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The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn - Literary Analysis

“‘Ransomed? What’s that?’ ‘... it means that we keep them till they’re dead’” (10). This dialogue reflects Twain’s witty personality.
Mark Twain, a great American novelist, exploits his humor, realism, and satire in his unique writing style in The Adventures of
Huckleberry Finn. Mark Twain, born in 1835, wrote numerous books throughout his lifetime. Many of his books include humor;
they also contain deep cynicism and satire on society. Mark Twain, the author of The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, exemplifies
his aspects of writing humor, realism, and satire throughout the characters and situations in his great American novel.
Mark Twain applies humor in the various episodes throughout the book to keep the reader laughing and make the story interesting.
The first humorous episode occurs when Huck Finn astonishes Jim with stories of kings. Jim had only heard of King Solomon,
whom he considers a fool for wanting to chop a baby in half and adds, “‘Yit dey say Sollermun de wises’ man dat ever live’. I doan’
take no stock in dat’” (75). Next, the author introduces the Grangerfords as Huck goes ashore and unexpectedly encounters this
family. Huck learns about a feud occurring between the two biggest families in town: the Grangerfords and the Sheperdsons. When
Huck asks Buck about the feud, Buck replies, “’... a feud is this way: A man has a quarrel with another man, and kills him; then that
other man’s brother kills him; then the other brothers, on both sides, goes for one another; then the cousins chip in – and by and by
everybody’s killed off, and there ain’t no more feud’” (105). A duel breaks out one day between the families and Huck leaves town,
heading for the river where he rejoins Jim, and they continue down the Mississippi. Another humorous episode appears n the novel
on the Phelps plantation. Huck learns that the king has sold Jim to the Phelps family, relatives of Tom Sawyer. The Phelps family
mistakes Huck for Tom Sawyer. When Tom meets with Aunt Sally, he “... [reaches] over and [kisses] Aunt Sally on the mouth”
(219) This comes as a surprises to her and Tom explains that he “[thinks] [she] [likes] it” (219) Later, Huck runs into Tom on the
way into town and the two make up another story about their identities. The two then devise a plan to rescue Jim. They use Jim as a
prisoner and make him go through jail escaping clichés. While going through these rituals he replies “‘I never knowed b’ fo’ ‘twas
so much bother and trouble to be a prisoner’” (252). In the end, though, Tom reveals that Jim owns himself. Twain uses humor as a
way to add realism to multiple situations.
Mark Twain employs several examples of realism in the way he wrote The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. Twain explores the
gullibility of society when the duke and king go to the camp meeting and collect money from the poor, unsuspecting, church-going
people. The king makes up a story about his profession as a pirate who lost his crew at sea, to which the people respond saying,
“‘Take up a collection for him, take up a collection!’” (128). Twain uses deceit, lying, and hypocrisy throughout the novel, which
appear in various chapters. Twain also reveals examples of realism through the dialect the characters use in the novel. In his book,
Twain utilizes the real dialect used at the time, which further demonstrates the realist qualities which he possesses. Throughout the
book, Twain includes many different dialects including “the Missouri Negro dialect; the extremest form of the backwoods
Southwestern dialect; the ordinary ‘Pike County’ dialect, and four modified varieties of the last” (2). Other examples of realism
occur throughout the setting. The story takes place in St. Petersburg and on the Mississippi, near Twain’s place of birth. In
particular, Mark Twain makes use of the episodes of realism as a way to satirize society.
Satire, another element in Twains writing, occurs many times throughout his novel as well. A convincing example of satire occurs in
the first chapter when Huck says, “[b]y and by they fetched the niggers in and had prayers, and then everybody was off to bed” (5).
This pokes fun at the fact that Miss Watson tries to become a better Christian and a better person but still owns slaves and considers
them property. Another satisfactory example of satire occurs when Pap becomes outraged at the thought of a black man having the
opportunity to vote. However, the black man actually has more education than Pap (27). Twain uses the Boggs-Sherburn event to
include more satire. When Boggs enters the story he says he has come to murder Colonel Sherburn. Sherburn then proceeds to shoot
Boggs and the townspeople plan to lynch him. Sherburn laughs in their faces and says to them, “‘you are – cowards’” (142). Finally
the crowd breaks up and moves on (142). Huck reflects on this incident and says “... the pitifulest thing out is a mob” (142). Another
prime example of satire occurs when Huck goes to the Phelps plantation and sees the two frauds, the king and the duke, tarred and
feathered. He points out that “[h]uman beings can be awful cruel to one another” (222). Mark Twain includes numerous examples of
satire throughout the novel.
Through the use of humor, realism, and satire, Twain illustrates these aspects of his writing style. His style portrays the flaws in
society and how pre-Civil War people treat each other. Mark Twain, one of the great American novelists of the nineteenth century,
uses his books to teach others about life in the 1840s.

Huckleberry Finn Analysis

Although there are several themes that are apparent in Mark Twain’s The Adventures Huckleberry Finn, there
is one theme that is more distinguished throughout the course of the novel than any other. This satirical view
of Twain’s is apparent through his story of Huckleberry Finn. Mark Twain uses satire to convey his views on
the failings and evils of society by poking fun at the institutions of religion, education, and slavery. This
satirical view of Twain’s is apparent through his story of Huckleberry Finn.

Religion is one of the key recipients of Twain's satire throughout the novel. Huck is forced by Ms. Watson to
read and learn about the important people in The Bible, and within the first pages of the book we discover
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Huck is not fond of the widow or her lectures. Twain uses Huck to reveal his idea that people put so much
devotion into the works of long-gone ancestors of The Bible that they ignore other moral accomplishments of
the present day. It is shown that religious people seem to be blind to the realities of modern civilization, and
are living their lives according to old morals. This is why Huck mentions that the widow does not see any
good in his works, and regardless of what Huck feels, his good deeds are not a

...
The youngest Grangerford grows up in a world of feuds, family picnics, and Sunday sermons that are
appreciated but rarely followed and never questions the ways of his family. This family lives their lives by
tradition, and the fact that the feud is a tradition justifies its needless, pointless violence for them. As Mark
Twain once said, “I believe I have no prejudices whatsoever. Another time, Pap is ranting about an educated
black and insists that he is superior to the colored man, even though he himself has no education and, is a
drunk. This novel also shows that recognition of a human being is sometimes unintentionally ignored, as seen
through religion and education, yet very deliberate through the torment of slavery. After this, Huck begins to
truly consider the fact that Jim is smart, “I never see such a nigger…. nything honorable, like biblical events,
in the eyes of his elders. By using this feud as an example, Twain shows that people will blindly follow what
they have been raised on without stopping to think about the consequences. Huck admires the Grangerfords’
principles, and the interest they placed in good manners, delicious food, and attractive possessions. The
reasons for the rivalries between the two families have been forgotten. This idea is brought to the reader’s
attention when Col. All I need to know is that a man is a member of the human race. The Shepherdsons done
the same” (110).

Common topics in this essay:

Huck Jim, Mark Twain, Bible Huck, Twain Huck, Grangerfords Huck, Mark Twains, Deacon Winn,
Grangerford Shepherdsons, Huckleberry Finn, Ms Watson, huckleberry finn, apparent story, finn mark, mark
twain, adventures huckleberry, adventures huckleberry finn, huckleberry finn mark, view twains apparent,
view twains, twains apparent, satire throughout, story huckleberry, apparent story huckleberry, beliefs
towards, story huckleberry finn,

Huckleberry Finn
In Huckleberry Finn, Mark Twain created a character who exemplifies freedom within, and from, American
society. Huck lives on the margins of society because, as the son of the town drunk, he is pretty much an
orphan. He sleeps where he pleases, provided nobody chases him off, and he eats when he pleases, provided
he can find a morsel. No one requires him to attend school or church, bathe, or dress respectably. It is
understandable, if not expected, that Huck smokes and swears. Years of having to fend for himself have
invested Huck with a solid common sense and a practical competence that complement Tom’s dreamy
idealism and fantastical approach to reality (Tom creates worlds for himself that are based on those in stories
he has read). But Huck does have two things in common with Tom: a zest for adventure and a belief in
superstition.
Through Huck, Twain weighs the costs and benefits of living in a society against those of living independently
of society. For most of the novel, adult society disapproves of Huck, but because Twain renders Huck such a
likable boy, the adults’ disapproval of Huck generally alienates us from them and not from Huck himself.
After Huck saves the Widow Douglas and gets rich, the scale tips in the direction of living in society. But
Huck, unlike Tom, isn’t convinced that the exchange of freedom for stability is worth it. He has little use for
the money he has found and is quite devoted to his rough, independent lifestyle. When the novel ends, Huck,
like Tom, is still a work in progress, and we aren’t sure whether the Widow Douglas’s attempts to civilize him
will succeed (Twain reserves the conclusion of Huck’s story for his later novel, The Adventures of
Huckleberry Finn).
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Mark Twain: Realism and Huckleberry Finn

Mark Twain: Realism and Huckleberry Finn

Wednesday, August 29th, 2007

Is Mark Twain a Realist, nothing more and nothing less? As well as considering the meaning of Realism in a
literary context this essay will critically examine the issues raised by the question with an analysis of Chapter
XXXI, in which Jim is “stolen” and Huck decides that he will help Jim though he believes he will go to hell
for doing so. In so doing it will be seen that the assertion is too narrow.

One view is that Realism is not attainable: it is simply impossible to represent reality within a literary

framework, K. Dauber (1999, p. 386), considering Realism, argues that we can only get near to it in the

imagination of the reader. The use of metaphors and similes assists us to create, within our own imagination, a

landscape within which plausible events occur as part of an understandable and plausible plot. Dauber, strictly

speaking, is correct, however Realist texts do exist, in considering them we need a guide as to what it is that

makes them Realist.

A descriptive term like Realism is useful to the reader. D. Pizer considers that “descriptive terms” such

as “romanticism, realism and classicism are valuable and necessary” (1961, pp.263 – 269). His starting point

is George Becker’s definition. Becker based his definition upon readings of European and American fiction

since 1870; dividing realism into three categories: the realistic mode, realism of subject matter, and

philosophical realism, Pizer considers “the realistic mode” based on three criteria: “Verisimilitude of detail

derived from observation and documentation” (1949, pp.184 - 197). The use of various dialects (discussed in

the preface), detailed

descriptions of the river and nature are Realist observations. The style fits the first part of this definition.

Secondly is “reliance upon the representative rather than the exceptional in the plot, setting, and

character” (1949, pp.184 - 197). A slave’s escape from captivity and recapture is plausible and thus Realist.

Thirdly is “an objective….rather than a subjective or idealistic view of human nature and experience”

(1949, pp.184 - 197). Observations and descriptions of slavery, life in the South and on the river are objective.

In chapter XXXI, Huck must decide between a moral obligation to contact Miss Watson and his debt to Jim
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for his help on their journey down river. The text of Huckleberry Finn up to, and including, chapter XXXI

conforms to Becker’s “realist mode” definition. On this basis, Twain is a Realist.

However, categorisations are just guides as to what we may expect from a text or writer when

categorised as Realist, Romanticist or Classicist. Twain explains his style in the preface. From this preface,

Twain clearly considered it a Realist book. It is

clear and generally agreed amongst critics, that up to and including chapter XXXI, Huckleberry Finn is a

realist text. Given the difficulties facing a slave on the run, within the contemporary context of its setting, it is

plausible that Jim would face capture and be either lynched, mutilated or at least beaten if caught. However,

one cannot consider Twain was “nothing more and nothing less than a Realist” in the

context of this chapter alone. Critics, in the first half of the twentieth century, focused on the ending or

“evasion” for analysis. Since the mid Twentieth Century, attention has focused on issues of race, gender and

sexuality. Many view the ending as disappointing: described it as an anti climax, even “burlesque” (De Voto,

1932). Tom Sawyer’s scheming to set free an already free slave is a betrayal and even “whimsicality” (T. S.

Eliot (although he also argues that this is the only correct ending)). The style of the ending is different from

the preceding text, it is more slapstick and humorous.

Ernest Hemingway (1935) claimed, “All modern American literature comes from Huckleberry

Finn”, but continued: “if you read it you must stop where the nigger Jim is stolen from the boys. This is the

real end. The rest is cheating”. De Voto (1932) considered the last eleven chapters fell “far below the

accomplishment of what had gone before…this extemporized burlesque was a defacement of his purer work”

(Cited by Hill, 1991, p 314). Tom Sawyer describes it, an “evasion”. It certainly detracts from the power of

chapter XXXI: Huck’s rejection of Southern values, its belief in slavery and the superiority of whites. The

“evasion” is the missed opportunity to emphasise this rejection by descending in to whimsicality and

burlesque. The problem with Hemingway’s advice is that the book does not end at Chapter XXXI. Full

analysis requires a complete reading.

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The whole thrust of the ending, from when Tom returns to centre stage is that of comedy and farce, it

is as though Huck is acquiescing in Tom Sawyers pranks and wild schemes. L. Trilling (1948) argues that

Huck is simply deferring to Tom by

giving him “centre stage”. Eliot agrees, but then argues that it is right Huck does give way to Tom. The style

of the book comes from Huck and the river provides form: we understand the river by seeing it through Huck,

who is himself also the spirit of the river and like a river, Huckleberry Finn has no beginning or end (cited by

Graff and Phelan, 1995, pp 286 - 290). Therefore, Huck, logically, has no beginning or end: as such he “can

only disappear” in a “cloud of whimsicalities”. For Eliot this is the only way that the book can end. However,

Eliot and Trilling rely on the fact that the River, Huck and Jim are symbolic, that they are allegorical. This

suggests that the later chapters of the book are Romantic in style. The entire book must be considered in the

context of the ending (however much it may disappoint), it is more a Romance; and to say that Twain is

“nothing more and nothing less than a Realist” is thus incorrect.

However, what is Romanticism? In the United States Romanticism enjoyed philosophic expression

within the movement known as Transcendentalism, in the texts of Emerson and Thoreau. Symbolic novels of

Nathaniel Hawthorne and Herman Melville emphasized concern with Transcendent reality. Nathaniel

Hawthorne in the preface to The Scarlet Letter, The Custom House, writes, “If a man, sitting all alone, cannot

dream strange things, and make them look like truth, he need never try to write romances.” Romance offers a

symbolic view of the world and, in that context, a historical representation of current issues is crucial (M.

Kinkead-Weekes, 1982, p.74). Symbolism and allegory are fundamental to a Romanticist text: “astonishing

events may occur, and these are likely to have a symbolic or ideological, rather than a realistic, plausibility”

R. Chase (1962, p13).

Eliot’s interpretation, when considered in this context, asserts that Twain was not in fact writing as a

Realist exclusively or, arguably, at all.

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Hemingway does receive support in his argument that the ending “is cheating”. From Leo Marx, in his

1953 article: “Mr. Eliot, Mr. Trilling, and Huckleberry Finn”. He agrees that the ending does not fall within

the realist tradition and offends plausibility in several ways: Miss Watson would not free Jim, the interjection

of humour is “out of keeping” with the rest of the book: Huck’s easy transformation from bravely assisting an

escaped slave and agonising over this moral position maturely, to clown; is not plausible. To assist in

humiliating Jim, a slave transformed to “freedom fighter”, when known, by Tom at least, that he is free

already (however implausible that may be) is at odds with chapter XXXI and all preceding chapters.

The ending reflects a conflict within Twain represented by Huck and Tom, he wanted to criticise

Southern society but also to gain its approval. He does this by “freeing” an already free slave, so of the two

white heroes, neither transgresses the law, nor break any moral codes of the South, and Huck is saved from

going to Hell. This marks a massive retreat from the powerful, and arguably most dramatic, scene in the text:

the decision of Huck to reject that society’s values and go to Hell, rather than betray his friend Jim. Marx may

have been critical of the ending of the book in terms of content, but, in his 1956 article, which examines the

literary style of Twain in Huckleberry Finn, he considers use of language and the “book’s excellence”. He

concludes the article by eulogising the text as one “which manages to suggest the lovely possibilities of life in

America without neglecting its terrors”. The two articles when read together are a powerful argument in
favour of categorizing Huckleberry Finn as a Romance Twain a Romanticist rather than “Nothing more and
nothing less than a Realist.”
J. M. Cox (1966) challenges Marx’s assessment: postulating that it is a story about a boy who has

found himself, through force of circumstance in a difficult position. The reappearance of Tom in the story is a

relief to Huck. By deferring to Tom at this stage, Huck is acting within character as developed earlier in the

text: happy to be free of the responsibilities thrust upon him. However, this analysis disregards the moral

development of Huck in the text up to and including Chapter XXXI and the maturity of his moral

deliberations.

Marx, and others, are attempting to impose a political agenda that is not evident from the text;

succumbing to the fashion that it is necessary for a hero to have an agenda. Huckleberry Finn is a child’s

book. To impose sub texts involving subtle critiques of racial, gender, sexual and political issues misses the
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point entirely and is an over intellectualisation: blatantly ignoring Twain’s instructions at the beginning of the

book (R. Hill, 1991).

If following Hemingway’s advice then Twain is no more and no less than a realist, but is not to read

the book in its entirety: Chapter XXXI is not the end of the text.

Twain has succeeded in creating a work of fiction that engenders precisely the kind of debate that he

ironically dissuades the reader from indulging in: a literary masterpiece that stubbornly refuses to fit neatly

into any categorization at all. To say, “Twain is a Realist nothing more and nothing less” is thus inaccurate.

Word Count: 1609

Bibliography

George Becker, (June 1949), pp. 184 – 197, “Realism: An Essay in Definition”, in Modern Language

Quarterly

Richard Chase, (1957), The American Novel and Its Tradition, Anchor Books p. 13

James Cox, “Attacks on the Ending and Twain’s Attack on Conscience”, in Mark Twain: The fate of Humor,

University of Missouri Press (1966); excerpted in Mark Twain, Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, a Case Study

in Critical Controversy, Edited by Gerald Graff and James Phelan (1995) St. Martins Press pp.305 - 312

Kenneth Dauber, (Summer 1999), “Realistically Speaking: Authorship, in late 19 th Century and Beyond”, in

American Literary History, Vol. 11, No.2, pp 378-390

T. S. Eliot, “The Boy and the River: Without Beginning or End” reproduced in Mark Twain, Adventures of

Huckleberry Finn, a Case Study in Critical Controversy, Edited by Gerald Graff and James Phelan (1995) St.

Martins Press pp. 296 – 290

Ernest Hemingway, 1935, Green Hills of

Africa
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Gerald Graff and James Phelan Mark Twain, Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, a Case Study in Critical

Controversy, (1995) St. Martins Press

Richard Hill, (1991), “Overreaching: Critical Agenda and the Ending of Adventures of Huckleberry Finn”,

Texas Studies in Literature and Language (Winter 1991): reproduced in Mark Twain, Adventures of

Huckleberry Finn, a Case Study in Critical Controversy, Edited by Gerald Graff and James Phelan (1995) St.

Martins Press pp. 312 – 334

Mark Kinkead-Weekes, (1982), “The Letter, the Picture, and the Mirror:

Hawthorne’s Framing of The Scarlet Letter” Nathaniel Hawthorne New Critical Essays, Vision Press Limited,
p. 74

Leo Marx, (1953), “Mr. Eliot, Mr. Trilling, and Huckleberry Finn” The American Scholar reproduced in Mark

Twain, Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, a Case Study in Critical Controversy, Edited by Gerald Graff and

James Phelan (1995) St. Martins Press pp. 290 – 305

Leo Marx, (1956), “The Pilot and the Passenger: Landscape Conventions and the Style of Huckleberry Finn”,

in American Literature, Vol. 28, No. 2, (May, 1956) pp. 129 -146

Robert Ornstein, (1959), “The Ending of Huckleberry Finn”, in Modern Language Notes, Vol. 74, No. 8

(Dec., 1959), pp. 698 – 702

Donald Pizer, (1961), “Late Nineteenth Century American Realism: An Essay in Definition”, in Nineteenth

Century American Fiction, Vol. 16, No.3 (Dec 1961), pp 263-69

E. Arthur Robinson, (1960), “The Two “Voices” in Huckleberry Finn”, in Modern Language Notes, Vol. 75,
No. 3. (Mar. 1960), pp. 204 - 208

Lionel Trilling, (1948), in Introduction to Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, 1948 Rinehart edition, excerpted

in Mark Twain, Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, a Case Study in Critical Controversy, Edited by Gerald Graff

and James Phelan (1995) St. Martins Press pp. 284 – 290
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Ernest Hemingway wrote that "all modern American literature comes
from one book by Mark Twain called Huckleberry Finn. …All
American writing comes from that. There was nothing before. There
has been nothing as good since."

The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn was published in 1885, and in that year the public library in Concord,
Massachusetts, became the first institution to ban the novel. Twain's use of the word "nigger" later led some
schools and libraries to ban the book. Huckleberry Finn was first attacked during Twain's day because of what
some described as its indecency; later, it would be attacked as racist. But by the end of the twentieth century,
its status as one of the greatest of American novels was almost universally recognized.

Huck Finn, the protagonist and narrator of the novel, is around thirteen or fourteen years of age. He is being
raised by Miss Watson and the Widow Douglas, both of whom blindly accept the hypocritical religious and
moral nature of their society and try to help Huck understand its codes and customs. They represent an
artificial life that Huck wishes to escape. Huck's attempt to help Jim, a runaway slave, reunite with his family
makes it difficult for him to understand what is right and wrong. The book follows Huck's and Jim's
adventures rafting down the Mississippi River, where Huck gradually rejects the values of the dominant
society, especially its views on slavery.

Bibliography

Blair, Walter. Mark Twain and Huck Finn. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1960.

Smith, Henry Nash. Mark Twain: The Development of a Writer. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press, 1962.

Any new collection of essays on Mark Twain's Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is quite welcome. With the
continuing debates over the novel and its relevance in the classroom, easy access to a variety of viewpoints
can only help readers arrive at their own decisions. Katie de Koster's anthology serves this purpose, offering a
range of perspectives from the date of Huckleberry Finn's publication to the present.

In the Series Foreword, the general editors state that the essays for each volume are chosen specifically for "a
young adult audience." With this audience in mind, de Koster includes brief summaries of each article in the
table of contents, and she groups the essays themselves into thematic sections with descriptive headers. Both
arrangements will likely help students locate information and ideas relevant to their interests. On the other
hand, many of the essays' original titles have been changed (and this may prove confusing to some scholars),
but original publication information is footnoted on the first page of each essay. De Koster has arranged the
notably diverse essays into four sections: "The Storyteller's Art," "Images of America," "Issues of Race," and
"The Problematic Ending." Each section includes four or five essays.

The first section includes opinions by Brander Matthews, Victor Doyno, James M. Cox, Alfred Kazin, and
Ralph Cohen. Matthews' 1885 review provides a practical starting point for understanding the novel as well as
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its shifting literary and historical significance. Matthews not only praises its realism, the vernacular dialect of
Huck, and its humor, but he also admires Twain's depiction of Southern blacks and Tom Sawyer's treatment of
Jim in the final chapters. Doyno's selection--excerpted from Writing Huck Finn: Mark Twain's Creative
Process (1991)--focuses on how Twain painstakingly revised the manuscript to shape the individual
personalities of each character. Doyno's excellent and detailed analysis, however, might have served better
after Cox's and Kazin's more general discussions of Huck's personality and choices and of Twain's artistic
discoveries and social purposes. In the final essay of this section, Cohen highlights a topic of probable interest
to many college-age readers: the games, tricks, and superstitions of Huckleberry Finn.

In the second section, "Images of America," de Koster chooses essays/excerpts by Horace Fiske, Andrew
Hoffman, Gladys Bellamy, and Jay Martin. Fiske's 1903 appreciation of Huckleberry Finn tends toward
summary, paraphrase, and long quotation rather than interpretation, and it seems somewhat out of place in the
collection. On the other hand, Hoffman examines Huck as a representative of the nineteenth-century social
and political ideals associated with Andrew Jackson. The excerpt by Bellamy purports to discuss Huckleberry
Finn as a satire on American institutions, but the section on the institution of slavery has been removed, and
the expressed opinions about race often come across as dated. For example, Bellamy writes that Twain "shows
us the African in Jim, imbuing him with a dark knowledge that lies in his blood" (97). Such pronouncements
are not well calculated to illuminate young readers' understanding of Twain's novel. In the last essay of this
section, however, Martin provides a useful and nuanced explanation of Huck's vacillating position between
Nature and Civilization.

The third section, "Issues of Race", contains essays by John Wallace, Richard Barksdale, Shelley Fisher
Fishkin, Eric Lott, and Jane Smiley. Wallace's oft-quoted essay, in which he describes Huckleberry Finn as
"racist trash," raises several valid concerns regarding the use of the novel in American high schools, but lacks
strength in its textual analysis. Nevertheless, his major concern is taken up effectively by Barksdale, who
places the novel within its historical context to show both the ironic intentions of Twain and the difficulty of
learning and teaching those ironies in the classroom. Fishkin then explains not only the indebtedness that
Twain had toward African American sources, including "Sociable Jimmy," black spirituals, and personal
acquaintances, but also the impact Twain had on subsequent American writers. Exploring this further, Lott
discusses how Twain's reliance upon blackface minstrelsy both allowed the complex achievement of
Huckleberry Finn while simultaneously making it "perhaps unteachable to our own time." In the final essay of
this chapter, Smiley compares "Twain's moral failure" in his characterization of Jim to Harriet Beecher
Stowe's unequivocal anti-racism in Uncle Tom's Cabin. Overall, this section is the strongest.

That these complex understandings of Mark Twain and Huckleberry Finn often tend toward the negative
comes as something of a surprise after de Koster's preface. De Koster introduces this collection within the
context of the current racial controversy, but then offers a rather emphatic but largely unsupported series of
statements. For example, after recounting Huck's famous decision to "go to hell" and free Jim, she writes,
"The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is clearly antislavery. The reader is supposed to believe Huck made the
right choice when he helped an escaped slave" (13). Instead of telling the reader what s/he is supposed to
believe, de Koster would do better to explain her reasoning within the complicated matrix of ideas in her
collection. On a more positive note, her preface also includes a 20-page biography of Samuel Clemens that
provides a useful introduction for students unfamiliar with his life.

In the final section of the collection, "The Problematic Ending," de Koster includes opinions by Joyce Rowe,
José Barchilon and Joel Kovel, Carson Gibb, and Richard Hill. Rowe argues that Twain intentionally destroys
the "fictional comforts of verisimilitude" in the final chapters to expose the "grotesque" values of society,
including those of the readers. Barchilon and Kovel offer a psychoanalytic interpretation of the escape,
interpreting Jim's prison as a womb, his chains as an umbilical cord, and the Mississippi River as Huck's
loving mother. Gibb justifies the ending as an intentionally bad joke that reflects the culture that Huck seeks to
escape, yet the 1960 essay is most noticeable for the repeated use of the word "nigger" without quotation
marks. Gibb seems to feels justified in this usage because he has explained that Huck and Tom "believe
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niggers and people are two different things" (177). However, its use is unnecessary to his argument and also
insensitive to the extreme. Because of this, the essay itself seems inappropriate for a collection aimed at young
readers. Finally, Hill presents the most formidable vindication of the final chapters to date, arguing that Huck's
response to Tom is plausible for a boy, and that Jim's response shows an intelligent manipulation of
contemporary stereotypes to exert at least some control over a delicate and dangerous situation.

All in all, de Koster's collection offers a useful variety of opinions. It will doubtless contribute to current
debates of Twain's Huckleberry Finn and its place in our classrooms.

About the reviewer: Joe Coulombe grew up in the Mississippi River town of LaCrosse, Wisconsin (mentioned
briefly in Life on the Mississippi, ch. 30). After earning his PhD at the University of Delaware in 1998, he
began a tenure-track position at the University of Tennessee at Martin. He is currently expanding his
dissertation on Mark Twain and the American West into a book that explores the interconnections of
masculinity, wealth, and race in Twain's Western persona and writings. He has also published essays on the
literary indebtedness of Walt Whitman, the frontier romances of Emerson Bennett, and the construction of
masculinity in Edith Wharton.

REVIEW
de Koster, Katie (ed.). Readings on The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn.
(Literary Companion to American Literature.)
San Diego: Greenhaven Press, 1998.
Pp. 173. Bibliography, index.
Paper, 5-1/4 x 8-1/2. $17.45. ISBN 1-56510-818-3.
Cloth. ISBN 1-56510-819-1.

Suggested length: 2-7 days

This unit is central to a study of Huck Finn. It gives necessary background
before students begin reading the book so they are prepared for the racial
issues they will encounter. It poses questions about issues such as racism,
censorship, and intellectual freedom. And, because it connects to contemporary
issues, it will help motivate students to become engaged in the material.

At this time you may also want to introduce students to biographical information
about Mark Twain, and provide additional historical information about post-
Reconstruction America as well as the turbulent 1840s in Missouri, where the
story takes place. A good source for historical background is Chapter Four in
Shelley Fisher Fishkin's book, Was Huck Black? Mark Twain and African
American Voices (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993). See also General
Resources for Web sites and the bibliography.

The Controversy
 12
Companion Readings for Teachers

Henry, Peaches. "The Struggle for Tolerance: Race and Censorship in Huck Finn."
In Satire or Evasion? Black Perspectives on Huckleberry Finn, edited by James
Leonard et al., Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1992, 25-48.

Jordan, Winthrop. "First Impressions." In The White Man's Burden: Historical

Origins of Racism in the United States. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993,
3-25.

Powell, Thomas. "The Subject of Racism." In The Persistence of Racism in

America. Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1992, 1-5.

Companion Readings for Students

"Unfit for Children: Censorship and Race." In Understanding Adventures of

Huckleberry Finn: A Student Casebook to Issues, Sources, and Historical
Documents by Claudia Durst Johnson. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1996, 29-
45. Additional selections from this book may also be useful.

For supplemental reading, you may also want to use Nat Hentoff's young adult
novel The Day They Came to Arrest the Book (New York: Bantam, 1982), which is
about one school's attempt to ban Huck Finn.

Discussion Questions

 Why is the teaching and reading of Huck Finn so controversial?

 How have the criticisms about the book changed over the years?
 How do these various criticisms reflect a changing America?
 How does knowing about the history of the controversy make you feel
about reading the book?
 Under what circumstances, if any, do you think a book should be taken off
a school's reading list and/or out of its library?

Activities

 Using the film, the library, and the Web, have students construct a timeline
that shows the different challenges Huck Finn has faced since it was
published. For each challenge, the timeline might include quotes from
detractors, as well as responses from the book's defenders.
 Using the film and/or additional research, have students choose one of the
challenges made against the book and design a poster to express that
point of view -- for instance, a poster that could have been created by the
Brooklyn Public Library in 1907 warning parents not to let children read the
book. Remind students that they don't have to agree with the point of view
 13
they portray, just convey it accurately. Ask students to present their
posters and explain the challenge they have represented.
 Have students research a current arts controversy through newspaper and
magazine articles, as well as the Internet. Throughout the unit, have them
keep a compare-and-contrast journal between that current controversy and
Huck Finn. They might consider how political, cultural, historical, and other
factors play a role in the two controversies. At the end of the unit, have
them present a comparison in the form of an essay, chart, dialogue, or
collage.
 Have students investigate the historical and societal factors surrounding
the novel, such as West African civilization, the Middle Passage, slave
religion, abolition, and Reconstruction and its aftermath. Ask students to
work in small groups and, using the General Resources as well as other
resources, have each group choose a research topic. Each group can
present its findings as part of Section I or as an ongoing report throughout
the Huck Finn unit. Be sure that the students explain how their topic is
connected to the novel.

On Racism

Racism is obviously a complex and difficult subject. Although teachers may feel
uncomfortable discussing the topic, it is key to appreciating and understanding
Huck Finn. Use the discussion questions and readings below to help students
begin to think about the issue and how it relates to charges that the book is
racist. You may want to create a K-W-L (Know, Want to Know, Learned) chart that
the class updates throughout the reading of the book. As their understanding of
the issues deepens, students can use the chart to reexamine their thinking.

To begin the dialogue, have the class try to establish a definition of racism. Use
the following discussion questions and activities to introduce the use of the
word "nigger" in the book, as well as for teaching tips on handling sensitive
issues. (Although stereotypes are discussed in the next section, you may want
to preview the topic by introducing it here.) Students can then tackle the
discussion questions below as a whole class, in small groups, as journal topics,
or through personal response essays that could be shared in a read-around.

To look at the historical roots of racism, have students read and discuss
Winthrop Jordan's "First Impressions" which describes the reaction of sixteenth-
and seventeenth-century English travelers to West Africans. Using the class
definition of racism, would the English voyagers be considered racist? Why or
why not?

Other curriculums and trainings tackle the subject of racism and the "N" word,
such as "The Shadow of Hate" curriculum from Teaching Tolerance and the Anti-
 14
Bias Study Guide developed by the Anti-Defamation League's World of
Difference® Institute. Click here for more information and how to contact these
organizations. The following books may also be helpful: Beyond Heroes and
Holidays: A Practical Guide to K-12 Anti-Racist, Multicultural Education, edited
by Enid Lee, Deborah Menkart, and Margo Okazawa-Rey (Washington, D.C.:
Network of Educators on the Americas, 1998); Teaching for a Tolerant World,
Grades 9-12, edited by Carol Danks and Leatrice Rabinsky (Urbana, IL: NCTE,
1999); and Teaching/Learning Anti-Racism: A Developmental Approach by Louise
Derman-Sparks and C.B.Phillips (New York: Teachers College Press, 1997).

For background and discussion, you may want to choose selections from books
such as Why Are All the Black Kids Sitting Together in the Cafeteria? by Beverly
Tatum (New York: HarperCollins, 1997). Two articles written by young people that
may be useful are The 'N' Word: It Just Slips Out by Allen Francis and That Black
Girl by Carmen R. Thompson.

Discussion Questions

 What is racism? Is it a belief? Is it an action?

 What causes racism? What beliefs do people invoke to try to justify
racism? In what kinds of situations do we see or find racism?
 When did you first recognize your own racial, ethnic, religious (or other)
identity? What does it mean to you to identify yourself in this way? What do
you like most and least about being a member of your group?
 How has racism affected you or people you know? *
 Do you think most minorities have a positive or negative image of whites?
Do you think most whites have a positive or negative image of other races?
*

 What's the biggest misconception blacks have about whites? Whites about
blacks?*

*
Source: Teaching Tolerance, Spring 1993, 58-63.

Activity

 In order to look critically at the Huck Finn controversy and give their own
opinion of it, have students gather evidence of whether or not Huck Finn is
racist as they read the novel. For example, students should be directed to
pay particular attention to when the word "nigger" is used, who uses it,
and how. Click here for a final activity based on this activity.

Next: Section 1: The "N" Word

 15

Suggested length: 2-7 days

One of the major criticisms of Huck Finn has been that the character Jim is only
a racist stereotype and that students will come away from the book with an
image of him -- and African Americans in general -- as silly, superstitious,
obedient, and passive. In this section, students define what a stereotype is, and
look at the historical roots of African American plantation stereotypes, such as
"Sambo," "Nat," and "Mammy." Referring back to Jordan's First Impressions can
elucidate the earliest sources of African stereotypes, while the correspondence
of Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin Banneker will help students understand the
attitudes of white society toward slaves.

Poems by Paul Laurence Dunbar and Langston Hughes will help students go
"behind the mask" of stereotypes. These selections offer opportunities to
discuss how the "mask" can also be a form of resistance. You may also want to
use Chapter 5 of Maya Angelou's I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings (New York:
Bantam Books, 1969), in which the author sees that "the mask" can be a
powerful weapon.

Students (and parents) may feel that identifying and discussing stereotypes only
serves to reinforce them. It's important to clarify that the goal of Section II is to
recognize the historical roots as well as contemporary manifestations of
stereotypes and therefore more critically examine how Twain uses those
stereotypes in Huck Finn. In addition to the readings listed below, you may find
helpful background information in Donald Bogle's book Toms, Coons, Mulattoes,
Mammies, and Bucks: An Interpretive History of Blacks in American Films (New
York:Continuum Publishing Company, 1998) and Joseph Boskin's Sambo: The
Rise and Demise of an American Jester (New York: Oxford University Press,
1986).

Before examining negative African American stereotypes, it's useful to help

students develop a deeper understanding of the history and culture of African
Americans by looking at the rich and varied heritage of Africans before they
were enslaved and brought to America, as well as during slavery. The original
Cherry Hill curriculum briefly covered the culture of West Africa and information
about the Middle Passage. You may want to assess students' prior knowledge on
these subjects, and confer or team up with a history teacher to develop a lesson
plan that provides adequate background knowledge. Two good sources to
consult are African American Literature (Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1992), an
anthology and textbook containing overviews and excerpts, and The Slave
Community: Plantation Life in the Antebellum South by John W. Blassingame
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1979). See also the Bibliography for other
suggested books.
 16

Stereotypes

Companion Readings for Teachers and Students

Note: The poems listed below can be found in various anthologies.

Dunbar, Paul Laurence. "We Wear the Mask." In Crossing the Danger Water:
Three Hundred Years of African-American Writing, edited by Deirdre Mullane.
New York: Doubleday, 1993, 350.

Fox-Genovese, Elizabeth. "Slave Women." In Slavery in American Society, edited

by Lawrence Goodheart. Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath & Co., 1993, 166-169.

Hughes, Langston. "Minstrel Man." In Children of Promise: African-American

Literature and Art for Young People, edited by Charles Sullivan. New York: Harry
A. Abrams Publishers, 1991, 36.

Jordan, Winthrop. "First Impressions." In The White Man's Burden: Historical

Origins of Racism in the United States. New York: Oxford University Press, 1974,
3-25.

The documentary "Ethnic Notions," produced and directed by Marlon Riggs

(1987), traces the development of stereotypes and the roots of racism in
America. It has been used in secondary schools and universities to explore
these issues and may be useful in conjunction with this section. It is available in
many libraries and through various distributors, including California Newsreel,
415-621-6196, or HR Press, 800-444-7139.

Discussion Questions

 What are stereotypes? Why and how are they formed? Have students form
a working definition of the word "stereotype" as they did with "racism" in
Section I.
 How were stereotypes used to justify slavery? To reassure slave owners?
 Why might slaves themselves have reinforced stereotypes?
 How have slave stereotypes influenced portrayals of African Americans
today?
 What do the Hughes and Dunbar poems express?
 What are some "masks" that oppressed groups use? What is the function of
such a mask? How can masks be used as a form of resistance?

Historical Roots

Companion Readings for Teachers and Students

 17
"Foreword," "Introduction," and "A Founding Father's View on Race." In African
Americans Opposing Viewpoints, edited by William Dudley. San Diego:
Greenhaven Press, 1997, 9-34.

Discussion Questions

 Using Jordan's First Impressions selection, have the class list as many
stereotypes as they can and discuss their origins. What were they based
on?
 What was Jefferson's view on African Americans? How did he use slave
stereotypes to make the argument that blacks are inferior?
 Before reading Banneker's reply, ask students how Banneker, a free, self-
educated, and noted black scientist, might have responded. Ask students
to imagine what he might have written. As they read Banneker's actual
letter, have students note similarities and differences between what they
predicted and what Banneker wrote.
 Revisit the students' earlier exploration of contemporary stereotypes. How
have the stereotypes described in Jordan's First Impressions and in
Jefferson's writings endured?

Activities

 Show students some of the illustrations from the original Huck Finn. Ask
students to discuss or write about why these illustrations may now be
seen as offensive, what stereotypes they reflect, and what effect they
might have had on the reader when it was published. How would they
affect your reading now? How does the text of the book challenge or
undermine the stereotypes in the illustrations?
 Ask students to consider portrayals of African Americans in movies,
television, and advertising today. What are the common stereotypes? How
are these stereotypes related to the slave stereotypes? Have new
stereotypes arisen as well? Have students research the topic through
books, magazine articles, and the Internet. Then have them write a letter
to the editor, draw a political cartoon, or create a pictorial collage that
details what they found and their opinion of it.
 After reading the Dunbar and Hughes poems, ask students to explain how
the poems reflect or reveal the "mask" in an essay or drawing. You may
also have students read and dramatize the poems by dividing the class into
small groups. Assign each group one of the poems and give them twenty to
thirty minutes to find a way to read the poem so that its meaning --
whatever their interpretation -- is clear to the rest of the class. Students
may not add words, but they can rearrange or repeat words or phrases.
After the presentations, bring the class together to talk about the
similarities and differences in the portrayals.
 18

Suggested length: 7-10 days

The conventional approach to teaching Huck Finn assumes that Huck is the hero
and center of the story and considers Jim only in relation to Huck and his moral
growth. In Section III students are asked to consider a new paradigm. Professor
Maghan Keita explains,
"I ask people to do a juxtaposition when confronting Jim. Take for a moment the
notion that Huck is not the central character, but Jim is. How does this change
notions of what this book is about? How is it that he -- a slave and a 'nigger' --
represents all the best qualities in the book, and how does he humanize Huck?
How can Huck rise to heroic proportions without Jim? Jim teaches him how to
be a hero."

In discussing the climax of the book, you may want to explore the idea that the
climax comes when Huck apologizes to Jim.

This section asks students to examine who Jim and Huck are and how they
change one another before considering other issues in the novel. It employs the
kind of character analysis -- the concept of the hero, the struggle for identity --
that will be familiar to English teachers, and asks students to take what they
have learned about stereotypes and apply them to the portrayal of Jim. Toni
Morrison's contemplation of Jim's character also helps spotlight the issues
surrounding the book as a whole.

In order to understand the environment in which Jim and Huck lived, students
may need background information on the 1840s, particularly the slavery conflict
that would eventually lead to the Civil War. To provide an overview of the period,
you may want to use young adult history books such as Days of Sorrow, Years of
Glory 1831-1850 (Milestones in Black American History series) by Timothy J.
Paulson (New York: Chelsea House Publishers, 1994) or Let My People Go:
African Americans 1804-1860 (Young Oxford History of African Americans series)
by Deborah White (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995).

Companion Reading for Teachers and Students

Note: You may also want to use additional essays from these sources.

Cox, James M. "A Hard Book to Take." In Modern Critical Interpretations of

Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, edited by Harold Bloom. New York: Chelsea
House Publishers, 1986, 87-108.

Morrison, Toni. "Introduction." In The Oxford Mark Twain, edited by Shelley

Fisher Fishkin. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996.
 19
Smith, David L. "Huck, Jim, and American Racial Discourse." In Satire or
Evasion? Black Perspectives on Huckleberry Finn, edited by James Leonard et
al. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1992, 103-120.

Discussion Questions

 What is your first reaction to Jim? How do you feel about him by the end of
the novel? Why?
 To what extent is Jim a stereotype? When and how does he break free of
stereotypical roles?
 Compare Pap's treatment of Huck with Jim's treatment of Huck and of his
own daughter.
 What is your reaction to Huck at first? How do you feel about him by the
end of the novel? Why?
 What determines who we are -- nature (inborn traits) or nurture
(environment)? How do you think Jim and Huck were shaped by these
factors?
 Have students reread the passage in Chapter 31 of Huck Finn in which
Huck talks about the conflict between what his heart tells him to do about
Jim as his friend and what his conscience tells him to do about Jim as a
slave. Reflecting back on the Jefferson essay (see Section II), how does a
slaveholding society influence its members to see slaves as inhuman?
 Twain wrote in a journal that "Huck Finn is a book of mine where a sound
heart and a deformed conscience come into collision and conscience
suffers defeat." What do you think he meant by "a sound heart and a
deformed conscience?" How is "conscience" a theme in the novel in
general?
 What is a hero? Have students brainstorm a class definition. How is Jim a
hero? How is Huck a hero?
 What do you think is the climax of the novel? Why?

Activities

 Have students work in small groups to find passages in the novel that
reflect the plantation stereotypes they have studied. (You may want to
direct them to particular chapters of the book that critics have targeted,
such as Chapter 8 on investing money; the "French debate" in Chapter 14;
Chapter 22 on stealing; Chapter 24 and the King Lear outfit; Chapter 42
and the entire ending in which Jim aids wounded Tom.) Does Jim ever go
beyond being a stereotype? If so, when and how? Have a class debate or
discussion in which each small group takes a stand that they can back up
with evidence from the novel.
 After choosing either Huck or Jim, have students to go back through the
book and copy down lines, phrases, or words that describe that character
or tell something important about him, or something he did, said, or
 20
thought. Then have the students arrange the words and phrases so that
they tell something important about the character, forming a "character
poem." Ask for student volunteers to read their work aloud. (This exercise
can either begin or be the culmination of a class discussion about
character analysis.)
 Have students keep a reader's response journal about Jim, tracing their
feelings about him as they read. At the end of the Huck Finn unit, have
them write a concluding essay on how they feel about Jim overall.
 Let student volunteers role play Jim and Huck. Let the class pose as
reporters at a press conference. Have them list questions they'd like to
have the characters answer-for example, they might ask Jim how he felt
when he was "enslaved" again on Phelps Farm, or they might ask Huck to
comment on what happened at the end of the book after he "lit out for the
territories" -- and then conduct the interview. Afterward, ask students to
review both the questions asked and the answers given. Are there any
additions or corrections that should be made? Explore with the class new
insights or observations they have about the characters.
 Ask students to consider Professor Keita's suggestion that Jim, not Huck,
is the central character. Do they agree or disagree? Have students defend
their answer in the form of an essay, citing specific passages from the
book to support their answer. You may want to hold a forum or town
meeting where students can present their opinions individually or in small
groups. To extend this activity, have students rewrite a scene from the
book from Jim's point of view. How would it change the meaning of the
book and the novel itself?

Next: Section 4: The Novel as Satire

Suggested length: 7-14 days

This section of the curriculum focuses on Huck Finn as satire -- a lens through
which most English teachers have traditionally looked at the novel. Many of the
questions and activities, which help students understand what a satire is, and
how Twain uses this form to ridicule and rebuke the slaveholding society of
Huck Finn, will probably be familiar. Here students are asked to think about
Twain's satire and the author's intent in terms of the controversy surrounding
the book.

Review with the class the meaning of satire and irony and how they differ. You
may also have students read literary criticism that explores this topic in relation
to Huck Finn. In addition to the essays noted below, you may also want to use
the following books: Mark Twain's Adventures of Huckleberry Finn: A Bloom's
Notes Contemporary Literary Views Book, by Harold Bloom (New York: Chelsea
House Publishers, 1996) and Huck Finn among the Critics: A Centennial
 21
Selection, edited by Thomas M. Inge (Frederick, MD: University Publications of
America, 1985.)

Companion Readings for Teachers and Students

Hoffman, Michael J. "Huck's Ironic Circle." In Modern Critical Interpretations of

Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, edited by Harold Bloom. New York: Chelsea
House Publishers, 1986, 31-44.

Marx, Leo. "Mr. Eliot, Mr. Trilling, and Huckleberry Finn." In The Critical
Response to Mark Twain's Huckleberry Finn, edited by Laurie Champion. New
York: Greenwood Press, 1991, 50-60.

Discussion Questions

 Why do you think the author chose Huck -- an illiterate young boy -- as the
voice through which to tell this story?
 Why have the Phelps Farm section and the ending of the novel been
considered problematic by critics over the years? How does the current
controversy echo and extend those complaints?
 Is Mark Twain speaking through Huck, or do you think Huck's point of view
is different from Twain's? Explain.
 Is Twain speaking through Jim, or is Jim's point of view different from
Twain's? Explain.
 Who uses the word "nigger"? Based on who is speaking, what might have
been the effect on a nineteenth-century reader? What do you think Twain is
saying in how he uses the word?
 Huck begins and ends the novel by revealing his discomfort with being
"sivilized." Why do you think he feels this way? What do you think Twain's
message is?

Activities

 How is using satire different from delivering an overt message? After

exploring the meaning of irony and satire, ask students to find a section of
Huck Finn that they think is particularly satirical and summarize it in a
one- or two-sentence "message." Discuss with students how and why what
Twain did in Huck Finn is different from delivering his message outright.
 Bring in or ask students to bring in something from popular culture that
employs satire to make its point (an episode of The Simpsons, for
instance). What is the writer's point of view about the society he or she
portrays? How can you tell? How is he or she using satire? Now ask
students to answer those same questions about Huck Finn. You might then
have students form small groups and find as many similarities as they can
between the two works, such as similar targets of the authors' satires,
methods of satirizing, or even reactions from the public when the piece
 22
was first presented. In reporting back to the class, each group might also
identify the scene in each work they find to be the most effective use of
satire.
 Stage a challenge for students: Have them work in small groups and give
them twenty minutes to list as many examples of irony or satire in the
novel as they can find. As each group shares some of their selections, let
the rest of the class discuss whether the instances cited are, in fact,
satirical or ironic.
 Direct students to Chapter 6, in which the drunken Pap Finn uses the word
"nigger" multiple times. Why might Twain have used the word here with
such intensity and frequency? Ask students to rewrite the speech without
using the word, or by changing it to "slave" or "African American." Have
the class discuss how changing this word changed the meaning or impact
of the section. How does this scene support or refute the charge that the
book is racist? Students can also use a section from John Wallace's
version, The Adventures of Huck Finn Adapted (Falls Church, VA: John H.
Wallace and Sons Co., 1983), in which he rewrites Huck Finn without using
"nigger."
 As Huck and Jim journey down the Mississippi, readers may begin to
notice that their experiences alone on the raft, or in nature in general, are
very different from their experiences whenever they are on the shore in
"sivilization." What is Twain saying by creating this division? Have each
student construct his or her own map of the journey. Each map should
show what they believe are the most important events in the novel, and
should include a significant quote at each map point. Overall, their maps
should visually express the symbolic differences between the river and
"sivilization."

Next: Section 5: Reclaiming the Self -- The Legacy of Slavery

Suggested length: 7-14 days

Ending the Huck Finn unit with a look at slave narratives and an examination of
the legacy of slavery today is essential to teaching Huck Finn in a fuller context.
Students who may not have studied slavery in other classes will better
understand Twain's account of slavery as fiction. They will also examine the
conditions under which slaves lived, and the varied ways in which they resisted
these conditions. Although we suggest reading Frederick Douglass's Narrative of
the Life of Frederick Douglass, you may want to use other readings from The
Classic Slave Narratives, edited by Henry Louis Gates, Jr. (New York: Mentor,
1987), such as Harriet Jacobs's Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl. Students
will thus end their study of the book with an image of slaves not as passive or
helpless, but as strong and proud.
 23
Some students may reevaluate Jim in a less favorable light after reading other
slave narratives. This provides a good opportunity to review Twain's goals in
writing the novel and the difference between the impact and power of fiction
versus nonfiction.

The suggested poems will help make some of the themes in this section clearer.
Have students read If We Must Die and For My People to examine the issues of
resistance and the legacy of slavery. Discussion and activities will help students
explore how the legacy of slavery continues today, and, through a final look at
Huck Finn, will tie all the pieces of the unit together.

The topics in this section are complex and rich enough to be studied on their
own for much longer than two weeks. What follows here, however, are readings,
discussion questions, and activities whose primary goal is to help students
connect a study of slave life and resistance to their study of Huck Finn. (The
resources listed here and in the Bibliography can also support a deeper study.)
Additional background may also be given by films such as the Africans in
America series You may want to team-teach with a history teacher a lesson
about life under slavery.

The original Cherry Hill curriculum suggests that students will more fully
appreciate the character of Jim if they understand the importance of folk
religion and superstition and their place in African American culture. To add this
to the section, you may want to consult the following sources:

 "Black Religious Thought in America, Part I: Origins." In Speaking the

Truth: Ecumenism, Liberation, and Black Theology, by James H. Cone
(Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1999).
 Chapter 5. In Was Huck Black? Mark Twain and African American Voices, by
Shelley Fisher Fishkin (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993).
 "Conjure" by Albert Raboteau. In Slavery in American Society, edited by
Lawrence Goodheart (Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath & Company, 1993).

Companion Readings for Teachers and Students

Note: These poems can be found in various anthologies.

Dunbar, Paul Lawrence. "Sympathy." In Crossing the Danger Water: Three

Hundred Years of African American Writing, edited by Deirdre Mullane. New York:
Anchor Books, 1993, 351.

Harper, Frances W. "The Slave Auction." In Children of Promise: African

American Literature and Art for Young People, edited by Charles Sullivan. New
York: Harry A. Abrams, Inc., 1991, 40.
 24
McKay, Claude. "If We Must Die." In Crossing the Danger Water: Three Hundred
Years of African American Writing, edited by Deirdre Mullane. New York: Anchor
Books, 1993, 467.

Mintz, Steven. "Introduction" and "Conditions of Life." In African American

Voices: The Life Cycle of Slavery, edited by Steven Mintz. Revised edition. St.
James, NY: Brandywine Press, 1993, 1-28 and 69-83.

Salem, Dorothy C. "Slave Resistance." In The Journey: A History of the African

American Experience. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt, 1997, 116-124.

Walker, Margaret. "For My People." In Children of Promise: African American

Literature and Art for Young People, edited by Charles Sullivan. New York: Harry
A. Abrams, Inc., 1991, 99.

Discussion Questions

 Does Huck Finn contain a realistic portrayal of slave life? Why or why not?
 In what ways did slaves resist?
 How did Jim maintain his pride, dignity, and integrity, despite being
enslaved? How did he resist slavery?
 What did freedom mean to Jim?
 What did freedom mean to Huck?
 How does reading Douglass's autobiography affect your understanding of
and feelings about Huck Finn?
 Douglass writes, "You have seen how a man was made a slave; now you
shall see how a slave was made a man." What does he mean? How can you
apply this quote to the story of Jim in Huck Finn?
 Look again at the class definition of a hero. Does Frederick Douglass fit
the description? How does he compare to Jim and Huck?

Activities

 To bridge a reading of Frederick Douglass or other slave narratives with

your study of Huck Finn, have students do one or both of the following
activities:
o What would Jim want to say to Frederick Douglass if he read his
autobiography? What would Frederick Douglass want to say to Jim if
he read Huck Finn? Have students write an exchange of letters or
dialogue between the two.
o Have students work in small groups to find as many points of
comparison between the two texts as they can, such as beliefs about
slaves, descriptions of slave life and slave masters, stereotyping, and
themes of family, learning, freedom, superstition, or religion. Ask
each group to take one of these topics and find quotes from both
texts that illustrate their commonality on that issue. Then have them
 25
create a visual representation in the form of a poster, drawing, or
cartoon that expresses the common meaning.
 Huck Finn was written after slavery was abolished but during a very
turbulent time in American history. How did this affect what Twain wrote?
Ask students to imagine that they are Mark Twain and to write a letter to
his editor explaining how the events of the period influenced him to write
Huck Finn not as the simple boy's adventure story he originally intended
but as an indictment of slavery and racism instead.
 Have students write their own For My People poem, in which they define
who their "people" are and describe them in similar terms. Have students
share their poems and combine them into a class book to keep on display.
 Have students research the historical background during which Claude
McKay wrote If We Must Die. Ask them to write or report on the conditions
that existed, and then have them analyze what the speaker of the poem
means by "fighting back."

Next: Section 6: Final Projects

Choose one or more of these

culminating activities to wrap up the unit.
 Some people feel that race relations in America today are still influenced
by the legacy of slavery. What is that legacy? How does it relate to reading
Huck Finn? Throughout the unit, have students individually or in small
groups collect newspaper and magazine articles, music lyrics, poems,
excerpts from books, artwork, and so forth, that they believe in some way
expresses how America is still affected by slavery today. At the end of the
unit students can either do a short oral or multimedia presentation on their
findings, or they can create a "book" in which these findings are collected
and annotated.
 Is or isn't Huck Finn racist? Does reading Huck Finn help or harm race
relations? Have students stage a mock trial with the book or Mark Twain
as the defendant. (You may want to visit this site which contains a detailed
lesson plan on staging a trial, developed by teacher Diane Walker.) Have
students present the evidence they have been gathering. Students could
also explore this question in a talk show format featuring Huck, Jim, Twain,
and anyone else -- real or imagined, living or dead -- they believe might add
to the conversation. Before doing this activity, it may be helpful to have
students first revisit the class definition of racism.
 Writer David Bradley notes that many have criticized the ending of Huck
Finn but "none of them has been able to suggest -- much less write -- a
better ending. . . . They failed for the same reason that Twain wrote the
ending as he did: America has never been able to write a better ending.
America has never been able to write any ending at all." What do you think
he means? Ask students to imagine they were Mark Twain's editor and to
 26
write Twain a letter explaining why and how he should change the ending.
(To extend this activity, have students actually rewrite the ending, and
compare their versions to the original.)
 Gerry Brenner, in his essay More Than a Reader's Response: A Letter to 'De
Ole True Huck' (in A Case Study in Critical Controversy: Adventures of
Huckleberry Finn, edited by Gerald Graff and James Phelan, Boston:
Bedford Books, 1995) pretends Jim has read Huck Finn and written a
response in which he sets the record straight. Ask students to do the
same, or pretend to be Jim writing a short review of the book. How would
Jim's version differ from Huck's? Have students compare and contrast
their ideas with Brenner's article.
 Have students write a scene or a "treatment" for a new movie or novel, set
in contemporary times, in which Huck and Jim meet and become friends.
Who would they be today? What would their issues be? Where would their
journey take place?
 Ask students to write Huck's diary entry if he were to visit their high
school in the present day. What would he think of what he sees?
 Have students review the case of Kathy Monteiro and her complaint to the
Tempe, Arizona, school board, as shown in the Born to Trouble: Adventures
of Huckleberry Finn film. Do they agree or disagree with her? Let groups or
individual students prepare a presentation to a Board of Education in
which they argue either for or against teaching the novel in the school
curriculum. Remind students to anticipate the objections that might come
from different members of the community, including parents, teachers,
religious leaders, students, and administrators.

Next: Essay: Teaching Mark Twain's Adventures of Huckleberry Finn

See also: Controversy at Cherry Hill

Teaching Mark Twain's Adventures of Huckleberry Finn

by Shelley Fisher Fishkin

Dr. Shelley Fisher Fishkin, Professor of American Studies and English at the University of Texas,
is the author of Lighting Out for the Territory: Reflections on Mark Twain and American Culture
(Oxford University Press, 1997) and Was Huck Black? Mark Twain and African American Voices
(Oxford University Press, 1993). She is President of the Mark Twain Circle of America and editor
of the 19-volume Oxford Mark Twain.

Adapted from a talk given at the July 1995 Summer Teachers' Institute at The Mark Twain House,
Hartford, Connecticut. ©1995 Shelley Fisher Fishkin. Reprinted by permission of the author.

Despite the fact that it is the most taught novel and most taught work of
American literature in American schools from junior high to graduate school,
 27
Huckleberry Finn remains a hard book to read and a hard book to teach. The
difficulty is caused by two distinct but related problems. First, one must
understand how Socratic irony works if the novel is to make any sense at all;
most students don't. Secondly, one must be able to place the novel in a larger
historical and literary context -- one that includes the history of American
racism and the literary productions of African-American writers -- if the book is
to be read as anything more than a sequel to The Adventures of Tom Sawyer
(which it both is and is not); most students can't. These two problems pose real
obstacles for teachers. Are they surmountable? Under some circumstances, yes.
Under others, perhaps not. I think under most circumstances, however, they are
obstacles you can deal with.

It is impossible to read Huck Finn intelligently without understanding that Mark

Twain's consciousness and awareness is larger than that of any of the
characters in the novel, including Huck. Indeed, part of what makes the book so
effective is the fact that Huck is too innocent and ignorant to understand what's
wrong with his society and what's right about his own transgressive behavior.
Twain, on the other hand, knows the score. One must be skeptical about most of
what Huck says in order to hear what Twain is saying. In a 1991 interview, Ralph
Ellison suggested that critics who condemn Twain for the portrait of Jim that we
get in the book forget that "one also has to look at the teller of the tale, and
realize that you are getting a black man, an adult, seen through the
condescending eyes -- partially -- of a young white boy." Are you saying, I asked
Ellison, "that those critics are making the same old mistake of confusing the
narrator with the author? That they're saying that Twain saw him that way rather
than that Huck did?" "Yes," was Ellison's answer.

Clemens as a child accepted without question, as Huck did, the idea that slaves
were property; neither wanted to be called a "low-down Abolitionist" if he could
possibly help it. Between the time of that Hannibal childhood and adolescence,
however, and the years in which Twain wrote Huckleberry Finn, Twain's
consciousness changed. By 1885, when the book was published, Samuel
Clemens held views that were very different from those he ascribed to Huck. It
might be helpful at this point to chart for your students the growth of the
author's developing moral awareness on the subject of race and racism --
starting with some of his writings on the persecution of the Chinese in San
Francisco (such as Disgraceful Persecution of a Boy), then moving through his
marriage into an abolitionist family, the 1869 anti-lynching editorial that he
published in The Buffalo Express entitled Only a Nigger, and his exposure to
figures like Frederick Douglass and his father-in-law, Jervis Langdon.

By the time he wrote Huckleberry Finn, Samuel Clemens had come to believe
not only that slavery was a horrendous wrong, but that white Americans owed
black Americans some form of "reparations" for it. One graphic way to
demonstrate this fact to your students is to share with them the letter Twain
 28
wrote to the Dean of the Yale Law School in 1885, in which he explained why he
wanted to pay the expenses of Warner McGuinn, one of the first black law
students at Yale. "We have ground the manhood out of them," Twain wrote Dean
Wayland on Christmas Eve, 1885, "and the shame is ours, not theirs, & we should
pay for it."

Ask your students: why does a writer who holds these views create a narrator
who is too innocent and ignorant to challenge the topsy-turvy moral universe
that surrounds him? "All right, then, I'll go to Hell," Huck says when he decides
not to return Jim to slavery. Samuel Clemens might be convinced that slavery
itself and its legacy are filled with shame, but Huck is convinced that his reward
for defying the moral norms of his society will be eternal damnation.

Something new happened in Huck Finn that had never happened in American
literature before. It was a book, as many critics have observed, that served as a
Declaration of Independence from the genteel English novel tradition.
Huckleberry Finn allowed a different kind of writing to happen: a clean, crisp, no-
nonsense, earthy vernacular kind of writing that jumped off the printed page
with unprecedented immediacy and energy; it was a book that talked. Huck's
voice, combined with Twain's satiric genius, changed the shape of fiction in
America, and African-American voices had a great deal to do with making it
what it was. Expose your students to the work of some of Twain's African-
American contemporaries, such as Frederick Douglass, Charles Chesnutt, and
Paul Laurence Dunbar. Those voices can greatly enrich students' understanding
of both the issues Huckleberry Finn raises and the vernacular style in which it
raises them.

If W.E.B. Du Bois was right that the problem of the twentieth century is the color
line, one would never know it from the average secondary-school syllabus, which
often avoids issues of race almost completely. Like a Trojan horse, however,
Huck Finn can slip into the American literature classroom as a "classic," only to
engulf students in heated debates about prejudice and racism, conformity,
autonomy, authority, slavery and freedom. It is a book that puts on the table the
very questions the culture so often tries to bury, a book that opens out into the
complex history that shaped it -- the history of the ante-bellum era in which the
story is set, and the history of the post-war period in which the book was written
-- and it requires us to address that history as well. Much of that history is
painful. Indeed, it is to avoid confronting the raw pain of that history that black
parents sometimes mobilize to ban the novel. Brushing history aside, however, is
no solution to the larger challenge of dealing with its legacy. Neither is placing
the task of dealing with it on one book.

We continue to live, as a nation, in the shadow of racism while being

simultaneously committed, on paper, to principles of equality. As Ralph Ellison
 29
observed in our interview, it is this irony at the core of the American experience
that Mark Twain forces us to confront head-on.

History as it is taught in the history classroom is often denatured and dry. You
can keep your distance from it if you choose. Slaveholding was evil. Injustice
was the law of the land. History books teach that. But they don't require you to
look the perpetrators of that evil in the eye and find yourself looking at a kind,
gentle, good-hearted Aunt Sally. They don't make you understand that it was not
the villains who made the system work, but the ordinary folks, the good folks,
the folks, who did nothing more than fail to question the set of circumstances
that surrounded them, who failed to judge that evil as evil and who deluded
themselves into thinking they were doing good, earning safe passage for
themselves into heaven.

When accomplished fiction writers expose the all-too-human betrayals that well-
meaning human beings perpetrate in the name of business-as-usual, they disrupt
the ordered rationalizations that insulate the heart from pain. Novelists, like
surgeons, cut straight to the heart. But unlike surgeons, they don't sew up the
wound. They leave it open to heal or fester, depending on the septic level of the
reader's own environment.

Irony, history, and racism all painfully intertwine in our past and present, and
they all come together in Huck Finn. Because racism is endemic to our society,
a book like Huck Finn, which brings the problem to the surface, can explode like
a hand grenade in a literature classroom accustomed to the likes of Macbeth or
Great Expectations -- works which exist at a safe remove from the lunchroom or
the playground. If we lived in a world in which racism had been eliminated
generations before, teaching Huck Finn would be a piece of cake. Unfortunately
that's not the world we live in. The difficulties we have teaching this book
reflect the difficulties we continue to confront in our classrooms and our nation.
As educators, it is incumbent upon us to teach our students to decode irony, to
understand history, and to be repulsed by racism and bigotry wherever they find
it. But this is the task of a lifetime. It's unfair to force one novel to bear the
burden -- alone -- of addressing these issues and solving these problems. But
Huck Finn -- and you -- can make a difference.