COMPUTER NETWORKS

SNS COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

COIMBATORE – 35

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SIENCE AND ENGINEERING (UG & PG)

Third Year Computer Science and Engineering, 5th Semester

2 Marks Question and Answer

Subject Code & Name: 080230019 & COMPUTER NETWORKS

Prepared by: T. Mythili Lecturer/CSE R.Durga Lecturer/CSE

UNIT-I

1. What is mean by data communication?

Data communication is the exchange of data (in the form of 1s and 0s) between two
devices via some form of transmission medium (such as a wire cable).

2. What are the three criteria necessary for an effective and efficient network?

The most important criteria are performance, reliability and security. Performance of
the network depends on number of users, type of transmission medium, the capabilities of the
connected h/w and the efficiency of the s/w.

Reliability is measured by frequency of failure, the time it takes a link to recover

from the failure and the network’s robustness in a catastrophe.

Security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access and viruses.

3. What are the three fundamental characteristics determine the effectiveness

of the data communication system?

The effectiveness of the data communication system depends on three

fundamental characteristics:

Delivery: The system must deliver data to the correct destination.

Accuracy: The system must deliver data accurately.

Timeliness: The system must deliver data in a timely manner.

4. What are the advantages of distributed processing?

Advantages of distributed processing include security/encapsulation, distributed

databases, faster problem solving, security through redundancy and collaborative

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processing.

5. Why are protocols needed?

In networks, communication occurs between the entities in different systems. Two

entities cannot just send bit streams to each other and expect to be understood. For

communication, the entities must agree on a protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that

govern data communication.

6. Why are standards needed?

Co-ordination across the nodes of a network is necessary for an efficient

communication. If there are no standards, difficulties arise. A standard provides a

model or basis for development to which everyone has agreed.

7. For n devices in a network, what is the number of cable links required for a

mesh and ring topology?

Mesh topology – n (n-1)/2

Ring topology – n

8. What is the difference between a passive and an active hub?

An active hub contains a repeater that regenerates the received bit patterns before

sending them out. A passive hub provides a simple physical connection between the

attached devices.

9. Distinguish between peer-to-peer relationship and a primary-secondary

relationship.

Peer-to-peer relationship: All the devices share the link equally.

Primary-secondary relationship: One device controls traffic and the others must

transmit through it.

10. Assume 6 devices are arranged in a mesh topology. How many cables are

needed? How many ports are needed for each device?

Number of cables=n (n-1)/2=6(6-1)/2=15

Number of ports per device=n-1=6-1=5

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11. Group the OSI layers by function.

The seven layers of the OSI model belonging to three subgroups. Physical, data

link and network layers are the network support layers; they deal with the physical

aspects of moving data from one device to another. Session, presentation and

application layers are the user support layers; they allow interoperability among

unrelated software systems. The transport layer ensures end-to-end reliable data

transmission.

12. What are header and trailers and how do they get added and removed?

Each layer in the sending machine adds its own information to the message it

receives from the layer just above it and passes the whole package to the layer just

below it. This information is added in the form of headers or trailers. Headers are

added to the message at the layers 6,5,4,3, and 2. A trailer is added at layer2. At the

receiving machine, the headers or trailers attached to the data unit at the

corresponding sending layers are removed, and actions appropriate to that layer are

taken.

13. The transport layer creates a communication between the source and

destination. What are the three events involved in a connection?

Creating a connection involves three steps: connection establishment, data

transfer and connection release.

14. Mention the various architecture in a LAN.

LAN is dominated by 4 architectures.

a) Ethernet

b) Token bus

c) Token ring

d) Fiber distributed data interface (FDDI)

15. Define a standard 802.3

IEEE 802.3 supports a LAN standard originally developed by Xerox and later

extended by a joint venture between digital equipment corporations. Intel Corporation

and Xerox. This was called ‘Ethernet’.

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16. List the most command kinds of Base band 802.3 LAN.

a) 10 Base 5

b) 10 Base 2

c) 10 Base T

d) 1 Base 5

e) 100 Base T

17. Mention the different kinds of Ethernet networks.

a) Switched Ethernet

b) Fast Ethernet

c) Gigabit Ethernet

18. Write short notes on FDDI.

Fiber distributed data interface is a local areas. Network protocol standardized by

ANSI and ITU-7. It supports data rates of 100 Mbps and provides a high-speed

alternative to Ethernet and token ring access method used here is token passing.

19.Categories of Networks.

LAN

WAN

MAN

20.Token ring :

Topology is ring.Data flow in unidirection.

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UNIT-II

DATA LINK LAYER

1.What are the responsibilities of data link layer?

Specific responsibilities of data link layer include the following.

a) Framing

b) Physical addressing

c) Flow control

d) Error control

e) Access control

2. Mention the types of errors.

There are 2 types of errors

a) Single-bit error.

b) Burst-bit error.

3. Define the following terms.

a) Single bit error: The term single bit error means that only one bit of a given data unit (such
as byte character/data unit or packet) is changed from 1 to 0 or from 0 to 1.

b) Burst error: Means that 2 or more bits in the data unit have changed from 1 to 0 from 0 to

4. What is redundancy?

It is the error detecting mechanism, which means a shorter group of bits or extra

bits may be appended at the destination of each unit.

5. List out the available detection methods.

There are 4 types of redundancy checks are used in data communication.

a) Vertical redundancy checks (VRC).

b) Longitudinal redundancy checks (LRC).

c) Cyclic redundancy checks (CRC).

d) Checksum.

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6. Write short notes on VRC.

The most common and least expensive mechanism for error detection is the vertical
redundancy check (VRC) often called a parity check. In this technique a redundant bit called
a parity bit, is appended to every data unit so, that the total number of 0’s in the unit
(including the parity bit) becomes even.

7. Write short notes on LRC.

In longitudinal redundancy check (LRC), a block of bits is divided into rows and a redundant
row of bits is added to the whole block.

8. Write short notes on CRC.

The third and most powerful of the redundancy checking techniques is the cyclic redundancy
checks (CRC) CRC is based on binary division. Here a sequence of redundant bits, called the
CRC remainder is appended to the end of data unit.

9. Write short notes on CRC generator.

A CRC generator uses a modulo-2 division.

a) In the first step, the 4 bit divisor is subtracted from the first 4 bit of the dividend.

b) Each bit of the divisor is subtracted from the corresponding bit of the dividend without
disturbing the next higher bit.

10. Write short notes on CRC checker.

A CRC checker functions exactly like a generator. After receiving the data appended with the
CRC it does the same modulo-2 division. If the remainder is all 0’s the CRC is dropped and
the data accepted. Otherwise, the received stream of bits is discarded and the dates are resent.

11. Give the essential properties for polynomial.

A polynomial should be selected to have at least the following properties.

a) It should not be

b) It should be divisible by(x+1).

12. Define checksum.

The error detection method used by the higher layer protocol is called checksum.

Checksum is based on the concept of redundancy.

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13. What are the steps followed in checksum generator?

The sender follows these steps

a) The units are divided into k sections each of n bits.

b) All sections are added together using 2’s complement to get the sum.

c) The sum is complemented and become the checksum.

d) The checksum is sent with the data.

14. List out the steps followed is checksum checker side.

The receiver must follow these steps

a) The unit is divided into k section each of n bits.

b) All sections are added together using 1’s complement to get the sum.

c) The sum is complemented.

d) If the result is zero.

15. Write short notes on error correction.

It is the mechanism to correct the errors and it can be handled in 2 ways.

a) When an error is discovered, the receiver can have the

sender retransmit the entire data unit.

b) A receiver can use an error correcting coder, which

automatically corrects certain errors.

16. Mention the types of error correcting methods.

There are 2 error-correcting methods.

a) Single bit error correction

b) Burst error correction.

17. What is the purpose of hamming code?

A hamming code can be designed to correct burst errors of certain lengths.

So the simple strategy used by the hamming code to correct single bit errors must

be redesigned to be applicable for multiple bit correction.

18. Define flow control.

Flow control refers to a set of procedures used to restrict the amount of

data. The sender can send before waiting for acknowledgment.

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19. What is a buffer?

Each receiving device has a block of memory called a buffer, reserved for

storing incoming data until they are processed.

20. Mention the categories of flow control.

There are 2 methods have been developed to control flow of data across

communication links.

a) Stop and wait- send one from at a time.

b) Sliding window- send several frames at a time.

21. What is the function of stop and wait flow control?

In this method, the sender sends one frame and waits for an

acknowledgement before sending.

22. Mention the advantage and disadvantage of stop and wait flow control.

Advantage: simplicity

Disadvantage: inefficiency.

23. Define ARQ.

Error control in the data link layer is based on Automatic repeat request

(ARQ), which means retransmission of data in 3 cases.

a) Damaged frame

b) Lost frame

c) Lost acknowledgment.

24. Mention the function of go-back N-ARQ.

It is the popular mechanism for continuous transmission error control. In the

method, if our frame is lost or damaged, all frames sent since the last frame

acknowledged are retransmitted.

25. What is selective reject ARQ?

In selective reject ARQ only the specific damaged or lost frame is retransmitted.

If a frame is corrupted in transit, a NAK is returned and the frame is resent out of

sequence.

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26. Define HDLC.

It is a bit-oriented data link protocol designed to support both half-duplex and full

duplex communication over point to point and midpoint links.

27. List the types of stations is HDLC.

HDLC differentiates between 3 types of stations.

a) Primary

b) Secondary

c) Combined

28. Define configuration.

The bond configuration refers to the relationship of hardware devices on a link.

29. List the various ways of station configuration.

The stations are configured in 3 ways

a) Unbalanced configuration

b) Symmetrical configuration

c) Balanced configuration

30. What are the different communication modes in HDLC?

HDLC supports 3 modes of communication between stations.

a) Normal response mode (NRM)

b) Asynchronous response mode (ARM)

c) Asynchronous balanced mode (ABM)

31. Mention the types of frames in HDLC.

There are 3 types of HDLC frames.

a) Information frames (I-frames)

b) Supervisory frames (S-frames)

c) Unnumbered frames (U-frames)

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32. Give the usage of I, S, U frames.

I frames – used to transport user data and control information relating to user data.

S frames – used only to transport control information, primarily data link layer

and error controls.

U frames – reserved for systems management.

33. Write the types of frame fields contained in HDLC.

Each frame in HDLC may contain up to 6 fields.

a) Beginning flag field

b) An address field

c) A control field

d) An information field

e) A frame check sequence (FCS) field

f) An ending flag field.

34. What is meant by bit stuffing?

Bit stuffing is the process of adding one extra 0 whenever there are 5 consecutive

in the data so that the receiver doesn’t mistake the data for a flag.

35. What is piggy backing?

Piggy backing means combining data to sent and acknowledgement of the

frame received in one single frame.

Piggy backing can save bandwidth because the overhead from a data

frame and an ACK frame can be combined into just one frame

36. Name the four types of S-frames?

The four types of S-frames are

Receive ready(RR).The value of the code sub field is 00

Receive not ready(RNR). The value of the code sub field is 10

Reject(REJ). The value of the code sub field is 01

Selective reject(SREJ). The value of the code sub field is 11

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37. Name the five categories of U-frames?

The five categories of U-frames are

_ Mode setting

_ Unnumbered exchange

_ Disconnection.

_ Initialization mode.

_ Miscellaneous mode

38. Describe the three HDLC station types?

The three HDLC station types are:

Primary station: The primary station has the complete control of the link. The

Primary station sends commands to the secondary station.

Secondary station: The secondary station sends responses.

Combined station: The combined station is one which acts either as a primary or a

Secondary, depending upon the nature and direction of the transmission.

Combined station sends both commands and responses.

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UNIT III

NETWORK LAYER

1. What are the network support layers and the user support layers?

Network support layers:

The network support layers are Physical layer, Data link layer and

Network layer. These deals with electrical specifications, physical connection,

transport timing and reliability.

User support layers:

The user support layers are: Session layer, Presentation layer,

Application layer. These allow interoperability among unrelated software system.

2. With a neat diagram explain the relationship of IEEE Project to the OSI model?

The IEEE has subdivided the data link layer into two sub layers:

* Logical link control (LLC)

* Medium access control (MAC)

LLC is non-architecture specific. The MAC sub layer contains a number

of distinct modules ,each carries proprietary information specific to the

LAN product being used.

3. What are the functions of LLC?

The IEEE project 802 model takes the structure of an HDLC frame and divides it

into 2 sets of functions. One set contains the end user portion of the HDLC frame - the

logical address, control information, and data. These functions are handled by the IEEE

802.2 logical link control (LLC) protocol.

4. What are the functions of MAC?

MAC sub layer resolves the contention for the shared media. It contains

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synchronization, flag, flow and error control specifications necessary to move

information from one place to another, as well as the physical address of the next station to
receive and route a packet.

5. What is protocol data unit?

The data unit in the LLC level is called Protocol Data Unit (PDU). It contains four

fields.

• Destination Service Point

Address (DSAP)

• Source Service Access Point

Other layers

Network

Data link

Physical

Other layers

Network

Logical Link Control

Media Access Control

Physical

DSAP SSAP Control Information

• Control field

• Information field

6. What are headers and trailers and how do they get added and removed?

The control data added to the beginning of a data is called headers. The

control data added to the end of a data is called trailers. At the sending machine, when

the message passes through the layers each layer adds the headers or trailers. At the

receiving machine, each layer removes the data meant for it and passes the rest to the

next layer.

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7. What are the responsibilities of network layer?

The network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of

packet across multiple network links. The specific responsibilities of network layer

include the following:

• Logical addressing.

• Routing.

8. What is a virtual circuit?

A logical circuit made between the sending and receiving computers. The

connection is made after both computers do handshaking. After the connection, all

packets follow the same route and arrive in sequence.

9. What are data grams?

In datagram approach, each packet is treated independently from all others. Even

when one packet represents just a place of a multipacket transmission, the network treats it
although it existed alone. Packets in this technology are referred to as datagram.

10. What are the two types of implementation formats in virtual circuits?

Virtual circuit transmission is implemented in 2 formats.

• Switched virtual circuit

• Permanent virtual circuit.

11. What is meant by switched virtual circuit?

Switched virtual circuit format is comparable conceptually to dial-up line in

circuit switching. In this method, a virtual circuit is created whenever it is needed and

exits only for the duration of specific exchange.

12. What is meant by Permanent virtual circuit?

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Permanent virtual circuits are comparable to leased lines in circuit switching.

In this method, the same virtual circuit is provided between two uses on a continuous

basis. The circuit is dedicated to the specific uses.

13. Define Routers.

Routers relay packets among multiple interconnected networks. They Route

packets from one network to any of a number of potential destination networks on

internet routers operate in the physical, data link and network layer of OSI model.

14. What is meant by hop count?

The pathway requiring the smallest number of relays, it is called hop-count

routing, in which every link is considered to be of equal length and given the value one.

15. How can the routing be classified?

The routing can be classified as,

• Adaptive routing

• Non-adaptive routing.

16. What is time-to-live or packet lifetime?

As the time-to-live field is generated, each packet is marked with a lifetime,

usually the number of hops that are allowed before a packet is considered lost and

accordingly, destroyed. The time-to-live determines the lifetime of a packet.

17. What is meant by brouter?

A brouter is a single protocol or multiprotocol router that sometimes act as a

router and sometimes act as a bridge.

18. Write the keys for understanding the distance vector routing.

The three keys for understanding the algorithm are

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• Knowledge about the whole networks

• Routing only to neighbors

• Information sharing at regular intervals

19. Write the keys for understanding the link state routing.

The three keys for understanding the algorithm are

• Knowledge about the neighborhood.

• Routing to all neighbors.

• Information sharing when there is a range.

20. How the packet cost referred in distance vector and link state routing?

In distance vector routing, cost refer to hop count while in case of link state

routing, cost is a weighted value based on a variety of factors such as security levels, traffic
or the state of the link.

21. How the routers get the information about neighbor?

A router gets its information about its neighbors by periodically sending them a

short greeting packets. If the neighborhood responds to the greeting as expected, it is

assumed to be alive and functioning. If it dose not, a change is assumed to have occurred and
the sending router then alerts the rest of the network in its next LSP.

22. What are the four internetworking devices?

The four internetworking devices are,

• Repeaters

• Bridges

• Routers

• Gateway

23. Define IP address.

IP address is the 3-bit number for representing a host or system in the network.

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One portion of the IP address indicates a networking and the other represents the host in

a network.

24. What is Token Bus?

Token Bus is a physical bus that operates as a logical ring using tokens.

Here stations are logically organized into a ring. A token is passed among stations. If a

station wants to send data, it must wait and capture the token. Like Ethernet, station

communicates via a common bus.

25. What is token passing?

Stations may attempt to send data multiple times before a transmission

makes it onto a link. This redundancy may create delays of indeterminable length if the

traffic is heavy. Token ring resolves this uncertainty by requiring that stations take turns
sending data. Each station may transmit only during its turn and may send only one frame
during each turn. The mechanism that coordinates this rotation is called token passing.

26. Define Masking?

Masking is the process that extracts the address of the physical network

from an IP address.

27. What are the rules of boundary-level masking?

The rules of boundary-level masking

• The bytes in the IP address that corresponds to 255 in the mask

will be repeated in the subnetwork address

• The bytes in the IP address that corresponds to 0 in the mask will

change to 0 in the subnetwork address

28. What are the rules of nonboundary-level masking?

• The bytes in the IP address that corresponds to 255 in the mask

will be repeated in the subnetwork address

• The bytes in the IP address that corresponds to 0 in the mask will

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change to 0 in the subnetwork address

• For other bytes, use the bit-wise AND operator

29. Define Gateway.

A device used to connect two separate networks that we different

communication protocols.

30. What is LSP?

In link state routing, a small packet containing routing information sent by

a router to all other router by a packet called link

UNIT IV

TRANSPORT LAYER

1. What is function of transport layer?

The protocol in the transport layer takes care in the delivery of data from

one application program on one device to an application program on another

device. They act as a link between the upper layer protocols and the services

provided by the lower layer.

2. What are the duties of the transport layer?

The services provided by the transport layer

End-to- end delivery

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Addressing

Reliable delivery

Flow control

Multiplexing

3. What is the difference between network layer delivery and the transport

layer delivery?

Network layer delivery Transport layer delivery

The network layer is responsible for

the the source-to-destination

delivery of packet

across multiple network links.

The transport layer is responsible for

source-to-destination delivery of the

entire message.

4. What are the four aspects related to the reliable delivery of data?

The four aspects are,

Error control

Sequence control

Loss control

Duplication control

5. What is meant by segment?

At the sending and receiving end of the transmission, TCP divides long

transmissions into smaller data units and packages each into a frame called a

segment.

6. What is meant by segmentation?

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When the size of the data unit received from the upper layer is too long for

the network layer datagram or data link layer frame to handle, the transport

protocol divides it into smaller usable blocks. The dividing process is called

segmentation.

7. What is meant by Concatenation?

The size of the data unit belonging to a single session are so small that

several can fit together into a single datagram or frame, the transport protocol

combines them into a single data unit. The combining process is called

concatenation.

8. What are the types of multiplexing?

The types of multiplexing are,

Upward multiplexing

Downward multiplexing

9. What are the two possible transport services?

Two basic types of transport services are,

Connection service

Connectionless services

10. The transport layer creates the connection between source and destination.

What are the three events involved in the connection?

For security , the transport layer may create a connection between the two

end ports. A connection is a single logical path between the source and

destination that is associated with all packets in a message. Creating a connection

involves three steps:

• Connection establishment

• Data transfer & Connection release.

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11. What are the techniques used in multiplexing?

The three basic techniques of multiplexing are,

Frequency-division multiplexing

Time-division multiplexing

Wave-division multiplexing

12. What is meant by congestion?

Congestion in a network occur if user send data into the network at a rate

greater than that allowed by network resources.

13. Why the congestion occur in network?

Congestion occur because the switches in a network have a limited buffer

size to store arrived packets.

14. How will the congestion be avoided?

The congestion may be avoided by two bits

BECN - Backward Explicit Congestion Notification

FECN - Forward Explicit Congestion Notification

15. What is the function of BECN BIT?

The BECN bit warns the sender of congestion in network. The sender can

respond to this warning by simply reducing the data rate.

16. What is the function of FECN?

The FECN bit is used to warn the receiver of congestion in the network.

The sender and receiver are communicating with each other and are using some

types of flow control at a higher level.

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17. What is meant by quality of service?

The quality of service defines a set of attributes related to the performance

of the connection. For each connection, the user can request a particular attribute

each service class is associated with a set of attributes.

18. What are the two categories of QoS attributes?

The two main categories are

User Oriented

Network Oriented

19. List out the user related attributes?

User related attributes are

SCR – Sustainable Cell Rate

PCR – Peak Cell Rate

MCR- Minimum Cell Rate

CVDT – Cell Variation Delay Tolerance

20. What are the networks related attributes?

The network related attributes are,

Cell loss ratio (CLR)

Cell transfer delay (CTD)

Cell delay variation (CDV)

Cell error ratio (CER)

21. What is frame?

A frame consists of one complete cycle of time slots, including one or

more slot dedicated to each sending device.

22. What is interleaving?

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The switch moves from device to device at a constant rate and fixed order.

This process is called interleaving.

23. What is framing bits?

One or more synchronization bits are usually added to the beginning of

each frame. These bitts are called framing bits.

24. What is the purpose of Domain Name System?

Domain Name System can map a name to an address and conversely an address to

name.

25. Discuss the three main division of the domain name space.

Domain name space is divided into three different sections: generic domains,

country domains & inverse domain.

Generic domain: Define registered hosts according to their generic behavior, uses

generic suffixes.

Country domain: Uses two characters to identify a country as the last suffix.

Inverse domain: Finds the domain name given the IP address.

25. Discuss the TCP connections needed in FTP.

FTP establishes two connections between the hosts. One connection is used for

data transfer, the other for control information. The control connection uses very

simple rules of communication. The data connection needs more complex rules due to

the variety of data types transferred.

26. Discuss the basic model of FTP.

The client has three components: the user interface, the client control process, and

the client data transfer process. The server has two components: the server control

process and the server data transfer process. The control connection is made between

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the control processes. The data connection is made between the data transfer

processes.

27. What is the function of SMTP?

The TCP/IP protocol supports electronic mail on the Internet is called Simple

Mail Transfer (SMTP). It is a system for sending messages to other computer users

based on e-mail addresses. SMTP provides mail exchange between users on the same

or different computers.

28. What is the difference between a user agent (UA) and a mail transfer agent

(MTA)?

The UA prepares the message, creates the envelope, and puts the message in the

envelope. The MTA transfers the mail across the Internet.

29. How does MIME enhance SMTP?

MIME is a supplementary protocol that allows non-ASCII data to be sent through

SMTP. MIME transforms non-ASCII data at the sender site to NVT ASCII data and

deliverers it to the client SMTP to be sent through the Internet. The server SMTP at

the receiving side receives the NVT ASCII data and delivers it to MIME to be

transformed back to the original data.

30. Why is an application such as POP needed for electronic messaging?

Workstations interact with the SMTP host which receives the mail on behalf of

every host in the organization, to retrieve messages by using a client-server protocol

such as Post Office Protocol , version 3(POP3). Although POP3 is used to download

messages from the server, the SMTP client still needed on the desktop to forward

messages from the workstation user to its SMTP mail server.

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31. Give the format of HTTP response message.

Status Line

Headers

A Blank Line

Body

(present only in

some messages)

Request Line

Headers

A Blank Line

Body

32. Write down the three types of WWW documents.

The documents in the WWW can be grouped into three broad categories: static,

dynamic and active.

Static: Fixed-content documents that are created and stored in a server.

Dynamic: Created by web server whenever a browser requests the document.

Active: A program to be run at the client side.

33. What is the purpose of HTML?

HTML is a computer language for specifying the contents and format of a web

document. It allows additional text to include codes that define fonts, layouts,

embedded graphics and hypertext links.

34. Define CGI.

CGI is a standard for communication between HTTP servers and executable

programs. It is used in crating dynamic documents.

35. Name four factors needed for a secure network.

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Privacy: The sender and the receiver expect confidentiality.

Authentication: The receiver is sure of the sender’s identity and that an imposter has

not sent the message.

Integrity: The data must arrive at the receiver exactly as it was sent.

Non-Reputation: The receiver must able to prove that a received message came from

a specific sender.

36. How is a secret key different from public key?

In secret key, the same key is used by both parties. The sender uses this key and

an encryption algorithm to encrypt data; the receiver uses the same key and the

corresponding decryption algorithm to decrypt the data.

In public key, there are two keys: a private key and a public key. The private key

is kept by the receiver. The public key is announced to the public.

36. What is a digital signature?

Digital signature is a method to authenticate the sender of a message. It is similar

to that of signing transactions documents when you do business with a bank. In

network transactions, you can create an equivalent of an electronic or digital signature

by the way you send data.

37. What are the advantages & disadvantages of public key encryption?

Advantages:

a) Remove the restriction of a shared secret key between two entities. Here each

entity can create a pair of keys, keep the private one, and publicly distribute the

other one.

b) The no. of keys needed is reduced tremendously. For one million users to

communicate, only two million keys are needed.

Disadvantage:

If you use large numbers the method to be effective. Calculating the cipher text using

the long keys takes a lot of time. So it is not recommended for large amounts of text.

38. What are the advantages & disadvantages of secret key encryption?

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Advantage:

Secret Key algorithms are efficient: it takes less time to encrypt a message. The

reason is that the key is usually smaller. So it is used to encrypt or decrypt long

messages.

Disadvantages:

a) Each pair of users must have a secret key. If N people in world want to use this

method, there needs to be N (N-1)/2 secret keys. For one million people to

communicate, a half-billion secret keys are needed.

b) The distribution of the keys between two parties can be difficult.

39. Define permutation.

Permutation is transposition in bit level.

Straight permutation: The no. of bits in the input and output are preserved.

Compressed permutation: The no. of bits is reduced (some of the bits are dropped).

Expanded permutation: The no. of bits is increased (some bits are repeated).

40. Define substitutional & transpositional encryption.

Substitutional: A character level encryption in which each character is replaced by

another character in the set.

Transpositional: A Character level encryption in which the characters retain their

plaintext but the position of the character chang

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