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CompSci 230
Discrete Math for Computer Science
• Read Chap. 5.1
• Homework 5 out

October 29, 2013

Prof. Rodger

DEZA RWZMLW HLCXTYR

1 2

Chap 4.5 - Hashing Functions More on Hashing Functions

Definition: A hashing function h assigns memory • The hashing function is not one-to-one as there
location h(k) to the record that has k as its key. are many more possible keys than memory
– A common hashing function is h(k) = k mod m, where locations. When more than one record is
m is the number of memory locations. assigned to the same location, we say a
– Because this hashing function is onto, all memory
locations are possible.
collision occurs. Here a collision has been
resolved by assigning the record to the first
free location.
Example: Let h(k) = k mod
assigns the records of customers with • For collision resolution, we can use a linear
social security numbers as keys to memory locations probing function:
in the following manner: h(k,i) = (h(k) + i) mod m, where i
h(064212848) = 064212848 mod 111 = 14
h(037149212) = 037149212 mod 111 = 65
runs from to m
h(107405723) = 107405723 mod 111 = 14, but since
location 14 is already occupied, the record is assigned to
the next available position, which is 15.
3 4
 Example:Linear Example:Linear
collision resolution 0 collision resolution 0
1 1
• Array of ints, size 11 2 • Array of ints, size 11 2
3 3 47 1425
• h(k) = k mod 11 • h(k) = k mod 11
4 4 59
5 5
• h(47) = 3 6 • h(47) = 3 6
• H(87) = 10 7 • H(87) = 10 7
8 8
• H(14) = 3 • H(14) = 3
9 9
• H(59) = 4 10 • H(59) = 4 10 87
• H(25) = 3 5 • H(25) = 3 6

Example:Linear Final Result is

Example 2
collision resolution 0 0
1 1
• Array of ints, size 11 2 • Array of sets, size 11 2
3 47 3
• h(k) = k mod 11 • h(k) = k mod 11
4 14 4
5 59 5
• h(47) = 3 6 25 • h(47) = 3 6
• H(87) = 10 7 • H(87) = 10 7
8 8
• H(14) = 3 • H(14) = 3
9 9
• H(59) = 4 10 87 • H(59) = 4 10
• H(25) = 3 7 • H(25) = 3 8
Example 2 Pseudorandom Numbers
0 • Randomly chosen numbers are needed for many purposes,
including computer simulations.
1 • Pseudorandom numbers are not truly random since they are
2 generated by systematic methods.
• Array of sets, size 11 • The linear congruential method is one commonly used
3 47 14 25 procedure for generating pseudorandom numbers.
• h(k) = k mod 11 • Four integers are needed: the modulus m, the multiplier a, the
4 59 increment c, and seed x0, with
5 2 a m, 0 c m, 0 x0 m.
• h(47) = 3 6 • We generate a sequence of pseudorandom numbers {xn}, with
0 xn m for all n, by successively using the recursively
• H(87) = 10 7 defined function
xn 1 = (axn + c) mod m.
8
• H(14) = 3 (an example of a recursive definition, discussed in Section 5.3)
9 • If pseudorandom numbers between 0 and 1 are needed, then the
• H(59) = 4 10 87 generated numbers are divided by the modulus, xn /m.

• H(25) = 3 9 10

Pseudorandom Numbers Check Digits: UPCs

• Example: Find the sequence of pseudorandom numbers generated by • A common method of detecting errors in strings of digits is to
the linear congruential method with modulus m = 9, multiplier a = 7, add an extra digit at the end, which is evaluated using a
increment c = 4, and seed x0 = 3. function. If the final digit is not correct, then the string is
• Solution: Compute the terms of the sequence by successively using the assumed not to be correct.
congruence xn 1 = (7xn + 4) mod 9, with x0 = 3. Example: Retail products are identified by their Universal
x1 = 7x0 + 4 mod 9 = 7∙3 4 mod 9 25 mod 9 7,
x2 = 7x1 + 4 mod 9 = 7∙7 4 mod 9 53 mod 9 8, Product Codes (UPCs). Usually these have 12 decimal digits,
x3 = 7x2 + 4 mod 9 = 7∙8 4 mod 9 60 mod 9 6, the last one being the check digit. The check digit is determined
x4 = 7x3 + 4 mod 9 = 7∙6 4 mod 9 46 mod 9 1, by the congruence:
x5 = 7x4 + 4 mod 9 = 7∙1 4 mod 9 11 mod 9 2, 3x1 + x2 + 3x3 + x4 + 3x5 + x6 + 3x7 + x8 + 3x9 + x10 + 3x11 + x12 ≡ 0 mod 10 .
x6 = 7x5 + 4 mod 9 = 7∙2 4 mod 9 18 mod 9 0, a. Suppose that the first 11 digits of the UPC are 79357343104. What is the check digit?
x7 = 7x6 + 4 mod 9 = 7∙0 4 mod 9 4 mod 9 4, b. Is 041331021641 a valid UPC?
x8 = 7x7 + 4 mod 9 = 7∙4 4 mod 9 32 mod 9 5, Solution:
x9 = 7x8 + 4 mod 9 = 7∙5 4 mod 9 39 mod 9 3. a. 3∙7 9 3∙3 5 3∙7 3 3∙4 3 3∙1 0 3∙4 x12 ≡ 0 mod 10
The sequence generated is 3,7,8,6,1,2,0,4,5,3,7,8,6,1,2,0,4,5,3,… 21 9 9 5 21 3 12 3 3 0 12 x12 ≡ 0 mod 10
It repeats after generating 9 terms. 98 x12 ≡ 0 mod 10
• Commonly, computers use a linear congruential generator with x12 ≡ 2 mod 10 So, the check digit is 2.
increment c = 0. This is called a pure multiplicative generator. Such a b. 3∙0 4 3∙1 3 3∙3 1 3∙0 2 3∙1 6 3∙4 1 ≡ 0 mod 10
generator with modulus 231 1 and multiplier 75 16,807 0 4 3 3 9 1 0 2 3 6 12 1 44 ≡ 4 ≢ mod 10
generates 231 2 numbers before repeating. Hence, 041331021641 is not a valid UPC.

11 12
 Check Digits: UPCs Check Digits:ISBNs
• A common method of detecting errors in strings of digits is to
add an extra digit at the end, which is evaluated using a Books are identified by an International Standard Book Number (ISBN-10), a 10 digit code. The
first 9 digits identify the language, the publisher, and the book. The tenth digit is a check digit, which
function. If the final digit is not correct, then the string is is determined by the following congruence
assumed not to be correct.
Example: Retail products are identified by their Universal
Product Codes (UPCs). Usually these have 12 decimal digits, The validity of an ISBN-10 number can be evaluated with the equivalent
the last one being the check digit. The check digit is determined
by the congruence: a. Suppose that the first 9 digits of the ISBN‐10 are 007288008. What is the check
digit?
3x1 + x2 + 3x3 + x4 + 3x5 + x6 + 3x7 + x8 + 3x9 + x10 + 3x11 + x12 ≡ 0 mod 10 .
b. Is 084930149X a valid ISBN10?
a. Suppose that the first 11 digits of the UPC are 79357343104. What is the check digit?
b. Is 041331021641 a valid UPC? Solution:
Solution: a. X10 ≡ 1∙0 2∙0 3∙7 4∙2 5∙8 6∙8 7∙ 0 8∙0 9∙8 mod 11 .
X10 ≡ 0 0 21 8 40 48 0 0 72 mod 11 . X is used
a. 3∙7 9 3∙3 5 3∙7 3 3∙4 3 3∙1 0 3∙4 x12 ≡ 0 mod 10 X10 ≡ 189 for the digit
21 9 9 5 21 3 12 3 3 0 12 x12 ≡ 0 mod 10 ≡ 2 mod 11 . Hence, X10 2. 10.
b. 1∙0 2∙8 3∙4 4∙9 5∙3 6∙0 7∙ 1 8∙4 9∙9 10∙10
98 x12 ≡ 0 mod 10 0 16 12 36 15 0 7 32 81 100 299
x12 ≡ 2 mod 10 So, the check digit is 2. ≡ 2 ≢ 0 mod 11
b. 3∙0 4 3∙1 3 3∙3 1 3∙0 2 3∙1 6 3∙4 1 ≡ 0 mod 10 Hence, 084930149X is not a valid ISBN‐10.
0 4 3 3 9 1 0 2 3 6 12 1 44 ≡ 4 ≢ 0 mod 10
• A single error is an error in one digit of an identification number and a transposition error is the
Hence, 041331021641 is not a valid UPC. accidental interchanging of two digits. Both of these kinds of errors can be detected by the check
digit for ISBN-10.

13 14

Check Digits:ISBNs
Books are identified by an International Standard Book Number (ISBN-10), a 10 digit code. The
Chap. 4.6 - Caesar Cipher
first 9 digits identify the language, the publisher, and the book. The tenth digit is a check digit, which
is determined by the following congruence

Julius Caesar created secret messages by shifting each letter three letters
forward in the alphabet (sending the last three letters to the first three letters.)
The validity of an ISBN-10 number can be evaluated with the equivalent For example, the letter B is replaced by E and the letter X is replaced by A.
This process of making a message secret is an example of encryption.
a. Suppose that the first 9 digits of the ISBN‐10 are 007288008. What is the check Here is how the encryption process works:
digit? – Replace each letter by an integer from Z26, that is an integer from 0 to 25 representing
b. Is 084930149X a valid ISBN10? one less than its position in the alphabet.
Solution: – The encryption function is f(p) = (p + 3) mod 26. It replaces each integer p in the set
a. X10 ≡ 1∙0 2∙0 3∙7 4∙2 5∙8 6∙8 7∙ 0 8∙0 9∙8 mod 11 .
{0,1,2,…,25} by f(p) in the set {0,1,2,…,25} .
X10 ≡ 0 0 21 8 40 48 0 0 72 mod 11 . X is used – Replace each integer p by the letter with the position p + 1 in the alphabet.
X10 ≡ 189 mod 11 for the digit Example: Encrypt the message “MEET YOU IN THE PARK” using the Caesar
≡ 2 mod 11 . Hence, X10 2. 10. cipher.
b. 1∙0 2∙8 3∙4 4∙9 5∙3 6∙0 7∙ 1 8∙4 9∙9 10∙10
0 16 12 36 15 0 7 32 81 100 299 Solution: 12 4 4 19 24 14 20 8 13 19 7 4 15 0 17 10.
≡ 2 ≢ 0 mod 11
Hence, 084930149X is not a valid ISBN‐10.
Now replace each of these numbers p by f(p) = (p + 3) mod 26.
15 7 7 22 1 17 23 11 16 22 10 7 18 3 20 13.
• A single error is an error in one digit of an identification number and a transposition error is the Translating the numbers back to letters produces the encrypted message
accidental interchanging of two digits. Both of these kinds of errors can be detected by the check
digit for ISBN-10. “PHHW BRX LQ WKH SDUN.”
15 16
 Chap. 4.6 - Caesar Cipher Caesar Cipher
Julius Caesar created secret messages by shifting each letter three letters • To recover the original message, use f 1(p) = (p 3 mod 26. So,
forward in the alphabet (sending the last three letters to the first three letters.)
For example, the letter B is replaced by E and the letter X is replaced by A.
each letter in the coded message is shifted back three letters
This process of making a message secret is an example of encryption. in the alphabet, with the first three letters sent to the last
Here is how the encryption process works: three letters. This process of recovering the original
– Replace each letter by an integer from Z26, that is an integer from 0 to 25 representing message from the encrypted message is called decryption.
one less than its position in the alphabet.
– The encryption function is f(p) = (p + 3) mod 26. It replaces each integer p in the set
• The Caesar cipher is one of a family of ciphers called shift
{0,1,2,…,25} by f(p) in the set {0,1,2,…,25} . ciphers. Letters can be shifted by an integer k, with 3 being just
– Replace each integer p by the letter with the position p + 1 in the alphabet. one possibility. The encryption function is
Example: Encrypt the message “MEET YOU IN THE PARK” using the Caesar f(p) = (p + k) mod 26
cipher.
and the decryption function is
Solution: 12 4 4 19 24 14 20 8 13 19 7 4 15 0 17 10.
Now replace each of these numbers p by f(p) = (p + 3) mod 26.
f 1(p) = (p k mod 26
15 7 7 22 1 17 23 11 16 22 10 7 18 3 20 13. The integer k is called a key.
Translating the numbers back to letters produces the encrypted message
“PHHW BRX LQ WKH SDUN.”
17 18

Shift Cipher Shift Cipher

Example 1: Encrypt the message “STOP GLOBAL Example 1: Encrypt the message “STOP GLOBAL
WARMING” using the shift cipher with k = 11. WARMING” using the shift cipher with k = 11.
Solution: Replace each letter with the corresponding Solution: Replace each letter with the corresponding
element of Z26. element of Z26.
18 19 14 15 6 11 14 1 0 11 22 0 17 12 8 13 6. 18 19 14 15 6 11 14 1 0 11 22 0 17 12 8 13 6.
Apply tOLDhe shift f(p) = (p + 11) mod 26, yielding Apply the shift f(p) = (p + 11) mod 26, yielding
3 4 25 0 17 22 25 12 11 22 7 11 2 23 19 24 17. 3 4 25 0 17 22 25 12 11 22 7 11 2 23 19 24 17.
Translating the numbers back to letters produces the Translating the numbers back to letters produces the
ciphertext ciphertext
“DEZA RWZMLW HLCXTYR.” “DEZA RWZMLW HLCXTYR.”

19 20
 Shift Cipher Shift Cipher
Example : Decrypt the message Example : Decrypt the message
“NV KCRL ILHA BUJ” that was encrypted using “NV KBRL ILHA BUJ” that was encrypted using
the shift cipher with k = . the shift cipher with k = .

Solution: Replace each letter with the Solution: Replace each letter with the
corresponding element of Z26. corresponding element of Z26.
11 4 22 11 24 15 11 20 9 11 15 25 7 13 24 11 7 0 0 11 7 9 14 11 24. 13 21 10 1 17 11 8 11 7 0 1 20 9.
Shift each of the numbers by k , Shift each of the numbers by k ,
yielding yielding
4 23 15 4 17 8 4 13 2 4 8 18 0 6 17 4 0 19 19 4 0 2 7 4 17.
6 14 3 20 10 4 1 4 0 19 20 13 2
Translating the numbers back to letters produces the
decrypted message Translating the numbers back to letters produces the
“EXPERIENCE IS A GREAT TEACHER.” decrypted message
21
“GO DUKE BEAT UNC.” 22

Affine Ciphers Affine Ciphers

• Shift ciphers are a special case of affine ciphers which use • Shift ciphers are a special case of affine ciphers which use
functions of the form functions of the form
f(p) = (ap + b) mod 26, f(p) = (ap + b) mod 26,
where a and b are integers, chosen so that f is a bijection. where a and b are integers, chosen so that f is a bijection.
The function is a bijection if and only if gcd a,26 1. The function is a bijection if and only if gcd a,26 1.
• Example: What letter replaces the letter K when the function • Example: What letter replaces the letter K when the function
f(p) = (7p + 3) mod 26 is used for encryption. f(p) = (7p + 3) mod 26 is used for encryption.
Solution: Since 10 represents K, f(10) = (7∙10 + 3) mod 26 Solution: Since 10 represents K, f(10) = (7∙10 + 3) mod 26
21, which is then replaced by V. 21, which is then replaced by V.

• To decrypt a message encrypted by a shift cipher, the • To decrypt a message encrypted by a shift cipher, the
congruence c ≡ ap + b (mod 26) needs to be solved for p. congruence c ≡ ap + b (mod 26) needs to be solved for p.
– Subtract b from both sides to obtain c b ≡ ap (mod 26). – Subtract b from both sides to obtain c b ≡ ap (mod 26).
– Multiply both sides by the inverse of a modulo 26, which exists – Multiply both sides by the inverse of a modulo 26, which exists
since gcd(a,26) = 1. since gcd(a,26) = 1.
– ā(c− b) ≡ āap (mod 26), which simplifies to ā(c− b) ≡ p (mod – ā(c− b) ≡ āap (mod 26), which simplifies to ā(c− b) ≡ p (mod
26). 26).
– p ≡ ā(c− b) (mod 26) is used to determine p in Z26. 23
– p ≡ ā(c− b) (mod 26) is used to determine p in Z26. 24
 Cryptanalysis of Affine Ciphers Cryptanalysis of Affine Ciphers
• The process of recovering plaintext from ciphertext without knowledge • The process of recovering plaintext from ciphertext without knowledge
both of the encryption method and the key is known as cryptanalysis or both of the encryption method and the key is known as cryptanalysis or
breaking codes. breaking codes.
• An important tool for cryptanalyzing ciphertext produced with a affine • An important tool for cryptanalyzing ciphertext produced with a affine
ciphers is the relative frequencies of letters. The nine most common ciphers is the relative frequencies of letters. The nine most common
letters in the English texts are E 13%, T 9%, A 8%, O 8%, I 7%, N 7%, letters in the English texts are E 13%, T 9%, A 8%, O 8%, I 7%, N 7%,
S 7%, H 6%, and R 6%. S 7%, H 6%, and R 6%.
• To analyze ciphertext: • To analyze ciphertext:
– Find the frequency of the letters in the ciphertext. – Find the frequency of the letters in the ciphertext.
– Hypothesize that the most frequent letter is produced by encrypting E. – Hypothesize that the most frequent letter is produced by encrypting E.
– If the value of the shift from E to the most frequent letter is k, shift the – If the value of the shift from E to the most frequent letter is k, shift the
ciphertext by k and see if it makes sense. ciphertext by k and see if it makes sense.
– If not, try T as a hypothesis and continue. – If not, try T as a hypothesis and continue.
• Example: We intercepted the shift cypher message • Example: We intercepted the shift cypher message
ZRGA BKKPXWHH EO KJ PDA NEOA ZRGA BKKPXWHH EO KJ PDA NEOA
25 17 6 0 1 10 10 15 23 22 7 7 4 14 10 9 15 3 0 13 4 14 0 25 17 6 0 1 10 10 15 23 22 7 7 4 14 10 9 15 3 0 13 4 14 0
• Solution: 3 K’s, 3 A’s, is K E? substract 6. is A E? substract 22 Solution: 3 K’s, 3 A’s, is K E? substract 6. is A E? substract 22
• Is K E? 19 11 0 20 21 4 4 9 17 16 1 1, etc. = TLAU VEEJRQBB, etc. Is K E? 19 11 0 20 21 4 4 9 17 16 1 1, etc. = TLAU VEEJRQBB, etc.
• Is A E? 3 21 10 4 5 14 14 19 1 0 11 11 8 18 14 13 19 7 4 17 8 18 4 Is A E? 3 21 10 4 5 14 14 19 1 0 11 11 8 18 14 13 19 7 4 17 8 18 4
• DUKE FOOTBALL IS ON THE RISE DUKE FOOTBALL IS ON THE RISE
25 26

Block Ciphers Block Ciphers

• Ciphers that replace each letter of the alphabet by
another letter are called character or monoalphabetic
ciphers.
Example: Using the transposition cipher based on the
• They are vulnerable to cryptanalysis based on letter permutation σ of the set 1,2,3,4 with σ 1 3, σ 2 1,
frequency. Block ciphers avoid this problem, by σ 3 4, σ 4 2,
replacing blocks of letters with other blocks of letters. a. Encrypt the plaintext PIRATE ATTACK
• A simple type of block cipher is called the transposition b. Decrypt the ciphertext message SWUE TRAEOEHS, which was
cipher. The key is a permutation σ of the set 1,2,…,m , encryted using the same cipher.
where m is an integer, that is a one‐to‐one function Solution:
from 1,2,…,m to itself. a. Split into four blocks PIRA TEAT TACK.
• To encrypt a message, split the letters into blocks of Apply the permutation σ giving IAPR ETTA AKTC.
size m, adding additional letters to fill out the final b. σ 1 : σ 1 1 2, σ 1 2 4, σ 1 3 1, σ 1 4 3.
block. We encrypt p1,p2,…,pm as c1,c2,…,cm = Apply the permutation σ 1 giving USEW ATER HOSE.
pσ 1 ,pσ 2 ,…,pσ m . Split into words to obtain USE WATER HOSE.
• To decrypt the c1,c2,…,cm transpose the letters using
the inverse permutation σ 1.
27 28
 Block Ciphers
Cryptosystems
Example: Using the transposition cipher based on the Definition: A cryptosystem is a five-tuple (P,C,K,E,D), where
permutation σ of the set 1,2,3,4 with σ 1 3, σ 2 1, – P is the set of plaintext strings,
σ 3 4, σ 4 2, – C is the set of ciphertext strings,
a. Encrypt the plaintext PIRATE ATTACK – K is the keyspace (set of all possible keys),
b. Decrypt the ciphertext message SWUE TRAEOEHS, which was – E is the set of encription functions, and
encryted using the same cipher.
– D is the set of decryption functions.
Solution: • The encryption function in E corresponding to the key k is
a. Split into four blocks PIRA TEAT TACK. denoted by Ek and the decription function in D that decrypts
Apply the permutation σ giving IAPR ETTA AKTC. cipher text enrypted using Ek is denoted by Dk. Therefore:
b. σ 1 : σ 1 1 2, σ 1 2 4, σ 1 3 1, σ 1 4 3. Dk(Ek(p)) = p, for all plaintext strings p.
Apply the permutation σ 1 giving USEW ATER HOSE.
Split into words to obtain USE WATER HOSE.

29 30

Cryptosystems Cryptosystems
Example: Describe the family of shift ciphers as a Example: Describe the family of shift ciphers as a
cryptosystem. cryptosystem.
Solution: Assume the messages are strings Solution: Assume the messages are strings
consisting of elements in Z26. consisting of elements in Z26.
– P is the set of strings of elements in Z26, – P is the set of strings of elements in Z26,
– C is the set of strings of elements in Z26, – C is the set of strings of elements in Z26,
– K = Z26, – K = Z26,
– E consists of functions of the form – E consists of functions of the form
Ek (p) = (p + k) mod 26 , and Ek (p) = (p + k) mod 26 , and
– D is the same as E where Dk (p) = (p k) mod 26 . – D is the same as E where Dk (p) = (p k) mod 26 .

31 32
 Public Key Cryptography The RSA Cryptosystem
Clifford Cocks
(Born 1950)
• All classical ciphers, including shift and affine ciphers, • A public key cryptosystem, now known as the RSA system was
are private key cryptosystems. Knowing the encryption introduced in 1976 by three researchers at MIT.
key allows one to quickly determine the decryption key.
• All parties who wish to communicate using a private Adi Shamir
Leonard
Ronald Rivest Adelman
key cryptosystem must share the key and keep it a (Born 1948) (Born 1952) (Born 1945)
secret.
• In public key cryptosystems, first invented in the 1970s, • It is now known that the method was discovered earlier by
knowing how to encrypt a message does not help one to Clifford Cocks, working secretly for the UK government.
decrypt the message. Therefore, everyone can have a • The public encryption key is (n,e), where n = pq (the modulus)
publicly known encryption key. The only key that needs is the product of two large (200 digits) primes p and q, and an
exponent e that is relatively prime to (p 1 q 1 . The two
to be kept secret is the decryption key. large primes can be quickly found using probabilistic
primality tests, discussed earlier. But n = pq, with
approximately 400 digits, cannot be factored in a reasonable
33 length of time. 34
Turing Award winners 2002!

RSA Encryption RSA Encryption Example

• To encrypt a message using RSA using a key (n,e) :
i. Translate the plaintext message M into sequences of Example: Encrypt the message STOP using the
two digit integers representing the letters. Use 00 for RSA cryptosystem with key( , ).
A, 01 for B, etc.
– 2537 = 43∙ 59,
ii. Concatenate the two digit integers into strings of
digits. – p = 43 and q = 59 are primes and gcd(e,(p 1 q 1
gcd(13, 42∙ 58 1.
iii. Divide this string into equally sized blocks of 2N
digits where 2N is the largest even number 2525…25
with 2N digits that does not exceed n.
iv. The plaintext message M is now a sequence of – Divide into blocks of four digits because 2525
integers m1,m2,…,mk. 2537 252525 to obtain 1819 1415.
v. Each block (an integer) is encrypted using the – Encrypt each block using the mapping C M13 mod
function C Me mod n. 2537.
– Since 181913 mod 2537 2081 and 141513 mod
2537 2182, the encrypted message is 2081 2182.
35 36
 RSA Encryption Example
RSA Decryption
Example: Encrypt the message STOP using the
RSA cryptosystem with key( , ). • To decrypt a RSA ciphertext message, the decryption
– 2537 = 43∙ 59, key d, an inverse of e modulo (p 1 q 1 is needed.
The inverse exists since gcd(e,(p 1 q 1
– p = 43 and q = 59 are primes and gcd(e,(p 1 q 1 gcd(13, 42∙ 58 1.
gcd(13, 42∙ 58 1.
• With the decryption key d, we can decrypt each block
with the computation M Cd mod p∙q. (see text for
full derivation)
– Divide into blocks of four digits because 2525 • RSA works as a public key system since the only known
2537 252525 to obtain 1819 1415. method of finding d is based on a factorization of n into
– Encrypt each block using the mapping C M13 mod primes. There is currently no known feasible method for
2537. factoring large numbers into primes.
– Since 181913 mod 2537 2081 and 141513 mod
2537 2182, the encrypted message is 2081 2182.
37 38

RSA Decryption RSA Decryption

• Example: The message is received. • Example: The message is received.
What is the decrypted message if it was encrypted What is the decrypted message if it was encrypted
using the RSA cipher from the previous example. using the RSA cipher from the previous example.
n= n=
exercise in Section exercise in Section

– To decrypt a block C, M C937 mod 2537. – To decrypt a block C, M C937 mod 2537.
– Since 0981937 mod 2537 0704 and 0461937 mod – Since 0981937 mod 2537 0704 and 0461937 mod
2537 1115, the decrypted message is 0704 1115. 2537 1115, the decrypted message is 0704 1115.
– Translating back to English letters, the message is – Translating back to English letters, the message is
HELP. HELP.
39 40
 Cryptographic Protocols: Key Exchange Cryptographic Protocols: Digital
• Cryptographic protocols are exchanges of messages carried out by two
or more parties to achieve a particular security goal. Signatures
• Key exchange is a protocol by which two parties can exchange a secret
key over an insecure channel without having any past shared secret Adding a digital signature to a message is a way of ensuring the
information. Here the Diffe-Hellman key agreement protocol is recipient that the message came from the purported sender.
described by example. • Suppose that Alice’s RSA public key is (n,e) and her private key is d.
i. Suppose that Alice and Bob want to share a common key. Alice encrypts a plain text message x using E(n,e) (x)= xd mod n. She
ii. Alice and Bob agree to use a prime p and a primitive root a of p. decrypts a ciphertext message y using D(n,e) (y)= yd mod n.
iii. Alice chooses a secret integer k1 and sends ak1 mod p to Bob. • Alice wants to send a message M so that everyone who receives the
iv. Bob chooses a secret integer k2 and sends ak2 mod p to Alice. message knows that it came from her.
v. Alice computes (ak2)k1 mod p. 1. She translates the message to numerical equivalents and splits into
vi. Bob computes (ak1)k2 mod p. blocks, just as in RSA encryption.
2. She then applies her decryption function D(n,e) to the blocks and sends
At the end of the protocol, Alice and Bob have their shared key the results to all intended recipients.
3. The recipients apply Alice’s encryption function and the result is the
(ak2)k1 mod p = (ak1)k2 mod p.
original plain text since E(n,e) (D(n,e) (x))= x.
• To find the secret information from the public information would Everyone who receives the message can then be certain that it came
require the adversary to find k1 and k2 from ak1 mod p and ak2 mod p from Alice.
respectively. This is an instance of the discrete logarithm problem,
considered to be computationally infeasible when p and a are
sufficiently large. 41 42

Cryptographic Protocols: Digital

Signatures
Example: Suppose Alice’s RSA cryptosystem is the same as in the
earlier example with key(2537,13), 2537 = 43∙ 59, p = 43 and q = 59
are primes and gcd(e,(p 1 q 1 gcd(13, 42∙ 58 1.
Her decryption key is d = 937.
She wants to send the message “MEET AT NOON” to her friends so
that they can be certain that the message is from her.

Solution: Alice translates the message into blocks of digits 1204 0419
0019 1314 1413.
1. She then applies her decryption transformation D(2537,13) (x)= x937 mod
2537 to each block.
2. She finds (using her laptop, programming skills, and knowledge of discrete
mathematics) that 1204937 mod 2537 817, 419937 mod 2537 555 ,
19937 mod 2537 1310, 1314937 mod 2537 2173, and 1413937 mod
2537 1026.
3. She sends 0817 0555 1310 2173 1026.
When one of her friends receive the message, they apply Alice’s
encryption transformation E(2537,13) to each block. They then obtain the
original message which they translate back to English letters. 43