ST.

MARY’S COLLEGE SCIENCE DEPARTMENT

CHEMISTRY SBA MODULE 2019-2020

 TABLE OF CONTENTS
No. TITLE PAGE
NO. 17. ENERGETICS (HEAT OF SOLUTION) 17
1. SBA CRITERIA 1
18. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY (SAPONIFICATION) 18
2. SEPARATION TECHNIQUES 2
19. HEATING OF CARBONATES 19
3. PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY 3
20. HEATING OF NITRATES 20
4. SOLUBILITY 4
21. PLAN AND DESIGN 21
5. ANIONS 5
22. PLAN AND DESIGN: EXAMPLE 1 22
6. MOLES 6
23. PLAN AND DESIGN: EXAMPLE 2 23
7. HEAT OF NEUTRALISATION 7
24. PLAN AND DESIGN LABS 24-25
8. REACTIONS OF ACIDS 8
25. IDENTIFICATION OF CATIONS 26
9. VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS 9
26. IDENTIFICATION OF ANIONS 27
10. REACTIVITY OF METALS 10
27. IDENTIFICATION OF GASES 28.
11. REDOX TITRATION 11

12. RATES OF REACTIONS 12

13. FLAME TEST 13

14. ELECTROLYSIS (INERT) 14

15. ELECTROLYSIS (ACTIVE) 15

16. QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS (CATIONS) 16

 1

SBA CRITERIA FOR ASSESSMENT OF EACH SKILL

1. Observation/Recording/Reporting (c) Follow instructions.
You are should be to make: (d) Use materials economically.

(a) Use of appropriate format of presentation

 Appropriate headings, for example, Aim, 3. Analysis and Interpretation
Apparatus and Materials, You should be able to:
Procedure/Method, Observation, Inference
(a) Identify relationships and patterns.
 Correct terminology and expressions
(b) Make accurate calculations and logical inferences
 Proper use of tables (test not repeated in the
from data using equations where appropriate.
observation column, inferences not confused
(c) Predict data
with observations)
(d) Evaluate data (including sources of errors)
 Graphs appropriately labeled, appropriate
scale used, accurate plotting of points, best
straight line or smooth curve (not 4. Planning and Designing
necessarily including all points). You should be able to:
(b) Makes accurate recordings and observations.
(a) Suggest an appropriate hypothesis and states it
appropriately, that is, in a form in which it could be
2. Manipulation/Measurement tested.
You are should be able to: (b) Design suitable and feasible methods of testing their
own or other hypothesis.
(a) Use basic laboratory equipment with competence
(c) Suggest controls where appropriate and variable to
and skill, and takes accurate readings, for example,
be manipulated.
balance, thermometer, measuring cylinder, burette,
(d) State expected results and interprets them.
pipette, timer, syringe, reagent, bottles, Bunsen
(e) List precautions and possible sources of error.
burner.
(b) Show mastery of laboratory techniques, for example,
filtration, crystallization, distillation (simple and
fractional), paper chromatography, titration, heating
of solids and liquids in test tubes, gas testing.
 2

TITLE: SEPARATION TECHNIQUES SKILL ASSESSED: AI

Aim: To separate salt from a sand and salt mixture Procedure

1. Add 100 cm3 of water to sample D and stir using a glass

Apparatus and Materials rod making sure that all the salt dissolves.

2. Using a funnel, filter paper and conical flask, separate

 3
100 cm measuring cylinder the solution from the sand.
 250 cm3 conical flask
 250 cm3 beaker 3. Describe the appearance of the mixture before filtering, the
 Bunsen burner residue and filtrate.
 Glass rod
4. Pour the filtrate in an evaporating dish.
 Filter funnel
 Filter paper
5. Boil the solution until the volume of the solution is about
 5 g of sample D (mixture of sand and salt) 25 cm3.
 100 cm3 beaker
 Evaporating dish 6. Leave to cool overnight.

7. Check the next morning and describe what is seen.

Results

Describe the appearance of:

 Mixture before filtering
 The residue
 The filtrate
 The shape and colour of the crystals
 3

TITLE: PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY SKILL ASSESSED: O/R/R

Aim: To determine the components of a black ink. touch. When the spot is dried, apply some more of the dye
and dry again. The spot should be no larger than about 0.5
Apparatus and Materials
cm in diameter.
 Black ink
 Chromatography paper 2. Place about 20 cm3 of distilled water into a 500 cm3 and
 Fine capillary tube or dropper cover it with a piece of aluminum foil.
 500 cm3 beaker with cover e.g. aluminum foil
 Measuring cylinder 3. Place the chromatography paper into the beaker folding the
 Beaker edge over the beaker.
 Ruler
4. Allow the water to rise up the paper until it reaches near the
top of the beaker.

5. Remove the paper from the beaker and dry it in a stream of

air. Mark with a pencil the position of each component and
the distance the water moved from the origin (the solvent
front).

Treatment of results
Procedure 1. How many components are present in black ink?
1. Draw a horizontal pencil line about 1.5 cm from the bottom
edge of the chromatography paper. This is the origin. 2. Find the Rf (retention factor) of each component as follows:

2. Apply the black ink to the pencil line using the fine Rf value = distance moved by the component from origin
capillary tube as follows. Touch the capillary tube to the distance moved by the solvent from origin
surface of the black ink so that only a little is drawn up the
tube and apply the dye to paper using a quick 3. Which of the dyes in black ink is more soluble in water?
Explain your answer.
 4

TITLE: SOLUBILITY SKILL ASSESSED: O/R/R

Aim: To investigate how the solubility of potassium nitrate 5. Repeat the procedure, adding further 2.0 cm3 portions of
crystals varies with temperature. water to obtain a total of seven readings.

Apparatus and Materials Results

 Boiling tube Volume of Temperature /oC Solubility/ g per 100
 15.0 g of potassium nitrate water/ cm3 cm3 of water
 Thermometer 10.0
 250 cm3 beaker to act as a water
12.0
 50 cm3 burette
 Clamp stand 14.0
 Stirring rod 16.0
 Bunsen burner
Procedure 18.0
20.0
1. Using a burette, add 10.0 cm3 of distilled water to the
potassium nitrate in the boiling tube. 22.0

2. Clamp the boiling tube and its contents vertically in water Solubility of potassium nitrate (g/100 g water) =
bath and warm carefully, while stirring, until all the solid 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
× 100
dissolves. 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

3. Place the thermometer into the boiling tube and after a few Assume 1 cm3 = 1 g
minutes remove the boiling tube from the water bath.
Allow the boiling tube and its contents to cool, stirring
gently with the thermometer. Record the temperature at Treatment of results
which crystals first appear.
1. Plot a graph of solubility of potassium nitrate in g per 100
3
4. Add to the contents of the boiling tube a further 2.0 cm of cm3 of water against temperature in oC.
distilled water and repeat the above procedure, noting the
temperature at which the crystals first appear. 2. What deductions can you draw from the graph?
 5

TITLE: ANIONS SKILL ASSESSED:

Aim: To determine which anion is present in each solid Treatment of results
Apparatus and Materials 1. Record your results in a tabular form as shown below.
 A rack of test tubes
Observations
 Dropper Test
 Silver nitrate solution FA9 FA10 FA11
 Ammonia solution Add silver nitrate
 FA9 solution
 FA10
 FA11 Exposure to sunlight
Procedure Add aqueous
ammonium solution
1. Make a solution of FA9 by dissolving a small amount of
the solid in a test tube.
2. Identify the halides present in FA9, FA10 and FA11.
2. Add silver nitrate to the test tube containing FA9 solution. 3. Give reasons for your answer.
3. Exposure the solution to sunlight.
4. Add some aqueous ammonia solution to the test tube until
no further change is observed.
Repeat steps 1 – 4 using FA10 and FA11
 6

TITLE: MOLES SKILL ASSESSED:

Introduction: Because atoms are so small, we would need really Interpretation (Calculations):
larger numbers to count them. Working with really
big numbers can be frustrating. Because of this, in
chemistry we have a unit called a “mole”. A mole 1. Chalk is comprised primarily of Calcium Carbonate. The
of atoms means 6.02 x 10 23 atoms. (Similar to how formula for Calcium Carbonate is CaCO3. How many of
a dozen donuts means 12 donuts). which atoms comprise CaCO3?
Aim: To determine the number of moles of chalk are used to
write your name. 2. Use your periodic table to calculate the molar mass of
Materials: Piece of chalk calcium carbonate.

Electronic Scale
3. Calculate the number of moles of chalk used to write your
Procedure: name. Show your work.

1. Obtain a piece of chalk.

Hint: use the grams of chalk used and the molar mass you
2. Measure and record the mass of your chalk. calculated.

3. Write your full name.

4. Again, measure and record the mass of your chalk. Source of errors?
Results:

A Mass of chalk before writing your name (g)

B Mass of chalk after writing your name (g)
Grams of chalk required to write your name
C
(g) (A – B)
 7

TITLE: HEAT OF NEUTRALISATION SKILL ASSESSED: M/M & A/I

Aim: to investigate temperature changes during neutralization. Plot a graph of volumes of solution B added against the
average temperatures calculated.
Materials and Apparatus
 50ml measuring cylinder
 Plastic beaker or cup
 Thermometer
 100cm3 of 1.0M sodium hydroxide (A)
 100cm3 of 1.0M hydrochloric acid (B)

Procedure:
1. Measure 25 cm3 of solution A using a measuring cylinder.
2. Pour this solution B into a plastic cup.
3. Fill a burette with solution B.
4. Add 5cm3 of solution B to solution A. Stir and record highest
temperature observed.
5. Repeat step 4 above until 50cm3 of solution B has been added.
6. Repeat steps 1-5 and calculate the average temperatures
Results:
Total Volume of B Temperatures (0C)
added (cm3)
1st run 2nd run Average
 8

TITLE: REACTIONS OF ACIDS SKILL ASSESSED: O/R/R

Aim: To investigate the reactions of hydrochloric acid
Test Observations Inference
Apparatus and Materials:
Add four drops of universal
 a rack of test tubes indicator to a test tube
 Bunsen burner containing dilute hydrochloric
 Dilute hydrochloric acid acid.
 Universal indicator
 Blue litmus paper To another test containing
 Magnesium dilute hydrochloric acid, add a
 Zinc strip of magnesium.
 Ammonium carbonate powder
Test the gas given off with a
 Sodium hydrogen carbonate
lighted splint.
 Limewater
 Splint To a test tube containing dilute
hydrochloric acid, add a scale
of zinc.
Test the gas given off with a
lighted splint.

To a test tube of dilute

hydrochloric acid, add a spatula
of ammonium carbonate.
Test the gas with lime water.

To a test tube of dilute

hydrochloric acid, add a spatula
of sodium hydrogen carbonate.
Test the gas with limewater.
 9

TITLE: VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS SKILL ASSESSED: M/M& A/I

Aim: To find the concentration of sodium hydroxide solution Results

Titration
Burette readings/cm3
Apparatus and Materials: Rough 1 2 3
 Sodium hydroxide solution Final reading
 0.1 mol dm-3 hydrochloric acid solution
Initial reading
 conical flasks
 50 cm3 burette Volume of HCl used /
 25 cm3 pipette cm3
 Methyl orange indicator
Treatment of Results
1. Calculate the average volume of hydrochloric acid.
Procedure
1. Wash the burette thoroughly with liquid detergent. 2. Find the number of moles of hydrochloric acid in the
Wash it with tap water and then with distilled water and average volume used.
finally rinsed with hydrochloric acid solution. Fill the
burette to convenient mark with hydrochloric acid. 3. Write a balanced equation for the reaction.
Record this reading.
4. Use the equation to find the number of moles in 25 cm3 of
2. Pipette 25.0 cm3 of sodium hydroxide into a conical sodium hydroxide solution.
flask, add 1 – 2 drops of methyl orange indicator, and
add hydrochloric acid from the burette until the end- 5. Calculate the concentration of sodium hydroxide solution
point is reached. Record this reading. in
(i) mol dm-3
3. Repeat the titration as many times as convenient, until (ii) g dm-3
consecutive burette readings differ by no more than ±
0.10 cm3. 6. Identify errors in the experiment.
 10

TITLE: REACTIVITY OF METALS SKILL ASSESSED: A/I

Aim: determine the position of metals in the Reactivity Series Type of Metal Observations
based on their reactivity with acids.
Iron
Materials and Apparatus:
 Copper
 Zinc Copper
 Iron
 Magnesium
Magnesium
 Hydrochloric acid
 Wooden splints
 Test tubes Zinc
 Test tube racks
 Measuring cylinder

Procedure:
1. Measure 5 cm3 of hydrochloric acid using a measuring cylinder.
2. Pour this volume of acid into a clean test tube.
3. Place a small sample of iron into the test tube containing the
hydrochloric acid.
4. Immediately place a lighted splint into the mouth of the test tube
and listen carefully.
5. Record all observations in a suitable table.
 11

TITLE: REDOX TITRATION SKILL ASSESSED: M/M & A/I

Aim: to determine the concentration of iron (II) sulphate solution
by a titrimetric method using potassium permanganate solution.
Materials and Apparatus:
 50 ml burette
 25ml pipette
 250 ml conical flask
 Test tube rack
 Dilute sodium hydroxide solution
 BA1- iron (II) sulphate solution
 BA2- 0.02M potassium permanganate solution

Procedure:
1. Using a pipette, transfer 25cm3 of BA1 to a conical flask
and titrate with BA2from the burette. The end-point is
reached when the solution just turns pink.

2. Do at least two more accurate titrations. Record your

results in a suitable table.

3. Using your results, calculate the concentration of BA1 in

mol dm-3 and g dm-3.

Results
Readings/cm3 Trial 1 2
Initial
Final
Volume Used
 12

TITLE: RATES OF REACTIONS SKILL ASSESSED: O/R/R

Aim: To investigate the effect of temperature on the reaction 6. Repeat steps 1 to 5, using the mixture of sodium
between sodium thiosulphate and dilute sulphuric acid. thiosulphate and water at about 5 oC lower than before.

Apparatus and Materials 7. Carry out five (5) further experiments, increasing the
temperature by about 5 oC each time.
 0.1 mol dm-3 sodium thiosulphate (VI)
 2.0 mol dm-3 nitric acid
Results
 Stop clock
 Measuring cylinders 1. Tabulate your results as follows:
 250 cm3 beaker
Temperature/oC Time/s Rate (1/s)
 Sheet of paper with a cross drawn on it
 Thermometer 30
 Bunsen burner
35
Procedure 40
3
1. Using measuring cylinders, transfer 50 cm of water to a 45
250 cm3 beaker, then add 25 cm3 of the sodium
thiosulphate solution. 50

2. Heat the mixture to a temperature of about 60 oC, while 55

stirring gently.
60
3. Place the hot mixture on the sheet of paper so that the cross
is covered by the beaker.
2. Plot a graph of temperature against time.
3
4. Add 25 cm of nitric acid to it noting the time at which the 3. What deductions can you make from your graph?
nitric acid is added.
4. Identify any errors of the experiment.
5. View the cross through the solution and record the time at
which the precipitate of the sulphur just obscures the cross.
 13

TITLE: FLAME TEST SKILL ASSESSED: O/R/R

Aim: to identify the metal ions present in different salts based on Results:
flame color.
Salt Sample Flame Colour Metal Ion
Materials and Apparatus: M1
M2
 Unknown metals M3
o M1 M4
o M2 M5
o M3
M6
o M4
o M5
 Concentrated hydrochloric acid
 Nichrome wire
 Bunsen burner

Procedure:
1. Sanitize the nichrome wire by dipping it into a sample of
concentrated HCl and hold it in a flame for a few seconds.
2. Take a small sample of M1 using the end of the nichrome
wire, and place the sample into the flame.
3. Observe and record the colour of the flame.
4. Repeat steps 1-3 for the other metals
 14

TITLE: ELECTROLYSIS OF COPPER(II)SULPHATE

USING GRAPHITE ELECTRODES SKILL ASSESSED: O/R/R
Aim: to investigate the decomposition of copper(II) sulphate
solution during electrolysis using inert (graphite) electrodes.
Materials and Apparatus:
 Graphite electrodes
 Copper(II) sulphate solution (electrolyte)
 Power supply
 Wires
 Switch/key

Procedure:
1. Set up the electrolytic cell circuit as shown in the diagram
below:
2. Observe and record all activity and changes occurring at each
of the electrodes.
3. Observe and record any changes occurring in the electrolyte.
Results:
Site Observations
Anode
Cathode
Electrolyte
 15

TITLE: ELECTROLYSIS OF COPPER(II)SULPHATE

USING COPPER ELECTRODES SKILL ASSESSED: A/I
Aim: to investigate the decomposition of copper(II) sulphate
solution during electrolysis using active (copper) electrodes.
Materials and Apparatus:
 Copper electrodes
 Copper(II) sulphate solution (electrolyte)
 Power supply
 Wires
 Switch/key

Procedure:
1. Measure and record the initial mass of each electrode.
2. Set up the electrolytic cell circuit as shown in the diagram
below:
3. Allow the current to flow through the electrolyte for 10
minutes and record all observations.
4. Measure and record the final mass of each electrode.
5. Calculate the change in mass of each electrode.
Results:
Electrode Initial Final Change in
Mass(g) Mass(g) Mass (g)
Anode
Cathode
 16

TITLE: QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS (CATIONS) SKILL ASSESSED: A/I

Aim: (i) To investigate some reactions of the ions lead,
Make a solution of B, by
zinc and aluminium. dissolving a small amount of
the solid in a large test tube.
(ii) To identify which cation is present in each solid. Divide solution B into three
portions
Apparatus and Materials
To one portion of solution B,
 A rack of test tubes add sodium hydroxide, drop by
 Bunsen burner drop.
 Large test tubes Add excess sodium hydroxide.
 Potassium iodide solution To another portion of solution
 Dilute sodium hydroxide B, add ammonium solution
drop by drop.
 Ammonia solution
Add excess ammonia solution.
 Solutions A, B and C
To another portion of solution
Tests Observation Inference B, add potassium iodide.
Make a solution of C, by
Make a solution of A, by dissolving a small amount of
dissolving a small amount of the solid in a large test tube.
the solid in a large test tube.
Divide solution C into three
Divide solution A into three portions
portions
To one portion of solution C,
To one portion of solution A, add sodium hydroxide, drop by
add sodium hydroxide, drop by drop.
drop. Add excess sodium hydroxide.
Add excess sodium hydroxide.
To another portion of solution
To another portion of solution C, add ammonium solution
A, add ammonium solution drop by drop.
drop by drop. Add excess ammonia solution.
Add excess ammonia solution.
To another portion of solution
To another portion of solution C, add potassium iodide.
A, add potassium iodide.
 17

TITLE: ENERGETICS (HEAT OF SOLUTION) SKILL ASSESSED: A/I

Mass of ammonium nitrate = g
Aim: to calculate the heat of solution of sodium nitrate and
sodium hydroxide. Volume of water = cm3
Materials and Apparatus:
Temperature change, ∆T = T2 – T1 = o
C
 Sodium nitrate
 Sodium hydroxide
2. Calculate the heat change associated with dissolving 8 g
 Polystyrene cup (as a calorimeter) of ammonium nitrate.
 Measuring cylinder
 Electronic balance Assumption: Density of the solution = 1.0 g cm-3
 Stirring rod Specific heat capacity of the solution = 4.2 Jg-1K-1
 Thermometer
3. Calculate the number of moles in 8 g of ammonium
Procedure nitrate.
1. Using a measuring cylinder, place 100 cm3 of distilled water
4. Calculate the heat change of 1 mole of ammonium
into a clean polystyrene cup. After 5 minutes, record the nitrate.
temperature of the water in the calorimeter. Let this
temperature be T1 oC. 5. Is the reaction endothermic or exothermic?
2. Measure 5g of sodium nitrate using an electronic balance. Add
6. Draw an energy profile diagram for the reaction.
the sodium nitrate all at once to the water and stir gently using
a stirring rod.
7. Identify the sources of error of this experiment.
3. Place the thermometer into the water and record the highest
temperature reached. Let this temperature be T2 0C.
4. Repeat steps 1-3 for sodium hydroxide.

Treatment of results
1. Record your results as follows:
 18

TITLE: ORGANIC CHEMISTRY (SOAP) SKILL ASSESSED: M/M

Aim: to prepare a sample of soap. 4. Carefully add the 14.0 g of NaOH (pre-weighed) to the water and
stir gently with the glass stir rod until everything is dissolved. Ensure
Materials and Apparatus: that the glass stirring rod remains in the beaker.
 Bunsen burner 5. Measure out 70 g of olive oil and add to the beaker containing
 Gloves coconut oil.
 Glass rod
6. Slowly trickle the lye into the oil, stirring with the glass stir rod
 Tripod stand
continuously to emulsify. Once all the lye is added, continue to stir
 Beakers carefully but vigorously for about 5 minutes.
 Wire gauze
 Petri dish 7. Stir carefully but vigorously until the oils and lye solution have
 Perfume emulsified and the mixture begins to thicken.
 Colouring 8. Add drop by drop of sulphuric acid, testing each time with indicator
 Sodium hydroxide paper to ensure the mixture was neutralized.
 Olive oil
 Coconut oil 9. Add food colouring and perfume to the mixture.
 Electronic balance 10. Pour your soap solution into petri dishes and leave to cure.
 Dilute sulphuric acid
 Beaker
 Measuring cylinder
 Glass stirring rod

Procedure:
1. Measure out 30 g into a 250 mL beaker.
2. Heat the coconut oil until it melts completely; you may need to
swirl to get everything to melt. Once it is completely melted turn off
the Bunsen burner.
3. Measure out 33 g of water into the 150 mL beaker.
 19

TITLE: HEATING OF CARBONATES SKILL ASSESSED: A/I

Aim: To observe the effect of heat on copper (II) carbonate. N.B. Make note of any colour changes that occur during the
experiment.
Apparatus and Materials
 Copper (II) carbonate Interpretation
 Bunsen burner  Name the type of reaction taken place and give ONE
 Test tube holder reason for your answer.
 Metal spatula  Identify with reasons, the gas produced after heating
 Test tubes Copper (II) carbonate
 Electronic balance
 Calcium hydroxide solution
Calculations:
Procedure: (a) Calculate the mass of copper (II) carbonate used in the
experiment.
1. Weigh the empty test tube. (b) Calculate the number of moles in the mass of copper (II)
2. Add copper (II) carbonate to the test tube and weigh the carbonate used.
test tube again. (c) Write a balanced equation for the heating of copper (II)
3. Heat the test tube until there is no further change. carbonate.
4. Test the gas given off with lime water. (d) From the equation, calculate the number of moles in the
5. Record your results. residue formed after heating.
(e) From, the answer in (d) above, calculate the mass of the
Results: residue formed after heating. This is the theoretical mass.
(f) Calculate the actual mass of the residue formed after heating.
A Mass of empty test tube (g) (g) Calculate the percentage yield of the residue formed after
heating.
B Mass of test tube + copper (II) carbonate (g) Percentage yield = actual mass x 100%
theoretical mass
C Mass of copper (II) carbonate (g) (B – A)
D Mass of residue after heating + test tube (g)
(h) Identify ONE source of error.
E Mass of residue (g) (D – A)
 20

TITLE: HEATING OF NITRATES SKILLS ASSESSED:A/I

Aim: To observe the effect of heat on lead (II) nitrate. N.B. Make note of any colour changes that occur during the
experiment.
Apparatus and Materials
Interpretation
 Lead (II) nitrate
 Bunsen burner  Name the type of reaction taken place and give ONE
 Test tube holder reason for your answer.
 Metal spatula  Identify with reasons, the gases produced after heating
 Test tubes Lead (II) nitrate
 Electronic balance
 Blue litmus paper
Calculations:
 Splint
(a) Calculate the mass of lead (II) nitrate used in the
Method experiment.
(b) Calculate the number of moles in the mass of lead (II)
1. Weigh the empty test tube. nitrate used.
2. Add lead (II) nitrate to the test tube and weigh the test (c) Write a balanced equation for the heating of lead (II) nitrate.
tube again. (d) From the equation, calculate the number of moles in the
3. Heat the test tube until there is no further change. residue formed after heating.
4. Test the gas given off with a blue litmus paper and a (e) From, the answer in (d) above, calculate the mass of the
glowing splint. residue formed after heating. This is the theoretical mass.
5. Record your results. (f) Calculate the actual mass of the residue formed after
heating.
Results: (g) Calculate the percentage yield of the residue formed after
heating.
A Mass of empty test tube (g)
B Mass of test tube + lead (II) nitrate (g) Percentage yield = actual mass x 100%
theoretical mass
C Mass of lead (II) nitrate (g) (B – A)
(h) Identify ONE source of error.
D Mass of residue after heating + test tube (g)
E Mass of residue (g) (D – A)
 21

PLAN AND DESIGN

General Criteria:
5. Expected Results: This is a prediction of the
1. Hypothesis: This must be based on observations and observations that should be made, based on the
clearly stated in a form that is testable. hypothesis that is being tested. A statement of how these
results will support the hypothesis written.
2. Aim: Must be linked to the hypothesis.

3. Apparatus and Materials: These must be listed and 6. Limitations, sources of errors: A restrictive condition or
appropriate for the method or procedure suggested. variable which cannot be controlled and which can affect
the validity of the results.
4. Method: This involves:
 Steps to be followed in appropriate sequence/ how the
apparatus and materials will be used. 7. Assumptions: The supposition that something is true. A
statement taken for granted without evidence.
 Precautions
 Treatment of variables
 Type of data to be collected and how they will be
treated

Variables
 Manipulated/Independent Variable – the variable
that is manipulated or change in a controlled way.
 Responding/Dependent Variable – the variable that
is being measured. It is a change that results from
manipulation of the independent variable.
 Controlled/Constant Variable – The variables that
are kept constant throughout the experiment so that
they do not affect the outcome of the experiment.
 22

EXAMPLE 1
Plan and design an investigation to find out if ‘black ink’ from Variables
different brands of permanent markers contains the same dyes
Controlled Variable - size of chromatography paper
(permanent means that the ink is insoluble in water).
No. of drops of ink used
Hypothesis The black ink from different brands of permanent
markers contains the same dyes. Volume of alcohol

Aim To separate the dyes from four different brands of Manipulated Variable - Brands of permanent markers
black ink using paper chromatography. Responding Variable - Colours and position of dye.
Apparatus and Materials
o Four identical boiling tubes with stoppers and hooks Expected Results
o Rubbing alcohol
o Measuring cylinder If the colour of the spots and their Rf values are the same for each
o Chromatography paper brand then the hypothesis is supported (valid).
o Four (4) different brands of permanent markers
Procedure
 Cut four (4) pieces of chromatography paper 2 cm x 8 cm. Limitations/ Source of Errors
 Draw a line 1 ½ cm from one end of each piece of paper. If the newspaper is used instead of chromatography paper, the
 Using one piece of paper for each brand of ink, put one spot spots may not separate completely. The spot of ink may not have
 of the same size in the middle of the line drawn. been exactly the same size.
 Measure the volume of the alcohol needed and pour this
volume into each test tube. Label the tubes W, X, Y and Z to
match the brands.
Assumptions
 When the alcohol reaches the top of the strip, remove each
chromatogram and allow it to dry. Rubbing alcohol is an effective solvent for the different brands of
 Note the colours and positions of the spots. black ink.
 Calculate the retention factor (Rf value) for each spot.
 23

EXAMPLE 2
Problem Statement: 3. Prepare the water to the following temperatures, 0
degrees Celsius (use ice), room temp 30 degrees Celsius,
You are given a salt and asked if the salt will dissolve in 4. 60 degrees Celsius (warm slightly) and 90 degrees
water more at high temperatures. Celsius (boil).
5. Place the salt in each container of water and stir for 20
Hypothesis: The salt will dissolve more at room temperature. seconds.
6. Allow the residue to dry and reweigh.
Aim: To determine the solubility of a salt at different
temperatures Variables:
Apparatus and Materials:
Control variable: volume of water, amount of salt and time
 Electronic balance
 Sodium chloride Manipulated Variable: temperature
 Measuring cylinder
Responding Variable: the amount of salt that remains
 Thermometer
undissolved.
 Bunsen burner
 Tripod Expected Results: If the mass of the residue is highest at
 Gauze room temperature then the hypothesis is valid.
 Stirring rod
 Beakers Limitation: It was difficult to remove all the sodium chloride
 Filter paper from the beaker.
 Funnel
Source of Error: Parallox error
Method:
Assumption: High temperatures increase the solubility of
1. Weigh out four equal amounts 15 g of the salt. sodium chloride.
2. Measure out four equal volumes of 20 cm3 of water.
 24

PLAN AND DESIGN LABS

Melting Temperature Acids, Bases and Salts
Stearic acid has a melting temperature of 66 oC. Trudy claims 1. Vinegar is widely used to add flavour to salads and other
that an impurity such as glucose raises the melting temperature foods. There are many brands of vinegar available on the
of stearic acid. Design an experiment to test Trudy’s claim. market. They all contain ethanoic acid as the active
ingredient.
Chromatography
Figure 1 shows the labels of the three brands of vinegar
1. You have been given four leaves, each of a different that can be found on a supermarket shelf. They all claim
shade of green. Plan and design an investigation to find the contents contain 5% ethanoic acid, which essentially
out if all of the leaves contain the same pigments. is 50 g per dm3 of ethanoic acid.

2. Plan and design an experiment which could be used to

determine whether water-soluble ink made by two
different manufacturers consist of the same components.

3. Andre’s ballpoint leaked ink, an organic dye, onto his

shirt. The picture below shows the suggestion that four of
his friends made to remove the stain. Andre asks you, as a
good science student, which of these suggestions he
should try. You decide to plan and design an Figure 1. Three brands of vinegar
investigation to answer his question. Plan and design an experiment to determine whether the
three brands of vinegar do in fact contain the same
concentration of ethanoic acid.

2. Plan and design and investigation to find out if green

skinned fruits are more sour than coloured fruits.
3. Aunt Mavis, who routinely makes home-made vinegar,
boasts that her vinegar contains a higher percentage of
 25

ethanoic acid than commercial brands of vinegar. Design experimental data obtained from the heating of water by
an experiment to test the validity of Aunt Mavis’s claim. the fuels.
Using the information above, plan and design an
4. Sally, a cleaner was preparing to clean Miss George’s experiment to determine whether kerosene and
home. She usually cleans the kettle with vinegar and the methylated spirit produce the same amount of energy on
tiles with muriatic acid (hydrochloric acid). However, the combustion.
labels from the bottle containing the cleaning agents were
removed. Sally attempted to distinguish these two 2. Charles, reacting to what he learnt on the top
cleaning agents by smelling, however she was still “Energetics”, hypothesized that the energy value of an
unsure. alcohol depends on the number of carbon atoms it
Plan and design an experiment that can be used to contains. Design an experiment to test the validity of
undertake in the laboratory to determine which bottle Charles’s hypothesis.
contains the vinegar and which contains muriatic acid.

Alcohols
Electrolysis
You are provided with three brands of beer, namely Carib,
Compounds can be classified as electrolytes and non- Heineken and Piton. Plan and design an investigation to find out
electrolytes. Electrolytes can be further classified as weak or which beer has the highest percentage alcohol content.
strong electrolytes.
You are provided with sodium chloride, hydrochloric acid,
sucrose and ethanoic acid. Plan and design an experiment to
determine the respective category of the compounds.

Energetics

1. Kerosene and methylated spirit are used as fuels in lamps

(burners) in the laboratory. When lit, these fuels burn
(undergo combustion) to produce heat. The heat of
combustion of these fuels can be determined from
 26

IDENTIFICATION OF CATIONS
Test with NH4OH(aq)
Test with NaOH(aq)
Cation Observation with NH4OH (aq) Ionic Equations
Cation Observation with NaOH (aq) Ionic Equations
Ca2+ No precipitate.
Ca2+(aq) + 2OH-
White precipitate. Precipitate White precipitate. Precipitate
Ca2+ (aq) → Zn2+
insoluble in excess NaOH. soluble in excess NH4OH
Ca(OH)2(s)
Al3+(aq) + 2OH-
Al3+
White precipitate. Precipitate (aq) →
Pb2+ Al3+
soluble in excess NaOH White precipitate. Precipitate Al(OH)3(s)
Zn2+ Pb2+
insoluble in excess NH4OH Pb2+(aq) + 2OH-
Cu2+(aq) + 2OH-
Blue precipitate. Precipitate (aq) →
Cu2+ (aq) →
insoluble in excess NaOH Pb(OH)2(s)
Cu(OH)2(s)
Blue precipitate. Precipitate
Dirty green precipitate. Fe2+(aq) + 2OH- 2+
Cu soluble in excess NH4OH
Fe2+ Precipitate insoluble in excess (aq) →
firming a deep blue solution.
NaOH Fe(OH)2(s)
Dirty green precipitate. Fe2+(aq) + 2OH-
Fe3+(aq) + 3OH-
Orange precipitate. Precipitate Fe2+ Precipitate insoluble in excess (aq) →
Fe3+ (aq) →
insoluble in excess NaOH NH4OH Fe(OH)2(s)
Fe(OH)3(s)
Fe3+(aq) + 3OH-
No precipitate – NH3(g) evolved Orange precipitate. Precipitate
NH4+ Fe3+ (aq) →
on warming insoluble in excess NH4OH
Fe(OH)3(s)

Test with potassium iodide, KI

Cation Observation Ionic Equation
Al3+ No precipitate ---

Pb2+ Bright yellow Pb2+(aq) + 2I-

precipitate (PbI2) (aq) → PbI2(s)
 27

IDENTIFICATION OF ANIONS
Effect of Heat
Effect of silver nitrate, AgNO3(aq) followed by NH4OH(aq)
Heat a sample of solid in a dry test tube.
Anions Effect of Effect of Ionic Equations
Anions Observation Inference AgNO3(aq) NH4OH(aq)
CO32- Gas evolve forms white CO2(g) Cl- White Precipitate Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
precipitate with lime water, precipitate – soluble → AgCl(s)
Ca(OH)2 turns purple in
sunlight
Br- Cream Precipitate Ag+(aq) + Br-(aq)
NO3- (of K Gas evolved relights a glowing O2(g) precipitate slightly soluble → AgBr(s)
or Na) splint. I- Pale yellow Precipitate Ag+(aq) + I-(aq)
precipitate insoluble → AgI(s)

O2(g) and
NO2(g) Effect of barium nitrate, Ba(NO3)2(aq)or barium chloride,
-
NO3 (of Gas evolved relights a glowing BaCl2(aq) solution followed by dilute acid.
Ca and splint, also a red brown
below in colour gas evolved turns blue
the litmus red then bleaches it. Anions Effect of Effect of Ionic Equations
reactivity Ba(NO3)2(aq) or HCl(aq) or
BaCl2(aq) HNO3(aq)
series)
CO32- White precipitate Precipitate Ba2+(aq) + CO32- (aq)
SO32- Gas evolved has a chocking SO2(g) soluble → BaCO3(s)
smell, turns acidified SO32- White precipitate Precipitate Ba2+ (aq) + SO32- (aq)
KMnO4(aq) from purple to soluble → BaSO3 (s)
colourless, turns acidified SO42- White precipitate Precipitate Ba2+ (aq) + SO42- (aq)
K2Cr2O7(aq) from orange to insoluble → BaSO4 (s)
green.
 28

IDENTIFICATION OF GASES

Gas Test Observation

Oxygen, O2 Use a glowing splint Relights a glowing splint
Hydrogen, H2 Use a lighted splint ‘Popping’ sound with a lighted splint
Carbon dioxide, CO2 Use calcium hydroxide (limewater) A white precipitate forms
Red litmus turns blue
Add red litmus paper
Ammonia, NH3
Dense with fumes with hydrogen chloride
Add hydrogen chloride gas
gas
Acidified potassium manganate (VII) solution Turns from purple to colorless
Sulphur dioxide, SO2
Acidified potassium dichromate (VI) solution Turns from orange to green
Chlorine, Cl2 Add blue litmus paper Turns blue litmus red then bleaches it
Red-brown colour gas turns blue litmus red
Bromine, Br2 Add blue litmus paper
then bleaches it
Add anhydrous cobalt(II) chloride Turns from blue to pink
Water vapour, H2O
Add anhydrous cobalt (II) sulphate Turns from white to blue
Nitrogen dioxide, NO2 Add blue litmus paper Red-brown colour gas turns blue litmus red
Hydrogen chloride, HCl Add ammonia gas Dense with fumes with ammonia gas