low-cost design in 1887.^[68] <#cite_note-Smil-72>

Other early transformer designs[edit

<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Transformer&action=edit&section=30>]

In 1889, Russian-born engineer Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Dolivo-Dobrovolsky> developed the
first three-phase
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three-phase_electric_power> transformer
at the Allgemeine Elektricitäts-Gesellschaft
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allgemeine_Elektricit%C3%A4ts-Gesellschaft>
('General Electricity Company') in Germany.^[76] <#cite_note-80>

In 1891, Nikola Tesla <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikola_Tesla>

invented the Tesla coil <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tesla_coil>, an
air-cored, dual-tuned resonant transformer for producing very high
voltages <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_voltage> at high
frequency.^[77] <#cite_note-PBS-81>

Audio frequency <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio_frequency>

transformers ("repeating coils
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repeating_coil>") were used by early
experimenters in the development of the telephone
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephone>.^[/citation needed
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed>/]

See also[edit
<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Transformer&action=edit&section=31>]

* High-voltage transformer fire barriers

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-voltage_transformer_fire_barriers>
* Inductive coupling <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inductive_coupling>
* Paraformer <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paraformer>
* Polyphase system <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyphase_system>
* Load profile <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Load_profile>
* Magnetization <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetization>
* Rectiformer <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rectiformer>

Notes[edit
<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Transformer&action=edit&section=32>]

1. *^ <#cite_ref-3>* With turns of the winding oriented perpendicularly

to the magnetic field lines, the flux is the product of the magnetic
flux density <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_flux_density>
and the core area, the magnetic field varying with time according to
the excitation of the primary. The expression dΦ/dt, defined as the
derivative of magnetic flux Φ with time t, provides a measure of
rate of magnetic flux in the core and hence of EMF induced in the
respective winding. The negative sign in eq. 1 & eq. 2 is consistent
with Lenz's law and Faraday's law in that by convention EMF "induced
by an /increase/ of magnetic flux linkages is /opposite/ to the
direction that would be given by the right-hand rule
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right-hand_rule>."
2. *^ <#cite_ref-5>* Although ideal transformer's winding inductances
are each infinitely high, the square root of winding inductances'
ratio is equal to the turns ratio.
3. *^ <#cite_ref-9>* This also implies the following: The net core flux
is zero, the input impedance is infinite when secondary is open and
zero when secondary is shorted; there is zero phase-shift through an
ideal transformer; input and output power and reactive volt-ampere
are each conserved; these three statements apply for any frequency
above zero and periodic waveforms are conserved.^[6]
<#cite_note-Crosby1958-145-8>
4. *^ <#cite_ref-18>* Percent impedance is the ratio of the voltage
drop in the secondary from no load to full load.^[14]
<#cite_note-Heathcote1998-4-17>

References[edit
<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Transformer&action=edit&section=33>]

1. *^ <#cite_ref-Mack_(2006)_1-0>* Mack, James E.; Shoemaker, Thomas

(2006). "Chapter 15 – Distribution Transformers"
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hill.com/downloads/products/0071467890/0071467890_ch15.pdf>
(PDF). /The Lineman's and Cableman's Handbook/ (11th ed.). New York:
McGraw-Hill. pp. 15-1 to 15-22. ISBN
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number> 0-07-146789-
0
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of A-C Wave Form, Its Determination and Standardization".
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AIEE.1942.5058456
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3. *^ <#cite_ref-4>* Skilling, Hugh Hildreth (1962).
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<#CITEREFBrennerJavid1959>, §18-1 Symbols and Polarity of Mutual
Inductance, pp.=589–590
5. *^ <#cite_ref-Brenner18-6_7-0>* Brenner & Javid 1959
<#CITEREFBrennerJavid1959>, §18-6 The Ideal Transformer, pp.=598–600
6. *^ <#cite_ref-Crosby1958-145_8-0>* Crosby 1958 <#CITEREFCrosby1958>,
p. 145
7. *^ <#cite_ref-10>* Paul A. Tipler, /Physics/, Worth Publishers,
Inc., 1976 ISBN
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X
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pp. 937-940
8. *^ <#cite_ref-Flanagan1993-1_11-0>* Flanagan, William M. (1993).
/Handbook of Transformer Design & Applications/
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(2nd ed.). McGraw-Hill. ISBN
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021291-6
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(1983). /Alternating Current Machines/ (5th ed.). London: Pitman.
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19. *^ <#cite_ref-23>* Kubo, T.; Sachs, H.; Nadel, S. (2001).
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21. *^ <#cite_ref-PF_(nd)_25-0>* "Understanding Transformer Noise"

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36. *^ <#cite_ref-40>* "Toroidal Line Power Transformers. Power Ratings
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<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8247-5393-3>.
* Pansini, Anthony (1999). /Electrical Transformers and Power
Equipment/ <https://books.google.com/?id=f77zWwA3oS4C>. CRC Press.
ISBN
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number> 978-0-88173-
311-2
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88173-311-2>.
* Parker, M. R; Ula, S.; Webb, W. E. (2005). "§2.5.5 'Transformers' &
§10.1.3 'The Ideal Transformer'"
<https://books.google.com/books?id=FdSQSAC3_EwC&pg=PA1017>. In
Whitaker, Jerry C. (ed.). /The Electronics Handbook/ (2nd ed.).
Taylor & Francis. pp. 172, 1017. ISBN
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number> 0-8493-1889-
0
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8493-1889-0>.
* Ryan, H. M. (2004). /High Voltage Engineering and Testing/
<https://books.google.com/?
id=Jg1xA65n56oC&pg=PA7&dq=High+Voltage+Engineering+and+Testing>.
CRC Press. ISBN
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number> 978-0-85296-
775-1
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85296-775-1>.

External links[edit
<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Transformer&action=edit&section=35>]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to /*Transformers

<https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Transformers>*/.

The Wikibook /School Science

<https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/School_Science>/ has a page on the topic
of: /*How to make a transformer
<https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/School_Science/How_to_make_a_transformer>*/

*General links*:

* Introduction to Current Transformers

<http://www.elkor.net/pdfs/AN0305-Current_Transformers.pdf>
* Transformer (Interactive Java applet)
<http://www.phy.hk/wiki/englishhtm/Transformer.htm> by Chui-king Ng
* (Video) Power transformer inrush current (damping)
<https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XRb1RKbv0LM>
* (Video) Power transformer over-excitation (damping)
<https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7Meu7SxBDPk>
* Three-phase transformer circuits
<http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/vol_2/chpt_10/6.html> from All
About Circuits
* Bibliography of Transformer Books

<https://web.archive.org/web/20101226101341/http://www.transformerscommittee.org/in
fo/Bibliographybooks.pdf>
by P. M. Balma / IEEE
* Transformer Handbook

<https://web.archive.org/web/20170116181834/http://new.abb.com/docs/librariesprovid
er27/default-document-library/abb_transfo_handbk.pdf?sfvrsn=2>,
212 pp.
* learnengineering.org How does a Transformer work ?

<https://web.archive.org/web/20180118010519/http://www.learnengineering.org/2014/11
/Transformer-Working-Power-and-Electrical.html>

show

* v <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Electric_transformers>
* t <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Electric_transformers>
* e
<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Template:Electric_transformers&action=edit>

Transformer topics
Concepts

* Agbioeletric <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agbioeletric>
* Balun <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balun>
* Buchholz relay <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buchholz_relay>
* Bushing <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bushing_(electrical)>
* Center tap <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_tap>
* Circle diagram <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circle_diagram>
* Condition monitoring of transformers
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Condition_monitoring_of_transformers>
* Copper loss <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper_loss>
* Dissolved gas analysis
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissolved_gas_analysis>
* Electrical insulation paper
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_insulation_paper>
* Growler <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Growler_(electrical_device)>
* High-leg delta <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-leg_delta>
* Induction regulator <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Induction_regulator>
* Leakage inductance <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leakage_inductance>
* Magnet wire <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnet_wire>
* Metadyne <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metadyne>
* Open-circuit test <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-circuit_test>
* Polarity <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polarity_(mutual_inductance)>
* Polychlorinated biphenyl
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polychlorinated_biphenyl>
* Quadrature booster <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadrature_booster>
* Resolver <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resolver_(electrical)>
* Resonant inductive coupling
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resonant_inductive_coupling>
* Severity factor <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Severity_factor>
* Short-circuit test <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short-circuit_test>
* Stacking factor <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stacking_factor>
* Synchro <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synchro>
* Tap changer <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tap_changer>
* Toroidal inductors and transformers
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toroidal_inductors_and_transformers>
* Transformer oil <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformer_oil>
* Transformer oil testing
 <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformer_oil_testing>
* Transformer utilization factor
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformer_utilization_factor>
* Vector group <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_group>

Transformers
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Transformer_Step-up_Iron_Core.svg>
Types <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformer_types>

* Amorphous metal transformer

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amorphous_metal_transformer>
* Austin transformer <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austin_transformer>
* Autotransformer <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autotransformer>
* Buck–boost transformer
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buck%E2%80%93boost_transformer>
* Capacitor voltage transformer
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitor_voltage_transformer>
* Distribution transformer
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distribution_transformer>
* Delta-wye transformer
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delta-wye_transformer>
* Energy efficient transformer
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_efficient_transformer>
* Flyback transformer <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flyback_transformer>
* Grounding transformer
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grounding_transformer>
* Instrument transformer
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrument_transformer>
o Current transformer
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Current_transformer>
o Potential transformer
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential_transformer>
* Isolation transformer
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isolation_transformer>
* Linear variable differential transformer
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_variable_differential_transformer>
* Pad-mounted transformer
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pad-mounted_transformer>
* Parametric transformer
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parametric_transformer>
* Planar transformers <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planar_transformers>
* Rotary transformer <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotary_transformer>
* Rotary variable differential transformer
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotary_variable_differential_transformer>
* Scott-T transformer <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scott-T_transformer>
* Solid-state transformer
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid-state_transformer>
* Trigger transformer <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trigger_transformer>
* Variable-frequency transformer
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable-frequency_transformer>
* Zigzag transformer <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zigzag_transformer>

Coils

* Hybrid coil <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybrid_coil>

* Induction coil <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Induction_coil>
* Oudin coil <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oudin_coil>
* Polyphase coil <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyphase_coil>
 * Repeating coil <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repeating_coil>
* Tesla coil <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tesla_coil>
* Trembler coil <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trembler_coil>

Manufacturers

* ABB Group <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ABB_Group>

* Prolec GE <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prolec_GE>
* Siemens <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siemens>
* TBEA <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TBEA>

show

* v <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Electricity_delivery>
* t <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Electricity_delivery>
* e
<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Template:Electricity_delivery&action=edit>

Electricity delivery <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricity_delivery>

Concepts

* Availability factor <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Availability_factor>

* Automatic Generation Control
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automatic_Generation_Control>
* Backfeeding <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backfeeding>
* Base load <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base_load>
* Capacity factor <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacity_factor>
* Demand factor <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demand_factor>
* Droop speed control <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Droop_speed_control>
* Economic dispatch <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_dispatch>
* Electric power <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_power>
* Demand management
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_demand_management>
* EROEI <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_returned_on_energy_invested>
* Fault <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fault_(power_engineering)>
* Home energy storage <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_energy_storage>
* Grid storage <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grid_energy_storage>
* Grid code <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grid_code>
* Grid strength <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grid_strength>
* Load factor <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Load_factor_(electrical)>
* Load following
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Load_following_power_plant>
* Merit order <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merit_order>
* Nameplate capacity <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nameplate_capacity>
* Peak demand <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peak_demand>
* Power factor <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_factor>
* Power quality <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_power_quality>
* Power-flow study <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power-flow_study>
* Repowering <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repowering>
* Utility frequency <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utility_frequency>
* Variability <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable_renewable_energy>

Sources
Nonrenewable <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-renewable_energy>

* Coal <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coal>
* Fossil fuel power station
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel_power_station>
 * Natural gas <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gas>
* Petroleum <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum>
* Nuclear <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power>
* Oil shale <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_shale>

Renewable <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renewable_energy>

* Biomass <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomass>
* Biofuel <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel>
* Geothermal <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geothermal_power>
* Hydro <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydroelectricity>
* Marine <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_energy>
o Current <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_current_power>
o Osmotic <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osmotic_power>
o Thermal <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_thermal_energy>
o Tidal <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidal_power>
o Wave <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wave_power>
* Solar <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_power>
* Wind <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_power>

Generation
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Power_station_technology>

* AC power <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AC_power>
* Cogeneration <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cogeneration>
* Combined cycle
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combined_cycle_power_plant>
* Cooling tower <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cooling_tower>
* Induction generator <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Induction_generator>
* Micro CHP <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micro_combined_heat_and_power>
* Microgeneration <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microgeneration>
* Rankine cycle <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rankine_cycle>
* Three-phase electric power
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three-phase_electric_power>
* Virtual power plant <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_power_plant>

Transmission <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_power_transmission>
and distribution <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_power_distribution>

* Demand response <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demand_response>

* Distributed generation
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributed_generation>
* Dynamic demand
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic_demand_(electric_power)>
* Electric power distribution
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_power_distribution>
* Electrical busbar system
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_busbar_system>
* Electric power system
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_power_system>
* Electric power transmission
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_power_transmission>
* Electrical grid <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_grid>
* Electrical interconnector
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_interconnector>
* High-voltage direct current
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-voltage_direct_current>
* High-voltage shore connection
 <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-voltage_shore_connection>
* Load management <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Load_management>
* Mains electricity by country
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mains_electricity_by_country>
* Power line <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overhead_power_line>
* Power station <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_station>
* Power storage <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_storage>
* Pumped hydro
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pumped-storage_hydroelectricity>
* Smart grid <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smart_grid>
* Substation <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_substation>
* Super grid <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_grid>
* Transformer
* Transmission system operator
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_system_operator> (TSO)
* Transmission tower <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_tower>
* Utility pole <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utility_pole>

Failure modes

* Blackout <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_outage> (Rolling

blackout <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolling_blackout>)
* Brownout <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brownout_(electricity)>
* Black start <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_start>
* Cascading failure

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cascading_failure#Cascading_failure_in_power_transmi
ssion>

Protective
devices

* Arc-fault circuit interrupter

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arc-fault_circuit_interrupter>
* Earth leakage circuit breaker
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_leakage_circuit_breaker>
* Residual-current device
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Residual-current_device> (GFI)
* Power-system protection
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power-system_protection>
* Protective relay <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protective_relay>
* Digital protective relay
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_protective_relay>
* Sulfur hexafluoride circuit breaker
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfur_hexafluoride_circuit_breaker>

Economics
and policies

* Carbon offset <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_offset>

* Cost of electricity by source
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cost_of_electricity_by_source>
* Ecotax <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecotax>
* Energy subsidies <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_subsidy>
* Feed-in tariff <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feed-in_tariff>
* Fossil-fuel phase-out
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel_phase-out>
 * Net metering <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Net_metering>
* Pigovian tax <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pigovian_tax>
* Renewable Energy Certificates
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renewable_Energy_Certificate_(United_States)>
* Renewable energy payments
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renewable_Energy_Payments>
* Renewable energy policy
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renewable_energy_commercialization>
* Spark/Dark/Quark/Bark spread
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spark_spread>

Statistics and Production

* List of electricity sectors

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_electricity_sectors>
* Electric energy consumption
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_energy_consumption>

Categories
Electric power distribution
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Electric_power_distribution>
Electricity economics
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Electricity_economics>
Power station technology
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Power_station_technology>
Portals
Energy <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Energy>
Renewable energy <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Renewable_energy>

show

* v <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Electronic_components>
* t <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Electronic_components>
* e
<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Template:Electronic_components&action=edit>

Electronic components <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_component>

Semiconductor
devices <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor_device>
MOS transistors <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MOSFET>

* BiCMOS <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BiCMOS>
* BioFET <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bio-FET>
* Chemical field-effect transistor
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_field-effect_transistor>
(ChemFET)
* Complementary MOS <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CMOS> (CMOS)
* Depletion-load NMOS
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depletion-load_NMOS_logic>
* Fin field-effect transistor <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FinFET>
(FinFET)
* Floating-gate MOSFET
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floating-gate_MOSFET> (FGMOS)
* Insulated-gate bipolar transistor
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insulated-gate_bipolar_transistor> (IGBT)
* ISFET <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISFET>
* LDMOS <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LDMOS>
* MOS field-effect transistor <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MOSFET>
 (MOSFET)
* Multi-gate field-effect transistor
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multigate_device> (MuGFET)
* NMOS <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NMOS_logic>
* PMOS <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMOS_logic>
* Power MOSFET <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_MOSFET>
* Thin-film transistor
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thin-film_transistor> (TFT)
* VMOS <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VMOS>

Other transistors <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor>

* Bipolar junction transistor

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipolar_junction_transistor> (BJT)
* Darlington transistor
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darlington_transistor>
* Diffusion transistor
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffusion_transistor>
* Field-effect transistor
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field-effect_transistor> (FET)
* JFET <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JFET>
* Light-emitting transistor
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light-emitting_transistor> (LET)
* Organic field-effect transistor
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_field-effect_transistor> (OFET)
* Organic light-emitting transistor
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_light-emitting_transistor> (OLET)
* Pentode transistor <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentode_transistor>
* Point-contact transistor
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point-contact_transistor>
* Programmable unijunction transistor
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmable_unijunction_transistor>
(PUT)
* Static induction transistor
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Static_induction_transistor> (SIT)
* Tetrode transistor <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrode_transistor>
* Unijunction transistor
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unijunction_transistor> (UJT)

Diodes <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diode>

* Avalanche diode <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avalanche_diode>

* Constant-current diode
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constant-current_diode> (CLD, CRD)
* Laser diode <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser_diode> (LD)
* Light-emitting diode
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light-emitting_diode> (LED)
* Organic light-emitting diode <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OLED> (OLED)
* Photodiode <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photodiode>
* PIN diode <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PIN_diode>
* Schottky diode <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schottky_diode>
* Step recovery diode <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Step_recovery_diode>
* Zener diode <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zener_diode>

Other devices

* DIAC <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DIAC>
* Heterostructure barrier varactor
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterostructure_barrier_varactor>
 * Integrated circuit
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuit> (IC)
* Memistor <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memistor>
* Memory cell <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_cell_(computing)>
* Memristor <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memristor>
* Mixed-signal integrated circuit
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mixed-signal_integrated_circuit>
* MOS integrated circuit
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MOS_integrated_circuit> (MOS IC)
* Organic semiconductor
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_semiconductor>
* Photodetector <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photodetector>
* RF CMOS <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RF_CMOS>
* Solaristor <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solaristor>
* Quantum circuit <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_circuit>
* Silicon controlled rectifier
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicon_controlled_rectifier> (SCR)
* Static induction thyristor
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Static_induction_thyristor> (SITh)
* Three-dimensional integrated circuit
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three-dimensional_integrated_circuit>
(3D IC)
* Thyristor <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thyristor>
* TRIAC <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TRIAC>
* Varicap <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varicap>

Voltage regulators <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltage_regulator>

* Linear regulator <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_regulator>

* Low-dropout regulator
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low-dropout_regulator>
* Switching regulator <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switching_regulator>
* Buck <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buck_converter>
* Boost <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boost_converter>
* Buck–boost <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buck%E2%80%93boost_converter>
* Split-pi <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Split-pi_topology>
* Ćuk <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%86uk_converter>
* SEPIC
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-ended_primary-inductor_converter>
* Charge pump <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charge_pump>
* Switched capacitor <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switched_capacitor>

Vacuum tubes <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_tube>

* Acorn tube <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acorn_tube>

* Audion <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audion>
* Beam tetrode <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beam_tetrode>
* Barretter <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hot_wire_barretter>
* Compactron <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compactron>
* Diode <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_diode>
* Fleming valve <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fleming_valve>
* Nonode <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonode>
* Nuvistor <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuvistor>
* Pentagrid <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentagrid_converter>
(Hexode, Heptode, Octode)
* Pentode <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentode>
* Photomultiplier <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photomultiplier_tube>
* Phototube <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phototube>
* Tetrode <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrode>
 * Triode <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triode>

Vacuum tubes <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_tube> (RF

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microwave>)

* Backward-wave oscillator
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backward-wave_oscillator> (BWO)
* Cavity magnetron <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cavity_magnetron>
* Crossed-field amplifier
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crossed-field_amplifier> (CFA)
* Gyrotron <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gyrotron>
* Inductive output tube
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inductive_output_tube> (IOT)
* Klystron <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klystron>
* Maser <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maser>
* Sutton tube <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sutton_tube>
* Traveling-wave tube
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traveling-wave_tube> (TWT)

Cathode ray tubes <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathode_ray_tube>

* Beam deflection tube

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beam_deflection_tube>
* Charactron <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charactron>
* Iconoscope <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iconoscope>
* Magic eye tube <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magic_eye_tube>
* Monoscope <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monoscope>
* Selectron tube <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selectron_tube>
* Storage tube <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storage_tube>
* Trochotron <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trochotron>
* Video camera tube <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_camera_tube>
* Williams tube <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Williams_tube>

Gas-filled tubes <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas-filled_tube>

* Cold cathode <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_cathode>

* Crossatron <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crossatron>
* Dekatron <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dekatron>
* Ignitron <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ignitron>
* Krytron <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krytron>
* Mercury-arc valve <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury-arc_valve>
* Neon lamp <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neon_lamp>
* Nixie tube <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nixie_tube>
* Thyratron <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thyratron>
* Trigatron <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trigatron>
* Voltage-regulator tube
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltage-regulator_tube>

Adjustable

* Potentiometer <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potentiometer>
o digital <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_potentiometer>
* Variable capacitor <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable_capacitor>
* Varicap <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varicap>

Passive <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passivity_(engineering)>

* Connector
o audio and video
 <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio_and_video_interfaces_and_connectors>
o electrical power
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AC_power_plugs_and_sockets>
o RF <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RF_connector>
* Electrolytic detector
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolytic_detector>
* Ferrite <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferrite_core>
* Fuse <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuse_(electrical)>
o resettable <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resettable_fuse>
* Resistor <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resistor>
* Switch <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switch>
* Thermistor <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermistor>
* Transformer
* Varistor <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varistor>
* Wire <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wire>
o Wollaston wire <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wollaston_wire>

Reactive <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_reactance>

* Capacitor <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitor>
o types <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitor_types>
* Ceramic resonator <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceramic_resonator>
* Crystal oscillator <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_oscillator>
* Inductor <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inductor>
* Parametron <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parametron>
* Relay <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relay>
o reed relay <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reed_relay>
o mercury switch <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_switch>

Authority control <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Authority_control>

Edit this at Wikidata <https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11658>

* GND <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_Authority_File>:
4130713-6 <https://d-nb.info/gnd/4130713-6>
* LCCN
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Control_Number>:
sh85042014 <https://id.loc.gov/authorities/subjects/sh85042014>
* NDL <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Diet_Library>: 00563086
<https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00563086>

Retrieved from
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Categories <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Category>:

* Electric power conversion

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Electric_power_conversion>
* Electric transformers
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Electric_transformers>
* 19th-century inventions
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:19th-century_inventions>

Hidden categories:

* CS1: long volume value

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1:_long_volume_value>
* CS1 German-language sources (de)
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_German-language_sources_(de)>
* All articles with unsourced statements
 <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements>
* Articles with unsourced statements from July 2009

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_Jul
y_2009>
* CS1 errors: missing periodical
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_errors:_missing_periodical>
* All articles with dead external links
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_dead_external_links>
* Articles with dead external links from July 2018

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Articles_with_dead_external_links_from_July
_2018>
* Articles with permanently dead external links

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Articles_with_permanently_dead_external_lin
ks>
* Commons category link is on Wikidata
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Commons_category_link_is_on_Wikidata>
* Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_with_GND_identifiers>
* Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_with_LCCN_identifiers>
* Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_with_NDL_identifiers>

Navigation menu

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* Talk <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:MyTalk>
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* Create account
<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Transformer>
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<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
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Variants

Views

* Read <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformer>
* Edit
 <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transformer&action=edit>
* View history
<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transformer&action=history>

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* Main page <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page>

* Contents <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents>
* Featured content
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Featured_content>
* Current events <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Current_events>
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* Donate to Wikipedia
<https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?
utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en>
* Wikipedia store <https://shop.wikimedia.org/>

Interaction

* Help <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Contents>
* About Wikipedia <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:About>
* Community portal
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal>
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* Contact page <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us>

Tools

* What links here

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Transformer>
* Related changes
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Transformer>
* Upload file <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard>
* Special pages <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:SpecialPages>
* Permanent link
<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transformer&oldid=938188055>
* Page information
<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transformer&action=info>
* Wikidata item <https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q11658>
* Cite this page
<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Transformer&id=938188055>

In other projects

* Wikimedia Commons
<https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Transformers>
 Print/export

* Create a book
<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Special:Book&bookcmd=book_creator&referer=Transformer>
* Download as PDF
<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Special:ElectronPdf&page=Transformer&action=show-download-screen>
* Printable version
<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transformer&printable=yes>

Languages

* Afrikaans <https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformator>
* Alemannisch <https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformator>
* ‫< العربية‬https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AD%D9%88%D9%84>
* Aragonés <https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformador>
* Asturianu <https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tresformador>
* Azərbaycanca <https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformator>
* ‫تۆرکجه‬
<https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA
%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1>
* বববলব
<https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE
%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AB%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0>
* Bân-lâm-gú <https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pi%C3%A0n-ap-kh%C3%AC>
* Башҡортса
<https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%84%D0%BE
%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80>
* Беларуская
<https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD
%D1%81%D1%84%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80>
* Беларуская (тарашкевіца)
<https://be-x-old.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD
%D1%81%D1%84%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80>
* Български
<https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%84%D0%BE
%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80>
* Boarisch <https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traunsfoamatoa>
* Bosanski <https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformator>
* Català <https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformador>
* Čeština <https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transform%C3%A1tor>
* Corsu <https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trasfurmadore>
* Cymraeg <https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newidydd>
* Dansk <https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformator>
* Deutsch <https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformator>
* Eesti <https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformaator>
* Ελληνικά
<https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%B5%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%83%CF%87%CE%B7%CE%BC
%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%B9%CF%83%CF%84%CE%AE%CF%82>
* Español <https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformador>
* Esperanto <https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformatoro>
* Euskara <https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformadore>
* ‫فارسی‬
<https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA
%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1>
 * Français <https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformateur_%C3%A9lectrique>
* Gaeilge <https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trasfhoirmeoir>
* Galego <https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformador>
* 한국어 <https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B3%80%EC%95%95%EA%B8%B0>
* Հայերեն
<https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8F%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%BD
%D6%86%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%80>
* हहनदद
<https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE
%E0%A4%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AB%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B0>
* Hrvatski <https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformator>
* Ido <https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformatoro>
* Bahasa Indonesia <https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformator>
* Interlingua <https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformator>
* Íslenska <https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spennubreytir>
* Italiano <https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trasformatore>
* ‫< עברית‬https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A9%D7%A0%D7%90%D7%99>
* Jawa <https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformator>
* ಕನನಡ
<https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%A6%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF
%E0%B3%81%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D_%E0%B2%AA%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D
%E0%B2%A4%E0%B2%95>
* ქართული
<https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C
%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A4%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D
%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98>
* Қазақша
<https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%84%D0%BE
%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80>
* Kiswahili <https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transfoma>
* Kreyòl ayisyen <https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transf%C3%B2mat%C3%A8>
* Кыргызча
<https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%84%D0%BE
%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80>
* Latina <https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformatrum>
* Latviešu <https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformators>
* Lietuvių <https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformatorius>
* Lumbaart <https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trasformator>
* Magyar <https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transzform%C3%A1tor>
* Македонски
<https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%84%D0%BE
%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80>
* Malagasy <https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mpanova_(haikoriam-boanaratra)>
* മലയയളള
<https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BE%E0%B5%BB
%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AB%E0%B5%8B%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%BC>
* मररठद
<https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF
%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A4_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0>
* Bahasa Melayu <https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alatubah>
* Монгол
<https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%84%D0%BE
%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80>
* မမန မဘသ
<https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9C%E1%80%BB%E1%80%BE%E1%80%95%E1%80%BA
%E1%80%90%E1%80%AC%E1%80%95%E1%80%BC%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8>
* Nederlands <https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformator>
* ननपरलद
<https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE
%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AB%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B0>
* ननपरल भरषर
<https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE
%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AB%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B0>
* 日本語 <https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%89%E5%9C%A7%E5%99%A8>
* Нохчийн
<https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%84%D0%BE
%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80>
* Nordfriisk <https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformaator>
* Norsk bokmål <https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformator>
* Norsk nynorsk <https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformator>
* Occitan <https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformador>
* ଓଡଡଆ
<https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%9F%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%B0%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC
%A8%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%B8%E0%AC%AB%E0%AC%B0%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%AE%E0%AC%B0>
* Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча <https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformator>
* ਪਪਜਜਬਬ
<https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%9F%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%BE
%E0%A8%82%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%AB%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%B0>
* ‫پنجابی‬
<https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/
%D9%B9%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%B1>
* Polski <https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformator>
* Português <https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformador>
* Qaraqalpaqsha <https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformator>
* Română <https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformator>
* Русиньскый
<https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%84%D0%BE
%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80>
* Русский
<https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%84%D0%BE
%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80>
* Scots <https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformer>
* Seeltersk <https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformator>
* Shqip <https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformator%C3%ABt>
* Simple English <https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformer>
* Slovenčina <https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transform%C3%A1tor>
* Slovenščina <https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformator>
* ‫کوردی‬
<https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%81%DB
%86%D8%B1%D9%85%DB%95%D8%B1>
* Српски / srpski
<https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%84%D0%BE
%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80>
* Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
<https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformator>
* Sunda <https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trafo>
* Suomi <https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muuntaja>
* Svenska <https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformator>
* Tagalog <https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transpormador>
* ததததத
<https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AE
%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%BF>
* Татарча/tatarça
<https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%84%D0%BE
%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80>
* తలగ
<https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%9F%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%BE
%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D%E2%80%8C%E0%B0%AB%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8D
%E0%B0%AE%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8D>
* ไทย
<https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%A1%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%AD
%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%87%E0%B9%84%E0%B8%9F%E0%B8%9F%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%B2>
* Тоҷикӣ
<https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%84%D0%BE
%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80>
* Türkçe <https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformat%C3%B6r>
* Türkmençe <https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformator>
* Українська
<https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%84%D0%BE
%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80>
* ‫< اردو‬https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A8%D8%AF%D9%91%D9%84>
* Tiếng Việt <https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bi%E1%BA%BFn_%C3%A1p>
* Winaray <https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transpormer>
* Wolof <https://wo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soppalikaay>
* 吴语 <https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%98%E5%8E%8B%E5%99%A8>
* ‫יידיש‬
<https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/
%D7%98%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%A1%D7%A4%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%9E%D7%90%D7%98%D7%90%D7%A8>
* 粵語 <https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%81%AB%E7%89%9B>
* 中文 <https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%98%E5%8E%8B%E5%99%A8>
98 more

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* This page was last edited on 29 January 2020, at 17:19 (UTC).

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