Best Available Techniques (BAT)

Reference Document for Waste

Treatment

Industrial Emissions Directive

2010/75/EU
(Integrated Pollution
Prevention and Control)

Antoine Pinasseau, Benoit Zerger,

Joze Roth, Michele Canova,
Serge Roudier

2018

EUR 29362-EN
Best Available Techniques (BAT)
Reference Document for
Waste Treatment

Industrial Emissions Directive 2010/75/EU

Integrated Pollution Prevention and control

Authors:

Antoine Pinasseau
Benoit Zerger
Joze Roth
Michele Canova
Serge Roudier

2018

EUR 29362 EN
This publication is a Science for Policy report by the Joint Research Centre (JRC), the European
Commission’s science and knowledge service. It aims to provide evidence-based scientific support to
the European policymaking process. The scientific output expressed does not imply a policy position of
the European Commission. Neither the European Commission nor any person acting on behalf of the
Commission is responsible for the use that might be made of this publication.

Contact information
Name: European IPPC Bureau
Address: Joint Research Centre, Edificio Expo c/ Inca Garcilaso 3, E-41902 Seville, Spain
Email: [email protected]
Tel.: + 34 95 4488 284

JRC Science Hub

https://ec.europa.eu/jrc

Legal Notice
Under the Commission Decision of 12 December 2011 on the Re-use of Commission Documents
(2011/833/EU), the present BREF document is subject to free re-use, except for parts covered by any
third-party rights which may be present in the document (such as images, tables, data, written material,
or similar, the rights to which need to be acquired separately from their respective rights-holders for
further use). The European Commission is not liable for any consequence stemming from the re-use of
this publication. Any re-use is subject to the acknowledgement of the source and non-distortion of the
original meaning or message.

JRC113018
EUR 29362 EN

PDF ISBN 978-92-79-94038-5 ISSN 1831-9424 doi:10.2760/407967

Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2018

© European Union, 2018

How to cite this report: Antoine Pinasseau, Benoit Zerger, Joze Roth, Michele Canova, Serge Roudier;
Best Available Techniques (BAT) Reference Document for Waste treatment Industrial Emissions
Directive 2010/75/EU (Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control); EUR 29362 EN; Publications Office
of the European Union, Luxembourg, 2018; ISBN 978-92-79-94038-5, doi:10.2760/407967, JRC113018

All images © European Union 2018, except: Cover picture credits from left to right
1.jrgen flchle © fotolia.com – Jürgen Fälchle; 2.waste pile © fotolia.com – Gudellaphoto; 3.
murdocksimagestanks sludge digester storage dry biogas equipment© fotolia.com – murdocksimages;4.
tanks sludge digester storage dry biogas equipment© fotolia.com – sauletas;

Title Best Available Techniques (BAT) Reference Document for Waste Treatment

Abstract
The Best Available Techniques (BAT) Reference Document for Waste Treatment is the result of the
information exchange since the kick-off meeting which was held from 25 to 28 November 2013. The
information collection took place in 2014 and 2015 and the final meeting took place in March 2017. The
document includes information on the following waste treatment processes:
- Mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste
- Mechanical treatment of VFCs and VHCs containing equipment
- Mechanical treatment of waste with calorific value
- Aerobic treatment of waste
- Anaerobic treatment of waste
- Mechanical-Biological treatment of waste (MBT)
- Physico-chemical treatment of solid and pasty waste
- Re-refining of waste oil
- Physico-chemical treatment of waste with calorific value
- Regeneration of spent solvents
- Physico-chemical and/or biological treatment of water-based liquid waste
- Regeneration / recovery of pollution abatement components / Flue-Gas Treatment (FGT) of waste
- Recovery of components from spent catalysts
- Treatment of excavated contaminated soil
- Treatment of POPs-containing waste
- Treatment of mercury-containing waste
Acknowledgements
This report was produced by the European Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control Bureau
(EIPPCB) at the European Commission's Joint Research Centre – Directorate B: Growth and
Innovation under the supervision of Serge Roudier (Head of the EIPPCB) and Luis Delgado
Sancho (Head of the Circular Economy and Industrial Leadership Unit).

The authors of this BREF were Mr Antoine Pinasseau, Mr Benoit Zerger, Mr Joze Roth,
Mr Michele Canova and Mr Serge Roudier

This report was drawn up in the framework of the implementation of the Industrial Emissions
Directive (2010/75/EU) and is the result of the exchange of information provided for in Article
13 of the Directive.

Major contributors of information were:

 among EU Member States: Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany,

Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, and the United Kingdom;
 among industry: EBA (European Biogas Association), ECN (European Compost
Network), EuRIC (European Recycling Industries' Confederation), EUCOPRO
(European Association for Co-processing), EURITS (EU for Responsible Incineration
and Treatment of Special Waste), FEAD (European Federation of Waste Management
and Environmental Services), HWE (Hazardous Waste Europe), MWE (Municipal
Waste Europe);
 among environmental Non-Governmental Organisations: EEB (European
Environmental Bureau).

Other contributors to the review process were Czech Republic, Poland, Portugal, Romania,
Norway, CEFIC, CEMBUREAU, CEPI, CEWEP, EERA, ERFO, ESRG, ESWET,
EURELECTRIC, EUROFER, EUROMETAUX, GEIR and ORGALIME.

The whole EIPPCB team provided contributions and peer reviewing.

This report was edited by Ms Anna Atkinson and formatted by Mr Rick Nowfer.
This document is one from the series of foreseen documents listed below (at the time of writing,
not all documents have been drafted):
Reference Document on Best Available Techniques (BREF) Code
Ceramic Manufacturing Industry CER
Common Waste Water and Waste Gas Treatment/Management Systems in the Chemical
CWW
Sector
Common Waste Gas Treatment in the Chemical Sector WGC
Emissions from Storage EFS
Energy Efficiency ENE
Ferrous Metals Processing Industry FMP
Food, Drink and Milk Industries FDM
Industrial Cooling Systems ICS
Intensive Rearing of Poultry and Pigs IRPP
Iron and Steel Production IS
Large Combustion Plants LCP
LVIC-
Large Volume Inorganic Chemicals – Ammonia, Acids and Fertilisers Industries
AAF
Large Volume Inorganic Chemicals – Solids and Others Industry LVIC-S
Large Volume Organic Chemical Industry LVOC
Management of Tailings and Waste-rock in Mining Activities MTWR
Manufacture of Glass GLS
Manufacture of Organic Fine Chemicals OFC
Non-ferrous Metals Industries NFM
Production of Cement, Lime and Magnesium Oxide CLM
Production of Chlor-alkali CAK
Production of Polymers POL
Pulp and Paper Industry PP
Production of Speciality Inorganic Chemicals SIC
Refining of Mineral Oil and Gas REF
Slaughterhouses and Animals By-products Industries SA
Smitheries and Foundries Industry SF
Surface Treatment of Metals and Plastics STM
Surface Treatment Using Organic Solvents (including Wood and Wood Products
STS
Preservation with Chemicals)
Tanning of Hides and Skins TAN
Textiles Industry TXT
Waste Incineration WI
Waste Treatment WT
Wood-based Panels Production WBP
Reference Document (REF)
Economics and Cross-media Effects ECM
Monitoring of Emissions to Air and Water from IED Installations ROM
Electronic versions of draft and finalised documents are publicly available and can be
downloaded from http://eippcb.jrc.ec.europa.eu
 Preface

PREFACE
1. Status of this document

Unless otherwise stated, references to ‘the Directive’ in this document refer to Directive
2010/75/EU of the European Parliament and the Council on industrial emissions (integrated
pollution prevention and control) (Recast).

The original best available techniques (BAT) reference document (BREF) on Waste Treatment
was adopted by the European Commission in 2006. This document is the result of a review of
that BREF. The review commenced in June 2013.

This BAT reference document for Waste Treatment forms part of a series presenting the results
of an exchange of information between EU Member States, the industries concerned, non-
governmental organisations promoting environmental protection and the Commission, to draw
up, review, and where necessary, update BAT reference documents as required by Article 13(1)
of the Directive. This document is published by the European Commission pursuant to
Article 13(6) of the Directive.

As set out in Article 13(5) of the Directive, the Commission Implementing Decision (EU)
2018/1147 on the BAT conclusions contained in Chapter 6 was adopted on 10.8.2018 and
published on 17.8.20181.

2. Participants in the information exchange

As required in Article 13(3) of the Directive, the Commission has established a forum to
promote the exchange of information, which is composed of representatives from Member
States, the industries concerned and non-governmental organisations promoting environmental
protection (Commission Decision of 16 May 2011 establishing a forum for the exchange of
information pursuant to Article 13 of the Directive 2010/75/EU on industrial emissions (2011/C
146/03), OJ C 146, 17.05.2011, p. 3).

Forum members have nominated technical experts constituting the technical working group
(TWG) that was the main source of information for drafting this document. The work of the
TWG was led by the European IPPC Bureau (of the Commission's Joint Research Centre).

3. Structure and contents of this document

General information
Chapter 1 provides general information on the waste treatment sector.

For the sake of clarity, the waste treatment sector has been divided into four chapters, each split
into several sections as shown below.

1
OJ L 208, 17.8.2018, p. 38.

Waste Treatment i
Preface

Structure and content of Chapters 2 to 5

Chapter
Item Section number Item
number
This chapter deals with common process steps such as
reception, storage, handling, blending and mixing, cleaning
and washing. This chapter also gives information about the
Processes and techniques
data collection used to review this document as well as an
Chapter 2 commonly used for waste
overview of the emissions encountered across the sector.
treatment
Finally, it addresses the techniques to consider in the
determination of BAT for the processes commonly found in
the waste treatment sector.
Mechanical treatment in
Section 3.1
shredders of metal waste
Treatment of WEEE
Mechanical treatment of
Chapter 3 Section 3.2 containing VFCs and/or
waste
VHCs
Mechanical treatment of
Section 3.3
waste with calorific value
Overview of the different
Section 4.1
biological treatments of waste
Aerobic treatment
Section 4.2
(including composting)
Anaerobic treatment
Section 4.3
(or anaerobic digestion (AD))
Mechanical biological
Section 4.4
treatment (MBT)
Biological treatment of
Chapter 4 As the three processes
waste
addressed in Chapter 4
(aerobic treatment, AD and
MBT) have many
Section 4.5 commonalities, this section
deals with all techniques to
consider in the determination
of BAT for the biological
treatments.
PCT of solid and/or pasty
Section 5.1
waste
Section 5.2 Re-refining of waste oil
PCT of waste
Section 5.3
with calorific value
Regeneration of spent
Section 5.4
solvents
Physico-chemical treatment Regeneration/recovery of
Chapter 5 (PCT) Section 5.5 pollution abatement
of waste components / FGT residues
Treatment of excavated
Section 5.6
contaminated soil
Treatment of water-based
Section 5.7
liquid waste
Treatment of waste containing
Section 5.8 POPs or mercury and of other
waste

Applied processes and techniques

General information on the industrial processes and techniques used within the sector are
provided as shown below.

ii Waste Treatment
 Preface

Structure of general information on processes and techniques

Treatment type Section number
Processes and techniques commonly used for
Section 2.1
waste treatment
Mechanical treatment of waste Sections 3.1.1, 3.2.1 and 3.3.2
Biological treatment of waste Sections 4.2.1, 4.3.1 and 4.4.1
PCT of solid and/or pasty waste: Section 5.1.2
Re-refining of waste oil: Section 5.2.1
PCT of waste with calorific value: Section 5.3.2
Regeneration of spent solvents: Section 5.4.1
Regeneration/recovery of pollution abatement
components / FGT residues: Section 5.5.1
Physico-chemical treatment (PCT) of waste
Treatment of excavated contaminated soil: Section 5.6.1
Treatment of water-based liquid waste: Section 5.7.1
Treatment of POP-containing waste: Section 5.8.1.1
Treatment of mercury-containing waste: Section 5.8.2.1
Other PCT treatments: Sections 5.8.3, 5.8.4, 5.8.5 and
5.8.6

Current emission and consumption levels

Data and information concerning the environmental performance of plants within the sector, and
in operation at the time of writing, in terms of current emissions, consumption and nature of raw
materials, water usage, and use of energy, are provided as shown below.

Structure of data and information concerning current emission and consumption levels
Treatment type Section number
Processes and techniques commonly used for
Section 2.2
waste treatment
Mechanical treatment of waste Sections 3.1.2, 3.2.2 and 3.3.3
Biological treatment of waste Sections 4.2.2, 4.3.2 and 4.4.1.1.2
PCT of solid and/or pasty waste: Section 5.1.3
Re-refining of waste oil: Section 5.2.2
PCT of waste with calorific value: Section 5.3.3
Regeneration of spent solvents: Section 5.4.2
Regeneration/recovery of pollution abatement
Physico-chemical treatment (PCT) of waste
components / FGT residues: Section 5.5.2
Treatment of excavated contaminated soil: Section 5.6.2
Treatment of water-based liquid waste: Section 5.7.2
Treatment of POP-containing waste: Section 5.8.1.2
Treatment of mercury-containing waste: Section 5.8.2.2

Techniques to consider in the determination of BAT

Techniques to prevent or, where this is not practicable, to reduce the emissions from plants in
this sector that were considered in determining the BAT are presented in more detail as shown
below. This information includes, where relevant, the environmental performance levels (e.g.
emission and consumption levels) that can be achieved by using the techniques, the associated
monitoring and the costs and the cross-media issues associated with the techniques.

Waste Treatment iii

Preface

Structure of techniques to consider in the determination of BAT

Treatment type Section number
Processes and techniques commonly
Section 2.3
used for waste treatments
Mechanical treatment of waste Sections 3.1.3, 3.2.3 and 3.3.4
All types of biological treatments: Section 4.5.1
Aerobic treatment of waste: Section 4.5.2
Biological treatment of waste
Anaerobic treatment of waste: Section 4.5.3
Mechanical biological treatment: Section 4.5.4
PCT of solid and/or pasty waste: Section 5.1.4
Re-refining of waste oil: Section 5.2.3
PCT of waste with calorific value: Section 5.3.4
Regeneration of spent solvents: Section 5.4.3
Regeneration/recovery of pollution abatement
Physico-chemical treatment (PCT) of waste
components / FGT residues: Sections 5.5.3 and 5.5.4
Treatment of excavated contaminated soil: Section 5.6.3
Treatment of water-based liquid waste: Section 5.7.3
Treatment of POP-containing waste: Section 5.8.1.3
Treatment of mercury-containing waste: Section 5.8.2.3

Best available techniques (BAT) conclusions

Chapter 6 presents the BAT conclusions as defined in Article 3(12) of Directive 2010/75/EU.

Emerging techniques
Chapter 6 presents information on 'emerging techniques' as defined in Article 3(14) of Directive
2010/75/EU.

Concluding remarks
Concluding remarks and recommendations for future work are presented in Chapter 8.

4. Information sources and the derivation of BAT

This document is based on information collected from a number of sources, in particular

through the TWG that was established specifically for the exchange of information under
Article 13 of the Directive. The information has been collated and assessed by the European
IPPC Bureau (of the Commission's Joint Research Centre) who led the work on determining
BAT, guided by the principles of technical expertise, transparency and neutrality. The work of
the TWG and all other contributors is gratefully acknowledged.

The BAT conclusions have been established through an iterative process involving the
following steps:

 identification of the key environmental issues for the Waste Treatment sector;
 examination of the techniques most relevant to address these key issues;
 identification of the best environmental performance levels, on the basis of the available
data in the European Union and worldwide;
 examination of the conditions under which these environmental performance levels were
achieved, such as costs, cross-media effects, and the main driving forces involved in the
implementation of the techniques;
 selection of the best available techniques (BAT), their associated emission levels (and
other environmental performance levels) and the associated monitoring for this sector
according to Article 3(10) of, and Annex III to, the Directive.

iv Waste Treatment
 Preface

Expert judgement by the European IPPC Bureau and the TWG has played a key role in each of
these steps and the way in which the information is presented here.

Where available, economic data have been given together with the descriptions of the
techniques presented in the sections mentioned above. These data give a rough indication of the
magnitude of the costs and benefits. However, the actual costs and benefits of applying a
technique may depend strongly on the specific situation of the plant concerned, which cannot be
evaluated fully in this document. In the absence of data concerning costs, conclusions on the
economic viability of techniques are drawn from observations on existing plants.

Unless otherwise mentioned, all graphs and tables presented in Chapters 1 to 6 were produced
by the EIPPCB by using the information exchanged for the review of the Waste Treatment
BREF under Article 13 of the IED, in particular the plant-specific information submitted
through questionnaires (see Annex 9.1).

5. Review of BAT reference documents (BREFs)

BAT is a dynamic concept and so the review of BREFs is a continuing process. For example,
new measures and techniques may emerge, science and technologies are continuously
developing and new or emerging processes are being successfully introduced into the industries.
In order to reflect such changes and their consequences for BAT, this document will be
periodically reviewed and, if necessary, updated accordingly.

6. Contact information

All comments and suggestions should be made to the European IPPC Bureau at the Joint
Research Centre at the following address:

European Commission
Joint Research Centre (JRC)
Directorate B – Growth and Innovation
Circular Economy and Industrial Leadership Unit
European IPPC Bureau
Edificio Expo
c/ Inca Garcilaso, 3
E-41092 Seville, Spain
Telephone: +34 95 4488 284
Fax: +34 95 4488 426
E-mail: [email protected]
Internet: http://eippcb.jrc.ec.europa.eu

Waste Treatment v
 Reference Document on Best Available Techniques for
Waste Treatment

PREFACE ........................................................................................................................ I
SCOPE ................................................................................................................... XXVII
1 GENERAL INFORMATION ................................................................................. 1
1.1 THE PURPOSE OF WASTE TREATMENT ........................................................................... 1
1.2 TYPES OF WASTE AND WASTE GENERATION IN THE EU ................................................ 3
1.2.1 End-of-life vehicles (EoLVs)............................................................................... 5
1.2.2 Waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) ............................................ 6
1.2.3 Municipal solid waste (MSW) ............................................................................. 7
1.2.4 Sludge and liquid waste ....................................................................................... 7
1.2.5 Waste acids and bases .......................................................................................... 8
1.2.6 Waste adsorbents ................................................................................................. 8
1.2.7 Waste catalysts..................................................................................................... 8
1.2.8 Wastes from combustion processes ..................................................................... 9
1.2.9 Waste oil ............................................................................................................ 10
1.2.10 Waste solvents ................................................................................................... 11
1.2.11 Other recyclable wastes ..................................................................................... 11
1.2.11.1 Waste plastics .........................................................................................................11
1.2.11.2 Waste wood ............................................................................................................13
1.2.12 Hazardous waste from the construction and demolition sector ......................... 13
1.2.13 Waste contaminated with PCBs ......................................................................... 14
1.2.14 Waste contaminated with SF6 ............................................................................ 14
1.2.15 Waste soils ......................................................................................................... 15
1.3 INSTALLATIONS FOR THE TREATMENT OF WASTE ....................................................... 16
1.3.1 Shredders ........................................................................................................... 17
1.3.2 Waste transfer installations ................................................................................ 18
1.3.3 Installations for the biological treatment of waste ............................................. 19
1.3.4 Installations for the physico-chemical treatment of waste waters ..................... 19
1.3.5 Installations for the treatment of combustion ashes and flue-gas treatment
residues .............................................................................................................. 20
1.3.6 Installations for the treatment of waste containing POPs .................................. 20
1.3.7 Installations for the treatment of waste containing SF6 ..................................... 20
1.3.8 Installations for treatment of waste oil............................................................... 21
1.3.9 Installations for treatment of waste solvent ....................................................... 22
1.3.10 Installations for the treatment of waste catalysts, waste from pollution
abatement and other inorganic waste ................................................................. 23
1.3.11 Installations for treatment of activated carbon and resins.................................. 23
1.3.12 Installations for the treatment of waste acids and bases .................................... 24
1.3.13 Installations for the preparation of waste with calorific value ........................... 24
1.4 ECONOMICS OF THE WASTE TREATMENT SECTOR ....................................................... 26
1.5 GENERAL ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES RELATED TO INSTALLATIONS THAT TREAT
WASTE ......................................................................................................................... 29

2 PROCESSES AND TECHNIQUES COMMONLY USED FOR WASTE

TREATMENT ........................................................................................................ 31
2.1 APPLIED PROCESSES AND TECHNIQUES ....................................................................... 32
2.1.1 Pre-acceptance and acceptance of waste............................................................ 32

vi Waste Treatment
 2.1.1.1 Pre-acceptance........................................................................................................ 32
2.1.1.2 Acceptance ............................................................................................................. 32
2.1.2 Storage............................................................................................................... 33
2.1.3 Handling ............................................................................................................ 35
2.1.4 Blending and mixing ......................................................................................... 37
2.1.5 Treatment of laboratory smalls ......................................................................... 39
2.1.6 Cleaning and washing ....................................................................................... 40
2.1.7 Reduction of solid waste size ............................................................................ 41
2.1.8 Other than normal operating conditions ............................................................ 42
2.2 CURRENT EMISSION AND CONSUMPTION LEVELS ....................................................... 44
2.2.1 General information on the data collection ....................................................... 44
2.2.2 General information on the emission levels ...................................................... 46
2.2.2.1 Dust emissions to air .............................................................................................. 47
2.2.2.2 Organic compound emissions to air ....................................................................... 50
2.2.2.3 Ammonia emissions to air ...................................................................................... 58
2.3 TECHNIQUES TO CONSIDER IN THE DETERMINATION OF GENERAL BAT FOR THE
WT SECTOR ................................................................................................................ 61
2.3.1 Organisational techniques to improve environmental performance .................. 62
2.3.1.1 Environmental management system (EMS) ........................................................... 62
2.3.1.2 Stream inventory/register ....................................................................................... 64
2.3.1.3 Utilisation of qualified personnel in the plant ........................................................ 66
2.3.2 Operational techniques to improve environmental performance ...................... 67
2.3.2.1 Waste pre-acceptance ............................................................................................. 67
2.3.2.2 Waste composition characterisation ....................................................................... 70
2.3.2.3 Waste acceptance ................................................................................................... 73
2.3.2.4 Waste sampling ...................................................................................................... 76
2.3.2.5 Waste tracking system and waste inventory ........................................................... 79
2.3.2.6 Output quality management for the waste treatment .............................................. 80
2.3.2.7 Waste segregation .................................................................................................. 82
2.3.2.8 Waste compatibility assessment ............................................................................. 86
2.3.2.9 Waste sorting.......................................................................................................... 88
2.3.3 Monitoring....................................................................................................... 102
2.3.3.1 Overview .............................................................................................................. 102
2.3.3.2 Monitoring of influent and effluent waste water .................................................. 102
2.3.3.3 Monitoring of emissions to water ......................................................................... 104
2.3.3.4 Monitoring of channelled emissions to air ........................................................... 105
2.3.3.5 Odour monitoring ................................................................................................. 107
2.3.4 Techniques for the prevention and control of channelled emissions to air ..... 108
2.3.4.1 Overview .............................................................................................................. 108
2.3.4.2 Cyclone ................................................................................................................ 108
2.3.4.3 Electrostatic precipitator (ESP) ............................................................................ 108
2.3.4.4 Fabric filter ........................................................................................................... 109
2.3.4.5 Absolute filter ...................................................................................................... 110
2.3.4.6 Thermal oxidation ................................................................................................ 110
2.3.4.7 Biofiltration .......................................................................................................... 111
2.3.4.8 Condensation and cryogenic condensation .......................................................... 113
2.3.4.9 Adsorption ............................................................................................................ 114
2.3.4.10 Scrubbing ............................................................................................................. 116
2.3.4.11 Sorbent injection .................................................................................................. 117
2.3.5 Techniques for the prevention and control of odour and diffuse/fugitive
emissions to air ................................................................................................ 118
2.3.5.1 Odour management plan ...................................................................................... 118
2.3.5.2 Prevention or reduction of odour emissions from waste treatment ...................... 119
2.3.5.3 Reduction of diffuse emissions ............................................................................ 121

Waste Treatment vii

 2.3.5.4 Leak detection and repair programme ..................................................................125
2.3.5.5 Flaring...................................................................................................................126
2.3.6 Techniques for the prevention and control of emissions to water ................... 129
2.3.6.1 Treatment of waste water from waste treatment plants ........................................129
2.3.6.1.1 Environmental performance of all waste treatment plants except for those
treating water-based liquid waste ..................................................................132
2.3.6.1.2 Environmental performance of plants treating water-based liquid waste .....153
2.3.6.2 Descriptions of individual waste water treatment techniques ...............................190
2.3.6.2.1 Equalisation ..................................................................................................190
2.3.6.2.2 Neutralisation ................................................................................................190
2.3.6.2.3 Mechanical separation of insoluble contaminants ........................................191
2.3.6.2.3.1 Oil-water separation .............................................................................191
2.3.6.2.3.2 Coagulation and flocculation ...............................................................192
2.3.6.2.3.3 Electrocoagulation ...............................................................................193
2.3.6.2.3.4 Sedimentation ......................................................................................193
2.3.6.2.3.5 Flotation ...............................................................................................194
2.3.6.2.3.6 Filtration...............................................................................................195
2.3.6.2.3.7 Membrane filtration .............................................................................196
2.3.6.2.4 Physico-chemical treatment of soluble non-biodegradable or inhibitory
contaminants .................................................................................................197
2.3.6.2.4.1 Precipitation of metals .........................................................................197
2.3.6.2.4.2 Chemical oxidation ..............................................................................197
2.3.6.2.4.3 Chemical reduction ..............................................................................199
2.3.6.2.4.4 Nanofiltration and reverse osmosis ......................................................200
2.3.6.2.4.5 Stripping...............................................................................................200
2.3.6.2.4.6 Ion exchange processes ........................................................................201
2.3.6.2.4.7 Evaporation ..........................................................................................202
2.3.6.2.4.8 Adsorption ...........................................................................................202
2.3.6.2.4.9 Distillation/rectification .......................................................................203
2.3.6.2.5 Biological treatment of waste water ..............................................................204
2.3.6.2.5.1 Aerobic treatment.................................................................................204
2.3.6.2.5.2 Anaerobic treatment .............................................................................207
2.3.6.2.5.3 Nitrogen removal by biological nitrification/denitrification ................208
2.3.6.3 Sludge treatment techniques .................................................................................209
2.3.7 Techniques for the optimisation of water usage and reduction of waste water
generation ........................................................................................................ 211
2.3.8 Techniques for the prevention or reduction of consumption of raw materials
and chemicals................................................................................................... 213
2.3.9 Techniques for the efficient use of energy ....................................................... 215
2.3.9.1 Energy efficiency plan ..........................................................................................215
2.3.9.2 Energy balance .....................................................................................................217
2.3.10 Techniques for the prevention and control of noise and vibration emissions .. 218
2.3.10.1 Noise and vibration management plan ..................................................................218
2.3.10.2 Noise and vibration reduction at source and noise abatement ..............................219
2.3.11 Techniques for the prevention and reduction of soil and water contamination220
2.3.12 Techniques for the prevention or reduction of residues generation ................. 222
2.3.13 Techniques for the prevention or reduction of the environmental
consequences of accidents and incidents ......................................................... 224
2.3.13.1 General techniques for the prevention or limitation of the environmental
consequences of accidents and incidents ..............................................................224
2.3.13.2 Techniques for the reduction of the environmental risk of storing waste .............228
2.3.13.3 Techniques for the reduction of the environmental risk of handling and
transferring waste..................................................................................................231
2.3.14 Techniques for the decommissioning of the plant ........................................... 233
3 MECHANICAL TREATMENT OF WASTE................................................... 235

viii Waste Treatment

 3.1 MECHANICAL TREATMENT IN SHREDDERS OF METAL WASTE .................................. 235
3.1.1 Applied processes and techniques ................................................................... 235
3.1.2 Current emission and consumption levels ....................................................... 245
3.1.2.1 Emissions to air .................................................................................................... 245
3.1.2.1.1 General overview ......................................................................................... 245
3.1.2.1.2 Dust and particle-bound metals .................................................................... 246
3.1.2.1.3 Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) ........................................................... 251
3.1.2.1.4 PCB and dioxins ........................................................................................... 253
3.1.2.1.5 Mercury ........................................................................................................ 256
3.1.2.2 Emissions to water and water usage ..................................................................... 259
3.1.2.2.1 Emissions to water ....................................................................................... 259
3.1.2.2.2 Water usage .................................................................................................. 264
3.1.2.3 Noise and vibration .............................................................................................. 264
3.1.2.4 Consumption of energy ........................................................................................ 265
3.1.3 Techniques to consider in the determination of BAT ..................................... 265
3.1.3.1 Techniques for the prevention or reduction of emissions to air ........................... 265
3.1.3.1.1 Abatement of waste gases using cyclone, Venturi scrubber and bag filter in
combination or alone .................................................................................... 265
3.1.3.1.2 Ultrafiltration ................................................................................................ 275
3.1.3.1.3 Prevention or reduction of diffuse emissions ............................................... 277
3.1.3.1.3.1 Specific acceptance procedure............................................................. 277
3.1.3.1.3.2 Pressure relief dampers........................................................................ 278
3.1.3.1.3.3 Deflagration management plan ............................................................ 279
3.1.3.1.3.4 Pre-shredding ...................................................................................... 281
3.1.3.2 Techniques for the prevention and control of noise and vibration emissions ...... 281
3.1.3.2.1 Vibration management plan ......................................................................... 281
3.1.3.2.2 Noise barriers ............................................................................................... 283
3.1.3.3 Techniques to reduce energy consumption .......................................................... 285
3.1.3.3.1 Shredder feed control ................................................................................... 285
3.1.3.4 Water management in mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste ........... 285
3.2 TREATMENT OF WEEE CONTAINING VFCS AND/OR VHCS ..................................... 287
3.2.1 Applied processes and techniques ................................................................... 287
3.2.1.1 Innovative processes ............................................................................................ 292
3.2.1.1.1 Treatment of halogen-free cooling and freezing appliances ......................... 292
3.2.2 Current emission and consumption levels ....................................................... 293
3.2.2.1 Emissions to air .................................................................................................... 293
3.2.2.1.1 Dust .............................................................................................................. 294
3.2.2.1.2 Volatile fluorocarbons (VFCs) ..................................................................... 294
3.2.2.1.3 VOCs, NMVOC and TOC ........................................................................... 296
3.2.2.2 Emissions to water ............................................................................................... 296
3.2.2.3 Energy consumption............................................................................................. 296
3.2.3 Techniques to consider in the determination of BAT ..................................... 297
3.2.3.1 Techniques for the prevention or reduction of emissions to air ........................... 297
3.2.3.1.1 Removal of refrigerants and oils .................................................................. 297
3.2.3.1.2 Treatment of gas containing organic compounds such as VFCs/VHCs ....... 298
3.2.3.1.3 Reduction of dust emissions ......................................................................... 302
3.2.3.2 Techniques to prevent explosion .......................................................................... 303
3.3 MECHANICAL TREATMENT OF WASTE WITH CALORIFIC VALUE ............................... 305
3.3.1 Overview ......................................................................................................... 305
3.3.2 Applied processes and techniques ................................................................... 305
3.3.3 Current emission and consumption levels ....................................................... 312
3.3.3.1 Emissions to air .................................................................................................... 312
3.3.3.2 Emissions to water ............................................................................................... 316
3.3.3.3 Water usage .......................................................................................................... 319
3.3.3.4 Energy consumption............................................................................................. 319

Waste Treatment ix
 3.3.4 Techniques to consider in the determination of BAT ...................................... 320
3.3.4.1 Techniques for the prevention or reduction of emissions to air ............................320
3.3.4.1.1 Reduction of dust emissions .........................................................................320
3.3.4.1.2 Reduction of organic compounds emissions .................................................323
4 BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT OF WASTE..................................................... 325
4.1 GENERAL OVERVIEW................................................................................................. 325
4.2 AEROBIC TREATMENT (INCLUDING COMPOSTING).................................................... 328
4.2.1 Applied processes and techniques ................................................................... 328
4.2.1.1 Innovative processes .............................................................................................332
4.2.2 Current emission and consumption levels ....................................................... 333
4.2.2.1 Emissions to air ....................................................................................................333
4.2.2.1.1 Outdoor aerobic treatment ............................................................................333
4.2.2.1.2 Indoor aerobic treatment ...............................................................................335
4.2.2.2 Emissions to water ................................................................................................342
4.2.2.2.1 Outdoor aerobic treatment ............................................................................342
4.2.2.2.2 Indoor aerobic treatment ...............................................................................346
4.2.2.3 Water usage ..........................................................................................................350
4.2.2.4 Energy consumption .............................................................................................350
4.3 ANAEROBIC TREATMENT (OR ANAEROBIC DIGESTION (AD)) ................................... 351
4.3.1 Applied processes and techniques ................................................................... 351
4.3.1.1 Innovative processes .............................................................................................361
4.3.1.1.1 Conversion of organic waste to carboxylates, carboxylic acids or polymers
by fermentation with mixed cultures ............................................................361
4.3.1.1.2 Bioethanol production...................................................................................362
4.3.1.1.3 Separation and recirculation of dry matter in AD plants ..............................362
4.3.1.1.4 Pretreatment of biomass substrates to enhance anaerobic digestion .............363
4.3.2 Current emission and consumption levels ....................................................... 363
4.3.2.1 Emissions to air ....................................................................................................363
4.3.2.2 Emissions to water and water usage .....................................................................369
4.3.2.2.1 Emissions to water ........................................................................................369
4.3.2.2.2 Water usage ..................................................................................................374
4.3.2.3 Energy consumption .............................................................................................374
4.4 MECHANICAL BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT (MBT) ....................................................... 375
4.4.1 Applied processes and techniques ................................................................... 375
4.4.1.1 Innovative processes .............................................................................................380
4.4.1.1.1 Pretreatment to separate food waste from packaging....................................380
4.4.1.1.2 Separation of biodegradable material by enzyme treatment .........................380
4.4.2 Current emission and consumption levels ....................................................... 381
4.4.2.1 Emissions to air ....................................................................................................382
4.4.2.2 Emissions to water and water usage .....................................................................387
4.4.2.2.1 Emissions to water ........................................................................................387
4.4.2.2.2 Water usage ..................................................................................................389
4.4.2.3 Energy consumption .............................................................................................389
4.5 TECHNIQUES TO CONSIDER IN THE DETERMINATION OF BAT .................................. 390
4.5.1 Techniques for all types of biological treatment .............................................. 390
4.5.1.1 Selection of the waste input ..................................................................................390
4.5.1.2 Storage management of putrescible waste input ...................................................392
4.5.1.3 Odour management plan .......................................................................................394
4.5.1.4 Reduction of channelled emissions of dust, odour, organic compounds, H 2S and
NH3 .......................................................................................................................395
4.5.1.5 Reduction of waste water generation and water usage .........................................402
4.5.2 Techniques for aerobic treatment..................................................................... 406
4.5.2.1 Monitoring of aerobic process to improve the environmental performance .........406
4.5.2.2 Techniques to limit diffuse dust, odour and bioaerosols emissions ......................411

x Waste Treatment
 4.5.2.3 Semipermeable membrane covers with forced positive aeration ......................... 412
4.5.3 Techniques for anaerobic treatment ................................................................ 416
4.5.3.1 Anaerobic process and waste monitoring ............................................................. 416
4.5.4 Techniques for MBT ....................................................................................... 417
4.5.4.1 Measures to reduce emissions to air ..................................................................... 417
5 PHYSICO-CHEMICAL TREATMENT OF WASTE ..................................... 423
5.1 PHYSICO-CHEMICAL TREATMENT OF SOLID AND/OR PASTY WASTE ......................... 423
5.1.1 Overview ......................................................................................................... 423
5.1.2 Applied processes and techniques ................................................................... 423
5.1.2.1 Immobilisation of solid and/or pasty waste .......................................................... 423
5.1.2.1.1 Stabilisation .................................................................................................. 427
5.1.2.1.2 Solidification ................................................................................................ 430
5.1.2.2 Physico-chemical treatment of solid and/or pasty waste before backfilling ........ 432
5.1.3 Current emission and consumption levels ....................................................... 434
5.1.3.1 Overview .............................................................................................................. 434
5.1.3.2 Emissions to air .................................................................................................... 435
5.1.3.3 Emissions to water and water usage ..................................................................... 442
5.1.3.4 Energy consumption............................................................................................. 444
5.1.4 Techniques to consider in the determination of BAT ..................................... 444
5.1.4.1 Monitoring of the waste input .............................................................................. 444
5.1.4.2 Techniques for the prevention or reduction of emissions to air ........................... 446
5.2 RE-REFINING OF WASTE OILS .................................................................................... 449
5.2.1 Applied processes and techniques ................................................................... 449
5.2.2 Current emission and consumption levels ....................................................... 468
5.2.2.1 Emissions from the re-refining of waste oils ........................................................ 468
5.2.2.1.1 Emissions to air ............................................................................................ 471
5.2.2.1.2 Emissions to water ....................................................................................... 475
5.2.2.1.3 Solid residues ............................................................................................... 479
5.2.2.2 Consumption in the re-refining of waste oils ....................................................... 480
5.2.3 Techniques to consider in the determination of BAT ..................................... 482
5.2.3.1 Selection of waste oils to be re-refined ................................................................ 482
5.2.3.2 Reduction of water usage and emissions to water in waste oil re-refining plants 484
5.2.3.3 Reduction of waste generated by waste oil re-refining installations .................... 485
5.2.3.4 Reduction of VOC emissions from waste oil re-refining plants........................... 486
5.3 PHYSICO-CHEMICAL TREATMENT OF WASTE WITH CALORIFIC VALUE .................... 489
5.3.1 Overview ......................................................................................................... 489
5.3.2 Applied processes and techniques ................................................................... 493
5.3.2.1 Preparation of solid output mainly from solid waste ............................................ 493
5.3.2.1.1 Drying the solid waste .................................................................................. 493
5.3.2.1.2 Pelletising and agglomeration ...................................................................... 494
5.3.2.2 Preparation of solid output mainly from solid and pasty waste by mechanical
treatment and impregnation .................................................................................. 494
5.3.2.3 Preparation of liquid output.................................................................................. 496
5.3.2.3.1 Preparation of liquid waste fuels by homogenisation, phase separation and
blending/mixing of wastes ............................................................................ 496
5.3.2.3.2 Preparation of liquid output by fluidification of wastes ............................... 498
5.3.2.3.3 Preparation of emulsions from liquid/semi-liquid waste .............................. 500
5.3.2.4 Treatments of waste oils other than re-refining .................................................... 502
5.3.2.4.1 Mild and severe reprocessing of waste oils .................................................. 505
5.3.2.4.2 Thermal cracking.......................................................................................... 507
5.3.2.5 Treatment of vegetable waste oils for the production of biodiesel ....................... 509
5.3.3 Current emission and consumption levels ....................................................... 510
5.3.3.1 Emissions to air .................................................................................................... 514
5.3.3.2 Emissions to water and water usage ..................................................................... 517

Waste Treatment xi
 5.3.3.3 Energy consumption .............................................................................................521
5.3.4 Techniques to consider in the determination of BAT ...................................... 521
5.3.4.1 Reduction of VOC emissions to air when preparing waste fuel from liquid and
semi-liquid waste ..................................................................................................521
5.4 REGENERATION OF SPENT SOLVENTS ........................................................................ 525
5.4.1 Applied processes and techniques ................................................................... 525
5.4.2 Current emission and consumption levels ....................................................... 530
5.4.3 Techniques to consider in the determination of BAT ...................................... 543
5.4.3.1 Recovery of raw material or energy from distillation residues .............................543
5.4.3.2 Monitoring of diffuse and fugitive VOC emissions to air ....................................544
5.4.3.3 Collection and abatement of VOC emissions to air ..............................................546
5.4.3.4 Reduction of waste water generation and of water usage from vacuum
generation .............................................................................................................548
5.4.3.4.1 Water-free vacuum generation ......................................................................548
5.4.3.4.2 Liquid ring pumps with high boiling point liquids .......................................549
5.4.3.4.3 Closed cycle liquid ring vacuum pumps .......................................................550
5.5 REGENERATION/RECOVERY OF POLLUTION ABATEMENT COMPONENTS / FGT
RESIDUES ................................................................................................................... 552
5.5.1 Applied processes and techniques ................................................................... 552
5.5.1.1 Regeneration of spent activated carbon ................................................................552
5.5.1.2 Regeneration of ion exchange resins ....................................................................554
5.5.1.3 Regeneration of waste catalysts ............................................................................555
5.5.1.4 Treatment of FGT residues ...................................................................................558
5.5.1.4.1 Recycling of Residual Sodium Chemicals from solid FGT residues ............558
5.5.1.4.2 Recovery of salts from liquid FGT residues by solution/evaporation ...........561
5.5.1.4.3 Washing of FGT residues and their use as a raw material for production of
construction products ....................................................................................562
5.5.1.4.4 Acid extraction ..............................................................................................563
5.5.2 Current emission and consumption levels ....................................................... 564
5.5.2.1 Regeneration of activated carbon..........................................................................564
5.5.2.2 Regeneration of waste catalysts ............................................................................567
5.5.2.3 Treatment of FGT residues ...................................................................................567
5.5.3 Techniques to consider in the determination of BAT for the regeneration of
activated carbon ............................................................................................... 570
5.5.3.1 Heat recovery and waste gas treatment .................................................................570
5.5.4 Techniques to consider in the determination of BAT for the recovery of
components from catalysts............................................................................... 573
5.5.4.1 Heat recovery and waste gas treatment .................................................................573
5.6 TREATMENT OF EXCAVATED CONTAMINATED SOIL.................................................. 575
5.6.1 Applied processes and techniques ................................................................... 575
5.6.1.1 Thermal desorption ...............................................................................................575
5.6.1.2 Soil washing .........................................................................................................578
5.6.1.3 Vapour extraction .................................................................................................582
5.6.1.4 Solvent extraction .................................................................................................583
5.6.1.5 Biodegradation......................................................................................................584
5.6.2 Current emission and consumption levels ....................................................... 587
5.6.2.1 Emissions from thermal desorption ......................................................................590
5.6.2.2 Emissions from vapour extraction of solid waste .................................................592
5.6.2.3 Emissions and consumption of soil washing ........................................................593
5.6.2.4 Emissions and consumption of biodegradation ....................................................597
5.6.3 Techniques to consider in the determination of BAT ...................................... 599
5.6.3.1 Thermal desorption ...............................................................................................599
5.6.3.1.1 Reduction of dust and VOC emissions to air from thermal desorption of
contaminated soil ..........................................................................................599
5.6.3.2 Soil washing .........................................................................................................600

xii Waste Treatment

 5.6.3.2.1 Treatment and reuse of generated waste water for water washing of
contaminated soil.......................................................................................... 600
5.6.3.2.2 Control of emissions to air from soil washing .............................................. 601
5.7 TREATMENT OF WATER-BASED LIQUID WASTE ........................................................ 602
5.7.1 Applied processes and techniques ................................................................... 602
5.7.2 Current emission and consumption levels ....................................................... 611
5.7.2.1 Overview .............................................................................................................. 611
5.7.2.2 Emissions to air .................................................................................................... 612
5.7.2.3 Emissions to water ............................................................................................... 626
5.7.2.3.1 Overview ...................................................................................................... 626
5.7.2.3.2 Direct discharge ............................................................................................ 626
5.7.2.3.3 Indirect discharge ......................................................................................... 643
5.7.2.3.4 Direct and indirect discharge (THC, HOI, CN, AOX and metals) ............... 652
5.7.2.4 Energy consumption............................................................................................. 675
5.7.2.5 Raw material consumption ................................................................................... 675
5.7.3 Techniques to consider in the determination of BAT ..................................... 678
5.7.3.1 Monitoring of the waste input .............................................................................. 678
5.7.3.2 Techniques for the prevention or reduction of emissions to air from the
treatment of water-based liquid waste .................................................................. 680
5.8 TREATMENT OF WASTE CONTAINING POPS OR MERCURY AND TREATMENT OF
OTHER WASTE ........................................................................................................... 685
5.8.1 Treatment of POP-containing waste................................................................ 685
5.8.1.1 Applied processes and techniques ........................................................................ 685
5.8.1.1.1 Decontamination of waste or equipment polluted with persistent organic
pollutants (POPs).......................................................................................... 685
5.8.1.1.2 Decontamination of PCB-containing waste ................................................. 686
5.8.1.1.2.1 Equipment cleaning ............................................................................. 686
5.8.1.1.3 Destruction of POPs ..................................................................................... 687
5.8.1.1.4 Innovative processes .................................................................................... 691
5.8.1.2 Current emission and consumption levels ............................................................ 692
5.8.1.3 Techniques to consider in the determination of BAT........................................... 693
5.8.1.3.1 Optimisation of the environmental performance of PCB decontamination .. 693
5.8.1.3.2 Capture and control of VOC emissions from solvent washing .................... 695
5.8.2 Treatment of mercury-containing waste.......................................................... 696
5.8.2.1 Applied processes and techniques ........................................................................ 697
5.8.2.2 Current emission and consumption levels ............................................................ 699
5.8.2.3 Techniques to consider in the determination of BAT........................................... 702
5.8.2.3.1 Reduction of mercury and dust emissions to air ........................................... 702
5.8.3 Treatment of SF6-containing waste ................................................................. 705
5.8.4 Treatment of waste asbestos ............................................................................ 707
5.8.5 Treatment of healthcare waste......................................................................... 708
5.8.6 Regeneration of spent acids............................................................................. 709
5.8.6.1 Regeneration of spent sulphuric acid ................................................................... 709
5.8.6.2 Regeneration of spent hydrochloric acid .............................................................. 710
6 BEST AVAILABLE TECHNIQUES (BAT) CONCLUSIONS FOR WASTE
TREATMENT ...................................................................................................... 711
SCOPE .................................................................................................................................. 711
DEFINITIONS .......................................................................................................................... 713
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS .................................................................................................. 716
6.1 GENERAL BAT CONCLUSIONS .................................................................................. 718
6.1.1 Overall environmental performance ................................................................ 718
6.1.2 Monitoring....................................................................................................... 722
6.1.3 Emissions to air ............................................................................................... 728

Waste Treatment xiii

 6.1.4 Noise and vibrations ........................................................................................ 732
6.1.5 Emissions to water ........................................................................................... 734
6.1.6 Emissions from accidents and incidents .......................................................... 740
6.1.7 Material efficiency ........................................................................................... 740
6.1.8 Energy efficiency ............................................................................................. 741
6.1.9 Reuse of packaging .......................................................................................... 741
6.2 BAT CONCLUSIONS FOR THE MECHANICAL TREATMENT OF WASTE ........................ 742
6.2.1 General BAT conclusions for the mechanical treatment of waste ................... 742
6.2.1.1 Emissions to air ....................................................................................................742
6.2.2 BAT conclusions for the mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste .. 743
6.2.2.1 Overall environmental performance .....................................................................743
6.2.2.2 Deflagrations ........................................................................................................743
6.2.2.3 Energy efficiency ..................................................................................................744
6.2.3 BAT conclusions for the treatment of WEEE containing VFCs and/or VHCs 744
6.2.3.1 Emissions to air ....................................................................................................744
6.2.3.2 Explosions ............................................................................................................745
6.2.4 BAT conclusions for the mechanical treatment of waste with calorific value 745
6.2.4.1 Emissions to air ....................................................................................................745
6.2.5 BAT conclusions for the mechanical treatment of WEEE containing mercury746
6.2.5.1 Emissions to air ....................................................................................................746
6.3 BAT CONCLUSIONS FOR THE BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT OF WASTE .......................... 747
6.3.1 General BAT conclusions for the biological treatment of waste ..................... 747
6.3.1.1 Overall environmental performance .....................................................................747
6.3.1.2 Emissions to air ....................................................................................................747
6.3.1.3 Emissions to water and water usage .....................................................................748
6.3.2 BAT conclusions for the aerobic treatment of waste ....................................... 749
6.3.2.1 Overall environmental performance .....................................................................749
6.3.2.2 Odour and diffuse emissions to air .......................................................................749
6.3.3 BAT conclusions for the anaerobic treatment of waste ................................... 750
6.3.3.1 Emissions to air ....................................................................................................750
6.3.4 BAT conclusions for the mechanical biological treatment (MBT) of waste ... 750
6.3.4.1 Emissions to air ....................................................................................................751
6.4 BAT CONCLUSIONS FOR THE PHYSICO-CHEMICAL TREATMENT OF WASTE .............. 752
6.4.1 BAT conclusions for the physico-chemical treatment of solid and/or pasty
waste ................................................................................................................ 752
6.4.1.1 Overall environmental performance .....................................................................752
6.4.1.2 Emissions to air ....................................................................................................752
6.4.2 BAT conclusions for the re-refining of waste oil ............................................ 753
6.4.2.1 Overall environmental performance .....................................................................753
6.4.2.2 Emissions to air ....................................................................................................753
6.4.3 BAT conclusions for the physico-chemical treatment of waste with calorific
value ................................................................................................................. 753
6.4.3.1 Emissions to air ....................................................................................................753
6.4.4 BAT conclusions for the regeneration of spent solvents ................................. 754
6.4.4.1 Overall environmental performance .....................................................................754
6.4.4.2 Emissions to air ....................................................................................................754
6.4.5 BAT-AEL for emissions of organic compounds to air from the re-refining of
waste oil, the physico-chemical treatment of waste with calorific value and
the regeneration of spent solvents .................................................................... 755
6.4.6 BAT conclusions for the thermal treatment of spent activated carbon, waste
catalysts and excavated contaminated soil ....................................................... 755
6.4.6.1 Overall environmental performance .....................................................................755

xiv Waste Treatment

 6.4.6.2 Emissions to air .................................................................................................... 756
6.4.7 BAT conclusions for the water washing of excavated contaminated soil ....... 756
6.4.7.1 Emissions to air .................................................................................................... 756
6.4.8 BAT conclusions for the decontamination of equipment containing PCBs .... 757
6.4.8.1 Overall environmental performance ..................................................................... 757
6.5 BAT CONCLUSIONS FOR THE TREATMENT OF WATER-BASED LIQUID WASTE .......... 758
6.5.1 Overall environmental performance ................................................................ 758
6.5.2 Emissions to air ............................................................................................... 758
6.6 DESCRIPTION OF TECHNIQUES .................................................................................. 759
6.6.1 Channelled emissions to air............................................................................. 759
6.6.2 Diffuse emissions of organic compounds to air .............................................. 761
6.6.3 Emissions to water .......................................................................................... 762
6.6.4 Sorting techniques ........................................................................................... 765
6.6.5 Management techniques .................................................................................. 766
7 EMERGING TECHNIQUES ............................................................................. 767
7.1 GENERAL TECHNIQUES ............................................................................................. 767
7.1.1 Online XRF analysis ....................................................................................... 767
7.2 MECHANICAL TREATMENTS ..................................................................................... 769
7.2.1 Mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste.......................................... 769
7.2.1.1 Dissolution of VOCs ............................................................................................ 769
7.2.1.2 Abatement of VOCs in exhaust air from shredders by ionisation in combination
with activated carbon adsorption .......................................................................... 770
7.3 BIOLOGICAL TREATMENTS ....................................................................................... 773
7.3.1 Composting ..................................................................................................... 773
7.3.1.1 Monitoring of emissions to air - Inverse dispersion technique using Lagrangian
modelling ............................................................................................................. 773
7.3.1.2 Container composting .......................................................................................... 774
7.3.2 Anaerobic treatment ........................................................................................ 776
7.3.2.1 Dry anaerobic digestion of organic household waste ........................................... 776
8 CONCLUDING REMARKS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE
WORK................................................................................................................... 779
9 ANNEXES............................................................................................................. 783
9.1 LIST OF PLANTS THAT PARTICIPATED IN THE DATA COLLECTION ............................ 783
GLOSSARY ................................................................................................................. 791
I. ISO COUNTRY CODES ............................................................................................... 792
II. MONETARY UNITS .................................................................................................... 793
III. UNIT PREFIXES, NUMBER SEPARATORS AND NOTATIONS ......................................... 794
IV. UNITS AND MEASURES .............................................................................................. 795
V. CHEMICAL ELEMENTS ............................................................................................... 796
VI. CHEMICAL FORMULAE COMMONLY USED IN THIS DOCUMENT................................. 797
VII. ACRONYMS ............................................................................................................... 798
VIII. DEFINITIONS ............................................................................................................. 802
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................ 807

Waste Treatment xv
 List of Tables

Table 1.1: List of Waste (LoW) as per amended Commission Decision 2000/53/EC ............................4
Table 1.2: Waste generated in the EU-28 and Norway in 2014 ..............................................................4
Table 1.3: Waste generation by economic activity and households in 2014 (1 000 tonnes) ...................5
Table 1.4: End-of-life vehicles generated and treated in the EU-28 and Norway in 2014 ......................6
Table 1.5: WEEE collected and treated in the EU-28 and Norway in 2014 ............................................7
Table 1.6: Municipal waste generated and treated in the EU-28 and Norway in 2014 ...........................7
Table 1.7: Industrial effluent sludge and sludge and liquid wastes from waste treatment generated
in the EU-28 and Norway in 2014..........................................................................................7
Table 1.8: Acid, alkaline or saline waste generated and treated in the EU-28 and Norway in 2014 .......8
Table 1.9: Examples of industrial sectors where catalysts are used ........................................................8
Table 1.10: Overview of the types of catalysts used for industrial purposes ............................................9
Table 1.11: Combustion waste generated and treated in the EU-28 and Norway in 2014 ......................10
Table 1.12: Main components of the FGT residues ................................................................................10
Table 1.13: Used oils generated and treated in the EU-28 and Norway in 2014 .....................................11
Table 1.14: Spent solvents generated and treated in the EU-28 and Norway in 2014 .............................11
Table 1.15: Waste plastics .......................................................................................................................12
Table 1.16: Presence of metals in plastics ...............................................................................................12
Table 1.17: Waste plastics generated in the EU-28 and Norway in 2014 ...............................................12
Table 1.18: Waste wood generated in the EU-28 and Norway in 2014 ..................................................13
Table 1.19: Amount of hazardous mineral construction and demolition wastes generated in 2014 in
the EU-28 and Norway .........................................................................................................14
Table 1.20: Waste containing PCBs generated and treated in the EU-28 and Norway in 2014 ..............14
Table 1.21: Waste soils generated in the EU-28 and Norway in 2014 ....................................................15
Table 1.22: Amount of waste treatment activities from different databases ...........................................17
Table 1.23: Main air pollutants emitted by waste treatments and their main sources .............................29
Table 1.24: Main water pollutants (parameters) emitted by waste treatments and their main sources....30
Table 2.1: Information contained in the description of each technique/process included in Chapter 2..31
Table 2.2: Cleaning and washing steps .................................................................................................41
Table 2.3: Overview of the plants which participated in the data collection .........................................44
Table 2.4: Information for each technique ............................................................................................61
Table 2.5: Economics of laboratory and monitoring equipment in a waste oil treatment facility .........78
Table 2.6: Plants from the reference list operating an output quality management system ...................82
Table 2.7: Example of a compatibility chart for the storage of hazardous waste ..................................84
Table 2.8: Examples of sorting techniques ............................................................................................89
Table 2.9: Examples of sorting techniques used in waste treatment plants from the reference list .......99
Table 2.10: Plants equipped with cyclonic separation...........................................................................108
Table 2.11: Plants equipped with an electrostatic precipitator (ESP) ....................................................109
Table 2.12: Plants equipped with a fabric filter .....................................................................................109
Table 2.13: Plants equipped with absolute filtration .............................................................................110
Table 2.14: Plants equipped with a thermal oxidation system ..............................................................111
Table 2.15: Plants equipped with a biofilter ..........................................................................................113
Table 2.16: Plants equipped with a condensation system ......................................................................114
Table 2.17: Plants equipped with activated carbon adsorption .............................................................115
Table 2.18: Plants equipped with a wet scrubbing system ....................................................................117
Table 2.19: Plants equipped with a sorbent injection system ................................................................118
Table 2.20: Plants where an odour management plan is implemented ..................................................119
Table 2.21: Overview of end-of-pipe odour treatment techniques ........................................................120
Table 2.22: Abatement efficiencies and emission levels associated with flaring ..................................127
Table 2.23: Application limits and restrictions associated with flaring.................................................128
Table 2.24: Economics associated with flaring .....................................................................................129
Table 2.25: Examples of plants using flaring ........................................................................................129
Table 2.26: Environmental performance of waste treatment plants directly discharging to water
(TSS) ..................................................................................................................................133
Table 2.27: Environmental performance of waste treatment plants directly discharging to water
(TOC and COD) .................................................................................................................134
Table 2.28: Environmental performance of waste treatment plants directly discharging to water
(nitrogen) ............................................................................................................................135
Table 2.29: Environmental performance of waste treatment plants directly discharging to water
(phosphorus) .......................................................................................................................136

xvi Waste Treatment

Table 2.30: Environmental performance of waste treatment plants directly discharging to water
(phenols) ............................................................................................................................ 136
Table 2.31: Environmental performance of waste treatment plants directly and indirectly
discharging to water (THC) ............................................................................................... 137
Table 2.32: Environmental performance of waste treatment plants directly and indirectly
discharging to water (HOI) ................................................................................................ 138
Table 2.33: Environmental performance of waste treatment plants directly and indirectly
discharging to water (arsenic) ............................................................................................ 139
Table 2.34: Environmental performance of waste treatment plants directly and indirectly
discharging to water (cadmium) ........................................................................................ 140
Table 2.35: Environmental performance of waste treatment plants directly and indirectly
discharging to water (chromium) ....................................................................................... 141
Table 2.36: Environmental performance of waste treatment plants directly and indirectly
discharging to water (copper) ............................................................................................ 143
Table 2.37: Environmental performance of waste treatment plants directly and indirectly
discharging to water (lead) ................................................................................................ 145
Table 2.38: Environmental performance of waste treatment plants directly and indirectly
discharging to water (nickel) ............................................................................................. 147
Table 2.39: Environmental performance of waste treatment plants directly and indirectly
discharging to water (mercury) .......................................................................................... 149
Table 2.40: Environmental performance of waste treatment plants directly and indirectly
discharging to water (zinc) ................................................................................................ 151
Table 2.41: Environmental performance of water-based liquid waste treatment plants directly
discharging to water (TSS) ................................................................................................ 154
Table 2.42: Environmental performance of water-based liquid waste treatment plants directly
discharging to water (COD and TOC) ............................................................................... 154
Table 2.43: Environmental performance of water-based liquid waste treatment plants directly
discharging to water (nitrogen) .......................................................................................... 155
Table 2.44: Environmental performance of water-based liquid waste treatment plants directly
discharging to water (phosphorus) ..................................................................................... 156
Table 2.45: Environmental performance of water-based liquid waste treatment plants directly
discharging to water (phenols) ........................................................................................... 156
Table 2.46: Environmental performance of water-based liquid waste treatment plants directly and
indirectly discharging to water (THC and HOI) ................................................................ 157
Table 2.47: Environmental performance of water-based liquid waste treatment plants directly and
indirectly discharging to water (cyanide) .......................................................................... 160
Table 2.48: Environmental performance of water-based liquid waste treatment plants directly and
indirectly discharging to water (AOX) .............................................................................. 161
Table 2.49: Environmental performance of water-based liquid waste treatment plants directly and
indirectly discharging to water (arsenic) ............................................................................ 162
Table 2.50: Environmental performance of water-based liquid waste treatment plants directly and
indirectly discharging to water (cadmium) ........................................................................ 165
Table 2.51: Environmental performance of water-based liquid waste treatment plants directly and
indirectly discharging to water (chromium) ...................................................................... 168
Table 2.52: Environmental performance of water-based liquid waste treatment plants directly and
indirectly discharging to water (Cr(VI)) ............................................................................ 172
Table 2.53: Environmental performance of water-based liquid waste treatment plants directly and
indirectly discharging to water (copper) ............................................................................ 174
Table 2.54: Environmental performance of water-based liquid waste treatment plants directly and
indirectly discharging to water (lead) ................................................................................ 177
Table 2.55: Environmental performance of water-based liquid waste treatment plants directly and
indirectly discharging to water (nickel) ............................................................................. 180
Table 2.56: Environmental performance of water-based liquid waste treatment plants directly and
indirectly discharging to water (mercury) .......................................................................... 184
Table 2.57: Environmental performance of water-based liquid waste treatment plants directly and
indirectly discharging to water (zinc) ................................................................................ 187
Table 2.58: Plants performing equalisation of waste water .................................................................. 190
Table 2.59: Plants performing neutralisation of waste water ................................................................ 191
Table 2.60: Plants equipped with oil separators ................................................................................... 191
Table 2.61: Plants performing emulsion breaking ................................................................................ 192
Table 2.62: Plants performing coagulation of waste water ................................................................... 192
Table 2.63: Plants performing flocculation of waste water .................................................................. 193
Table 2.64: Plants equipped with a sedimentation or decantation system ............................................ 194

Waste Treatment xvii

Table 2.65: Plants performing flotation for waste water treatment .......................................................194
Table 2.66: Plants performing filtration of waste water ........................................................................195
Table 2.67: Plants equipped with membrane filtration for waste water treatment ................................196
Table 2.68: Plants using precipitation for waste water treatment ..........................................................197
Table 2.69: Plants using chemical oxidation for waste water treatment................................................198
Table 2.70: Plants using chemical reduction for waste water treatment................................................199
Table 2.71: Plants equipped with reverse osmosis system ....................................................................200
Table 2.72: Plants equipped with waste water stripping .......................................................................201
Table 2.73: Plants using ion exchange for waste water treatment .........................................................202
Table 2.74: Plants performing evaporation of waste water ...................................................................202
Table 2.75: Plants equipped with an adsorption system for waste water treatment ..............................203
Table 2.76: Plants equipped with an activated sludge system ...............................................................207
Table 2.77: Plants equipped with an MBR system ................................................................................207
Table 2.78: Plants performing nitrification/denitrification of waste water ............................................208
Table 2.79: Plants performing sludge dewatering .................................................................................210
Table 2.80: Examples of raw material substitution ...............................................................................214
Table 2.81: Economics of the integration of different improvements to energy efficiency techniques 216
Table 2.82: Example format of energy consumption reporting .............................................................217
Table 3.1: Dust and metal emissions to air from mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste
– Periodic measurements ....................................................................................................248
Table 3.2: Heavy metal content of dust deposits at a shredding plant .................................................251
Table 3.3: PCDD/F and PCB emissions from mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste –
Periodic measurements .......................................................................................................254
Table 3.4: PCDD/F and dioxin-like PCB emissions at three Flemish shredder plants ........................255
Table 3.5: Result of deposition measurements near four Flemish shredder plants ..............................255
Table 3.6: Reported emissions to water from mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste ......260
Table 3.7: Mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste – Techniques used, origin of
emissions to water and type of discharge ...........................................................................262
Table 3.8: Mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste – Direct discharge to water .................264
Table 3.9: Environmental performance of mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste (dust
emissions to air) .................................................................................................................272
Table 3.10: Environmental performance of mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste (dust,
Pb and Cu emissions to air) ................................................................................................274
Table 3.11: Mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste – Number of deflagrations per year ....280
Table 3.12: Monitoring of emissions to air from the treatment of WEEE containing VFCs and/or
VHCs ..................................................................................................................................294
Table 3.13: Dust emissions to air from the treatment of WEEE containing VFCs and/or VHCs .........294
Table 3.14: CFC emissions to air from the treatment of WEEE containing VFCs and/or VHCs .........295
Table 3.15: Typical calorific values of different types of waste ...........................................................305
Table 3.16: The use of waste plastics from different industrial sectors as fuel .....................................306
Table 3.17: Overview of the different physical forms of the waste fuel (output) ..................................306
Table 3.18: Typical composition of combustible waste (waste code 19-12-10 from Annex to COM
2000/532/EC) based on a large number of measurments in the plants applying CEN/ TC
343......................................................................................................................................308
Table 3.19: Typical composition of mixed packaging (waste code 15-01-06 from Annex to COM
2000/532/EC) based on a large number of measurments in the plants applying CEN/ TC
343......................................................................................................................................309
Table 3.20: Additional processing steps required according to the waste's physical characteristics, to
deliver waste fuel to consumers’ specifications .................................................................311
Table 3.21: Emissions to air from mechanical treatment of waste with calorific value ........................313
Table 3.22: Mechanical treatment of waste with calorific value – Origin of emissions to air and
associated abatement techniques ........................................................................................314
Table 3.23: Emissions to water from mechanical treatment of waste with calorific value ...................317
Table 3.24: Mechanical treatment of waste with calorific value - Origin of emissions to water,
abatement techniques used, and type of discharge .............................................................318
Table 3.25: Environmental performance of plants carrying out mechanical treatment of waste with
calorific value and equipped with a bag/fabric filter system (dust emissions to air) ..........321
Table 3.26: Environmental performance of mechanical treatment of waste with calorific value
(emissions of organic compounds to air)............................................................................324
Table 4.1: Biological treatments of waste ...........................................................................................326
Table 4.2: Average input to German composting plants by size .........................................................329
Table 4.3: Parameters measured in emissions to air at outdoor aerobic treatment plants ...................333
Table 4.4: Odour emissions in outdoor aerobic treatment plants ........................................................334

xviii Waste Treatment

Table 4.5: Bioaerosols emissions in outdoor aerobic treatment plants ............................................... 335
Table 4.6: Parameters measured in emissions to air at indoor aerobic treatment plants ..................... 336
Table 4.7: Origin of emissions to air and associated abatement techniques at indoor aerobic
treatment plants.................................................................................................................. 337
Table 4.8: Odour emissions in indoor aerobic treatment plants .......................................................... 339
Table 4.9: Bioaerosols emissions in indoor aerobic treatment plants ................................................. 340
Table 4.10: Number of periodic measurements of NH3 concentration in emissions to air ................... 341
Table 4.11: Parameters measured in emissions to water in outdoor aerobic treatment plants .............. 343
Table 4.12: Origin of emissions to water and associated abatement techniques at outdoor
composting plants .............................................................................................................. 345
Table 4.13: Parameters measured in emissions to water at indoor aerobic treatment plants ................ 347
Table 4.14: Origin of emissions to water and associated abatement techniques at indoor aerobic
treatment plants.................................................................................................................. 348
Table 4.15: Composition of output used as fuel ................................................................................... 354
Table 4.16: Overview of outputs from anaerobic treatment of biodegradable municipal waste ........... 355
Table 4.17: Anaerobic digestion technologies ...................................................................................... 357
Table 4.18: Indicative overview of the requirements for biogas treatment in relation to the intended
use ...................................................................................................................................... 359
Table 4.19: Biogas pretreatment and utilisation ................................................................................... 360
Table 4.20: Emissions to air from anaerobic digestion (AD) ............................................................... 365
Table 4.21: Anaerobic digestion - Abatement techniques and origin of channelled emissions to air ... 367
Table 4.22: Emissions to water from anaerobic digestion .................................................................... 370
Table 4.23: Anaerobic digestion - Abatement techniques and origin of emissions to water ................ 372
Table 4.24: Overview of output from different MBT process configurations ...................................... 376
Table 4.25: Parameters measured in emissions to air from MBT plants (excluding biogas
combustion) ....................................................................................................................... 383
Table 4.26: Abatement techniques for emissions to air and origin of emissions at MBT plants .......... 384
Table 4.27: Emissions to water from MBT plants ................................................................................ 387
Table 4.28: Abatement techniques for emissions to water in MBT plants ........................................... 388
Table 4.29: Biological treatment plants equipped with a closed hall, and associated storage
capacities ........................................................................................................................... 393
Table 4.30: Ranges of measured odour emissions at biological treatment plants ................................. 395
Table 4.31: Environmental performance of plants performing biological treatments in term of NH3
emissions to air .................................................................................................................. 397
Table 4.32: Environmental performance of plants performing biological treatments in term of odour
emissions to air .................................................................................................................. 400
Table 4.33: Examples of plants using recycled water ........................................................................... 405
Table 4.34: Moisture assessment index ................................................................................................ 407
Table 4.35: Measures to prevent oxygen deficiency during composting .............................................. 408
Table 4.36: Advantages/disadvantages of overpressure and suction systems ....................................... 409
Table 4.37: Emission abatement as Cover Efficiency and vs Baseline Factor of semipermeable
membrane covers ............................................................................................................... 414
Table 4.38: Environmental performance of MBT plants in terms of dust emissions to air .................. 419
Table 4.39: Environmental performance of MBT plants in terms of emissions of organic compounds
to air ................................................................................................................................... 420
Table 5.1: Emissions from physico-chemical treatment of solids and pasty waste ............................ 434
Table 5.2: Emissions to air from physico-chemical treatment of solid and/or pasty waste ................ 435
Table 5.3: Physico-chemical treatment of solid and/or pasty waste – Abatement techniques used
and origin of emissions to air ............................................................................................. 436
Table 5.4: Volatile organic compound emissions to air from physico-chemical treatment of solid
and/or pasty waste.............................................................................................................. 442
Table 5.5: Physico-chemical treatment of solid and/or pasty waste – Origin of emissions to water,
abatement techniques used, and type of discharge ............................................................ 443
Table 5.6: Immobilisation of solid and/or pasty waste – Implemented procedures related to ensure
the compatibility of the waste input and the treatment process ......................................... 445
Table 5.7: Environmental performance of the physico-chemical treatment of solid and/or pasty
waste in terms of dust emissions to air .............................................................................. 447
Table 5.8: Finishing techniques used for the treatment of waste oils ................................................. 453
Table 5.9: Waste oil re-refining technologies/processes ..................................................................... 454
Table 5.10: Types of additives used in lubricants ................................................................................. 460
Table 5.11: Types of containers in which waste oils are delivered to the oil treatment plants ............. 461
Table 5.12: Indicative list of components present in used oils ............................................................. 462
Table 5.13: Indicative list of components present in industrial waste oils ............................................ 464

Waste Treatment xix

Table 5.14: Effect of hydrotreatment on the pollutants of the feed after deasphalting ..........................466
Table 5.15: Product issues related to different waste oil re-refining technologies/processes ................467
Table 5.16: Matrix for allocating input species to air, oil and water streams for hot and cold
processes ............................................................................................................................469
Table 5.17: Principal emission sources at oil recycling premises .........................................................470
Table 5.18: Evaluation of the environmental performance of several reuse and re-refining processes.471
Table 5.19: Parameters monitored in emissions to air at plants performing re-refining of waste oil ....472
Table 5.20: Origin of emissions to air and associated abatement techniques ........................................473
Table 5.21: Pollutants monitored in emissions to water at plants re-refining waste oil ........................476
Table 5.22: Origin of emissions to water and associated abatement techniques ...................................478
Table 5.23: Types of waste generated in re-refining processes of waste oil .........................................480
Table 5.24: Consumption values of the traditional TDA system and the high-recovery system of
TDA combined with a PDA process ..................................................................................482
Table 5.25: Economics of a membrane bioreactor ...............................................................................485
Table 5.26: Environmental performance of plants carrying out re-refining of waste oil in terms of
emissions of organic compounds to air ..............................................................................487
Table 5.27: Examples of the types of waste used for the preparation of solid and liquid waste fuels ...492
Table 5.28: Typical calorific values of different types of waste ...........................................................493
Table 5.29: Treatments applied to waste oils before their use as fuel ...................................................503
Table 5.30: Typical composition of fuel oils and lube oils ...................................................................504
Table 5.31: Examples of use of mild and severe reprocessed waste oil (WO) as fuel ..........................507
Table 5.32: Example of output streams under appropriate operating conditions ..................................508
Table 5.33: Components of the outputs from the thermal cracking of waste oils .................................508
Table 5.34: Plants from the reference list performing physico-chemical treatment of waste with
calorific value .....................................................................................................................511
Table 5.35: Origin of emissions to air and abatement techniques of plants performing PCT of waste
with calorific value .............................................................................................................515
Table 5.36: Pollutants monitored in emissions to air of plants performing PCT of waste with
calorific value .....................................................................................................................516
Table 5.37: Origin of emissions to water and associated abatement techniques at plants performing
PCT of waste with calorific value ......................................................................................518
Table 5.38: Pollutants monitored in emissions to water at plants performing PCT of waste with
calorific value .....................................................................................................................520
Table 5.39: Environmental performance of plants performing physico-chemical treatment of waste
with calorific value and equipped with RTO, activated carbon, cryogenic condensation
or wet scrubbing .................................................................................................................523
Table 5.40: Typical regenerated waste solvents ....................................................................................526
Table 5.41: Plants from the reference list performing regeneration of waste solvents ..........................532
Table 5.42: Emissions to air from plants performing regeneration of waste solvents ...........................534
Table 5.43: Parameters measured in emissions to air from plants performing regeneration of waste
solvents...............................................................................................................................535
Table 5.44: VOC emissions from plants performing regeneration of waste solvents .........................536
Table 5.45: Emissions to water from plants performing regeneration of waste solvents ......................539
Table 5.46: Parameters measured in emissions to water from plants performing regeneration of
waste solvents.....................................................................................................................541
Table 5.47: Monitoring of diffuse VOC emissions at plants performing regeneration of waste
solvents...............................................................................................................................545
Table 5.48: Environmental performance of plants performing regeneration of spent solvents and
equipped with thermal oxidation, activated carbon, condensation or wet scrubbing .........547
Table 5.49: Range of emissions found in different ion exchange regenerators .....................................554
Table 5.50: Commercial regeneration of cobalt-molybdenum catalyst .................................................557
Table 5.51: Typical physico-chemical characteristics of Residual Sodium Chemicals (RSC) .............559
Table 5.52: Acid extraction technologies ..............................................................................................564
Table 5.53: Potential release routes for pollutants.................................................................................565
Table 5.54: Range of emissions found in different carbon regenerators ...............................................566
Table 5.55: Mass balance in a commercial regeneration of cobalt-molybdenum catalyst ....................567
Table 5.56: Plants from the reference list treating FGT residues .........................................................568
Table 5.57: Emissions to air from plants treating FGT residues ...........................................................568
Table 5.58: Emissions to water from plants treating FGT residues .......................................................569
Table 5.59: Applicability of techniques for the treatment of waste gases generated by activated
carbon regeneration ............................................................................................................571
Table 5.60: Abatement techniques applied in regeneration of spent catalysts ......................................573
Table 5.61: Comparison of features of thermal desorption and off-gas treatment systems ...................577

xx Waste Treatment
Table 5.62: Summary of the performance data for soil washing .......................................................... 581
Table 5.63: Efficiencies of soil washing for different components ...................................................... 581
Table 5.64: Results of the remediation of API separator sludge by solvent extraction ........................ 584
Table 5.65: Desired inlet feed characteristics for slurry biodegradation processes for soil
decontamination ................................................................................................................. 585
Table 5.66: Applicability of slurry biodegradation for treatment of contaminants in soil, sediments
and sludges ........................................................................................................................ 585
Table 5.67: Biodegradability of contaminated soil proposed for solid phase remediation ................... 586
Table 5.68: Plants from the reference list treating contaminated soil ................................................... 588
Table 5.69: Control of emissions to air at plants performing thermal desorption of contaminated soil 590
Table 5.70: Emissions to air measured at plants performing thermal desorption of contaminated soil 591
Table 5.71: Emissions from vapour extraction systems ........................................................................ 593
Table 5.72: Control of emissions to air at plants performing water washing of contaminated soil ...... 594
Table 5.73: Pollutants measured in emissions to air from plants performing water washing of
contaminated soil ............................................................................................................... 594
Table 5.74: Control of emissions to water at plants performing water washing of contaminated soil . 595
Table 5.75: Parameters measured in emissions to water at plants performing water washing of
contaminated soil ............................................................................................................... 596
Table 5.76: Summary of emission data for an ex situ bioremediation system ...................................... 598
Table 5.77: Examples of types of water-based liquid waste ................................................................. 603
Table 5.78: Process-generated waste from treatment of water-based liquid waste ............................... 604
Table 5.79: Analysis of some representative types of physico-chemical water-based liquid waste
treatments........................................................................................................................... 606
Table 5.80: Emissions to air from the treatment of water-based liquid waste ...................................... 614
Table 5.81: Treatment of water-based liquid waste – Abatement techniques used and origin of
emissions to air .................................................................................................................. 615
Table 5.82: Monitoring of emissions to water from treatment of water-based liquid waste – Direct
discharge ............................................................................................................................ 627
Table 5.83: Treatment of water-based liquid waste – Direct discharge – Techniques used, removed
substances, waste input description, output and type of release ........................................ 630
Table 5.84: Nitrogen compounds monitored in emissions to water from the treatment of water-based
liquid waste – Direct discharge .......................................................................................... 638
Table 5.85: Monitoring of emissions to water from the treatment of water-based liquid waste –
Indirect discharge............................................................................................................... 644
Table 5.86: Treatment of water-based liquid waste – Indirect discharge - Techniques used, removed
substances, waste input description, output and type of release ........................................ 645
Table 5.87: Consumption levels of some treatments of water-based liquid waste ............................... 676
Table 5.88: Chemicals consumed and some of their consumption levels for detoxification,
neutralisation and dewatering for the removal of metals from waste waters ..................... 677
Table 5.89: Theoretical consumption of alkalis in precipitation per 100 g of metal ............................. 677
Table 5.90: Consumption of chemicals for sulphide precipitation/ultrafiltration ................................. 678
Table 5.91: Consumption of chemicals in the treatment of desilvered photographic liquid waste ....... 678
Table 5.92: Environmental performance of the treatment of water-based liquid waste in terms of
HCl emissions to air........................................................................................................... 681
Table 5.93: Environmental performance of treatment of water-based liquid waste in terms of
emissions of organic compounds to air .............................................................................. 682
Table 5.94: Overview of technologies for the destruction and irreversible transformation of POPs in
wastes ................................................................................................................................ 688
Table 5.95: Some specific treatments for waste containing PCBs and/or other POPs .......................... 689
Table 5.96: Reported destruction efficiency of hydrogenation processes ............................................. 692
Table 5.97: Emissions to air from Plant 191 ......................................................................................... 693
Table 5.98: Plants from the reference list treating mercury-containing waste ...................................... 700
Table 5.99: Emissions to air from plants treating mercury-containing waste ....................................... 701
Table 5.100: Parameters measured in emissions to air from plants treating mercury-containing waste . 701
Table 5.101: Environmental performance of plants treating mercury-containing waste (mercury
emissions to air) ................................................................................................................. 703
Table 5.102: Environmental performance of plants treating mercury-containing waste (dust emissions
to air) ................................................................................................................................. 704
Table 5.103: Emissions from the treatment of waste acids and bases .................................................... 710
Table 6.1: BAT-associated emission levels (BAT-AELs) for direct discharges to a receiving water
body ................................................................................................................................... 737
Table 6.2: BAT-associated emission levels (BAT-AELs) for indirect discharges to a receiving
water body ......................................................................................................................... 739

Waste Treatment xxi

Table 6.3: BAT-associated emission level (BAT-AEL) for channelled dust emissions to air from
the mechanical treatment of waste .....................................................................................742
Table 6.4: BAT-associated emission levels (BAT-AELs) for channelled TVOC and CFC emissions
to air from the treatment of WEEE containing VFCs and/or VHCs ..................................744
Table 6.5: BAT-associated emission level (BAT-AEL) for channelled TVOC emissions to air from
the mechanical treatment of waste with calorific value......................................................745
Table 6.6: BAT-associated emission level (BAT-AEL) for channelled mercury emissions to air
from the mechanical treatment of WEEE containing mercury ...........................................746
Table 6.1: BAT-associated emission levels (BAT-AELs) for channelled NH3, odour, dust and
TVOC emissions to air from the biological treatment of waste .........................................748
Table 6.8: BAT-associated emission level (BAT-AEL) for channelled emissions of dust to air from
the physico-chemical treatment of solid and/or pasty waste ..............................................752
Table 6.9: BAT-associated emission level (BAT-AEL) for channelled emissions of TVOC to air
from the re-refining of waste oil, the physico-chemical treatment of waste with calorific
value and the regeneration of spent solvents ......................................................................755
Table 6.10: BAT-associated emission levels (BAT-AELs) for channelled emissions of HCl and
TVOC to air from the treatment of water-based liquid waste ............................................758
Table 8.1: Key milestones of the WT BREF review process ..............................................................779
Table 8.2: Split views expressed .........................................................................................................780

xxii Waste Treatment

 List of Figures

Figure 1.1: Waste hierarchy ..................................................................................................................... 1

Figure 1.2: Re-refining plants in Europe in 2015 ................................................................................... 22
Figure 1.3: Structure of the waste treatment sector in 2014 (NACE rev.2: 38.2 - waste treatment and
disposal) – Size of enterprises in terms of number of persons employed ............................ 27
Figure 2.1: Distribution of plants which participated in the data collection........................................... 46
Figure 2.2: Dust emissions to air from all waste treatment plants (periodic measurements) ................. 47
Figure 2.3: Dust emissions to air from all waste treatment plants (continuous measurements – long-
term average) ....................................................................................................................... 48
Figure 2.4: Dust emissions to air from all waste treatment plants (continuous measurements – short-
term average) ....................................................................................................................... 48
Figure 2.5: Dust emissions to air from all mechanical treatments of waste ........................................... 49
Figure 2.6: TVOC emissions to air from all waste treatment plants (periodic measurements) .............. 50
Figure 2.7: Detail of TVOC emissions to air from all WT plants (periodic measurements) .................. 51
Figure 2.8: TVOC emissions to air from all waste treatment plants (continuous measurements –
long-term average) ............................................................................................................... 52
Figure 2.9: TVOC emissions to air from all WT plants (continuous measurements – short-term
average) ............................................................................................................................... 52
Figure 2.10: TOC emissions to air from all WT plants (periodic measurements) .................................... 53
Figure 2.11: TOC emissions to air from all WT plants (continuous measurements – short-term
average) ............................................................................................................................... 53
Figure 2.12: NMVOC emissions to air from all WT plants (periodic measurements) ............................. 54
Figure 2.13: Detail of NMVOC emissions to air from all WT plants (periodic measurements) .............. 54
Figure 2.14: NMVOC emissions to air from all WT plants (continuous measurements – long-term
average) ............................................................................................................................... 55
Figure 2.15: NMVOC emissions to air from all WT plants (continuous measurements – short-term
average) ............................................................................................................................... 55
Figure 2.16: Emission of organic compounds to air from re-refining of waste oils, physico-chemical
treatment of waste with calorific value and regeneration of spent solvents ......................... 57
Figure 2.17: NH3 emissions to air from all WT plants (periodic measurements) .................................... 58
Figure 2.18: Detail of NH3 emissions to air from all WT plants (periodic measurements)...................... 59
Figure 2.19: NH3 emissions to air from all WT plants (continuous measurements – long-term average 59
Figure 2.20: NH3 emissions to air from all plants performing biological treatments ............................... 60
Figure 2.21: Continuous improvement in an EMS model ........................................................................ 62
Figure 2.22: Illustration of the material flow analysis ............................................................................. 81
Figure 2.23: Overband magnetic separator schematic ............................................................................. 90
Figure 2.24: Eddy current separator schematic ........................................................................................ 92
Figure 2.25: Optical separator .................................................................................................................. 93
Figure 2.26: Principle of air classification ............................................................................................... 94
Figure 2.27: Basic principle of the separation table, based on a combination of vibration and air
technology ........................................................................................................................... 96
Figure 2.28: Drum screens ....................................................................................................................... 97
Figure 2.29: Trommel screen ................................................................................................................... 98
Figure 2.30: Parameters monitored in emissions to water by type of waste treatment .......................... 104
Figure 2.31: Parameters monitored in channelled emissions to air by type of waste treatment ............. 106
Figure 2.32: Biofilter construction ......................................................................................................... 112
Figure 2.33: Example of effluent management within a waste treatment plant ..................................... 131
Figure 2.34: Variants of membrane bioreactor, compared with a conventional activated sludge
process ............................................................................................................................... 206
Figure 3.1: Example of a mixed scrap shredder plant .......................................................................... 236
Figure 3.2: Example of a pre-shredder ................................................................................................. 238
Figure 3.3: Detail of shredding process................................................................................................ 239
Figure 3.4: A typical EU mixed scrap shredder plant .......................................................................... 240
Figure 3.5: Conventional shredder plant mechanism ........................................................................... 241
Figure 3.6: Potential sources of air emission at a shredder plant ......................................................... 246
Figure 3.7: Emission from a shredding plant during a deflagration ..................................................... 246
Figure 3.8: Dust emissions to air from mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste ................. 250
Figure 3.9: Emissions of organic compounds to air from mechanical treatment in shredders of metal
waste .................................................................................................................................. 252
Figure 3.10: Mercury switch .................................................................................................................. 256
Figure 3.11: Mercury backlight lamp ..................................................................................................... 257
Figure 3.12: Mercury button cells .......................................................................................................... 257

Waste Treatment xxiii

Figure 3.13: Mercury emissions to air from mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste ............258
Figure 3.14: Shredder system with single cyclone .................................................................................267
Figure 3.15: Shredder system with two cyclones, Venturi scrubber and single exhaust ........................268
Figure 3.16: Shredder system with two cyclones, Venturi scrubber, bag filter and two exhausts ..........269
Figure 3.17: Shredder system with water injection into the mill ............................................................270
Figure 3.18: Water injection into the shredder mill ................................................................................270
Figure 3.19: Mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste – Relationship between plant age and
dust emissions to air ...........................................................................................................271
Figure 3.20: Example of ultrafiltration ...................................................................................................276
Figure 3.21: Bird's-eye view of pressure relief dampers at a shredding plant ........................................278
Figure 3.22: Isolation elements (circled) for vibration reduction ...........................................................282
Figure 3.23: Protective screening at the Schrott-Bosch GmbH shredder, Germany ...............................283
Figure 3.24: Splitter silencers at the roof of a shredding plant ...............................................................284
Figure 3.25: Example of a PUR foam degassing system ........................................................................289
Figure 3.26: Explosion protection measures (decision tree) ...................................................................290
Figure 3.27: Twin-shaft rotor shear ........................................................................................................291
Figure 3.28: Four-shaft rotor shear .........................................................................................................291
Figure 3.29: Rotor shredder ....................................................................................................................292
Figure 3.30: Degasification of Step 2 - Cryogenic condensation ...........................................................299
Figure 3.31: Degasification of Step 2- Activated carbon adsorption ......................................................300
Figure 3.32: Flowsheet for mechanical treatment of waste with calorific value ....................................311
Figure 3.33: Mechanical treatment of waste with calorific value equipped with a bag/fabric filter .......312
Figure 3.34: Dust emissions to air from mechanical treatment of waste with calorific value ................315
Figure 3.35: Emissions of organic compounds to air from mechanical treatment of waste with
calorific value .....................................................................................................................316
Figure 4.1: Example of an indoor aerobic treatment plant treating bio-waste ......................................331
Figure 4.2: NH3 concentrations at indoor aerobic treatment plants ......................................................341
Figure 4.3: Path of anaerobic digestion ................................................................................................352
Figure 4.4: Example of an anaerobic digestion plant............................................................................355
Figure 4.5: Material flow diagram for a MBT process .........................................................................377
Figure 4.6: Biodrying process schematic ..............................................................................................378
Figure 4.7: Potential emission sources from MBT processes ...............................................................379
Figure 4.8: Dust emissions to air from MBT plants .............................................................................386
Figure 4.9: Emissions of organic compounds to air from MBT plants .................................................386
Figure 4.10: Selection of an appropriate biological treatment system as a function of the organic
carbon concentration and form of the waste .......................................................................390
Figure 4.11: Configuration of the exhaust air collection system at Plant 37 ..........................................422
Figure 5.1: Representation of an immobilisation process .....................................................................426
Figure 5.2: Example of pre-liming system in organic sludge treatment ...............................................429
Figure 5.3: Example of post-liming system in organic sludge treatment ..............................................430
Figure 5.4: Example of physico-chemical treatment before backfilling ...............................................432
Figure 5.5: Dust in emissions to air from physico-chemical treatment of solid and/or pasty waste .....440
Figure 5.6: NH3 emissions to air from immobilisation of solid and/or pasty waste .............................441
Figure 5.7: Waste oil treatments and classification approach used in this document ...........................450
Figure 5.8: Generic flow diagram of pretreatment steps of waste oil treatment processes ...................451
Figure 5.9: Inputs and outputs of re-refining processes ........................................................................481
Figure 5.10: Some current possibilities for the use of waste as a fuel in different sectors .....................490
Figure 5.11: Example of the production of solid fuel from liquid or pasty hazardous waste .................495
Figure 5.12: Example of the process layout for the preparation of organic liquid waste fuel ................497
Figure 5.13: Example of the process layout for the production of liquid waste fuel by fluidification ...499
Figure 5.14: Example of the process layout out for the preparation of emulsions..................................501
Figure 5.15: Example of mild reprocessing of waste oil ........................................................................505
Figure 5.16: TVOC and NMVOC measured in emissions to air of plants performing PCT of waste
with calorific value .............................................................................................................517
Figure 5.17: Example flow diagram of a waste solvent regeneration installation ..................................529
Figure 5.18: Example of a waste solvent regeneration scheme and emission points ..............................531
Figure 5.19: RSC recycling process schematic.......................................................................................560
Figure 5.20: Schematic flow diagram of a generic carbon regeneration plant .......................................565
Figure 5.21: Example of a rotary thermal desorber installation ..............................................................576
Figure 5.22: General flow scheme of a soil washing plant .....................................................................580
Figure 5.23: Simplified flow chart of a physico-chemical treatment of a water-oil emulsion ................608
Figure 5.24: Simplified flow chart of a physico-chemical treatment of solvents containing water-
based liquid waste ..............................................................................................................609

xxiv Waste Treatment

Figure 5.25: Simplified flow chart of a physico-chemical and biological process for the treatment of
aqueous marine waste ........................................................................................................ 610
Figure 5.26: Simplified flow chart of a physico-chemical and biological treatment of liquid
photographic waste ............................................................................................................ 611
Figure 5.27: Main emission flows from the treatment of water-based liquid waste .............................. 612
Figure 5.28: Potential emission streams from the treatment of water-based liquid waste ..................... 612
Figure 5.29: HCl emissions to air from the treatment of water-based liquid waste ............................... 621
Figure 5.30: NH3 emissions to air from the treatment of water-based liquid waste ............................... 623
Figure 5.31: Organic compounds emissions to air from the treatment of water-based liquid waste ...... 625
Figure 5.32: TOC and COD in emissions to water from treatment of water-based liquid waste –
Direct discharge ................................................................................................................. 635
Figure 5.33: TSS in emissions to water from treatment of water-based liquid waste – Direct
discharge ............................................................................................................................ 637
Figure 5.34: Total P in emissions to water from the treatment of waste – Direct discharge .................. 640
Figure 5.35: Phenols in emissions to water from the treatment of waste – Direct discharge ................. 642
Figure 5.36: THC and HOI in emissions to water from the treatment of water-based liquid waste ...... 653
Figure 5.37: Cyanide in emissions to water from the treatment of water-based liquid waste ................ 655
Figure 5.38: AOX in emissions to water from the treatment of water-based liquid waste..................... 657
Figure 5.39: Arsenic in emissions to water from the treatment of water-based liquid waste ................. 658
Figure 5.40: Cadmium in emissions to water from the treatment of water-based liquid waste.............. 660
Figure 5.41: Chromium in emissions to water from the treatment of water-based liquid waste ............ 662
Figure 5.42: Hexavalent chromium in emissions to water from the treatment of water-based liquid
waste .................................................................................................................................. 664
Figure 5.43: Copper in emissions to water from the treatment of water-based liquid waste ................. 666
Figure 5.44: Mercury in emissions to water from the treatment of water-based liquid waste ............... 668
Figure 5.45: Nickel in emissions to water from the treatment of water-based liquid waste ................... 670
Figure 5.46: Lead in emissions to water from the treatment of water-based liquid waste ..................... 672
Figure 5.47: Zinc in emissions to water from the treatment of water-based liquid waste ...................... 674
Figure 5.48: Flow chart of emissions to air at a plant using solvent washing for PCB
decontamination ................................................................................................................. 696
Figure 5.49: Decontamination of SF6-containing waste ......................................................................... 705
Figure 7.1: Dissolution of VOCs.......................................................................................................... 770
Figure 7.2: Diagram of the pilot installation performing ionisation and activated carbon adsorption . 771
Figure 7.3: Container composting process ........................................................................................... 775
Figure 7.4: The DAD process .............................................................................................................. 777

Waste Treatment xxv

 Scope

SCOPE
This BAT reference document (BREF) concerns the following activities specified in Annex I to
Directive 2010/75/EU, namely:

 5.1. Disposal or recovery of hazardous waste with a capacity exceeding 10 tonnes per day
involving one or more of the following activities:
(a) biological treatment;
(b) physico-chemical treatment;
(c) blending or mixing prior to submission to any of the other activities listed in
points 5.1 and 5.2 of Annex I to Directive 2010/75/EU;
(d) repackaging prior to submission to any of the other activities listed in points 5.1
and 5.2 of Annex I to Directive 2010/75/EU;
(e) solvent reclamation/regeneration;
(f) recycling/reclamation of inorganic materials other than metals or metal
compounds;
(g) regeneration of acids or bases;
(h) recovery of components used for pollution abatement;
(i) recovery of components from catalysts;
(j) oil re-refining or other reuses of oil;

 5.3. (a) Disposal of non-hazardous waste with a capacity exceeding 50 tonnes per day
involving one or more of the following activities, and excluding activities covered by
Council Directive 91/271/EEC of 21 May 1991 concerning urban waste-water treatment:
(i) biological treatment;
(ii) physico-chemical treatment;
(iii) pre-treatment of waste for incineration or co-incineration;
(iv) treatment of ashes;
(v) treatment in shredders of metal waste, including waste electrical and
electronic equipment and end-of-life vehicles and their components.
(b) Recovery, or a mix of recovery and disposal, of non-hazardous waste with a
capacity exceeding 75 tonnes per day involving one or more of the following
activities, and excluding activities covered by Directive 91/271/EEC:
(i) biological treatment;
(ii) pre-treatment of waste for incineration or co-incineration;
(iii) treatment of ashes;
(iv) treatment in shredders of metal waste, including waste electrical and
electronic equipment and end-of-life vehicles and their components.

When the only waste treatment activity carried out is anaerobic digestion, the
capacity threshold for this activity shall be 100 tonnes per day.

 5.5. Temporary storage of hazardous waste not covered under point 5.4 of Annex I to
Directive 2010/75/EU pending any of the activities listed in points 5.1, 5.2, 5.4 and 5.6 of
Annex I to Directive 2010/75/EU with a total capacity exceeding 50 tonnes, excluding
temporary storage, pending collection, on the site where the waste is generated.

 6.11. Independently operated treatment of waste water not covered by Directive

91/271/EEC and discharged by an installation undertaking activities covered under points
5.1, 5.3 or 5.5 as listed above.

Referring to independently operated treatment of waste water not covered by Directive

91/271/EEC above, this BREF also covers the combined treatment of waste water from

Waste Treatment xxvii

Scope

different origins if the main pollutant load originates from the activities covered under points
5.1, 5.3 or 5.5 as listed above.

This BREF does not address the following:

 Surface impoundment.
 Disposal or recycling of animal carcases or of animal waste covered by the activity
description in point 6.5 of Annex I to Directive 2010/75/EU when this is covered by the
BREF on the slaughterhouses and animal by-products industries (SA).
 On-farm processing of manure when this is covered by the BREF for the intensive rearing
of poultry or pigs (IRPP).
 Direct recovery (i.e. without pretreatment) of waste as a substitute for raw materials in
installations carrying out activities covered by other BREFs, e.g.:
o Direct recovery of lead (e.g. from batteries), zinc or aluminium salts or recovery
of the metals from catalysts. This may be covered by the BREF for the non-
ferrous metals industries (NFM).
o Processing of paper for recycling. This may be covered by the BREF for the
production of pulp, paper and board (PP).
o Use of waste as fuel/raw material in cement kilns. This may be covered by the
BREF for the production of cement, lime and magnesium oxide (CLM).
 Waste (co-)incineration, pyrolysis and gasification. This may be covered by the BREF for
waste incineration (WI) or the BREF for large combustion plants (LCP).
 Landfill of waste. This is covered by Directive 1999/31/EC on the landfill of waste. In
particular, underground permanent and long-term storage (≥ 1 year before disposal,
≥ 3 years before recovery) are covered by Directive 1999/31/EC.
 In situ remediation of contaminated soil (i.e. unexcavated soil).
 Treatment of slags and bottom ashes. This may be covered by the BREF for waste
incineration (WI) and/or the BREF for large combustion plants (LCP).
 Smelting of scrap metals and metal-bearing materials. This may be covered by the BREF
for non-ferrous metals industries (NFM), the BREF for iron and steel production (IS),
and/or the BREF for the smitheries and foundries industry (SF).
 Regeneration of spent acids and alkalis when this is covered by the BREF for ferrous
metals processing.
 Combustion of fuels when it does not generate hot gases which come into direct contact
with the waste. This may be covered by the BREF for large combustion plants (LCP) or
by Directive 2015/2193/EU.

Other reference documents which could be relevant for the activities covered by this BREF are
the following:

 Economics and cross-media effects (ECM);

 Emissions from storage (EFS);
 Energy efficiency (ENE);
 Monitoring of emissions to air and water from IED installations (ROM);
 Production of cement, lime and magnesium oxide (CLM);
 Common waste water and waste gas treatment/management systems in the chemical
sector (CWW);
 Intensive rearing of poultry or pigs (IRPP).

The scope of this document does not include matters that only concern safety in the workplace
or the safety of products because these matters are not covered by the Directive. They are
discussed only where they affect matters within the scope of the Directive.

xxviii Waste Treatment

 Scope

The remainder of this chapter seeks to clarify which activities of the whole waste management
chain are included or not included in this document.

The waste management sector and this document

The chain of activities involved in waste management is long and extends outside the scope of
Directive 2010/75/EU (Industrial Emissions Directive, or IED). The following figure tries to
summarise which activities from the waste management sector are covered in the series of
BREFs.

Waste management and this document

A full Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) applied to a certain waste can consider all the links in the
waste chain as well as the impact of the final product/waste on the environment. The IED is not
intended to address these analyses but instead focuses on installations. For example,
minimisation of the amount and/or toxicity of the waste produced at source in industrial
installations is intrinsic to the IED and is covered by sectorial BREFs (see list preceding the
Preface of this document). Another example shows that waste management also covers strategic
decisions on what type of waste is dealt with in each available waste treatment/process/option or
what treatment is applied to such a waste. This decision depends on the waste treatment options
available at local, regional, national or international level, which also depends on the location
where the waste is produced.

As shown in the previous figure, the actual combustion of waste is not included in the scope of
this document. It is addressed in sectorial BREFs, where the different combustion processes are
analysed depending on the industrial sector in which they are applied (e.g. waste incineration,
large combustion plants, cement kilns). By including the processing of waste to be used as fuel,

Waste Treatment xxix

Scope

this document covers the treatments that can be applied to make different types of waste suitable
for the fuel quality required by different combustion processes.

Some materials are categorised according to legislation, for example as recovered fuel (REF),
refuse-derived fuel (RDF) or solid recovered fuel (SRF). It is not the intention of this document
to enter into a discussion of the definition of any waste term. Also, some of those materials can
be classified as hazardous according to legislation.

In general, this document does not aim to address the following topics:
 defining end-of-waste criteria;
 defining by-product criteria;
 defining product specifications or quality criteria for waste output;
 defining acceptance criteria for installations not covered by the Waste Treatment (WT)
BREF;
 determining whether a waste is hazardous or non-hazardous.

This document includes those treatments that can make a waste reusable or recoverable.
However this document does not include reuse or recovery options that go directly from one
industrial sector to another without treatment (e.g. reuse of foundries' sand or some compatible
catalysts as a raw material in cement kilns, reuse of waste containing metals in non-ferrous
metal processing). This issue is shown in the next figure.

As mentioned above, no techniques related to landfills are included in this document. The only
issues covered are those related to the treatment of waste to make it more suitable for
landfilling.

The following figure tries to clarify and summarise the issues covered in the above paragraphs.

NB: QA: quality assurance.

Examples of waste treatments not covered in this document

xxx Waste Treatment

 Chapter 1

1 GENERAL INFORMATION
[ 1, Concawe 1996 ] [ 2, Monier, V. and Labouze, E. 2001 ], [ 3, Eunomia Research &
Consulting 2002 ], [ 4, Viscolube 2002 ], [ 5, Militon et al. 1998 ] [ 6, UK Department of the
Environment 1991 ], [ 7, UK, H. 1995 ], [ 8, LaGrega et al. 1994 ], [ 9, UK EA 2001 ],[ 10,
Babtie Group Ltd 2002 ], [ 11, WT TWG 2003 ], [ 12, UNEP 2000 ], [ 13, Schmidt et al. 2002 ]
[ 14, Eucopro 2003 ], [ 15, Iswa 2003 ], [ 16, Ruiz, C. 2002 ] [ 17, Pretz et al. 2003 ], [ 18, WT
TWG 2004 ], [ 19, WT TWG 2004 ], [ 20, EUROSTAT 2018 ], [ 21, WT TWG 2016 ].

1.1 The purpose of waste treatment

In the European Union, waste management is an essential part of the transition to a circular
economy2 and is based on the "waste hierarchy" which sets the following priority order when
shaping waste policy and managing waste at the operational level (see Figure 1.1): prevention,
(preparing for) reuse, recycling, recovery and, as the least preferred option, disposal (which
includes landfilling and incineration without energy recovery that are outside the scope of this
document).

Source: European Commission

Figure 1.1: Waste hierarchy

However, secondary products are inherent to any industrial process and normally cannot be
avoided. In addition, the use of products by society leads to residues.

In many cases, these types of materials (both secondary products and residues) cannot be reused
by other means and may become unmarketable. These materials are typically given to third
parties as waste for further treatment.

The reason for treating waste often depends on the type of waste and the nature of its
subsequent fate. Some waste treatments and installations are multipurpose. In this document, the
basic reasons for treating waste are:
 to reduce the hazardous nature of the waste;
 to separate the waste into its individual components, some or all of which can then be put
to further use/treatment;

2
http://ec.europa.eu/environment/circular-economy/index_en.htm

Waste Treatment 1
Chapter 1

 to reduce the amount of waste which has to be finally sent for disposal;
 to transform the waste into a useful material.

The following are examples of subsequent fates that can have an impact on the preliminary
treatment:

I. a liquid effluent sent to sewer;

II. a solid waste sent to landfill;
III. a solid waste sent to incineration;
IV. the combustion of recovered fuel oil;
V. the marketing of a compost or a digestate product.

There are also a number of important ancillary activities associated with waste treatment, such
as waste acceptance and storage, either pending treatment on site or removal off site, that are
unavoidable to fulfil the purpose of treating waste.

2 Waste Treatment
 Chapter 1

1.2 Types of waste and waste generation in the EU

[ 2, Monier, V. and Labouze, E. 2001 ], [ 5, Militon et al. 1998 ] [ 6, UK Department of the
Environment 1991 ], [ 7, UK, H. 1995 ], [ 8, LaGrega et al. 1994 ], [ 9, UK EA 2001 ], [ 10,
Babtie Group Ltd 2002 ], [ 11, WT TWG 2003 ], [ 12, UNEP 2000 ], [ 13, Schmidt et al. 2002 ]
[ 14, Eucopro 2003 ], [ 15, Iswa 2003 ], [ 16, Ruiz, C. 2002 ] [ 17, Pretz et al. 2003 ], [ 18, WT
TWG 2004 ], [ 19, WT TWG 2004 ], [ 21, WT TWG 2016 ].

This section summarises the types of waste generated in the EU and its classification in the EU,
as well as summarising the generation of waste in individual EU countries and some other
European countries. Waste treatment installations are designed to manage waste. This waste is
the input (called raw material in other industrial sectors) to these installations. Since the IED
Annex I has capacity thresholds for Waste Management activities, clearly not all the waste
produced in the EU is treated by installations covered by the IED.

In the waste treatment sector as a whole, the physico-chemical properties of such inputs can
vary widely. Waste can be liquid to solid from a physical properties perspective, and organic to
inorganic in character from a chemical properties perspective.

The European List of Waste (LoW) classifies waste according to the activities that generate the
waste, categorising the waste into 20 different groups as listed below.

Waste Treatment 3
Chapter 1

Table 1.1: List of Waste (LoW) as per amended Commission Decision 2000/53/EC
2-digit
Groups of wastes
code
Wastes resulting from exploration, mining, quarrying, physical and chemical treatment of
01
minerals
Wastes from agriculture, horticulture, aquaculture, forestry, hunting and fishing, food
02
preparation and processing
Wastes from wood processing and the production of panels and furniture, pulp,
03
paper and cardboard
04 Wastes from the leather, fur and textile industries
Wastes from petroleum refining, natural gas purification and pyrolytic treatment
05
of coal
06 Wastes from inorganic chemical processes
07 Wastes from organic chemical processes
Wastes from the manufacture, formulation, supply and use (MFSU) of coatings
08
(paints, varnishes and vitreous enamels), adhesives, sealants and printing inks
09 Wastes from the photographic industry
10 Wastes from thermal processes
Wastes from chemical surface treatment and coating of metals and other materials;
11
non-ferrous hydro-metallurgy
Wastes from shaping and physical and mechanical surface treatment of metals
12
and plastics
13 Oil wastes and wastes of liquid fuels (except edible oils, 05 and 12)
14 Waste organic solvents, refrigerants and propellants (except 07 and 08)
Waste packaging; absorbents, wiping cloths, filter materials and protective
15
clothing not otherwise specified
16 Wastes not otherwise specified in the list
Construction and demolition wastes (including excavated soil from contaminated
17
sites)
Wastes from human or animal health care and/or related research (except
18
kitchen and restaurant wastes not arising from immediate health care)
Wastes from waste management facilities, off-site waste water treatment plants
19 and the preparation of water intended for human consumption and water for
industrial use
Municipal wastes (household waste and similar commercial, industrial and
20
institutional wastes) including separately collected fractions

In order to give a snapshot of the waste situation in Europe, the following tables ( Table 1.2 and
Table 1.3) show the amount of waste generated in the EU-28 and Norway.

Table 1.2: Waste generated in the EU-28 and Norway in 2014

Total waste Hazardous waste Non-hazardous

Geographic origin generated in 2014 generated in 2014 waste generated in
(kt) (kt) 2014 (kt)
EU-28 2 494 700 99 850 2 414 370
Norway 11 727 1 357 9 364
Source: [ 20, EUROSTAT 2018 ]

4 Waste Treatment
 Chapter 1

Table 1.3: Waste generation by economic activity and households in 2014 (1 000 tonnes)

Other economic
Manufacturing

Construction

Households
Mining and
quarrying

activities
Energy
Total

EU-28 2 494 700 704 630 255 060 93 210 858 750 374 510 208 540
Belgium 56 435 66 14 286 1 357 17 078 18 120 5 529
Bulgaria 179 677 159 280 3 275 9 105 1 340 3 993 2 683
Czech
23 395 234 4 394 1 012 9 410 5 084 3 261
Republic
Denmark 20 081 12 1 281 1 082 10 572 3 710 3 424
Germany 387 504 7 432 61 083 9 975 206 466 65 660 36 888
Estonia 21 804 7 905 4 407 7 110 671 1 229 482
Ireland 15 167 2 707 3 468 321 1 884 5 262 1 524
Greece 69 759 47 357 4 894 10 888 480 1 632 4 508
Spain 110 518 18 641 14 814 5 272 20 418 31 215 20 160
France 324 463 2 346 21 797 1 588 227 607 42 751 28 374
Croatia 3 725 5 485 120 618 1 334 1 162
Italy 159 107 982 26 645 3 195 51 684 46 941 29 660
Cyprus 2 051 155 613 2 635 232 414
Latvia 2 621 5 245 727 454 481 709
Lithuania 6 200 25 2 609 101 435 1 869 1 162
Luxembourg 7 073 130 286 3 5 979 432 243
Hungary 16 651 83 2 699 2 312 3 440 5 166 2 951
Malta 1 665 36 25 4 1 241 205 154
Netherlands 133 250 132 13 452 1 671 90 735 18 736 8 523
Austria 55 868 43 5 396 531 40 266 5 463 4 170
Poland 179 180 75 736 31 431 21 892 17 010 24 869 8 240
Portugal 14 587 278 2 616 177 1 513 5 292 4 710
Romania 176 334 152 784 6 745 7 092 1 050 4 841 3 823
Slovenia 4 686 8 1 315 633 815 1 353 562
Slovakia 8 863 289 2 613 544 1 387 2 297 1 733
Finland 95 970 62 775 10 293 1 464 16 297 3 538 1 603
Sweden 167 027 138 898 5 726 1 895 8 867 7 468 4 173
United
251 037 26 291 8 167 3 140 120 394 65 330 27 715
Kingdom
Norway 11 727 333 2 809 151 2 694 3 361 2 379
Source: [ 20, EUROSTAT 2018 ]

The following sections cover more specific information, classified by type of waste. Not all
types of waste are covered as in some cases the sector is minor or no information has been
provided.

1.2.1 End-of-life vehicles (EoLVs)

Directive 2000/53/EC on end-of-life vehicles was established with the aim of making vehicle
depollution, dismantling and recycling more environmentally friendly and economically

Waste Treatment 5
Chapter 1
attractive. Moreover, it sets clear targets for mandatory depollution, quantifies targets for reuse,
recycling and recovery of vehicles and their components, and pushes producers to manufacture
new vehicles with a view to their recyclability. The Directive also provides the opportunity for
producers/importers to bear the expenditure of end-of-life treatment when the processes
necessary to meet the established targets are not economically viable. [ 20, EUROSTAT 2018 ]

Table 1.4 below shows the amount of end-of-life vehicles generated and treated in the EU-28
and Norway in 2014.

Table 1.4: End-of-life vehicles generated and treated in the EU-28 and Norway in 2014
Total recovery
Number Weight Total recovery
Geographic origin and reuse
generated generated (kt) and reuse (kt)
(percentage)
EU-28 6 149 682 6 354 5 799 91.3
Norway 139 920 158 154 97.5
Source: [ 20, EUROSTAT 2018]

1.2.2 Waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE)

WEEE is a complex mixture of materials and components that, because of their hazardous
content, and if not properly managed, can cause major environmental and health problems.
Moreover, the production of modern electronics requires the use of scarce and expensive
resources. To improve the environmental management of WEEE and to contribute to a circular
economy and enhance resource efficiency the improvement of collection, treatment and
recycling of electronics at the end of their life is essential. The management of WEEE is
regulated by Directive 2012/19/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 4 July
2012 on waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE Directive). This Directive sets out
rules and targets for the collection, treatment and recovery of WEEE. [ 20, EUROSTAT 2018 ]

The importance of proper treatment of end-of-life refrigerators is highlighted by the following.

In Europe, a refrigerator contains an average of 125 g of chlorofluorocarbon (CFC - R12) in its
cooling circuit, and around 312 g of CFC-R11 in the insulation materials. This represent a
global warming potential (GWP) equivalent to around 2.8 tonnes of CO2 (equivalent to the CO2
emission of a medium-sized European car travelling about 17 000 km). The estimated
200 million CFC-containing refrigerators and freezers still in use in Europe contain the
equivalent of around 560 megatonnes of CO2. It is estimated that the proper treatment of end-of-
live refrigerators would reduce CFC release to the atmosphere by above 15 000 tonnes in the
next 10 years. [ 23, Mech. subgroup 2014 ]. Table 1.5 below shows the amount of WEEE
collected and treated in the EU-28 and Norway in 2014.

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Table 1.5: WEEE collected and treated in the EU-28 and Norway in 2014
WEEE collected WEEE treated Recycling and reuse
Geographic origin
(tonnes) (tonnes) (tonnes)
EU-28 3 483 352 3 427 156 2 845 996
Norway 107 236 105 392 85 857
Source: [ 20, EUROSTAT 2018 ]

1.2.3 Municipal solid waste (MSW)

Municipal waste consists to a large extent of waste generated by households, but may also
include similar wastes generated by small businesses and public institutions and wastes not
collected by the municipality.

Table 1.6 below shows the quantity of municipal waste generated and treated in the EU-28 and
Norway in 2014.

Table 1.6: Municipal waste generated and treated in the EU-28 and Norway in 2014
Composting
Waste Waste Material
Energy and
Geographic origin generated generated recycling
recovery (kt) digestion
(kt) (kg/capita) (kt)
(kt)
EU-28(1) 242 999 479 57 220 67 801 38 210
Norway 2 175 423 1 148 567 351
(1) EUROSTAT estimate.
Source: [ 20, EUROSTAT 2018 ]

1.2.4 Sludge and liquid waste

Table 1.7 below shows the amount of industrial effluent sludge and sludge and liquid wastes
from waste treatment generated in the EU-28 and Norway in 2014.

Table 1.7: Industrial effluent sludge and sludge and liquid wastes from waste treatment
generated in the EU-28 and Norway in 2014

Sludge and liquid wastes from waste

Industrial effluent sludge (1) (kt)
treatment (2) (kt)
Geographic origin
Non- Hazardo Non-
Total Total Hazardous
hazardous us hazardous
EU-28 12 700 10 500 2 200 11 420 10 170 1 250
Norway 47 23 24 0 0 0
(1) Waste category (EWC-Stat - substance oriented waste statistical nomenclature) as per Commission Regulation
849/2010 is 03.2.
(2) Waste category (EWC-Stat - substance oriented waste statistical nomenclature) as per Commission Regulation
849/2010 is 03.3.
The equivalence with the European List of Waste (LoW) established by Commission Decision 2000/532/EC is
defined in Annex III to Commission Regulation 849/2010.
Source: [ 20, EUROSTAT 2018 ]

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1.2.5 Waste acids and bases

The European List of Waste (LoW) specifies several waste acids and bases (e.g. sulphuric,
hydrochloric, hydrofluoric, phosphoric, nitric acids, calcium hydroxide, soda and ammonia). HF
is not regenerated; it is only neutralised. Bases are not typically regenerated; they are typically
neutralised.

Table 1.8 below shows the amount of acid, alkaline or saline waste generated and treated in the
EU-28 and Norway in 2014.

Table 1.8: Acid, alkaline or saline waste generated and treated in the EU-28 and Norway in 2014
Geographic Acid, alkaline or saline Recovery other than
Total waste treated (kt)
origin wastes (1) generated (kt) energy recovery (2) (kt)
EU-28 5 900 4 430 3 140
Norway 458 332 31
(1) Waste category (EWC-Stat - substance oriented waste statistical nomenclature) as per Commission Regulation
849/2010 is 01.2. The equivalence with the European List of Waste (LoW) established by Commission Decision
2000/532/EC, is defined in Annex III to Commission Regulation 849/2010.
(2) Recovery operations as defined in Section 8 of Annex II to Commission Regulation 849/2010.
Source: [ 20, EUROSTAT 2018 ]

1.2.6 Waste adsorbents

The adsorption of pollutants onto activated carbon, charcoal and ion exchange resins has been a
common treatment technique for removing contaminants (e.g. COD, Persistent organic
pollutants (POPs), inorganics) from waste water and gaseous emissions for many years.
Activated carbon is also used for the removal of VOCs from gaseous emissions (e.g. pesticide
manufacture/formulation). Regeneration procedures for the spent carbon have been primarily
limited to thermal reactivation technologies. Resins have found selective uses where recovery
and reuse of the organic contaminant is an important objective, or where the contaminants are in
reasonably high concentrations. They can also be used for inorganic removal and recovery (e.g.
colour removal in the sugar industry, dyestuff and paper mill industries, for phenol removal, for
processing new antibiotics, and for polishing high-purity waters). Charcoal is primarily used as
a fuel. As it is destroyed by combustion processes, charcoal is typically not regenerated.

1.2.7 Waste catalysts

Catalytic methods are used extensively in the production of inorganic and organic chemicals, in
petroleum technology, in the processing of synthetic gaseous and liquid fuels, in pollution
control, and in energy conversion. Some examples of the use of catalysts are shown in
Table 1.9.

Table 1.9: Examples of industrial sectors where catalysts are used

Industrial sector Examples
Production of inorganic chemicals Hydrogen, ammonia, sulphuric acid, etc.
Organic synthesis, hydrogenation, dehydrogenation,
Production of organic chemicals
acid-catalysed dehydration reactions, oxychlorination
Reforming, desulphurisation, hydrocracking,
Petroleum refining
cracking, isomerisation, lube oil hydrofinishing
NOX abatement using SCR, off-gas from combustion
Pollution control techniques
purification
Source: [ 16, Ruiz, C. 2002 ]

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The type of compounds used as catalysts depends on the process but metals, metal oxides and
acids are the ones most commonly used, as shown in Table 1.10.

Table 1.10: Overview of the types of catalysts used for industrial purposes
Importance Examples
Ag, Au, and the platinum group metals
They are among the most important Transition metals: Fe, Co, Ni, Mo, Ru, Rh,
Metals
and widely used industrial catalyst Pd, W, Re, Os, Ir and Pt.
components Non-transition metals: Cu, Zn, As, Se, Ag,
Cd, Sn, Sb, Te, Au, Hg, Pb and Bi.
They are common catalyst supports Al2O3, SiO2- Al2O3, V2O5, ZnO,
Metal oxides
and catalysts. NiO, MoO3, CoO, WO3.
Metal sulphides Hydroprocessing of petroleum MoS2, WS2
Insulators that show the transition
Acids from basic to amphoteric and acidic Na2O, MgO, Al2O3, SiO2, and P2O5
character
Bases Limited industrial applications Ba(OH)2, Ca(OH)2, Na
Multi-step oxidation-reduction and/or
acid-base reactions, e.g.
Multifunctional
isomerisation followed by Bi2O3, MoO3
catalysts
dehydrogenation of alkanes, followed
by hydrogenation of the olefin
Cationic (contain e.g. sulfonic acid groups)
Aldol condensation, acetal formation,
Ion exchangers and anionic (contain e.g. quaternary
epoxidation, hydratation
ammonium groups)
Organometallic Hydrogenation, hydroformylation Heterogenised metal complexes
complexes and polimerisation reactions (e.g. [Rh(CO)X(PPh3)X] complex)
Polymerisations, aromatics
Co(acetate)2, amines, benzoil peroxide,
Others oxidations, synthesis of various
percarbonates and peresters etc.
aromatic compounds
Source: [ 16, Ruiz, C. 2002 ]

Theoretically, a catalyst remains unchanged after its use. However, a catalyst may lose its
activity because of deactivation (e.g. by poisoning by P, S, As, Se, Te, Bi, C), fouling or
sintering) and redispersion of the active centres of the catalysts. As a consequence, waste
catalysts are mainly composed of the same materials as the native catalyst but contaminated
with some additional components.

1.2.8 Wastes from combustion processes

During combustion processes, solid wastes, typically called ‘ashes’, are generated. Two types of
ashes are usually present: ‘bottom ashes’ (the treatment of which is outside the scope of this
document), typically collected at the bottom of the combustion chamber, and ‘fly ashes’ that are
smaller and are entrained with the flue-gas. Fly ashes are usually collected with flue-gas
treatment equipment that also capture other pollutants from the flue-gas. This corresponds to
flue-gas treatment (FGT) residue, also sometimes abusively called air pollution control (APC)
residue.

Strictly speaking, ‘APC residue’ only covers the solid residues arising from flue-gas treatment
equipment, including the reacted and unreacted reagents but excluding the fly ashes portion.
However, from a management point of view, all these solid residues are usually handled in
combination (notably in the dry and semi-dry systems), although a separate collection and
management is also possible.

Table 1.11 below shows the amount of combustion waste generated and treated in the EU-28
and Norway in 2014.

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Table 1.11: Combustion waste generated and treated in the EU-28 and Norway in 2014
Recovery other than
Combustion waste Total combustion
Geographic origin energy recovery (2)
generated (1) (kt) waste treated (kt)
(kt)
EU-28 127 400 121 330 47 750
Norway 890 921 421
(1) Waste category (EWC-Stat - substance oriented waste statistical nomenclature) as per Commission Regulation
849/2010 is 12.4. The equivalence with the European List of Waste (LoW) established by Commission Decision
2000/532/EC, is defined in Annex III to Commission Regulation 849/2010.
(2) Recovery operations as defined in Section 8 of Annex II to Commission Regulation 849/2010.
Source: [ 20, EUROSTAT 2018 ]

An overview of the main components of solid FGT residues is given in Table 1.12.

Table 1.12: Main components of the FGT residues

Solid component Dry/semi-dry systems Wet systems
Fly ash/boiler ash Always Always
Always: can be mixed with fly
Excess reagent + reaction
ash; contain Cl salts and/or Not applicable
products
gypsum
Optional: usually handled separately
Dioxin sorbent Optional: usually included or reused as a neutralisation agent in
waste water treatment plant
Always: sometimes mixed with fly
Sludge Not applicable
ash/boiler ash (Bamberg model)
Obtained if no liquid effluent: handled
Gypsum Included in reaction products
separately if recovery is intended
Included in reaction products; Obtained if no liquid effluent:
Cl salts
recovery possible in some cases recovery possible in some cases
Source: [ 15, Iswa 2003 ], [ 18, WT TWG 2004 ]

1.2.9 Waste oil

Waste oil (WO) is a term defined as any mineral-based or synthetic lubrication, or industrial oils
which have become unfit for the use for which they were originally intended, and in particular
used combustion engine oils and gearbox oils, and also mineral lubricating oils, oils for turbines
and hydraulic oils (Directive 2008/98/EC). WOs are classified as hazardous waste and are
collected separately so that they can be safely treated. Waste oil contaminated with more than
50 ppm of PCBs is not included in this category because they are treated differently by EU
legislation.

There are two types of waste oil (WO), one related to waste lubricants, which should not be
mixed in any other waste stream and currently recovered through regeneration processes (see
Section 5.2), and a second stream related to fuels and mixtures of fuels currently recovered to be
used as a fuel (see Section 5.3.2.4).

Table 1.13 below shows the amount of used oils generated and treated in the EU-28 and
Norway in 2014.

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Table 1.13: Used oils generated and treated in the EU-28 and Norway in 2014
Recovery other
Used oils
Geographic Used oils treated Energy recovery than energy
generated (1)
origin (tonnes) (2) (tonnes) recovery (2)
(tonnes)
(tonnes)
EU-28 4 210 000 2 370 000 230 000 2 030 000
Norway 44 448 114 744 93 330 15 235
(1) Waste category (EWC-Stat - substance oriented waste statistical nomenclature) as per Commission Regulation
849/2010 is 01.3. The equivalence with the European list of waste (LoW) established by Commission Decision
2000/532/EC, is defined in Annex III to Commission Regulation 849/2010.
(2) Recovery operations as defined in Section 8 of Annex II to Commission Regulation 849/2010.
Source: [ 20, EUROSTAT 2018 ]

1.2.10 Waste solvents

In this document, the term ‘waste solvent’ or 'spent solvent' is to be understood as including all
those wastes from organic substances used as solvents, also including those used in organic
chemical processes and from manufacture, formulation, supply, and those used in coatings
(paints, varnishes and vitreous enamels), adhesives, sealants and printing inks.

Table 1.14 shows the amount of spent solvents generated and treated in the EU-28 and Norway
in 2014.

Table 1.14: Spent solvents generated and treated in the EU-28 and Norway in 2014
Recovery other
Spent solvents
Spent solvents Energy recovery than energy
Geographic origin generated (1)
treated (tonnes) (2) (tonnes) recovery (2)
(tonnes)
(tonnes)
EU-28 2 320 000 1 780 000 520 000 650 000
Norway 11 087 18 892 9 221 6 473
(1) Waste category (EWC-Stat - substance oriented waste statistical nomenclature) as per Commission Regulation
849/2010 is 01.1. The equivalence with the European List of Waste (LoW) established by Commission Decision
2000/532/EC, is defined in Annex III to Commission Regulation 849/2010.
(2) Recovery operations as defined in Section 8 of Annex II to Commission Regulation 849/2010.
Source: [ 20, EUROSTAT 2018 ]

1.2.11 Other recyclable wastes

1.2.11.1 Waste plastics

Plastics are mainly organic polymers with different compositions. Typical polymers are
polystyrene (PS), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polypropylene (PP), polyurethane (PUR),
polyacrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS), polycarbonate (PC), polyamides (PA), polybutylene
terephthalate (PBT), polyethylene (PE), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), etc. Waste plastics can be
differentiated according to their type of use as shown below.

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Chapter 1

Table 1.15: Waste plastics

Polymers contained
Sectors
in the plastic waste
Packaging PE, PP, PS, PET, etc.
Automotive PP, PUR, ABS, etc.
Electrical PS, ABS, PP, etc.
Electronics PC, PA, PBT, etc.
Foams: PUR, Expanded
Building + Construction PS, Mix of PS, etc.
Pipes: PE, PVC, etc.
Agricultural (films) PE
Source: [ 18, WT TWG 2004 ] [ 24, CEFIC 2002 ],

The requirements for each type of use differ greatly and the choice of plastic is made by the
user, typically a downstream producer, on a cost performance ratio. Table 1.16 shows some
examples of metals that are present in plastics.

Table 1.16: Presence of metals in plastics

Metal Use Comment
About 0.7–2 % Pb as stabiliser in many types of
rigid PVC for outdoor use (use discontinued in the
PVC stabiliser
EU-28 at the end of 2015, hence only present as
Pb legacy in waste/recycled material)
Lead chromate for yellow and red colours contains
Pigment in plastic 64 % lead (use subject to restrictions in REACH
Annex XVII)
About 0.2 %, up to a maximum of 0.5 % cadmium
used as stabiliser in rigid PVC for outdoor
Stabilisers (e.g. PVC) applications (window profiles, sidings). (Use
Cd
discontinued in the EU-27 in 2006 and subject to
restrictions in REACH Annex XVII.)
Pigment None
Sb, P or Br Flame retardant None
Cr (Cr(III)
Colours and pigments None
and Cr(VI))
Source: [ 18, WT TWG 2004 ], [ 25, COWI A/S 2002 ], EUROMETAUX comment #22, FR comment #248
in: [ 21, WT TWG 2016 ]

Table 1.17 below shows the amount of waste plastics generated in the EU-28 and Norway in
2014.

Table 1.17: Waste plastics generated in the EU-28 and Norway in 2014
Geographic origin Waste plastic (1) generated (kt)
EU-28 17 040
Norway 211
(1) Waste category (EWC-Stat - substance oriented waste statistical nomenclature) as per Commission
Regulation 849/2010 is 07.4. The equivalence with the European List of Waste (LoW) established by
Commission Decision 2000/532/EC, is defined in Annex III to Commission Regulation 849/2010.
Source: [ 20, EUROSTAT 2018 ]

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1.2.11.2 Waste wood

There are different types of waste wood, which can be categorised depending for example on
their origin and/or potential contamination. In Germany for instance, four types of waste wood
are distinguished:

 type I: wood that has not been (or only mechanically) treated;
 type II: glued, coated or other treated waste wood without protection agents;
 type III: waste wood treated with halogeno-organic components;
 type IV: treated waste wood (e.g. supports in railways, fences) that cannot be categorised
as type I to III due to its pollutant content;
[DE comment #400 in [ 21, WT TWG 2016 ]]

Hazardous waste wood can arise from electrical and telephone/telegraph poles, supports in
railways and from all wood treated for outdoor uses. These treatments are based on creosote and
pentachlorophenol, metallic salts, copper sulphate, CFK treatment (Cu, F, Cr treatment), CCB
treatment (Cu, Cr, B treatment) or CCA treatment (Cu, Cr, As treatment).

Table 1.18 below shows the amount of waste wood (hazardous and non-hazardous) generated in
the EU-28 and Norway in 2014.

Table 1.18: Waste wood generated in the EU-28 and Norway in 2014
Total waste wood (1) Non-hazardous waste Hazardous waste
Geographic origin
generated (kt) wood generated (kt) wood generated (kt)
EU-28 50 280 48 560 1 720
Norway 1 390 1 347 43
(1) Waste category (EWC-Stat - substance oriented waste statistical nomenclature) as per Commission Regulation
849/2010 is 07.5. The equivalence with the European List of Waste (LoW) established by Commission Decision
2000/532/EC, is defined in Annex III to Commission Regulation 849/2010.
Source: [ 20, EUROSTAT 2018 ]

1.2.12 Hazardous waste from the construction and demolition sector

Construction and demolition waste (CDW) is one of the heaviest and most voluminous waste
streams generated in the EU. It accounts for approximately 25–30 % of all waste generated in
the EU and consists of numerous materials, including concrete, bricks, gypsum, wood, glass,
metals, plastic, solvents, asbestos and excavated soil, many of which can be recycled.

As for hazardous mineral construction and demolition wastes (except waste containing
asbestos), Table 1.19 shows the amount generated in the EU-28 and in Norway in 2014.

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Chapter 1

Table 1.19: Amount of hazardous mineral construction and demolition wastes generated in 2014
in the EU-28 and Norway
Hazardous mineral construction and
Geographic origin
demolition wastes (1) generated (kt)
EU-28 8 590
Norway 127
(1) Waste category (EWC-Stat - substance oriented waste statistical nomenclature) as per
Commission Regulation 849/2010 is 12.1. The equivalence with the European List of Waste
(LoW) established by Commission Decision 2000/532/EC, is defined in Annex III to
Commission Regulation 849/2010.
Source: [ 20, EUROSTAT 2018 ]

1.2.13 Waste contaminated with PCBs

Some types of waste contaminated with PCBs are electrical transformers, capacitors,
transformer oils and waste oils (waste oil contaminated with more than 50 ppm of PCB is
considered by European Legislation to be a special waste which cannot be treated in the same
way as waste oils). Some commonly found materials may also become polluted with PCBs
(soils, building materials, waste clothing, other debris, etc.). These can typically be
decontaminated by treatment with a solvent, and the resulting solvent and PCBs mixture may
then be processed.

Table 1.20 below shows the amount of waste containing PCBs generated and treated in the EU-
28 and Norway in 2014.

Table 1.20: Waste containing PCBs generated and treated in the EU-28 and Norway in 2014
Waste containing Recovery other than
Waste containing
Geographic origin PCBs (1) generated energy recovery (2)
PCBs treated (tonnes)
(tonnes) (tonnes)
EU-28 40 000 40 000 10 000
Norway 5 705 4 505 3 078
(1) Waste category (EWC-Stat - substance oriented waste statistical nomenclature) as per Commission Regulation
849/2010 is 07.7. The equivalence with the European List of Waste (LoW) established by Commission Decision
2000/532/EC, is defined in Annex III to Commission Regulation 849/2010.
(2) Recovery operations as defined in Section 8 of Annex II to Commission Regulation 849/2010.
Source: [ 20, EUROSTAT 2018 ]

1.2.14 Waste contaminated with SF6

Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) gas is used as the isolating and breaking medium in medium- and
high-voltage electrical equipment (switchgears and circuit-breakers) because of its dielectric
properties and electrical arc switching characteristics. The global consumption of SF6 used in
electrical equipment manufacturing is more than 5 500 tonnes per year and rising. However, it is
also known to be a greenhouse gas with a substantial global warming potential (GWP > 22 800
according to Regulation (EU) No. 517/2014 on fluorinated greenhouse gases).

It is estimated that 20 million pieces of equipment containing SF6 are currently installed in
Europe. The majority of them are used in electric companies (65 %) and the rest in other
industrial facilities (35 %). According to the regulation, the SF6 needs to be recovered from the
equipment to be recycled, reclaimed or destroyed, without any intentional leaks to the
environment.

The first generation of switchgears, which have been in use for the last 30–40 years, are starting
to reach the end of their expected lifetime, making their disposal or recycling an important
emerging issue in Europe's waste treatment sector. [ES comment #1 in [ 21, WT TWG 2016 ]]

14 Waste Treatment
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1.2.15 Waste soils

Soil contamination is the occurrence of pollutants in soil above a certain level causing a
deterioration or loss of one or more soil functions. Also, soil contamination can be considered as
the presence of man-made chemicals or other alteration in the natural soil environment. This
type of contamination typically arises from the rupture of underground storage tanks,
application of pesticides, percolation of contaminated surface water to subsurface strata,
leaching of wastes from landfills or direct discharge of industrial wastes to the soil. The most
common chemicals involved are petroleum hydrocarbons, solvents, pesticides, lead and other
heavy metals. The occurrence of this phenomenon is correlated with the degree of
industrialisation and intensity of chemical usage. (see http://esdac.jrc.ec.europa.eu/themes/soil-
contamination). Table 1.21 below shows the amount of waste soils generated in the EU-28 and
Norway in 2014.

Table 1.21: Waste soils generated in the EU-28 and Norway in 2014

Waste soils (1) generated (kt)

Geographic origin
Total Hazardous
EU-28 462 800 8 050
Norway 35 0
(1) Waste category (EWC-Stat - substance oriented waste statistical nomenclature) as per Commission
Regulation 849/2010 is 12.6. The equivalence with the European List of Waste (LoW) established by
Commission Decision 2000/532/EC, is defined in Annex III to Commission Regulation 849/2010.
Source: [ 20, EUROSTAT 2018 ]

Waste Treatment 15
Chapter 1

1.3 Installations for the treatment of waste

This section summarises the waste treatment sector in the EU. A short explanation of the
treatments performed is included here.

The waste sector is highly regulated in the EU. Legal definitions of common terms used in this
sector are available (e.g. waste, hazardous waste) in Directive 2008/98/EC on waste, the so-
called Waste Framework Directive.

Ultimately, waste is either recovered or disposed of. Waste treatment installations therefore
carry out operations for the recovery or disposal of waste. Waste treatment installations are not
typically considered to produce a product like other industrial sectors, but may do so if end-of-
waste criteria are met. It is considered that they provide services to society to handle their waste
materials. A waste treatment facility typically covers the contiguous land, structures, and other
areas used for storing, recovering, recycling, treating, or disposing of waste.

As is the case for waste types, classification of waste treatment (WT) activities is defined in the
Annexes to Directive 2008/98/EC.

The concept of a facility dedicated to the management of waste is not new. Long before the
enactment of waste legislation (hazardous or non-hazardous), companies which produced
waste already recognised the need for the specialised treatment and disposal of their wastes.
Many waste producers constructed and operated their own dedicated facilities, typically on -
site facilities.

Other companies that generated waste and did not have a suitable site or did not generate a
sufficiently large volume of waste to justify the investment in an on-site facility transported
their waste off site to specialised facilities for treatment and disposal. Such facilities are
typically referred to as commercial, off-site facilities. The commercial waste management
industry thus began the development of these off-site facilities in the late 1960s. Their role
was to collect and transport waste to specialised off-site facilities where they carried out the
treatment and disposal of that waste.

Just as there are many types of waste, there are many ways in which wastes can be
managed. For example, there are at least 50 commercially applied technologies for the
treatment of hazardous waste. A waste facility may function with just one technology, or it
may combine multiple technologies, particularly if it is a commercial facility serving a
number of waste producers.

There are some differences between a typical commercial off -site facility and an on-site
facility typically specialising in the treatment of a particular type of waste. This derives in
part from the fact that an off-site facility accepts waste from outside the local community,
while an on-site facility handles only that waste generated by what could be a long-
standing and important economic activity in the community. From a technical perspective,
the off-site facility generally handles a wider range of waste types and is typically larger
and more complex.

For example, off-site waste facilities may be categorised as follows:

 Installations focused mainly on recovering material as a saleable product (typically

solvents, oils, acids, or metals). Some use the energy value in the waste.
 Installations focused on changing the physical or chemical characteristics of a waste, or
degrade or destroy the waste constituents, using any of a wide variety of physical,
chemical, thermal, or biological methods.
 Installations focused on permanent emplacement of waste on or below the surface of the
land. Such installations are not covered in this document.

16 Waste Treatment
 Chapter 1

As for the amount of waste treatment activities in Europe and Norway, different data are
available, depending for instance on the waste treatment capacity (e.g. thresholds of Annex I to
Directive 2010/75/EU), or on the level of emissions arising from these activities, e.g. falling
under Regulation (EC) 166/2006 concerning the establishment of an European Pollutant Release
and Transfer Register (PRTR).

Table 1.22 below gives an overview of the amount of waste treatment activities performed in
the EU-28 and Norway from different databases.

Table 1.22: Amount of waste treatment activities from different databases

EUROSTAT (1) IED installations (3)
Database/period E-PRTR (2) (2014)
(2014) (2015)
5. (a) 5. (c) 5.1
Installations Installations Disposal 5.3
for the for the or Disposal of
Waste treatment Recovery other than
recovery or disposal of recovery non-
activity energy recovery
disposal of non- of hazardous
hazardous hazardous hazardous waste
waste waste waste
Geographic EU-28 36 883 2 577 4 006 2 937 (4) 1 137 (4)
origin NO 138 22 10 NA NA
(1) Recovery operations as per Section 8 of Annex II to Commission Regulation 849/2010.
(2) Activity as per Annex I to Regulation (EC) 166/2006.
(3) Activity as per Annex I to Directive 2010/75/EU.
(4) Amount of installations in the EU-27.
NB: NA = Not applicable.

The following sections (1.3.1 to 1.3.13) cover more specific information on the types of waste
installations, classified by the main type of waste treatment carried out. Not all types of waste
treatments covered in this document are covered in this section, possibly because such a
treatment may be considered minor.

1.3.1 Shredders

[ 26, Mech. subgroup 2014 ], [ 21, WT TWG 2016 ]

Shredders of metal waste

About 350 mixed scrap shredders are operating in Europe in 2014.

Mixed scrap shredders are generally capable of processing between 25 and 400 tonnes of metal
waste per hour, this throughput being dependent upon the size of the shredder box and the
power of the rotor drive motor. In general, mixed scrap shredders will utilise some form of
magnetic separation to extract the ferrous content from the mixed stream, and some form of air
classification to separate the non-ferrous content from the non-metallic materials. Material is
generally transported, between stages and to storage bunkers, on conveyors.

The majority of such shredders are located in the open air, not enclosed within buildings.

Shredders of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE)

Various categories of WEEE are processed in shredders. For WEEE waste streams containing
volatile fluorocarbons (VFCs), volatile hydrocarbons (VHCs), or mercury for example, closed
shredders are in use.

In particular, due to the WEEE Directive (2012/19/EU), dedicated WEEE shredding plants were
installed in the last 15 years, a majority of them treating equipment such as fridges and cooling

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Chapter 1

appliances, containing VFCs, such as the CFCs R12 and R11, the hydrochlorofluorocarbons
(HCFCs) R22 and R141b, the hydrofluorocarbon (HFC) R134a or VHCs, such as the
hydrocarbons (HCs) R600a, cyclopentane, iso-pentane, n-pentane.

These installations are generally capable of processing automatically 35 to 75 devices per hour
in a two-step process. Step 1 focuses on the treatment of the cooling circuits of temperature
exchange equipment: once the loose inner parts of the temperature exchange equipment are
removed, oil and VFCs and/or VHCs are properly extracted to be further treated. In Step 2 the
devices are shredded into smaller material components and VFC and VHC blowing agents
contained in the insulation foam of the equipment are removed (i.e. in accordance with
Regulation EC/1005/2009). These components (ferrous scrap, mixed non-ferrous scrap, foam,
and plastics) are separated from one another in a downstream sorting process. Process air from
both Step 1 and Step 2 is captured, liquefied, stored and treated.

Besides these plants, specific WEEE shredders have been also installed for:
 large domestic appliances;
 cathode ray tube (CRT) equipment;
 flat panel displays;
 lamps.

1.3.2 Waste transfer installations

Operations carried out in these installations include: reception, bulking, sorting, transferring
pending, prior to submission to a disposal/recovery operation. In some cases, blending and
mixing may also be carried out in these installations. Waste transfer stations may involve
individual operations or may be an integrated part of a treatment process. All sites typically
undertake some kind of bulking operation to agglomerate the solids, where liquids are decanted
from one container to another. The liquid transfer can be from a tanker to a holding tank, or
from fractions of litre up to a more than 200 litre drum. Operations typically carried out are
inspection, sampling, physical sorting and packaging, decanting, blending, drum emptying,
storage, drum/IBC reclamation and in some cases disposal of wiping cloths, solidification and
the crushing of oil filters. Waste transfer stations tend to fall into two categories according to the
objective of the installation:

 Focus on the output stream. This corresponds to sites that act as a feeder for other
processes: e.g. solvent regeneration, incineration, chemical treatment. These sites target
specific waste streams that can be checked, analysed and bulked up to provide a steady
feedstock for an associated process. They may also take in and process a variety of other
materials in order to provide a full service to their clients. These sites tend to handle a much
higher proportion of certain waste streams and acceptance, storage and control systems are
therefore designed for these wastes.

 Focus on the input waste. These sites are independent transfer stations and generally
accept a full range of materials from the neighbouring area. Typically they also bulk and
blend materials to produce a range of waste streams suitable for disposal through different
treatment, recovery and disposal processes, but they do not usually target any specific waste
group. There may be a bias towards particular waste streams, but this will likely be due to
local patterns of waste arisings and commercial opportunities, rather than the need to
provide a feedstock for a particular downstream process.

The majority of operations linked to waste preparation may be distinguished under two groups:

18 Waste Treatment
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 Regrouping/Reconditioning. Here the aim is to group together wastes in small or

medium quantities, when they have the same nature and when they are compatible. The
resulting waste still has to be treated though. The purpose of regrouping is to obtain larger
and more homogeneous volumes for waste treatment, to improve safety (e.g. facilitation
of handling) and to rationalise the logistics cost. The combination of processes used in
waste preparation and in pretreatment operations depends on the specifications of final
treatment.
 Pretreatment. Here the aim is to adapt the waste to the type of recovery and/or disposal
of the final treatment available. Pretreatment covers several aspects. It can be defined as
those operations that lead to homogenisation of the chemical composition and/or physical
characteristics of the wastes. Pretreatment produces a waste, which may be very different
from the initial waste, although not from a regulatory point of view. This pretreated waste
still has to be treated in a recovery and/or disposal plant. At the end of the pretreatment
process, the pretreated waste should comply with chemical and physical specifications
that are fixed by the end users.

Grouping and pretreatment activities may be located at the same site as the final treatment, on
the waste production site or on a particular dedicated site. Nevertheless, regardless of the
location, the operating processes are the same.

1.3.3 Installations for the biological treatment of waste

In the context of the IED scope enlargement study [ 27, VITO et al. 2007 ], an inventory of the
number of installations for biological treatments in the EU-27 was conducted.

In total, around 6 000 installations for the biological treatment of organic waste have been
counted, of which around 3 500 were composting installations (i.e. 60 %) and 2 500 digestion
installations (40 %).

Concerning composting, the inventory took into account the treatment of source-separated
household waste, and also other organic waste streams such as sludge.

Concerning digestion, it is noted that a limited number of centralised anaerobic digestion

installations were counted (around 120–150), 95 % being on-farm installations. It is also
highlighted that while the treatment capacity of centralised installations generally exceeds
50 tonnes per day, it is not the case for on-farm installations.

In terms of capacity, the study indicates that, at that time, the treatment capacity in large-scale
installations (> 50 tonnes/day) for the EU-27 is estimated at 36.8 Mtonnes/year, with two thirds
of the treated waste being green waste and household waste, and one third other organic wastes.

1.3.4 Installations for the physico-chemical treatment of waste waters

This sector is represented by a large range of processes from blending systems with no actual
chemical interactions to complex plants with a range of treatment options, some custom
designed for specific waste streams.

The process is designed to treat waste waters (contaminated with e.g. acid/alkalis, metals, salts,
sludges for example), but usually accepts a range of organic materials as well, e.g. process plant
washings and rinsings, residues from the oil-water separation, cleaning wastes, interceptor
wastes. These could contain almost any industrial material. It is likely that the treatment process
will have some effect on the organic materials, for example due to some chemical oxidation of
COD, some organics could be adsorbed or entrained in the sludge or, in emulsion treatment,
part of the organic content could become separated from the aqueous phase.

Waste Treatment 19
Chapter 1

These treatment systems remove and/or detoxify hazardous constituents dissolved or

suspended in water. The selection and sequence of unit processes will be determined by
the characteristics of the incoming wastes and the required effluent quality. An example
of a physico-chemical treatment facility of waste waters typically contains the following
unit processes: cyanide destruction, chromium reduction, two-stage metal precipitation, pH
adjustment (e.g. neutralisation), solid filtration, biological treatment, carbon adsorption, sludge
dewatering, coagulation/flocculation and some others.

The physico-chemical treatment of waste water typically divides the waste into another type of
waste (typically solid) and an aqueous effluent which may be considered urban waste water as
defined by the Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive (91/271/EEC).

Physico-chemical plants are essential to medium and small companies including commercial
enterprises. Waste which must be treated by physico-chemical plants will, in future, continue to
be produced (in the course of production); obligatory acceptance of waste by generally
accessible physico-chemical plants is an advantage for trade and industry, facilitating correct
disposal of waste and easing the economic burden for industry and trade.

The following principal configurations can be identified:

 Company in-house physico-chemical plants. These are specialised for the treatment of the
waste produced by a company.
 Generally accessible physico-chemical plants (service plants). These are suitable for the
treatment of waste produced in certain regions.

1.3.5 Installations for the treatment of combustion ashes and flue-gas

treatment residues

Combustion ash and flue-gas treatment (FGT) residues are one of the main waste streams
treated by stabilisation and solidification processes, either in the combustion plant (e.g. in some
incinerators) or on waste treatment facilities. Other methods are vitrification, purification and
recycling of some components (e.g. salts). FGT residues may also substitute raw materials in
waste treatment, or may undergo further treatment to enable them to be used in construction
applications for example.

1.3.6 Installations for the treatment of waste containing POPs

When available, incineration (which is outside the scope of this document) is the most widely
used technology for PCB destruction.

Other treatments of waste containing POPs (including PCBs) are applied, such as
decontamination of equipment containing POPs, or destruction and irreversible transformation
of the POP content in waste by, for example, dechlorination with metallic alkali or with KPEG
(potassium and polyethylene glycol).

1.3.7 Installations for the treatment of waste containing SF6

Due to its high global warming potential, SF6 is considered a hazardous waste in the EU at the
moment of its end-of-life. Therefore, only licensed or authorised hazardous waste managers are
allowed to handle, transport, recycle, or destroy the gas according to national or regional
regulations and standards.

There are two kinds of companies involved in this sector:

20 Waste Treatment
 Chapter 1

 companies that deal with SF6 gas management (filling, replacing, etc.);
 companies that deal with used electrical equipment and removal and recycling of SF 6
from that equipment.

Also, many industrial gas suppliers and medium- and high-voltage equipment manufacturers
operate SF6 waste treatment facilities or act as intermediary waste managers and/or collectors.
[ES comment #2 in [ 21, WT TWG 2016 ]]

1.3.8 Installations for treatment of waste oil

Used lubricating oils can be recovered to a quality essentially equal to some groups of base oils
used to produce lubricating oils (some base oil groups III and IV rarely, if ever, contain re-
refined oils). This process is typically referred to as ‘oil re-refining’.

The recovery of oil from waste is typically a part of the waste treatment industry. There are
installations that specialise in the recovery of oil from different waste streams. In addition, a
number of chemical treatment plants and transfer stations have oil separation units that
undertake a first separation of oil from water before sending the oil layer through to a specialist
plant for further processing. Some factors that define this sector are as follows:

 Companies that serve particular industrial sectors tend to offer a general waste service to
that sector, and this may include waste oils.
 Companies that collect used lubricating oils from garages are also likely to collect oil
filters, steering, brake and transmission oils, antifreeze and batteries.
 Companies handling transformer oils are likely to collect oils with some small amounts of
PCBs.
 Some chemical and biological treatment plants undertake small-scale oil recovery
operations as part of their pretreatment processes. These are generally simple gravity
separation systems.

There are large numbers of dedicated oil treatment and processing plants in the EU. Some
companies carry out simple purification, removing the sediment and water from waste oil. Other
companies conduct more complex re-refining treatments converting it (at least part of it,
typically 50–60 %) to a base oil for lubricants.

A wide variety and combinations of physical and chemical processes and operations are used for
the treatment of waste oils: blending, centrifugation, settling, filtering, distillations, thermal
cracking, treatments with acids and bases, hydrogenation, etc.

Re-refining
About 500 kt of re-refined base oil was produced in 2014, which accounts for around 13 % of
the overall base oil demand in Europe [ 28, Hartmann et al. 2015 ].

Figure 1.2 shows the situation of re-refining plants in Europe in 2014.

Waste Treatment 21
Chapter 1

Source: [ 28, Hartmann et al. 2015 ]

Figure 1.2: Re-refining plants in Europe in 2015

Re-refining plants can adjust the quantity of re-refined base oil and fuels produced according to
the international and local situation (crude oil prices, market demand, subsidies, etc.).

Preparation of waste oil to be used mainly as fuel

About 50 % of WOs (i.e. waste oil from ship and tank cleaning, waste oil from oil-water
separator, waste oil from emulsions, etc.) is not waste lubricant oil or cannot be regenerated into
base oil. These WOs can be converted into other oil products (e.g. fuel).

There is also a significant volume of oil-contaminated waters collected for recovery. These
wastes have a net negative value but are processed so as to maximise the recovery of the
hydrocarbon for use as a fuel.

1.3.9 Installations for treatment of waste solvent

Solvents are extensively used in chemical and biological processes. During these processes,
waste solvent is produced and it is recycled in-house. These treatments are an integral part of
the chemical/biological processes and they are covered in the different BREFs. However, for
economic or technical reasons, sometimes the waste solvents are delivered to a third party (e.g.
waste manager) for treatment. In some cases, the product of the treatment is returned to the
waste producer and in other cases this does not happen.

Waste solvents are also produced in the area of solvent-based surface treatment (such as
cleaning or degreasing in many different industrial sectors and in dry cleaning installations). In
most cases, the contaminated solvents or the bottoms of the distillation columns (solvent content
1–10 % in the case of closed cleaning installations/devices with internal distillation devices) are
delivered to solvent distillation installations and regenerated. The quality of the distillation
products is as good as that of new solvents.

In accordance with the Waste Framework Directive, the first option for waste solvents, as well
as for the rest of waste, is that it should be recycled. This has helped to generate an active

22 Waste Treatment
 Chapter 1

solvent recycling market. Similarly to waste oils, waste solvents which are not suitable for
regeneration because of certain compositions or because of very low purity can also be
recovered as a secondary liquid fuel, for example, in the cement industry and hazardous waste
incinerators. A fundamental difference with waste oils is that waste solvent qualities fluctuate
much more than the quality of waste oil.

Solvent regeneration facilities separate contaminants from waste solvents and thus restore the
solvent to its original quality or maybe to a lower grade product (e.g. in the case of lacquer
thinner). Distillation (batch, continuous, or steam) is used by most commercial solvent
processors, and typically recovers about 75 % of the waste solvent. The residue, known as
‘distillation bottoms’, can be a liquid or a sludge, depending upon a number of conditions, and
typically requires management as a hazardous waste. Other separation technologies used by
solvent processors include: filtration, simple evaporation, centrifugation, and stripping.

A 2015 ESRG (European Solvent Recycler Group) survey of its members shows that 41 major
EU-based installations had a combined treatment capacity of some 912 kt/yr. However, it is
noted that actual capacity is limited by the specific operation being undertaken and the
associated complexity of the individual process. [ 29, PCT Subgroup 2015 ]

1.3.10 Installations for the treatment of waste catalysts, waste from

pollution abatement and other inorganic waste

The treatment of waste catalysts depends on the type of catalyst (catalytic active substance and
supporting structure or carrier) as well as the included by-products from the catalytic process.
These treatments include: regeneration of catalysts to be reused as catalysts again, recycling of
components from catalysts and disposal in landfills. An example installation is an Austrian
facility for the recovery of Ni from food industry catalysts (Fe/Ni alloy).

Hydrometallurgical technology can be used to extract and concentrate metals from liquid
waste. Non-liquid wastes first require dissolution.

In Malta, there are two underground asbestos storage sites and one overground pending
treatment. The asbestos originated from ships being repaired in dockyards and from unused
asbestos pipes.

1.3.11 Installations for treatment of activated carbon and resins

Most waste activated carbon and resin is a result of water purification processes. It is very
difficult to estimate the regeneration throughput in Europe, mostly due to the fact that many
operators regenerate their adsorbent on site (often sporadically) rather than sending it to large
centralised reactivation plants.

Activated carbon is used in three principal applications: the treatment of drinking water; in the
food and drink industry, for example for removing colour in the refining of sugar; and in general
industrial applications, e.g. removal of VOCs from process vent streams. These applications
affect the type of contamination on the carbon and the regeneration process that is then required.
For example, carbon which has been used in industrial applications (‘industrial carbons’), such
as in effluent treatment, requires a more stringent pollution abatement system than that used for
the treatment of potable water or for that from the food industry.

At some point in the lifetime of the process, the carbon will become exhausted with the material
that it is adsorbing. The carbon should then be regenerated or, if this is not possible, disposed of.
The choice of route is naturally determined by economics and scale. In the treatment of potable
water, the carbon is used in large quantities and is contained in large open-topped concrete-lined
carbon beds. These have a life expectancy before exhaustion of a few years. When they are

Waste Treatment 23
Chapter 1

regenerated, they result in large quantities of waste to be treated. It is this application that
represents the most common use in the UK in terms of volume and it is regenerated either on
site by a purpose-built plant or transported off site for regeneration by a merchant operator.
Because of the nature of the market there is a tendency for more regeneration facilities, once
designed purely for ‘in-house’ materials, to now offer a merchant regeneration service.

There are at least 19 sites in Europe regenerating activated carbon off site.

The most common reactivation furnaces are direct fired rotary kilns and multiple hearth
furnaces. Indirect fired rotary kilns, fluidised bed, vertical tube type and infrared ones are
sometimes used.

Quantitative figures for ion exchange resin regeneration facilities are not available.

1.3.12 Installations for the treatment of waste acids and bases

There are several installations in the EU which regenerate HCl. No installations have been
identified to recover HBr. Waste sulphuric acid can be regenerated in the following ways:

 Thermal decomposition of waste/spent/recovered sulphuric acid, the result then being used
as a primary or supplementary source of SO2 feed to a sulphuric acid contact process. This
is covered in the LVIC(AAF) BREF [ 30, COM 2007 ], as is any process that produces SO2
as a feedstock by decomposition/calcinations.
 A process based on the reconcentration of weak/spent/waste sulphuric acid, with or without
separation of potential impurities (e.g. salts). This will be included in this document.
 Industrial processes that use sulphuric acid and include recycling of the spent sulphuric acid
as an integral part of the process. This will be covered in the BREF where the industrial
process is covered (e.g. LVIC-S BREF [ 31, COM 2007 ] and others for titanium dioxide
production).

Acid recovery usually involves the separation of unreacted acid from an acid waste such as
spent pickle liquor generated by the steel industry. One method used in the steel industry
involves cooling the sulphuric acid to precipitate ferrous compounds. In another method, acid
can be regenerated by injecting it into a spray roaster.

1.3.13 Installations for the preparation of waste with calorific value

Currently, there are several factors driving the concept of using waste as a fuel in combustion
processes:

 The Waste Framework Directive and its amendments set a waste management hierarchy.
This gives a preference to recycling and recovery (including the use of waste as a source
of energy).
 Waste sector regulations, such as the Packaging and Packaging Waste Directive, The
End-of-life Vehicles Directive, Waste Electrical & Electronic Equipment Directive,
Waste Incineration Directive, the European List of Waste, Dangerous Substances
Directive and Dangerous Preparations Directive may also influence the option chosen.
 The Landfill Directive prohibits the landfilling of waste with a high content of
biodegradable materials. Therefore, there is a need to establish alternative ways for
treating the respective waste fractions. Co-incineration is one option among others (e.g.
incineration, mechanical biological treatment).
 Co-incineration of waste fractions as a replacement for conventional fuels may be one
option to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

24 Waste Treatment
 Chapter 1

 The co-combustion of waste makes operation of combustion plants more attractive

economically.
 The cost of fuel used in the combustion processes.

The term ‘waste with calorific value’ is used in this document for all types of waste materials
that are prepared to be used as fuel in any combustion process. Waste with calorific value can be
liquid or solid. For instance, liquid waste fuels can be prepared from waste oils, solvents,
and distillation bottoms. The way the liquid waste fuel is going to be used in the
combustion process influences the way the waste fuel is prepared. For example, some
liquid waste fuels can be prepared by blending different wastes that have high calorific
values and feed them independently into the combustion chamber or they can be
mixed/blended with conventional fuels (e.g. waste oil and fuel oils). Some liquid wastes,
for instance oils, normally need pretreatment to remove bottoms, sediments, and water.
This may be achieved through separation and dehydration.

Some combustion processes that may use waste as (part) fuel or auxiliary process inputs are the
combustion plants for the production of heat and/or power, cement kilns, blast furnaces in iron
and steel production, brick kilns in the production of ceramics, lime kilns and asphalt
production. The type of furnace or boiler used, the combustion conditions (e.g. temperature) that
the process should operate, the impact on the emissions or products and the type of fuel already
in use has a strong influence on which the type of waste(s) may be acceptable and how the
waste fuel is prepared.

The purposes of those installations treating waste with calorific value are the following:

 to optimise the valorisation of certain waste, avoiding its landfilling;

 to guarantee the quality of thermal destruction;
 to provide the required physico-chemical properties of the waste fuel to the end user.

The basic principles of preparation of waste fuels from waste with calorific value are the
following:
 the chemical and physical quality of the fuel shall meet any specifications or standards
ensuring environmental protection, protection of the kiln/furnace process, and quality of
the material produced, in the event that the combustion process where the waste fuel is
used produces a product (e.g. cement);
 energy and mineral contents must remain stable to allow optimal feed in the kiln/furnace;
 the physical form must allow safe and proper handling, storage and feeding.

Waste Treatment 25
Chapter 1

1.4 Economics of the waste treatment sector

Waste treatment is typically a high-volume low-return process. A fixed or lowered base price,
either for the incoming waste or for the recycled product, has placed the commercial emphasis
on maximising throughput and reducing cost overheads.

The cost of waste treatment is typically established on the basis of investments and running
costs. However, in some cases, prices may be determined by operators at the ‘low’ end of the
market. In some other cases, the prices are fixed by agreement between the waste producer and
the waste manager, and these prices may be different for a particular waste depending on who
has produced it. Although there are exceptions, and also particularly for older plants, investment
levels have been low, due to the low returns and competition with the low prices of landfills. It
is expected that high levels of investment will be required to meet the standards set by the actual
regulatory regime.

The industry has generally maximised the constructive use of some waste types to treat other
wastes, which is expected to continue, particularly using waste as a raw material.

Competition exists between regional, national and international companies. One example is in
the collection of waste oil, where national collectors work on large volumes as an economy of
scale while local/regional operators compete with the advantage of having lower overhead costs.

Hazardous waste management facilities typically, under the duty to tender delivery, accept all
types of hazardous waste for correct disposal without regard to competition. However, some
dedicated facilities, which may be in competition for certain types of waste, would only need to
bid for any hazardous waste that they can handle. In this respect, different configurations have
been developed for the designated hazardous waste management facilities and competing
facilities.

Some WT (Waste Treatment) plants, due to their regionalisation and/or the need for proximity,
contribute to a substantial decrease in waste transportation. However, other WT plants are
working on a superregional, national or even international basis mainly depending on the
specialisation of certain treatment operations.

Regulatory conditions have been and are being put in place, at EU level and developed in
Member States (e.g. for incineration, landfilling, electrical and electronic waste, end-of-life
vehicles), to break the cycle of high volume, low return and low investment. This is expected to
lead to greater investment in the sector and a move towards developing techniques to treat those
wastes which were previously directly landfilled, or to improving processes which before were
not treating the wastes effectively for example by means of plants or equipment for the
treatment of specific wastes.

As a consequence of the restrictions on landfilling introduced by legislation3, treatment of waste

either prior to or instead of landfill is leading to the continuing development of recycling,
recovery, stabilisation and fixation processes for a number of waste streams.

Regulatory compliance is essentially the driving force for waste treatment facilities. The market
for waste facilities is heavily influenced by dynamic regulatory programmes that continue to
undergo significant change.

As for the structure of the waste treatment sector in terms of number of persons employed,
Figure 1.3 below shows that around 70 % of the enterprises employ less than 10 persons.

3
E.g. Directive 1999/31/EC on landfill and related Council Decision 2003/33/EC on landfill acceptance criteria.

26 Waste Treatment
 Chapter 1

Source: [ 20, EUROSTAT 2018 ]

Figure 1.3: Structure of the waste treatment sector in 2014 (NACE rev.2: 38.2 - waste treatment
and disposal) – Size of enterprises in terms of number of persons employed

Waste oils
Environmental consciousness in the 1980s had a number of consequences for the waste oils
treatment sector, in particular:
 the shutting down of many acid/clay re-refining plants, mainly in the US, for both
economic and environmental reasons;
 the use of improved equipment and devices to reduce the potential pollution from burning
used oil;
 the development of improved re-refining technologies for both environmental and
product quality reasons.

Physico-chemical treatment plants

There are continuous changes in the production process, modifying the type of waste as well as
the auxiliary substances used. In this respect, even the physico-chemical treatment plants are
subject to constant adaptation processes, both in terms of the procedures used and the controls.
Furthermore, changes in the regulatory frameworks also lead to plant reconfigurations; in
general, these changed regulations aim at significant emissions reduction. The reconfiguration
can affect all the functional areas of a plant, including plant technology, process materials,
laboratory equipment, and even the general and specialist knowledge of the staff.

Preparation of municipal solid waste (MSW) to be used as fuel

The history of MSW being used as fuel goes back to the oil crisis of the 1970s. Then RDF
(refuse-derived fuel) was promoted as a substitute low-cost fuel, although the fuel was never
fully accepted by the market. However, there has been a growing interest within the cement,
lime, steel and energy industries in fuels derived from waste, mainly due to economic reasons.
Existing European energy policy targets and waste management policy give an impetus to the
usage of waste-derived fuels based on non-hazardous wastes. These fuels, with an average

Waste Treatment 27
Chapter 1

biogenic content of 50–60 %, may contribute considerably to the reduction of CO2 emissions
and the doubling of the share of renewable energy. Moreover, due to market liberalisation and
the need for cost reductions, industry is increasingly becoming more interested in less expensive
homogenous substitute fuels of a specified quality.

Waste management policy aiming at a reduction in landfill disposal of biodegradable waste

directly influenced the development of facilities for the production of waste fuels. Also, the
(high) tax system applied to landfilling is a major driving force in some Member States. The
producers of the waste fuels took the initiative for a quality system that should guarantee the
properties of the solid waste fuel produced from MSW and therefore make it a more reliable
product. Quality systems exist in several Member States now. Also, in 2011 a CEN standard
(EN 15359) for ‘solid recovered fuel’ (SRF) was developed for non-hazardous waste to be used
for energy recovery to meet standardised classification and specification requirements.

The main outlets of SRF are currently in the cement and lime industries, coal-fired power
stations, and steel mills that use SRF as a carbon substitute. In Nordic countries, SRF is mainly
used for the production of heat in industries and district heating.

28 Waste Treatment
 Chapter 1

1.5 General environmental issues related to installations that

treat waste
Waste composition is very variable and the potential range of components that might be present
is enormous. Due to such variance in components and composition, there are very few common
emissions from waste management operations since each site has a slightly different
combination of unit operations, and accepts a different range of wastes based on local
circumstances.

Nevertheless, this section intends to gives a short overview of the main environmental issues in
the sector. A more precise picture is developed in Chapters 2 to 5.

Emissions to air
Many waste installations have emissions to air of particulate matter (for instance simply due to
handling operation). Organic compounds are also commonly emitted.

Table 1.23 shows the main emissions to air from some waste treatment operations.

Table 1.23: Main air pollutants emitted by waste treatments and their main sources
Main emissions to air Waste treatment operation
Storage and handling of solids
Dust Mechanical treatment and physico-chemical
treatment of solid waste
Biological treatment, including mechanical
Ammonia (NH3)
biological treatment
Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) Biological treatment
Hydrogen chloride (HCl) Treatment of water-based liquid waste
Storage and handling of organic substances
Treatment of WEEE containing VFCs and/or
VHCs
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) Treatment of waste with calorific value
Mechanical biological treatment
Treatment of waste oil
Treatment of waste solvent
NB: Refer to Chapters 3 to 5 for specific emissions from different waste treatment operations.

Emissions to water
Most waste installations declare an emission of total nitrogen, total organic carbon, total
phosphorus and total suspended solids.

Table 1.24 gives a summary of the main emissions to water from waste treatment operations.

Waste Treatment 29
Chapter 1

Table 1.24: Main water pollutants (parameters) emitted by waste treatments and their main
sources
Main emissions to water Waste treatment operations
Biodegradable organic compounds
All waste treatment
(e.g. COD, TOC, BOD)
Total suspended solids All waste treatment
Mechanical treatment of metal waste
treatment of waste oil
Hydrocarbons, phenols Physico-chemical treatment of waste with calorific value
Water washing of excavated contaminated soil
Treatment of water-based liquid waste
Biological treatment
Total nitrogen Treatment of waste oil
Treatment of water-based liquid waste
Biological treatment
Total phosphorus Treatment of waste oil
Treatment of water-based liquid waste
Mechanical treatment of metal waste
Treatment of WEEE containing VFCs and/or VHCs
Mechanical biological treatment
Metals and metalloids
Physico-chemical treatment of waste oil, of waste with
calorific value, of solid and/or pasty waste
Treatment of water-based liquid waste
NB: Refer to Chapters 3 to 5 for specific emissions from different waste treatment operations.

Outputs
Generally, the output from WT installations is a treated waste. However, those outputs can be
differentiated in two types. One type refers to the treated waste (typically representing the main
part of the output) that in some cases can be reused elsewhere. The other type is represented by
the waste generated by the treatment process itself. The appearance of the latter one does not
only just depend on the type of waste treated, but also on the type of treatment given to the
waste. Indeed, this second type of waste is more dependent on the treatment than on the actual
type of waste treated.

Soil and groundwater contamination

In the past, careless handling of wastes has been at the origin of land contamination, as has been
the case in almost all industrial sectors. As is the case in many other industries, waste treatment
is not currently an activity which leads to land contamination. According to the process and the
type of wastes used, prevention actions have been developed such as retention,
impermeabilisation, and groundwater monitoring, in order to prevent and control soil and
groundwater contamination.

30 Waste Treatment
 Chapter 2

2 PROCESSES AND TECHNIQUES COMMONLY USED FOR

WASTE TREATMENT
This chapter describes (in Section 2.1) those processes commonly found in the waste sector that
are generally applied and that are not specific to any individual type of waste treatment (WT).
This chapter also gives information about the data collection used to review this document as
well as an overview of the emissions encountered across the sector (Section 2.2). Finally,
Section 2.3 addresses the techniques to consider in the determination of BAT for the processes
commonly found in the waste treatment sector.

Many processes and techniques listed in this chapter are briefly described, with information
provided in the structure shown in Table 2.1. This same structure is used for each process and
technique, to help the reader to easily assess the information within this document.

Table 2.1: Information contained in the description of each technique/process included in

Chapter 2
Name of the type of information Type of information included
Purpose A brief explanation of what the process is used for
Principle of operation The type of process carried out and a brief explanation of it
The type of waste that can be treated by the treatment, as well as
Feed and output streams
details of any products of the operation
A brief description of the process. Where appropriate, figures and
Process description
diagrams will be used.
Reference to the number of plants using the technique in Europe
Users and worldwide. Also, details of which WT sector(s) use(s) this
type of technique.
Source: [ 18, WT TWG 2004 ]

Waste Treatment 31
Chapter 2

2.1 Applied processes and techniques

[ 5, Militon et al. 1998 ], [ 32, Inertec; dechets, F. and Sita 2002 ], [ 8, LaGrega et al. 1994 ],
[ 10, Babtie Group Ltd 2002 ], [ 11, WT TWG 2003 ], [ 12, UNEP 2000 ], [ 33, Irish EPA 2003
], [ 34, Watco 2002 ], [ 13, Schmidt et al. 2002 ], [ 14, Eucopro 2003 ], [ 17, Pretz et al. 2003 ],
[ 18, WT TWG 2004 ], [ 35, VROM 2004 ], [ 36, UBA Germany 2004 ]

This section discusses the process steps commonly used in the WT sector and included within
the scope of this document. Some process steps are also addressed in Section 2.3 'Techniques to
consider in the determination of general BAT for the WT sector' as these steps are not only of
importance for the good performance of the waste process itself but also for the environmental
impact of the process. In order to avoid repetition, such process steps are only described very
briefly in this section and extensive descriptions can be found in Section 2.3. Cross references
are made when relevant.

2.1.1 Pre-acceptance and acceptance of waste

For most WT plants, the following order is relevant: a) pre-acceptance, b) acceptance, c)

storage, d) treatment, and e) storage of residues and emissions. Each of these steps requires
knowledge and control of the waste as well as specific acceptance and processing management.
Knowledge of wastes, before they are accepted, stored or treated, is a key factor for the
management of a WT plant.

2.1.1.1 Pre-acceptance

Purpose
To ensure the type of waste to be treated is within the capacities of the plant and within the
requirements of the site permit.

Principle of operation
Early communication between the waste producer and the WT plant ahead of agreement
between both parties about the waste treatment. Pre-acceptance also includes the
characterisation of waste to achieve sufficient knowledge of its composition.

Feed and output streams

Not applicable.

Process description
See Sections 2.3.2.1 to 2.3.2.4.

Users
All WT plants.

2.1.1.2 Acceptance

Purpose
To decide whether to accept or reject the waste upon its arrival at the WT plant.

Principle of operation
Acceptance procedures aim to confirm the characteristics of the waste, as identified in the pre-
acceptance stage.

Feed and output streams

Not applicable.

32 Waste Treatment
 Chapter 2

Process description
See Sections 2.3.2.1 to 2.3.2.4.

Users
All WT plants.

2.1.2 Storage

Purpose
The objective of storage is to store the waste safely before its use as feed for the waste
treatment or to store it safely after treatment, as material for reuse, recycling, energy recovery or
disposal.

Principle of operation
 To provide adequate accumulation time. For example, when there is to be a time interval
between treatment and dispatch of waste, or for the purpose of controls and inspections,
or to accumulate enough waste to use the full capacity of the treatment, etc.
 To uncouple the treatment and dispatch of waste.
 To allow effective use of classifying procedures during storage/accumulation periods.
 To facilitate continuous treatment processes. Continuous treatment processes are not
capable of reacting to sudden and significant changes in the composition and reactions of
waste while guaranteeing a specific treatment result. For this reason, homogenisation of
the various properties and level of treatability of the waste must be achieved and ensured
by intermediate storage/accumulation of the waste to be treated.
 To facilitate mixing, blending, and repackaging of the waste as deemed necessary.
 To allow the staggered input of various wastes with reagents into the subsequent unit
treatment processes.
 To collect a reasonable amount of waste prior to sending it for certain treatments.

Feed and output streams

Not applicable.

Process description
From small packages to large-scale storage (regrouping)
Wastes can be sorted into different categories depending on the bulk shipment of compatible
materials to specific disposal or treatment sites. For example, small containers may be packed
into 205-litre drums with vermiculite as a packing filler for easier handling and transfer. Larger
containers may simply be sorted into different waste categories and stored on pallets prior to
onward shipment.

Certain wastes are decanted and bulked into larger containers, for example:

 laboratory containers or small commercial containers into 205-litre drums or intermediate

bulk containers (IBCs);
 drummed waste may be transferred into IBCs;
 the liquid fraction of drummed waste is decanted into IBCs;
 the aqueous fraction of two-phase wastes is decanted.

Decanting the waste reduces the tonnage of packaging materials associated with the onward
transfer; and it produces a consistent set of larger units that can be stored more easily at the site
and that are packaged and labelled ready for onward transit. This will be important for the
onward receiving site, which may need a controlled and checked stream of material for their
process.

Waste Treatment 33
Chapter 2

One role of waste solvent facilities is to gather and recondition small volumes (drums, etc.) to
prepare them as fuels or to regenerate a solvent for reuse. The goal of a liquid fuel preparation
facility is to prepare a tailor-made, stable and homogeneous waste, which fits the requirements
of its final uses (recycling, incineration or co-incineration).

Transfer of materials
The next stage destination for waste may be for reclamation, treatment or disposal, and it may
be processed at an adjacent site within the same complex, or it may be put on vehicles for
onward transfer.

The choice of transportation for the material depends on the physical form of the material to be
transported. In other words, the transport of gases, liquids and solids involves different
techniques. Solids are transported by conveyor belts, forklift trucks, trucks, pneumatic
conveyors, load shovels, cranes, walking floors, etc. Liquids and semi-liquids are transported by
pumps, pipes, conveyor belts, screws, elevators, etc., and gases by compressors and pipes.

The handling of small quantities up to approximately 1 m3 is particularly significant. Systems

have been developed in some countries to separate the collection and transport of waste (e.g. the
AS container system in Germany).

Reclamation of containers
Wherever possible, incoming containers (drums and IBCs) are reused. Where this is not
possible, they are cleaned, shredded or crushed prior to material recovery. As a last resort,
cleaned containers can be sent for disposal.

Types of storage and facilities

Liquids may be stored in tanks and/or containers (e.g. glass containers, drums, big containers),
storage cells, storage buildings and outside storage (e.g. waste waters). Solids can be stored in
heaps, sacks and bulk bags, silos and bunkers, and packed. Solid waste can be stored in closed
areas, for example a closed building (e.g. with an appropriate filtering system and exhaust gas
treatment to minimise odour and air emissions), and handled with a crane, travelling crane or
conveyor belt or silos (e.g. cylindrical or parallel piped silos with a screw or a walking floor to
extract the solid waste).

Some sites can store blended or raw waste material pending transfer for use in another process.

Tanks are also used to store wastes. This may be part of a medium-scale bulking operation to
ensure that partial tanker loads are bulked to give a full load for onward transfer to the next
process; or a large-scale tank farm operation. Tanks are typically situated outdoors, on
impermeable surfaces and bunded. The type of storage applied will depend on the need for
homogenisation in the storage unit.

Often storage in containers also involves classification processes, the containers used also being
fitted with skimming apparatus to remove floating material and suction apparatus to remove
sediment. If classification procedures are not used, the waste may instead undergo continuous
agitation to maintain its homogeneity.

Storage capacity
Storage capacities are designed to typically ensure a continuous service. Other issues that are
considered are the retreatment of the output if its quality does not meet the required
specifications and the dispatch frequency.

See Section 2.3.13.2 for more details on waste storage.

Users
All WT plants.

34 Waste Treatment
 Chapter 2

2.1.3 Handling

Purpose and principle of operation

To handle and empty incoming waste packages.

Principle of operation
The handling of material requires correct packaging and load safety. Small quantities are packed
in packaging units that are easy to handle, e.g. bottles or boxes, and large quantities in
containers of 100 30 000 litres for example. Prior to treatment, the units/containers are emptied.
For this purpose, appropriate devices are necessary, e.g.:

 tools for opening;

 holding and clamping devices;
 lifting and rotating devices.

The emptying process requires:

 experienced staff;
 knowledge of material/wastes;
 safety equipment/devices;
 measures/facilities for emission control;
 suitable and easily manageable storage tanks;
 the pre-defined destination of the emptied units/containers.

Likewise, the upper bodies of the transport vehicles are emptied; this is usually done by means
of pumps or in a free flow along a gradient. Experience shows that residues always remain
inside the units/containers or in the upper bodies of the vehicles. Emptying is often hampered by
sedimentation of solid, adhesive and hardening components in the waste. This may make it
necessary, e.g. when emptying the upper bodies of the tank and suction vehicles, to remove the
hardened components with tools or manually. Emptying may be easier if the solid material is
transported in a lower container (folding plates, slides, etc.).

After emptying, the units/containers/upper bodies are cleaned independently of their further
utilisation. Exceptions to this rule can be made if:

 the units/containers are disposed of as waste and the adhesive residues of the transported
waste do not make a difference;
 the subsequent utilisation is identical to the previous one.

The residues resulting from emptying, as well as the washing residues, are treated in the same
way as the waste unless this is not possible due to its physical state. For example, sludge from
the disposal of petrol or oil separators can be processed and recovered partly by simple washing
procedures while the water phase has to be subjected to physico-chemical treatment. Washing is
usually done with water. The effect can be enhanced by pressure (up to 100 bar), temperature
(up to 80 ºC) and/or addition of solvents and/or surfactants.

Feed and output streams

Not applicable.

Process description
Some examples of process steps are given below.

Waste Treatment 35
Chapter 2

Unloading of fluid wastes

Fluid wastes are accepted and sedimentation is carried out. The fluid wastes are delivered either
in containers, tank vehicles or suction pressure vehicles. When they are delivered in containers,
they are picked up from the conveyer belt by a handling device, transported to the preselected
receiving basin and there semi-automatically emptied. The contained coarse solids are removed
and collected in containers. The fluid phase follows the downward slope and flows into the
sedimentation basin. The sedimentation basins are selected by a control system.

When they are delivered in tank or suction pressure vehicles, they drive into the emptying area
and their tanks are connected to the sieve filter via a tube. The fluid wastes flow from the tanks
through the tube to the sieve filter, where coarse impurities (e.g. gloves and cloths) are removed.
Metal elements are removed via a magnet separator. Afterwards, they are transferred via a pipe
system into a basin preselected by a control system.

Automatic unloading of drums

An automatic unloading station is used to unload waste from drums without human
intervention, avoiding accidents, e.g. when handling hazardous waste. It also reduces the time
that the conditioned waste remains on site, and optimises the process of cleaning the containers.

The unloading station includes the following (from upstream to downstream):

 A drum supply station driven by pneumatic motorisation. The drums, transported by

means of a forklift, are placed onto a set of conveyors with motorised rollers, ensuring
that the containers are then directed to the grip station.
 A grip station for the drums equipped by a hydraulic clamp. A hydraulic clamp equipped
with three lugs distributed along the circumference of the drums permits the latter to be
directed to the different terminals of the station.
 A station for the cutting, scraping, washing and ejection of the drum bottom. The disposal
of the pasty waste is assured by two parallel vertical H-bars, one of the sharp flanges of
which rubs against the inside casing of the drum, causing friction. The shape of the upper
part of the bars is adapted to the penetration of thick matter. The washing of the drums, in
line with the high pressure/low flow rate principle, permitting a reduced consumption of
water, is assured by nozzles placed inside metal sheaths.
 A station for the high-pressure cleaning and scraping of the shell of the drum. After
cleaning, the drums are pressed by two rams in the direction of their largest dimension.
Appropriate casings are provided so as to retain the spatters and strappings of the drums.
The pressed drums are then directed to a collection container by a roller conveyor.
 A station for the pressing and removal of the cleaned drums.
 A control cabin.
 VOC emissions prevention. The volatile organic compounds emitted by the cutting,
disposal and washing stations are collected by hoods connected to a ventilation device
and are treated in an incineration unit.

Baling
Baling is applied in some plants due to the disaggregated nature of some types of waste: it is
sometimes necessary to compact it to make it easier to use in the following process. Pressure
machinery is used to pack the waste into a certain physical form.

Baling is also used for municipal solid waste to be used as a fuel and for plastic, paper and
metal bales. The size and form of the bale are typically optimised for its transport and reuse.
See Section 2.3.13.3 for further details on waste handling.

Users
All WT plants.

36 Waste Treatment
 Chapter 2

Reference literature
[ 37, Syke 2003 ], [ 14, Eucopro 2003 ], [ 18, WT TWG 2004 ]

2.1.4 Blending and mixing

Wastes, once produced, are in principle kept separate from other wastes. The reason for this is
that the treatment of homogeneous streams is generally easier than that of composite streams.
Under certain conditions, however, different waste streams can be processed just as well, or
sometimes even better, if they are composite. This section explores the different principles that
may be applied regarding whether or not mixing/blending may be allowed and under what
conditions this can be carried out. However, it is not the aim of this document to further
elaborate on existing provisions for blending and mixing of wastes, such as those contained in
Directive 2008/98/EC on Waste and Directive 1999/31/EC on the Landfill of Wastes.

Purpose
Due to the heterogeneous nature of waste, blending and mixing are required in most waste
treatment operations in order to guarantee a homogeneous and stable feedstock of the wastes
that will be finally processed.

The term ‘blending’ is used more for mixing liquids than for solids, unless mixing a solid into a
liquid. The term ‘mixing’ is used more for solids and semi-solid materials (e.g. pasty material).

Principle of operation
Certain types of wastes will require prior mixing or blending before treatment. For example, the
concentration of waste constituents can vary considerably because of differences in incoming
waste. This is particularly true at most commercial treatment facilities. Mixing can control such
variations to a range that will not reduce the performance of the subsequent treatment processes.
However, this issue should not be confused with dilution, i.e. blending and mixing are processes
carried out because it is a technical requirement from the WT facility to guarantee a
homogeneous and stable feedstock and not techniques to facilitate acceptance of waste. For
instance, for biological treatments, blending or mixing of two or more waste types is used to
achieve an optimum carbon to nitrogen ratio (C:N). It is also used to reduce odour impact
during processing and storage.

The basic principles governing the mixing/blending of wastes are the following:

 The mixing of substances that react strongly with each other (causing heat, fire, gas
formation) or explosive substances is prevented. Mixing does not lead to increased risks to
human health or the environment, either during the mixing operation itself or during the
subsequent treatment process. This means that, before wastes are combined, it is assessed
whether this combination can take place safely. This can be achieved by carrying out
compatibility tests before mixing/blending for any purpose for any type of waste (see
Section 2.3.2.8).
 In the case of mixing, the traceability of hazardous wastes is guaranteed (see
Section 2.3.2.5).
 The mixing of wastes does not lead to a lower level of waste processing than the best
possible level of waste management or to the application of non-environmentally sound
waste management. This means, for example, that, if a recovery operation is the minimum
standard of processing, mixing wastes with other wastes in order to direct the mixture to any
disposal route is not accepted. For instance, the mixing of liquid wastes or clinical wastes
with other wastes for the purpose of landfilling is not permitted. Mixing of wastes with a
POP content above the low POP content (as defined under the Basel and Stockholm
Treaties) with another material solely for the purpose of generating a mixture with a POP
content below the defined low POP content is not allowed because this is not
environmentally sound.

Waste Treatment 37
Chapter 2

 The mixing of wastes does not lead to the detrimental diffuse dispersal of environmentally
hazardous substances. The effects of diffuse dispersal are determined by the types and
concentrations of environmentally hazardous substances in combination with the processing
route chosen, the emissions occurring and the quality and purpose of the residual substances
released. In summary, it is necessary to assess what the negative consequences are of
processing the environmentally hazardous substances concerned with regard to emissions
into the soil, water, air or in residual substances and how these negative consequences
compare with the environmental effects of another processing route. This assessment also
takes into consideration the cyclical character of future reuse.

Feed and output streams

Applicable to solid and liquid waste. Outputs can also be in a solid or liquid phase.

Process description
Technical equipment to mix or blend waste depends mainly on the degree of aggregation of the
substances to be mixed or blended, the desired degree of homogeneity from mixing, the ability
of wastes and additives to be mixed and the anticipated reactions and reaction products resulting
from mixing or blending. Different types of mixers are used (propeller mixers, turbo mixers,
blade mixers, auger mixers, roller mixers, drum mixers, tumble mixers, rotary mixers and
gravity mixers, etc.). In principle, this technology can be divided into static and dynamic
mixers. Static mixers mix or blend substances through turbulence as a result of the flow of
wastes and additives, e.g. cascades. Dynamic mixers produce turbulence, e.g. through the
turning motion of a propeller or by rotating a container. Some devices used are given below:

Solid or paste-like wastes

 A kneader may be used in cases where the components to be mixed are available in a
highly viscous, plastic or paste-like form without any bulky materials. The mixture is
separated, stretched and combined again by kneading tools that move against one another.
 A forced aeration mixer is typically used for paste-like to lumpy wastes.
 Augers and/or plough-share mixers are typically used to mix granular, powdery or fibrous
wastes. They are also used to produce agglomerates.
 A free-fall mixer may also be used for dry, fine-grained to powdery wastes that do not
vary, especially in terms of particle size or density.

Liquid, pasty and pumpable wastes

 Agitators are primarily used to produce an optimal mixture of liquid or paste-like wastes.
In some instances, this technology also avoids separation.
 Tanks (with agitators if necessary) can homogenise liquid or paste-like wastes in
preparation for feeding into a plant. As means of storage, tanks also help combine many
small batches into larger transportation units.
 Pumps are also used for all methods of transporting liquid or paste-like wastes, for
instance to empty collection tanks in refuse trucks. Different types of liquid may also be
mixed in the process.

Some examples of mixing and blending rules applied to certain types of processes and wastes
are reported below.

38 Waste Treatment
 Chapter 2

Treatment of wastes contaminated with POPs

Mixing and blending of wastes for recovery could be allowed if the concentration of POPs does
not exceed the low POP contents defined in the Basel and Stockholm Treaties and in Regulation
(EC) No 850/2004 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 29 April 2004 on persistent
organic pollutants. However, mixing wastes for other treatment routes such as soil cleaning,
preparing animal feed, preparing fertilisers, etc. can be prohibited even if the low POP content is
not exceeded. Separation of POPs from other wastes is acceptable provided that the substance is
then treated without undue delay in such a way as to ensure that it is destroyed or irreversibly
transformed.

Heavy metals
When the basic principles of mixing and blending are taken into account, competent authorities
may set the maximum concentrations allowed in wastes for mixing for co-firing or co-
incineration. Emissions of the volatile heavy metals like mercury, cadmium, thallium, lead,
arsenic and antimony into the air will occur when wastes containing such components are used
in cement kilns and power stations. Competent authorities can ensure that emissions are below
the maximum concentration levels by prescribing a lower level in the permit for mixing and
blending, if the acceptance criteria of the receiving plant makes this necessary. In this respect, it
is relevant to note that a distinction has to be made in concentrations allowed for mixing and in
concentrations to determine the allowable air emission limits.

Users
These operations take place in all waste treatment activities (biological treatment, fuel
preparation, treatment of contaminated soils, re-refining of waste oils, etc.), and sometimes are
specific to each WT activity.

Reference literature
[ 38, UBA Germany 2012 ], [ 39, WFD 98/EC 2008 ], [ 40, Directive 1999/31/EC 1999 ]

2.1.5 Treatment of laboratory smalls

Purpose
Identifying different types of wastes for their correct treatment.

Principle of operation
Laboratory smalls essentially consist of substances in containers of, for example, less than five
litres capacity. They generally contain pure chemical elements and compounds from
laboratories or arise when laboratory stores are cleared. The majority of operators offer a
packing and collection service for laboratory smalls.

Laboratory smalls are usually sorted and bulked into drums (e.g. 205 litres or other sizes
depending on the further treatment) either in designated enclosed buildings with positive
ventilation and flameproof lighting or within open-sided roofed areas.

The substances that are to be treated are manually sorted and repackaged, crushed if necessary,
conditioned and transferred to internal and/or external disposal plants.

Process description
The process is divided into three separate parts:
 Sorting of chemicals. This is carried out with a sorting cabin and an aspiration device for
the separation of laboratory chemicals for different processing paths (e.g. recycling,
disposal (incineration) and deposit in underground disposal).
 Packing for emptying fluid containers with a volume of, for example, 0.1-5 litres. The
small volumes are combined for the purpose of creating large batches (solvents or acids).
These are disposed of in downstream high-temperature incineration or recovered in the

Waste Treatment 39
Chapter 2

in-house physico-chemical treatment plant. A downstream facility washes the emptied

containers for reuse or material recovery.
 Treatment of plant protection products, reactive and odour-intensive substances in a
special cabin.

Users
Treatment of hazardous wastes from private households, universities, laboratories and
companies.

2.1.6 Cleaning and washing

Purpose and principle of operation

Washing and cleaning of vehicles and receptacles/containers.

Feed and output streams

Not applicable.

Process description
After delivery and emptying, the vehicles/constructions and receptacles/containers are cleaned
on site (e.g. under agreement with the transport company) or off site except where the
receptacles/containers are disposed of, the adherent residue is not harmful, or the constructions,
receptacles or containers are used again to transport similar waste.

Because of the many different kinds of drums/containers/constructions, the cleaning is

performed manually using spraying devices, high-pressure rinsing devices, or brushing and
brooming techniques. Cleaning can be performed inside or outside, in order to guarantee the
reuse of the drums/containers/constructions. Cleaning inside is important to prevent substances
being carried over. This may be crucial, for example, when the limit of adsorbable organically
bound halogens (AOX) in the waste water is 1 mg/l; this concentration can be affected by
leftover containing AOX in the receptacles. Regular cleaning is also important to reduce
impacts from odour, dust, etc. Typically, a separate treatment of cleaning waters is carried out in
order to ensure that the sewer is not contaminated by such waters.

A facility for cleaning the containers can be an automatic installation which cleans their exterior
and interior. The cleaning process is computer-controlled by means of contact-free sensors. The
working movements of the handling devices are carried out hydraulically. The cleaning devices
are supplied with water by high-pressure pumps. The washing water is run in a closed loop over
the existing water treatment system and other agents such as surfactants may be added to aid the
cleaning process. It is important to consider the reactivity of the waste contents with the
washing agents before cleaning any container. Table 2.2 gives an overview of the cleaning and
washing steps.

40 Waste Treatment
 Chapter 2

Table 2.2: Cleaning and washing steps

Technique Purpose Users
Remove contamination that would
PCB capacitors and
Cleaning otherwise prohibit waste materials being
transformers
recovered
Washing may enable the drums to be reused Most treatment plants
in the installation or to be sold for reuse. incorporate a road tanker
Drum washing operations often include no washing-out facility to enable
real treatment other than washing and the removal of residues from
Washing settlement. vehicle tanker barrels.
A number of plants wash the oil filters and May also be applied to storage
provide a semi-cleaned metal fraction for tanks and drums.
recycling. Physico-chemical treatment
plants.
Solid components within the fluid wastes
Sedimentation are separated and the wastes are pretreated Preparation of liquid waste fuel
for further processing
Source: [ 11, WT TWG 2003 ], [ 14, Eucopro 2003 ], [ 18, WT TWG 2004 ], [ 35, VROM 2004 ],
[ 36, UBA Germany 2004 ]

Users
All WT plants.

2.1.7 Reduction of solid waste size

Purpose
Adapt the solid waste granulometry for further treatments or to extract wastes which are
difficult to pump or decant, and to reduce the particle size and make it homogeneous.

Principle of operation
Techniques used in the installations are shredding, sieving, fractionating, conditioning and
confectioning. Slow-motion shredders, hammers and dedicated shredders are used (see
Section 3.1.1).

Feed and output streams

Feed may consist of plastic or metal drums, oil filters, municipal solid waste, solid bulk waste,
waste wood, aerosols and glass. Output may be used for energy recovery.

Process description
Some examples are described below:

Shredding
The treatment facility consists of a shredder for the comminution of empty, half-empty and full
bins with sizes ranging from 1 litre to 1000 litres. The feed system works with an electronic
wheel loader. The shredder itself is placed in a pressure-surge-proof channel which is 12 metres
high with an offloading area on top. The bins are transported by the electric wheel loader
through the open door to the shredder. Afterwards, the door closes and the shredding process
starts automatically. In the next step the shredded material falls into a tank, which, after
complete filling, is transported from the channel to further processing steps. When relevant, the
released exhaust gases are collected and sent to an abatement system. Other protection devices
are a double-layered vacuum-controlled polyethylene high-density foil on the bottom and
automatic nitrogen and water flooding in the closed channel.

Cryogenic grinding
Cryogenic grinding is a treatment involving the size reduction and sieving of deep-cooled full
and empty packaging under an inert atmosphere. The aim is to separate the used packaging of

Waste Treatment 41
Chapter 2

paint, ink, and similar substances into fractions, e.g. to be used as fuel and as secondary metals
and plastic, but reducing the emissions of volatile compounds due to the low temperatures used.
The first operation is the separation of the liquid and the solid fractions. The solid fraction is
further processed by grinding, sieving and metal separation at temperatures of -100 °C to -
196 °C (typically with liquid nitrogen). At these temperatures, the materials become brittle and
an easy separation, using classical tools, is possible.

In the cryogenic treatment of used packaging of paint and similar materials, the following steps
are included:

 Comminution in a shredder and addition of nitrogen for inertisation of the atmosphere.

The liquid fraction (e.g. paint sludge) is separated by sieving.
 Cryogenic (deep cooling) treatment with liquid nitrogen (-196 ºC). Through this
treatment, the material hardens and, due to the different coefficients of components'
expansion, the binding reduces.
 Separation of the packaging (e.g. metal and plastic) and the content (e.g. paint sludge) by
means of a hammer mill and a vibrating sieve.
 Collection of the metal fraction by ferromagnetic separation for reuse.
 Addition of sawdust to the sludge as an adsorbent to make it solid. The plastic fraction
and the sludge are sent for recycling as a fuel.

Due to the inert atmosphere used during the grinding process, the risk of explosions is
minimised. The sludge fraction is prepared for use as fuel. In comparison with the direct
incineration of such wastes, the recovery of energy is higher because metals are eliminated
before incineration. The separation of other materials, e.g. metals and plastic, enables its use.

Electricity is required for the cryogenic process and for the production of nitrogen. Emissions to
air, e.g. VOCs, may be generated. To reduce the VOC emissions to air, the off-gases are
collected and cleaned by means of an activated carbon filter. The residual VOC emissions are
estimated to be 0.06 kg/t of used packaging waste.
The end product of the operation is organic waste as a powder, metals, non-ferrous metals and
plastics. The electricity consumption of the cryogenic process is approximately 31 kWh/t of
used packaging waste. The amount of nitrogen consumed is approximately 0.67 t/t of used
packaging waste. As an adsorbent for the sludge, sawdust is used. The amount consumed is
170 kg/t of waste. The sawdust used is a waste material, which means a saving of primary
materials.

Glass crushing
Windscreen glass is laminated with polyvinyl butyrate, and this is removed in a preliminary
crushing process and sent to landfill. The glass crushing operation handles municipal and
industrial glass. Sites typically do not take coated glass from electronic equipment.

Users
Size reduction is applied by a wide range of waste treatment plants.

Reference literature
[ 14, Eucopro 2003 ], [ 18, WT TWG 2004 ], [ 35, VROM 2004 ]

2.1.8 Other than normal operating conditions

When applying the processes described above in this chapter or described later in Chapters 3 to
5, the waste treatment plants may experience other than normal operating conditions (OTNOC).
These OTNOC are very diverse throughout the waste sector and may cover conditions such as:
 start-up;

42 Waste Treatment
 Chapter 2

 shutdown;
 momentary stoppages (which, for example, may cause flaring at plants performing
anaerobic treatment of bio-waste or oil re-refining);
 leaks (such as leachate in biological treatments, fugitive emissions of methane at plants
performing anaerobic treatment of bio-waste, damage of retention bund, tank overfilling,
etc.);
 deflagrations in the case of mechanical treatment due to prohibited flammable or
explosive materials inadvertently entering the process (see Section 3.1.2.1.1);
 malfunction or breakdown of the abatement equipment or part of the equipment (for
instance, fabric filter of a dust-containing silo not functioning);
 malfunction of instruments related to the process control or used for emission monitoring
(such as instrumentation drift);
 testing of new apparatus;
 calibration of the monitoring system;
 testing of new waste or a new waste treatment process.
When relevant, more waste-process-specific details are given in Chapters 3 to 5.

Reference literature
[ 41, WT TWG 2014 ]

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2.2 Current emission and consumption levels

2.2.1 General information on the data collection

This section summarises the installation-specific data gathered during the data collection carried
out over the course of the BREF review process [ 42, WT TWG 2014 ].

Overall, 338 plants across Europe submitted filled-in questionnaires to the EIPPCB.
Subsequently, the EIPPCB sent numerous requests for clarification and additional information
to the TWG which resulted in many corrections. Some 9 questionnaires were discarded because
the waste treatment was outside the scope of this BREF or the questionnaire contained too little
data.

Table 2.3 below gives an overview of the plants which took part in the data collection.

Table 2.3: Overview of the plants which participated in the data collection
Number of
Location Share
plants
AT 26 7.9 %
BE 14 4.0 %
CZ 2 0.6 %
DE 75 22.8 %
DK 11 3.0 %
EL 1 0.3 %
ES 26 7.9 %
FI 8 2.4 %
FR 45 14.9 %
IE 3 0.9 %
IT 26 7.6 %
NL 21 6.4 %
NO 4 1.2 %
PL 5 1.5 %
PT 5 1.5 %
RO 2 0.6 %
SE 8 2.4 %
UK 47 14.0 %
All 329 100.0 %

These 329 plants are referred to hereafter in this document as 'reference plants' or as belonging
to the 'reference list' (see Annex 9.1).

In order to facilitate the data collection and the subsequent data analysis, the activities of the
waste treatment plants were categorised in predefined combinations of waste process and waste
stream:

 mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste;

 mechanical treatment of waste with calorific value;
 mechanical treatment of WEEE containing refrigerants;

44 Waste Treatment
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 aerobic treatment of source-separated bio-waste;

 anaerobic treatment of bio-waste;
 mechanical biological treatment (MBT) of mixed solid waste containing bio-waste;
 treatment of water-based liquid waste;
 blending/mixing;
 immobilisation of solid and/or pasty waste;
 physico-chemical treatment of waste with calorific value;
 re-refining and other preparations for reuse of waste oils;
 treatment of excavated contaminated soil;
 regeneration of spent solvents;
 regeneration/recovery of pollution abatement components / FGT residues;
 treatment of waste containing mercury;
 regeneration of acids and bases;
 treatment of waste containing POPs;
 recovery of components from catalysts;
 temporary storage of hazardous waste;
 repackaging of hazardous waste;
 other combinations of treatment/waste.

As some of the plants have more than one combination of waste process/waste stream, the 329
questionnaires represent a total of 475 combinations.

In addition, each plant may have more than one emission point to air and/or more than one
emission point to water, each emission point corresponding to one or several activities (i.e.
waste process/waste stream combination) of the installation. The 329 questionnaires represent a
total of 483 emission points (these emissions points are named in the rest of the document as
follows: Plantnumber-1, Plantnumber-2, etc.).

After verification and correction of the questionnaires, and in order to allow the data analysis,
each plant was classified according to its main waste treatment activity, this being understood as
the activity which is of most relevance for the emissions of the plant.

The distribution of plants based on this classification is shown in Figure 2.1.

Of the emission points, 19 % are related to mechanical treatment of waste, 36 % to biological

treatment of waste and 40 % to physico-chemical treatment of waste, with the remaining 5 %
concerning common treatment processes such as temporary storage, repackaging, and
blending/mixing as well as a few plants carrying out other types of activities.

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Figure 2.1: Distribution of plants which participated in the data collection

2.2.2 General information on the emission levels

Information on emission and consumption levels is given in Chapters 3 to 5 for each

combination of waste stream/waste treatment. This section does not aim at repeating this
information but at giving a transversal overview across the waste treatment sector of the main
pollutants released to the atmosphere, in order to understand the relative significance of the
various sectors for a given pollutant. More details such as the monitoring regime and the
monitoring standards used can be found in Section 2.3.3 and in Chapters 3 to 5.

As for emissions to water, and in order to avoid repetition in this document, the reader may refer
to Section 5.7 which covers the most significant emissions to water in the waste treatment
sector.

In the document, the concentration values for emissions to air and for emissions to water
provided via the data collection [ 42, WT TWG 2014 ] are reported as follows:

 In tables:
o periodic monitoring: range of the average over the three reference years of the
provided values;
o continuous monitoring and 24-hour flow-proportional composite sample (in
water): range of the highest provided average values.

 In figures:
o periodic monitoring: the plots represent the average over the three reference
years of the provided values, the error bars represent the minimum and the
maximum of the values provided over the three reference years;

46 Waste Treatment
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o continuous monitoring and 24-hour flow-proportional composite sample (in

water): the plots represent the maximum average values provided over the three
reference years, the error bars represent the minimum and the maximum of the
values provided over the three reference years.

2.2.2.1 Dust emissions to air

Figure 2.2, Figure 2.3 and Figure 2.4 give an overview of the channelled dust emissions to air
from all 182 waste treatment plants on the plant reference list that measure dust. Figure 2.5
shows the dust emissions to air from all mechanical treatments of waste (mechanical treatment
in shredders of metal waste, mechanical treatment of waste with calorific value, treatment of
WEEE containing VFCs and/or VHCs, and mechanical treatment of WEEE containing
mercury).

The plants from the reference list with the highest dust concentrations in channelled emissions
to air carry out as their main waste treatment process: mechanical treatment in shredders of
metal waste (Section 3.1), MBT (mechanical biological treatment, see Section 4.4), physico-
chemical treatment of solid and/or pasty waste (Section 5.1) and anaerobic treatment of bio-
waste (Section 4.3).

NB: The plant codes are not indicated for legibility reasons.

Figure 2.2: Dust emissions to air from all waste treatment plants (periodic measurements)

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Figure 2.3: Dust emissions to air from all waste treatment plants (continuous measurements –
long-term average)

Figure 2.4: Dust emissions to air from all waste treatment plants (continuous measurements –
short-term average)

48 Waste Treatment
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Figure 2.5: Dust emissions to air from all mechanical treatments of waste

Waste Treatment 49
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2.2.2.2 Organic compound emissions to air

As for emissions of organic compounds to air, three parameters are reported by the plants from
the reference list: TVOC, TOC and NMVOC. The measurement standard used, when reported,
is in most cases EN 12619 (or in some cases EN 13256 which was superseded by EN 12619 in
2013) and the reported monitoring method is mainly FID, for which filtration of the sample is
necessary. With this standard and this method, total gaseous organic carbon is determined. For
each parameter, measurements are carried out periodically or continuously, with long-term or
short-term averaging. These various measurements are shown in Figure 2.6 to Figure 2.15.

In a few cases, very high concentration values correspond to plants performing regeneration of
waste solvents (Section 5.4) where the emissions flow rate is very low. In those cases, the
concentration of organic compounds in the emissions is not the proper parameter to reflect the
amount of organic compounds released to the atmosphere. As a summary, the plants from the
reference list with the highest concentrations of organic compounds in emissions to air are
plants which perform:

 regeneration of waste solvents, as already mentioned above, re-refining of waste oil, and
physico-chemical treatment of waste with calorific value (Section 5.3); Figure 2.16 below
shows an overview of emissions of organic compounds to air arising from these
processes;
 mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste (Section 3.1); and
 treatment of water-based liquid waste (Section 5.7).

Figure 2.6: TVOC emissions to air from all waste treatment plants (periodic measurements)

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Figure 2.7: Detail of TVOC emissions to air from all WT plants (periodic measurements)

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Figure 2.8: TVOC emissions to air from all waste treatment plants (continuous measurements –
long-term average)

Figure 2.9: TVOC emissions to air from all WT plants (continuous measurements – short-term
average)

52 Waste Treatment
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Figure 2.10: TOC emissions to air from all WT plants (periodic measurements)

Figure 2.11: TOC emissions to air from all WT plants (continuous measurements – short-term
average)

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Figure 2.12: NMVOC emissions to air from all WT plants (periodic measurements)

Figure 2.13: Detail of NMVOC emissions to air from all WT plants (periodic measurements)

54 Waste Treatment
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Figure 2.14: NMVOC emissions to air from all WT plants (continuous measurements – long-term
average)

Figure 2.15: NMVOC emissions to air from all WT plants (continuous measurements – short-term
average)

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Chapter 2

NB: Figure continues on the next page

56 Waste Treatment
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Figure 2.16: Emission of organic compounds to air from re-refining of waste oils, physico-chemical treatment of waste with calorific value and regeneration of spent
solvents

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2.2.2.3 Ammonia emissions to air

Figure 2.17 and Figure 2.18 give an overview of the ammonia (NH3) emissions to air from all
74 waste treatment plants on the plant reference list that measure NH3. Plants measuring NH3
are mainly those carrying out biological treatments (Section 4), treatment of water-based liquid
waste (Section 5.6) and, to a lesser extent, physico-chemical treatment of solid and/or pasty
waste (Section 5.1). Figure 2.20 shows the NH3 emissions to air from the biological treatment of
waste only.

Figure 2.17: NH3 emissions to air from all WT plants (periodic measurements)

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Figure 2.18: Detail of NH3 emissions to air from all WT plants (periodic measurements)

Figure 2.19: NH3 emissions to air from all WT plants (continuous measurements – long-term
average

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Figure 2.20: NH3 emissions to air from all plants performing biological treatments

60 Waste Treatment
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2.3 Techniques to consider in the determination of general

BAT for the WT sector
This chapter describes techniques (or combinations thereof), and associated monitoring,
considered to have the potential for achieving a high level of environmental protection in the
activities within the scope of this document. The techniques described will include both the
technology used and the way in which the installations are designed, built, maintained, operated
and decommissioned.

It covers environmental management systems, process-integrated techniques and end-of-pipe

measures. Waste prevention and management, including waste minimisation and recycling
procedures, are also considered, as well as techniques that reduce the consumption of raw
materials, water and energy by optimising use and reuse. The techniques described also cover
measures used to prevent or to limit the environmental consequences of accidents and incidents,
as well as site remediation measures. They also cover measures taken to prevent or reduce
emissions under other than normal operating conditions (such as start-up and shutdown
operations, leaks, malfunctions, momentary stoppages and the definitive cessation of
operations).

Annex III to the Directive lists a number of criteria for determining BAT, and the information
within this chapter will address these considerations. As far as possible, the standard structure in
Table 2.4 is used throughout this document to outline the information on each technique, to
enable a comparison of techniques and the assessment against the definition of BAT in the
Directive.

This chapter does not necessarily provide an exhaustive list of techniques which could be
applied in the sector. Other techniques may exist, or may be developed, which could be
considered in the determination of BAT for an individual installation.

Table 2.4: Information for each technique

Headings within the sections
Description
Technical description
Achieved environmental benefits
Environmental performance and operational data
Cross-media effects
Technical considerations relevant to applicability
Economics
Driving force for implementation
Example plants
Reference literature

The aim of this chapter is to present techniques which may be applicable to more than one type
of waste treatment, in order to avoid repetition in the chapters of this document dedicated to one
type of waste treatment (namely Chapters 3 to 5). This means that those chapters may refer to
techniques presented here when relevant, as well as introducing additional techniques which are
specific to the type of waste treatment concerned.

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2.3.1 Organisational techniques to improve environmental

performance

2.3.1.1 Environmental management system (EMS)

Description
A formal system to demonstrate compliance with environmental objectives.

Technical description
The Industrial Emission Directive defines ‘techniques’ (under the definition of 'best available
techniques') as ‘both the technology used and the way in which the installation is designed,
built, maintained, operated and decommissioned’.

In this respect, an environmental management system (EMS) is a technique allowing operators

of installations to address environmental issues in a systematic and demonstrable way. EMSs
are most effective and efficient where they form an inherent part of the overall management and
operation of an installation.

An EMS focuses the attention of the operator on the environmental performance of the
installation; in particular through the application of clear operating procedures for both normal
and other than normal operating conditions, and by setting out the associated lines of
responsibility.

All effective EMSs incorporate the concept of continuous improvement, meaning that
environmental management is an ongoing process, not a project which eventually comes to an
end. There are various process designs, but most EMSs are based on the plan-do-check-act cycle
(which is widely used in other company management contexts). The cycle is an iterative
dynamic model, where the completion of one cycle flows into the beginning of the next (see
Figure 2.21).

Figure 2.21: Continuous improvement in an EMS model

An EMS can take the form of a standardised or non-standardised ('customised') system.

Implementation and adherence to an internationally accepted standardised system, such as
EN ISO 14001, can give higher credibility to the EMS especially when subjected to a properly
performed external verification. EMAS provides additional credibility due to the interaction
with the public through the environmental statement and the mechanism to ensure compliance
with the applicable environmental legislation. However, non-standardised systems can, in
principle, be equally effective provided that they are properly designed and implemented.

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While both standardised systems (EN ISO 14001 or EMAS) and non-standardised systems
apply in principle to organisations, this document takes a narrower approach, not including all
activities of an organisation, e.g. with regard to their products and services, due to the fact that
the IED only regulates installations/plants.

An EMS can contain the following components:

I. commitment of the management, including senior management;

II. definition, by the management, of an environmental policy that includes the continuous
improvement of the environmental performance of the installation;
III. planning and establishing the necessary procedures, objectives and targets, in conjunction
with financial planning and investment;
IV. implementation of procedures, paying particular attention to:

a) structure and responsibility,

b) recruitment, training, awareness and competence (see Section 2.3.1.3),
c) communication,
d) employee involvement,
e) documentation,
f) effective process control,
g) maintenance programmes,
h) emergency preparedness and response,
i) safeguarding compliance with environmental legislation;

V. checking performance and taking corrective action paying particular attention to:

a) monitoring and measurement (see also the JRC Reference Report on

Monitoring of Emissions to Air and Water from IED installations (ROM))
([ 43, COM 2018 ]),
b) corrective and preventive action,
c) maintenance of records,
d) independent (where practicable) internal and external auditing in order to
determine whether or not the EMS conforms to planned arrangements and has
been properly implemented and maintained;

 review of the EMS and its continuing suitability, adequacy and effectiveness by senior
management;
 following the development of cleaner technologies;
 consideration of the environmental impacts from the eventual decommissioning of the
plant at the stage of designing a new plant, and throughout its operating life;
 application of sectoral benchmarking on a regular basis;
 waste stream management (see Sections 2.3.2.1 to 2.3.2.9);
 an inventory of waste water and waste gas streams (see Section 2.3.1.2);
 residues management plan (see Section 2.3.12);
 accident management plan (see Section 2.3.13.1);

VI. odour management plan (see Section 2.3.5.1);

VII. noise and vibration management plan (see Section 2.3.10.1).

Achieved environmental benefits

An EMS promotes and supports the continuous improvement of the environmental performance
of the installation. If the installation already has a good overall environmental performance, an
EMS helps the operator to maintain the high performance level.

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Environmental performance and operational data

No information provided.

Cross-media effects
None reported. The systematic analysis of the initial environmental impacts and scope for
improvements in the context of the EMS sets the basis for assessing the best solutions for all
environmental media.

Technical considerations relevant to applicability

The components described above can typically be applied to all installations within the scope of
this document. The scope (e.g. level of detail) and nature of the EMS (e.g. standardised or non-
standardised) will be related to the nature, scale and complexity of the installation, and the range
of environmental impacts it may have.

Economics
It is difficult to determine accurately the costs and economic benefits of introducing and
maintaining a good EMS. There are also economic benefits that are the result of using an EMS
and these vary widely from sector to sector.

External costs relating to verification of the system can be estimated from guidance issued by
the International Accreditation Forum [ 44, IAF 2010 ].

Driving force for implementation

The driving forces for the implementation of an EMS include:
 improved environmental performance;
 improved insight into the environmental aspects of the company which can be used to
fulfil the environmental requirements of customers, regulatory authorities, banks,
insurance companies or other stakeholders (e.g. people living or working in the vicinity of
the installation);
 improved basis for decision-making;
 improved motivation of personnel (e.g. managers can have confidence that environmental
impacts are controlled and employees can feel that they are working for an
environmentally responsible company);
 additional opportunities for operational cost reduction and product quality improvement
 improved company image;
 reduced liability, insurance and non-compliance costs.

Example plants
EMSs are applied in a number of installations throughout the EU.

Reference literature
[ 45, COM 2016 ], [ 46, COM 2009 ], [ 47, DG Environment 2010 ],

2.3.1.2 Stream inventory/register

Description
The compilation of relevant basic data on the composition and quantity of waste water and
waste gas streams – each one individually – is done in a stream inventory/register (waste water
inventory/register, waste gas inventory/register). The emitted streams are listed respective to
their source, i.e. the waste treatment process from which they originate. This is a key element in
assessing their degree of contamination and the nature of the contaminants, as well as the
possibilities of reduction at the source.

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Technical description
A stream inventory/register addresses the following aspects, if relevant to the particular local
conditions:

(i) information about the characteristics of the waste treatment processes, including:
(a) simplified process flowsheets that show the origin of the emissions;
(b) descriptions of process-integrated techniques and waste water/waste gas treatment at
source including their performances;

(ii) information about the characteristics of the waste water streams, such as:
(a) average values and variability of flow, pH, temperature, and conductivity;
(b) average concentration and load values of relevant substances/parameters and their
variability (e.g. COD/TOC, nitrogen species, phosphorus, metals, priority
substances/micropollutants);
(c) data on bioeliminability (e.g. BOD, BOD to COD ratio, Zahn-Wellens test,
biological inhibition potential (e.g. nitrification));

(iii) information about the characteristics of the waste gas streams, such as:
(a) average values and variability of flow and temperature;
(b) average concentration and load values of relevant substances/parameters and their
variability (e.g. organic compounds, POPs such as PCBs);
(c) flammability, lower and higher explosive limits, reactivity;
(d) presence of other substances that may affect the waste gas treatment system or plant
safety (e.g. oxygen, nitrogen, water vapour, dust).

Achieved environmental benefits

Achieved environmental benefits include the reduction of emissions to water and/or air.
Identification of relevant waste water/waste gas streams is a prerequisite for efficient waste
water/waste gas management and for the reduction of emissions by technical and management
measures.

Environmental performance and operational data

No information provided.

Cross-media effects
None.

Technical considerations related to applicability

The scope (e.g. level of detail) and nature of the inventory will generally be related to the
nature, scale and complexity of the installation, and the range of environmental impacts it may
have (determined also by the type and amount of wastes processed).

Economics
No information provided.

Driving force for implementation

Inventories/registers may be used to assess the implementation of BAT and may constitute basic
information for authorities for setting emission limit values.

Example plants
The use of a stream inventory is applied in a number of installations throughout the EU.

Reference literature
[ 45, COM 2016 ]

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2.3.1.3 Utilisation of qualified personnel in the plant

Description
The waste treatment plant is operated by adequate staff, in terms of number, qualification and
competence.

Technical description
Training, awareness and competence of staff are parts of the Environmental Management
System (see Section 2.3.1.1).

Some examples of techniques related to staff are as follows:

a. At all times the operator of a WT plant needs to have sufficient staff available and on duty
with the requisite qualifications. All personnel need to undergo specific job training.
b. The supervisory staff and all heads of sections in the waste management plant are reliable
and technically qualified and have appropriate practical experience. Technical qualifications
may have been obtained from a successfully completed course at a state or state-approved
technical university, university of applied science or school of engineering. Technical
expertise can also be recognised on the basis of comparable training or many years of
practical experience.
c. Non-supervisory staff are reliable and technically skilled. This technical skill may be based,
for example, on formal qualifications in areas such as community services and waste
disposal, on many years of practical experience, or on comparable training.

Achieved environmental benefits

Improvement of the environmental performance of the facility. Qualified people and training are
essential in WT operations, both for the waste producers (sorting, collecting, etc.) and for the
WT operator. Health, safety, security and environmental protection all depend on the good
management of the installation and, as a result, on workers' qualifications.

Cross-media effects
None.

Environmental performance and

It may be that delivered wastes might cause problems, so it is advantageous if the staff in charge
are alert to problematic wastes. Staff are kept aware of all materials which might cause
problems during processing. Depending on the machines used, these might be large bulky parts
or other components like metals. If the staff are alert, almost continuous processing with a small
range of quality fluctuations can be expected.

Technical considerations related to applicability

Fully applicable to the whole WT sector. The number, qualification and competence of the
personnel are proportionate to the plant size and to the complexity of the waste treatment
processes.

Economics
Qualified people are typically more expensive. Putting in place training programmes (either in-
house or externally subcontracted) will incur some extra costs for the operator.

Driving force for implementation

Improvement of the plant performance.

Example plants
There are many examples in the sector.

Reference literature
[ 17, Pretz et al. 2003 ], [ 48, UBA Germany 2003 ], [ 18, WT TWG 2004 ]

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2.3.2 Operational techniques to improve environmental performance

This section covers those techniques that help the operator to characterise the waste input to be
treated. The rigour with which this characterisation is done is essential to the subsequent waste
treatment operations. Failure to adequately screen waste samples prior to acceptance and to
confirm its composition on arrival at the installation has often historically led to subsequent
problems, including inappropriate storage and mixing of incompatible substances, an
accumulation of wastes and an unexpected treatment, and hence unexpected emission profiles.

2.3.2.1 Waste pre-acceptance

Description
Pre-acceptance procedures are techniques to ensure the technical (and legal) suitability of the
waste treatment operation for a particular waste.

Technical description
(i) The waste pre-acceptance procedure requires the following in writing or in electronic
form prior to the arrival of the waste at the facility:

 the name, location and contact details of the waste producer;

 relevant details of the process giving rise to the waste;
 an appropriate description of the waste including its physical form, comprehensive
chemical composition (based on a representative sample or samples of the waste), and
hazardous properties;
 confirmation that the waste does not contain a radioactive source or, when there is a risk
of radioactive contamination, confirmation that the waste is not radioactive except where
the facility is permitted to accept such waste;
 the estimated quantity expected to be delivered to the operator per load and in a year;
 information on the nature and variability of the waste production process(es);
 the European List of Waste code for the waste.

Verification of the written information provided may be required, and this may require contact
with or a visit to the producer. Additional factors may become apparent when dealing with staff
directly involved in the waste production.

(ii) A representative sample of the waste is obtained and analysed if:

 the chemical composition or variability of the waste is unclear from the information
supplied by the customer, or there are doubts about whether the sample analysed is
representative of the waste; and
 the waste is to be treated at the operator’s facility (this allows tests to be conducted
regarding the planned treatment to determine that the treatment will be safe and
effective).

(iii) A representative sample may not be required where, for example, the waste is:

 asbestos;
 a pure product chemical or aerosol where the chemical composition and hazardous
properties are available in a REACH-compliant safety data sheet;
 laboratory smalls in containers of, for example, less than five litres;
 contaminated clothing, packaging or rags;

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 an 'article', for example batteries, lighting tubes, WEEE, end-of-life vehicles or parts
thereof, and metal waste and scrap;
 solid non-hazardous waste except for "mirror entries" (i.e. where waste may be allocated
to a hazardous entry or to a non-hazardous entry according to the European List of Waste
– LoW), when the waste composition is unknown;
 contaminated wood and roofing material;
 produced in an emergency - such wastes must remain quarantined until a full
characterisation has been completed.

(iv) Following the full characterisation of the waste, a technical assessment is made of the
suitability of the waste for treatment or storage to ensure permit conditions can be met.
It is ensured that the waste complies with the installation's treatment capabilities. In the
case of water-based liquid waste, it may include laboratory-scale tests to predict the
performance of the treatment, e.g. on breaking of emulsion and biodegradability.

(v) The personnel dealing with the pre-acceptance procedure have the necessary
professional skills, training and/or experience to deal with all issues relevant for the
management of the wastes in the facility.

(vi) Material flow analysis for the components in the waste will help identify the flow(s) and
fate(s) of the components in the waste. This analysis can be helpful in choosing the
most appropriate forms of treatment for the waste, either directly at the site or at any
subsequent treatment site. It also helps in ensuring that hazardous components are
correctly treated and either destroyed or removed, when not desired, from the product
cycle into a 'sink' and not diluted into the recycling/product cycle.

(vii) Records of pre-acceptance are kept for at least 3 years following receipt of the waste in
a computerised process control system. When the enquiry does not lead to the waste
being received there is no requirement to keep records.

(viii) The information required at pre-acceptance is reassessed:

 if the waste changes;

 if the process giving rise to the waste changes;
 if the waste as received is found not to conform to the pre-acceptance information;
 in any case, on an annual basis.

(ix) Odour criteria are applied to reject biodegradable wastes that are already releasing or
have the potential to release mercaptans or other VOCs, low molecular weight amines,
acrylates, or other similarly highly odorous materials that are only suitable for
acceptance under special handling requirements.

Waste pre-acceptance procedures are risk-based considering, for example, the hazardous
properties of the waste, the risks posed by the waste in terms of process safety, occupational
safety and environmental impact as well as the knowledge of the previous waste holder(s).

Achieved environmental benefits

These techniques can help operators identify and then reject unsuitable wastes which could lead
to adverse reactions or uncontrolled emissions during treatment.

Environmental performance and operational data

Pre-acceptance for waste oil treatment
As a general requirement, this step is not critical for a waste oil treatment plant, but it would be
required if the waste was destined for treatment at a mineral oil refinery for example. Typically
the waste comes from a large number of small-volume sources, such as garages, but its

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composition is essentially fixed. Pre-acceptance procedures relating to information collection

need to be applied for one-off industrial arisings of waste oil and arisings from sources where
other chemicals and potential contaminants may be handled, for example from chemical
manufacturing. Contamination of waste oil by substances such as solvents does occur and
although relatively low levels of contamination can be accommodated by the operator, in so far
as it may not affect the sale of the recovered oil, the contamination still needs to be identified.
Low-flashpoint solvents will give rise to handling difficulties as the plants are not set up to deal
with flammable materials. Petrol contamination often occurs, which significantly reduces the
flashpoint of the material and will thus significantly increase the risk of accidents. Care is taken
in choosing and interpreting the most appropriate flashpoint. Solvents will also be driven off in
the heating process, therefore increasing VOC emissions. Contamination with PCBs can transfer
those PCBs to either the product, which may give rise to dioxin formation if used in a
subsequent combustion, to the tank bottom oil sludges or to the effluent.

Pre-acceptance of laboratory smalls

If drums are used for laboratory smalls, a list of the contents is created and stored within the
drum below the lid. Similarly for other types of packages containing laboratory smalls, a list of
contents is created and appropriately stored within or attached to the packaging. Each packed
drum (or other package) is then labelled with respect to the hazard for carriage (e.g. ADR
regulations). The level of supervision or management of this type of situation depends on a
number of factors. In any case a full list of the contents needs to be produced. For operators who
accept wastes packaged by their customers, packing guidance is typically provided to the
customer. Waste producers need written procedures regarding the segregation, packaging and
labelling of laboratory smalls.

Scoping study for physico-chemical plants

Sites need to undertake a scoping study to identify materials that are not covered by their
effluent monitoring programme but are accepted at the site. The main areas to consider are as
follows:

 Aqueous wastes containing solvents which may then be emitted due to the heat of the
process.
 High-nitrogen wastes with the potential for ammonia emissions to air.
 High-sulphur wastes with the potential for hydrogen sulphide and VOC emissions to air.
 Wastes containing phosphorus: not all sites are required to monitor regularly for ‘total
phosphorus’ so at these sites it may be easier to estimate this emission from the intake of
phosphoric acid.
 Occasional inorganic wastes, e.g. wastes containing arsenic. Again, in most cases it will
be easier to calculate the annual emission from occasional waste input data rather than to
extend the monitoring programme.

Biological treatment plants

The initial assessment and periodic verification required are proportionate to the risk posed by
the type and nature of the relevant waste. For example, green waste from a landscaper is of a
lower risk than mixed municipal waste and will therefore require a lesser degree of scrutiny at
pre-acceptance.[ 49, Bio. subgroup 2014 ]

Cross-media effects
None.

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Chapter 2

Technical considerations relevant to applicability

The requirement to characterise the waste, including sampling and analysis, also applies to
waste transfer and treatment facilities. There is often reluctance amongst third parties to divulge
the identity of the waste producer as this may be of commercial benefit. This however cannot
override the fundamental requirement for the operator to check the information on the waste
provided by the waste producer (not just the current holder), who is naturally in the best position
to verify the waste.

Economics
No information provided.

Driving force for implementation

Safety of the process equipment and workers, as well as legislative requirements for specific
waste treatment activities and permit requirements.

Example plants
Commonly used in the waste treatment sector.

Reference literature
[ 50, ÖWAV Working Commitee 2002 ], [ 9, UK EA 2001 ], [ 10, Babtie Group Ltd 2002 ],
[ 11, WT TWG 2003 ], [ 48, UBA Germany 2003 ], [ 18, WT TWG 2004 ], [ 51, WT TWG
2005 ], [ 49, Bio. subgroup 2014 ], [ 29, PCT Subgroup 2015 ]

2.3.2.2 Waste composition characterisation

Description
Combination of analyses to be carried out at the pre-acceptance stage to achieve sufficient
knowledge of the waste composition.

Technical description
Waste composition characterisation is an essential step in the pre-acceptance procedure. For
instance, hazardous wastes are very complex mixtures. Only a combination of analyses can
ensure that sufficient knowledge is available for the safe handling and treatment of hazardous
waste. The selection of the analytical tests is also based on knowledge of the process(es)
generating the waste.

Waste composition characterisation is not a protocol carried out at the acceptance step but at the
pre-acceptance step. This protocol is not carried out for each waste or each new waste but when
the information gathered on the waste is not sufficient to ensure compliance with regulatory
requirements and to determine the adequate waste treatment route.

Quality
Analyses are carried out by laboratories having robust quality assurance procedures and
working with recognised test methods. The EN ISO 17025 [ 52, CEN 2017 ] accreditation
represents best practice. The test sample for analysis from the laboratory sample is prepared
according to the relevant standard [ 53, CEN 2015 ]. When multiple immiscible phases or
fractions are present, the analysis will be performed on each phase and the results may be
combined to provide the final result.

Analysis of liquid waste

This may include the following:

(i) In the case of presence of suspended solids or separated phases, and when the analysis
methods applied to the liquid sample are suspected to not extract and quantify the
compounds present in solid particles or in the separate phase, the sample is
separated into two fractions by a suitable method (filtration, centrifugation,

70 Waste Treatment
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decantation). Then the mass of each fraction is determined, and comprehensive

analysis of the separated liquid fraction and solid fraction or each phase is
performed.

(ii) The following parameters may be measured:

o Density of the sample.
o Water content.
o Ash content by calcination at 550 °C.
o For waste water and aqueous waste, the pH, redox potential and electrical
conductivity are measured directly in the water. For pastes and oil, the
measurements are performed after water extraction from the crude sample with
a ratio of 10 l/kg of dry matter in a closed container to limit exchanges with the
atmosphere.
o Tests are carried out in order to ensure that the stream is not inhibitory for the
biological treatment.
o If the waste is saline (conductivity > 0.15 S/m), it is preferable, to ensure a
correct speciation of metals, to measure the chlorides and preferably all the
halogens that are soluble in water.
o If the presence of cyanide is suspected, it is advised to determine the free and
complexed cyanide separately.
o POPs if their presence is suspected.
o The 12 heavy metals (As, Ba, Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Mo, Ni, Pb, Sb, Se, Zn) are
determined individually and quantitatively. Any specific classical method of
(partial) extraction of these metals may be used.
o Other metal content and other elements (silicium, sulphur, phosphorus, etc.).
o Chromium (VI) if its presence is suspected.
o Content of volatile and semi-volatile substances.
o Particular substances controlled by regulations with limit values < 1 w/w-% are
determined, if suspected, by classical quantitative analysis.
o Mass balance of liquid waste.

Analysis of solid waste

This may include the following:

(i) As an option, measurement of the bulk density of the laboratory sample without
pretreatment, to inform the user of the nature of the waste.

(ii) The following parameters may be measured:

o Water content. Pretreatment of the waste may be needed (not for volatile
compounds) by air drying at 40 °C, grinding and sieving.
o Ash content (calcinated residue) following calcination at 550 °C.
o For solids, pH, redox potential and electrical conductivity are measured in a
water extract of crude sample with a ratio of 10 l/kg of dry matter (DM).
o If the waste is saline (conductivity of leachate > 0.15 S/m), it is desirable, to
ensure a correct speciation of metals, to measure the chlorides and preferably all
the halogens in the extract of 10 l/kg DM.
o If the presence of cyanide is suspected, it is advised to determine the free and
complexed cyanide separately.
o POPs if their presence is suspected.
o The 12 heavy metals (As, Ba, Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Mo, Ni, Pb, Sb, Se, Zn) are
determined individually and quantitatively. Any specific classical methods of
(partial) dissolution of these metals may be used.

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Chapter 2

o Other metal content and other elements (silicium, sulphur, phosphorus, etc.).
o Chromium (VI) if its presence is suspected.
o Content of volatile and semi-volatile substances.
o Particular substances controlled by regulations with limit values < 1 w/w-% are
determined, if suspected, by classical quantitative analysis.
o Mass balance of solid waste.

Environmental performances and operational data

An accurate knowledge of the hazardous waste allows:

 the hazardous criteria to be defined;

 the impact on the Seveso status of the installation to be assessed;
 the compliance with the mixing rules to be ensured.

It is also a very important tool to ensure that hazardous substances that are prohibited for
recycling are correctly managed and extracted from the recycled part of the waste like POPs,
Substances of Very High Concern (SVHC) and substances subject to authorisation (listed in
Annex XIV to the REACH regulation).

Consequently, the complete protocol described in the technical description is the most up-to-
date one to avoid any detrimental effects on the environment due to a lack of knowledge of the
composition of the hazardous waste (during handling and treatment).

Cross-media effects
None.

Technical considerations relevant to applicability

The protocol described is very accurate for all organic substances but can lead to a more open
interpretation for inorganic substances (mainly metal compounds).

All analyses in the protocol give information on elemental composition (metals, halogens, etc.).
If the operator or the producer of the waste does not have mineralogical information about the
waste, it is very difficult to interpret the analytical results and provide the right information on
the speciation of metals. In this situation and in order to have a complete picture for the
characterisation of hazardous waste, a 'worst-case' approach can be used where, for example, a
specific metal is considered as it is the most dangerous compound which is likely to be present
depending on the physico-chemical context.

Economics
The cost of the whole protocol, which depends highly on the waste to be treated and on the
treatment process, can be significant. Some examples provided for cost are around EUR 1000
per sample.

Driving force for implementation

 Better knowledge of hazardous waste.
 Compliance with the Waste Framework Directive and classification of waste.
 Compliance with the Seveso Directive.

Example plants
Operators of hazardous waste treatment plants in France use this protocol when necessary.

Reference literature
[ 54, AFNOR 2013 ], [ 55, Hennebert et al. 2015 ], [ 29, PCT Subgroup 2015 ],
[ 52, CEN 2005 ], [ 53, CEN 2015 ], [ 56, CEN 2006 ], [ 57, CEN 2007 ], [ 58, ISO 2012 ],
[ 59, ISO 2012 ],
72 Waste Treatment
 Chapter 2

[ 60, ISO 2011 ], [ 61, AFNOR 2002 ], [ 62, CEN 2007 ], [ 63, AFNOR 1988 ],
[ 64, CEN 2005 ], [ 65, CEN 2002 ], [ 66, CEN 2006 ]

2.3.2.3 Waste acceptance

Description
Acceptance procedures aim to confirm the characteristics of the waste, as identified in the pre-
acceptance stage.

Technical description
The waste acceptance procedure provides details of the following steps which are undertaken by
operators when the waste arrives at the facility. It also takes into consideration the objectives of
the treatment (which includes the specification intended for the output).

Acceptance principles
(i) Other than in an emergency, the operator only receives onto the site prebooked wastes
that have been adequately pre-accepted and that are consistent with the pre-acceptance
information.
(ii) All wastes are checked and verified against pre-acceptance information and transfer
documentation before being received on site.
(iii) The operator sets out and follows clear and unambiguous criteria for the rejection of
wastes and the reporting of all non-conformances to the competent authorities.
(iv) Waste is only received and accepted under the supervision of a suitably qualified
person.
(v) All transfer documentation is checked and validated.
(vi) The operator ensures that the facility has the necessary capacity to receive the waste for
all storage areas (quarantine, reception, general and bulk) and treatment processes.
Wastes are not received if the capacity is not available. The physical and licensed
capacity must be sufficient for the storage and, if relevant, the storage must respect the
summation of hazardous quantities as defined in the Seveso classification of the plant.
(vii) When there is a risk of radioactive contamination, the waste is checked to determine
that it is not a radioactive waste.

Sampling
(viii) Other than some wastes such as:
o pure waste chemicals;
o asbestos;
o contaminated clothing, packaging or rags;
o 'articles';
o laboratory smalls;
o solid non-hazardous waste (except for mirror entries when the waste
composition is unknown);
o contaminated wood and roofing material;
o green wastes and food wastes;

all wastes, bulk or containerised (including from every container), are representatively
sampled and undergo verification and compliance testing. Reliance solely on the written
information supplied is not sufficient.

(ix) A representative sample is one that takes account of the full variation and any
partitioning of the load such that worst case scenarios are accounted for.
(x) Sampling takes place on site under the supervision of the site’s qualified staff. Where
the driver arrives at the site with a sample taken elsewhere, there is a full risk

Waste Treatment 73
Chapter 2

assessment to check that the sample is representative, reliable and was only taken for
specific health or safety purposes (for example, air- or water-reactive wastes).
(xi) A record of the sampling regime, process and justification is maintained in the
computerised waste process control system.
(xii) Acceptance samples are retained on site for an appropriate amount of time (e.g. 2 days)
after the waste has been treated or removed from the facility including all residues from
its treatment.

Inspection and analysis

(xiii) The tests required for verification purposes at acceptance (for example, metal content,
total petroleum hydrocarbons, colour, pH, and odour) are listed in the computerised
waste process control system. If visual inspection is not feasible (e.g. for occupational
safety reasons), the compliance of the waste input is checked by analytical equipment
(e.g. viscometry, infrared, chromatography, mass spectrometry), laboratories and
adequate human resources.
(xiv) Analysis of waste is carried out by a laboratory with suitably recognised test methods.
Where the waste received is hazardous, the laboratory is on site or routinely available at
another site.

Reception
(xv) It is ensured that all containers are adequately labelled and in sound condition
(undamaged and not corroded; lids are well fitted; and caps, valves, bungs are present
and secure) before being offloaded. Any unsound or unlabelled containers are put into
quarantine and dealt with appropriately. Labelling includes the unique tracking system
reference number, the date of arrival on site and at least a primary hazard code. This
information is added to the computerised waste process control system.
(xvi) Following visual inspection, waste containers are offloaded into a dedicated reception
area to await sampling and verification.
(xvii) Any containers in the reception area are sampled and verified as compliant as soon as
possible (e.g. within one working day of receipt) and transferred to the relevant general
storage area on site, or quarantine if appropriate. Wastes are not deposited within a
reception area without adequate space.
(xviii) Quarantine storage of enclosed containers is for a maximum of five working days.
Written procedures are in place for dealing with wastes held in quarantine, together with
a maximum storage volume. For some limited and specific cases (for example detection
of radioactivity), the quarantine storage could be longer.
(xix) Where containers hold laboratory smalls, each container is opened as soon as possible
(e.g. within 1 day of receipt) to check that the contents remain undamaged and that the
inventory is as expected. All of the contents in each drum must be compatible and
sorted by primary hazard. Once sorted and secure, the laboratory smalls’ containers are
moved to compatible general storage.
(xx) The residual waste quarantine, reception, general and bulk storage capacity of the
installation is kept up-to-date in a computerised waste process control system; a
prebooking system ensures that the residual waste storage and process capacity are
sufficient for the incoming acceptable waste inputs.
(xxi) Bulk loads (liquid or solid) can only be offloaded once they have been fully verified as
compliant. Interim storage of incompliant bulk load is not done except in an emergency
situation. Verification testing includes consistency with pre-acceptance information,
compatibility with appropriate bulk load storage, and checking treatability and
compatibility (e.g. with a treatment matrix using laboratory-scale simulation).
(xxii) Separate spaces are foreseen in the reception area for the separation of extraneous
materials or oversized pieces.
(xxiii) The designated sampling point(s) or reception area need to be in close proximity to the
laboratory/checking facility and need to be visible.

74 Waste Treatment
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(xxiv) The reception area is equipped with a suitably sealed drainage system to prevent
contaminated run-off, and a separate collection system for spills which is separated
from rainwater collection drains (see Section 2.3.11).
(xxv) The offloading, sampling point/reception and quarantine areas have an impervious
surface with self-contained drainage, to prevent any spillage entering the storage
systems or escaping off site.
(xxvi) Wastes are immediately segregated to remove possible hazards due to incompatibility,
which could result in the waste failing to meet acceptance criteria.
(xxvii) It is ensured that incompatible substances do not come into contact with spills from
sampling, for example within a sump serving the sampling point. Absorbents need to be
made available to deal with any spills.

Waste acceptance procedures are risk-based considering, for example, the hazardous properties
of the waste, the risks posed by the waste in terms of process safety, occupational safety and
environmental impact as well as the knowledge of the previous waste holder(s).

Achieved environmental benefits

The acceptance procedure confirms the validity of the pre-acceptance checks and information
and therefore helps ensure that no unsuitable wastes are accepted which could lead to adverse
reactions or uncontrolled emissions during treatment.

Environmental performance and operational data

Waste oil treatment plants

Typically these plants place a greater emphasis on the final acceptance procedures than those at
the pre-acceptance stage.

Acceptance of laboratory smalls

The procedures for accepting laboratory smalls into a site are essentially identical to those for
drummed wastes. They differ from the ‘normal’ waste inputs to the site in that they are in a pure
concentrated form. In situations where the operator has undertaken the identification and
packaging on behalf of the customer, the on-site verification can be restricted to opening the
drums to check that the containers are undamaged. In such cases, the load is accompanied by
documentation confirming the checking and packing. In situations where the drum has been
packed by the customer, full checks and verification need to be adequately undertaken by the
operator. Checking the packaging and segregation include emptying the drum as soon as
possible and repackaging the waste once all the necessary checks have been made. If, on
opening a drum, it is found that it contains incompatible substances, or that the substances have
not been packaged adequately, then the drum needs to be sorted and repacked immediately, and
the site non-conformance procedures followed.

Physico-chemical treatment sites

All waste is checked on arrival by visual inspection and by sampling. The sampling system
varies in the breadth of analysis and its scope is determined at pre-acceptance. There may be a
simple screen for flashpoint and pH or a sample taken for rapid laboratory determination of
these elements and the metals content and also a rough organic screening. Alternatively, the
nature of the waste may require a thorough screening or pretesting of the treatment process.

Waste catalyst
Materials are checked for unforeseen impurities and contamination and this can be cost-
effective in maintaining a cleaner product and reducing emissions.

Waste activated carbon

Activated carbon received for regeneration is identified as a discrete batch and analysed, so that
the substances to be desorbed during the treatment are known and it can be confirmed that the
plant has the capability to process them within the constraints of the authorisation. The applicant

Waste Treatment 75
Chapter 2

sets out clearly the types of contaminant on the activated carbon that are intended for
regeneration.

Cross-media effects
None.

Technical considerations relevant to applicability

Generally applicable.

Economics
Waste characterisation and analysis costs for protecting the works are typically high.

Reception facilities for waste water treatment works, for example tanker unloading and storage,
may cost around EUR 1.5 million (GBP 1 million). Operational costs are relatively low and
mainly involve administrative costs.

Driving force for implementation

Safety of the process equipment and workers, as well as legislative requirements for specific
waste treatment activities and permit requirements.

Example plants
These techniques are common for many plants in the waste sector.

Reference literature
[ 67, UK Environment Agency 1996 ], [ 9, UK EA 2001 ], [ 10, Babtie Group Ltd 2002 ], [ 11,
WT TWG 2003 ], [ 33, Irish EPA 2003 ], [ 16, Ruiz, C. 2002 ], [ 48, UBA Germany 2003 ],
[ 18, WT TWG 2004 ], [ 19, WT TWG 2004 ], [ 51, WT TWG 2005 ], [ 29, PCT Subgroup
2015 ], [ 34, Watco 2002 ], [ 13, Schmidt et al. 2002 ], [ 17, Pretz et al. 2003 ], [ 26, Mech.
subgroup 2014 ]

2.3.2.4 Waste sampling

Description
The sampling procedure is used as part of the pre-acceptance and acceptance steps to select the
waste samples which will undergo characterisation, analyses or tests.

Technical description
A sampling procedure is designed based on the following principles:

(i) A risk approach based on the type of waste (e.g. hazardous or non-hazardous);
knowledge of the customer (e.g. waste producer); the impact of potential mixing or
blending; and the possibilities for subsequent treatment.
(ii) The relevant physico-chemical parameters are checked (e.g. by viscometry, infrared,
chromatography and mass spectrometry as appropriate).
(iii) Sampling procedures are customised for:
 bulk liquid;
 bulk solids;
 large and small containers/vessels (the number of samples increases with the
number of containers/vessels and the variability of the waste);
 laboratory smalls.
(iv) The procedure contains details of the sampling of wastes in drums within designated
storage, e.g. the timescale after receipt.
(v) The following information is determined and recorded:
 the sampling regime for each load, together with a record of the justification for
the selection of each option;

76 Waste Treatment
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 a suitable location for the sampling points;

 the capacity of the sampled vessel (for samples from drums, an additional
parameter would be the total number of drums);
 the number of samples and degree of consolidation;
 the operating conditions at the time of sampling.
(vi) In the case of cold ambient temperatures, a temporary storage may be needed in order to
allow sampling after defrosting.
(vii) A laboratory to analyse all the samples in a timely manner at the required speed.
Particularly for hazardous wastes, this often means that the laboratory (with suitable
equipment) needs to be on site.

One standard and five guides for sampling from a source of waste are available:

 EN 14899 Characterization of waste - Sampling of waste materials - Framework for the

preparation and application of a Sampling Plan;
 CEN/TR 15310-1 Characterization of waste - Waste Collection - Part 1: Guide on the
selection and application of criteria for sampling under various conditions;
 CEN/TR 15310-2 Characterization of waste - Waste Collection - Part 2: Guide on
sampling techniques;
 CEN/TR 15310-3 Characterization of waste - Waste Collection - Part 3: Guide on
procedures for sub-sampling in the field;
 CEN/TR 15310-4 Characterization of waste - Waste Collection - Part 4: Guide to the
packaging procedures for storage, conservation, transportation and delivery of samples;
 CEN/TR 15310-5 Characterization of waste - Sampling of waste - Part 5: Guide on the
process of developing a sampling plan.

In the event that a sampling plan cannot be implemented according to those methods, the holder
of the waste will follow the procedures in use in the sector for the waste studied.

The sampling phase results in a laboratory sample.

Achieved environmental benefits

 Improvement of the overall environmental performance of the waste treatment
installation.
 Prevention of accidents and incidents and related uncontrolled emissions.
 Some techniques also prevent fugitive emissions (e.g. causing odour) during sampling.

Environmental performance and operational data

Appropriate equipment is needed to sample and analyse different types of waste.
Generally for all types of waste sampling, the sampling procedure ensures that adequate
sampling and analysis is carried out to characterise the waste. Sampling regimes are designed to
account of the variability of the waste, and the number of samples taken is based on an
assessment of the risks posed by the waste. At the pre-acceptance stage, it may be not necessary
to sample every drum; for example, ‘the square root of (n+1)’ rule may be applied provided
acceptance screening includes the sampling of every container. In some instances, physical
sampling may not be necessary, for example in the case of gas cylinders or scrap batteries. In
other cases where variability is high or unknown, large numbers of samples will be necessary as
characterisation requires the sampling of all containers. The sampling of process wastes takes
account of the variability of the process, and several samples may be required to sufficiently
characterise the waste.

Cross-media effects
None.

Waste Treatment 77
Chapter 2

Technical considerations relevant to applicability

These techniques are relevant for all types of waste. Waste sampling procedures are based on a
risk approach considering, for example, the risks posed by the waste in terms of process safety,
occupational safety and environmental impact as well as the knowledge of the previous waste
holder(s).

Economics
An on-site laboratory may be costly for simpler treatment plants (see Table 2.5).

Table 2.5: Economics of laboratory and monitoring equipment in a waste oil treatment facility
Capital Operatin
Techniques cost g cost
(GBP) (GBP)
Analytical laboratory (1)(2) 40 000 20 000
Continuous monitoring equipment (2) 10 000 1000
Technical specifications
Capacity 10 000 t/yr
Oil types Used lubricating oils
Process operation Batch
Waste gas flow 0–50 Nm3/h
Age of plant 10 years old
Age of pollution control equipment 2 years old
(1) Assumes no new building required and relatively simple
laboratory equipment. Staffing includes one full-time technician.
(2) The costs of continuous monitoring equipment vary enormously
according to the number of substances monitored, analytical
techniques used and the supplier selected.
Source: [ 7, UK, H. 1995 ], [ 18, WT TWG 2004 ]

Driving force for implementation

Prevention of accidents and incidents.

Example plants
All waste plants do some kind of sampling.

Reference literature
[ 50, ÖWAV Working Commitee 2002 ], [ 9, UK EA 2001 ], [ 10, Babtie Group Ltd 2002 ], [
11, WT TWG 2003 ], [ 33, Irish EPA 2003 ], [ 14, Eucopro 2003 ], [ 48, UBA Germany 2003
], [ 18, WT TWG 2004 ], [ 51, WT TWG 2005 ], [ 29, PCT Subgroup 2015 ].

78 Waste Treatment
 Chapter 2

2.3.2.5 Waste tracking system and waste inventory

Description
A waste tracking system for the site holds all the information generated during pre-acceptance,
acceptance, storage, treatment and/or removal off site.

Technical description
The waste tracking system is capable of reporting all of the following:

 total quantity of waste present on site at any one time, in appropriate units, for example,
205-litre drum equivalents;
 breakdown of waste quantities being stored pending on-site treatment, classified by
treatment route;
 breakdown of waste quantities on site for storage only, i.e. awaiting onward transfer;
 breakdown of waste quantities by hazard classification;
 where the waste is located on site relative to a site plan;
 the quantity on site compared to the total permitted;
 the time the waste has been on site compared to the permitted time limit.

Records are made in the computerised waste process control system and kept up to date on an
ongoing basis to reflect deliveries, on-site treatment and despatches. The tracking system
operates as a waste inventory/stock control system and includes as a minimum:
 date of arrival on site;
 producer details;
 previous holder;
 a unique reference number;
 pre-acceptance and acceptance analysis results;
 package type and size;
 intended treatment route;
 accurate records of the nature and quantity of waste held on site, including all identified
hazards;
 where the waste is physically located in relation to a site plan;
 where the waste is in the designated waste treatment route (for batch treatment);
 accurate records of decisions regarding pre-acceptance, acceptance, storage, treatment or
rejection of waste streams;
 recipient of the output.

As a way of keeping an up-to-date waste inventory, the waste tracking system also aims at
avoiding an accumulation of waste, which may in turn lead to the deterioration or deformation
of the containers. It also helps in identifying any ageing waste on site and in ensuring that any
accumulations of liquids in bunds, sumps, etc. are dealt with promptly.

The waste tracking system is risk-based considering, for example, the hazardous properties of
the waste, the risks posed by the waste in terms of process safety, occupational safety and
environmental impact as well as the knowledge of the previous waste holder(s).

Achieved environmental benefits

Prevention of accidents and incidents.

Environmental performance and operational data

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Chapter 2

The tracking system helps ensure sufficient knowledge as to what wastes have entered a
particular vessel/tank. For example, once a waste has entered bulk storage or a treatment
process, the tracking of individual wastes will not be feasible. However, the tracking of
residues/compounds that will be building up within a vessel between desludging events can be
carried out in order to avoid any incompatibility with incoming wastes.

For bulk liquid wastes, the objective is to maintain a stock control record of the route through
the process, whereas drummed waste control uses the individual labelling of each drum to
record the location and duration of storage.

Typically, for such tracking systems, computer databases are required. Implementation of an
effective system also requires additional administrative work. Tracking systems need to
ascertain what exactly has to be traced and when.

Cross-media effects
None.

Technical considerations relevant to applicability

The technique is generally applicable.

Economics
No information provided.

Driving force for implementation

 Compliance with facility permit, specifically any restrictions on capacity either for the
whole site or specific waste streams.
 Compliance with the requirements of the Seveso Directive.

Example plants
This technique is common across the waste management sector.

Reference literature
[ 9, UK EA 2001 ], [ 10, Babtie Group Ltd 2002 ], [ 11, WT TWG 2003 ], [ 18, WT TWG 2004
], [ 19, WT TWG 2004 ], [ 29, PCT Subgroup 2015 ]

2.3.2.6 Output quality management for the waste treatment

Description
The set-up and implementation of an output quality management system, so as to ensure that the
output of the waste treatment is in line with the expectations, using for example existing EN
standards.

Technical description
This management system allows verification that the characteristics of the waste output are in
line with the expectations, which may be product specifications, contaminant removal efficiency
rate, etc.

The management system also helps monitor and optimise the performance of the waste
treatment and, for this purpose, it may include a material flow analysis of relevant components
throughout the waste treatment.

Material flow analysis for some contaminants in the waste will help identify the flow(s) and
fate(s) of these contaminants. This analysis can be helpful in choosing the most appropriate
forms of treatment for the waste either directly at the site or at any subsequent treatment site. It
considers the contaminant quantity in the waste input, in the different waste treatment outputs

80 Waste Treatment
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and in the waste treatment emissions. The aim of the material flow analysis and the subsequent
knowledge of the fate of the contaminants is to ensure that those contaminants are correctly
treated and either destroyed or removed.

Figure 2.22 below gives an illustration of the material flow analysis.

NB: M is the mass of the concerned contaminant.

Source: [ 21, WT TWG 2016 ]
Figure 2.22: Illustration of the material flow analysis

The use of a material flow analysis is risk-based considering, for example, the hazardous
properties of the waste, the risks posed by the waste in terms of process safety, occupational
safety and environmental impact as well as the knowledge of the previous waste holder(s).

Achieved environmental benefits

The control of the waste treatment output quality contributes to improve the environmental
performance of the waste treatment as a whole.

Environmental performance and operational data

Quality management systems already exist for some waste treatment outputs such as EN 15358
('Solid recovered fuels. Quality management systems. Particular requirements for their
application to the production of solid recovered fuels').

The expectations for the output quality may be reflected in specifications or in bilateral
agreements with the output receivers. There are numerous EN standards which relate to waste
treatment output quality or to waste treatment efficiency (in terms for instance of contaminant
removal rate): these EN standards are mentioned in Chapters 3 to 5 when relevant.

Cross-media effects
None expected.

Technical considerations related to applicability

Waste Treatment 81
Chapter 2

The implementation of an output quality management system is generally applicable.

Economics
No information provided.

Driving force for implementation

Quality of the waste treatment output.

Example plants
Plants from the reference list which operate an output quality management system are shown in
Table 2.6.

Table 2.6: Plants from the reference list operating an output quality management system
Main type of waste treatment performed by the
Plant number
plants
21, 73, 129, 260, 262, 328, 412, 413, 417, 418,
460, 518, 520, 521, 530, 537, 542, 543, 544, Aerobic treatment of source-separated bio-waste
546, 547, 548, 609, 622, 623, 635

97, 111, 131, 132, 261, 268, 319, 349, 377, 459,
Anaerobic treatment of bio-waste
485, 541
37, 257, 337, 338, 350 MBT

25, 55, 282C, 293C, 294C, 432 Mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste

24, 32, 122C, 219, 277, 278, 279, 442C, 443C,

Mechanical treatment of waste with calorific value
493, 627

222, 223, 224, 225, 226, 228, 336, 340, 427,

Immobilisation of solid and pasty waste
495_496, 569, 613, 614

494 PCT of excavated contaminated soil

03, 04, 07, 192C, 368_369_370_371, 392, 393,

Treatment of water-based liquid waste
401_404, 423_424

56, 168C Regeneration of spent solvents

Physico-chemical treatment of waste with calorific
425_426, 469, 553
value
Re-refining and other preparations for reuse of
92, 235, 570, 610
waste oils
Regeneration/recovery of pollution abatement
333C, 497, 498
components / FGT residues
398 Blending/mixing

References
EURITS comment #24 in [ 21, WT TWG 2016 ]

2.3.2.7 Waste segregation

Description
Waste is segregated prior to treatment depending on its properties in order to enable easier and
environmentally safer storage and treatment. Waste segregation relies on the physical separation
of waste and on procedures that identify when and where wastes are stored, and when the
mixing of waste is allowed and how it is carried out.

82 Waste Treatment
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Technical description
Segregation ensures that wastes that are incompatible cannot come into contact with one
another. It also ensures that flammable wastes are stored apart from other wastes to prevent fire
spreading to them from other materials or from the flammable wastes to other materials.

Indeed, where a waste is put into the same container, tank or vessel as another waste or material,
this is considered to be mixing (see Section 2.3.2.7 for compatibility testing). A mixture of a
small amount of hazardous waste with a larger amount of non-hazardous waste creates a large
amount of material that must be treated as a hazardous waste. Generally, the dilution of
contaminants by mixing/blending of different wastes is avoided (see Section 2.1.4).

Some techniques and principles to consider for waste segregation are as follows:

a. Considering and, when appropriate, applying segregation when storing materials (see also
Section 2.3.13.2).
b. Having proper labelling of all lines, containers, and storage areas. This will greatly increase
the likelihood that plant personnel will follow any change in practices intended to enhance
segregation of wastes.
c. Keeping solid waste dry as a general principle. In some cases (e.g. anaerobic digestion with
wet digestion), it may be necessary to make waste liquid.
d. Keeping clean rainwater and clean cooling water separate from wastes (e.g. from waste
waters).

Achieved environmental benefits

The avoidance of incidents caused by accidental or intentional mixing of incompatible wastes.

Environmental performance and operational data

Table 2.7 presents an example of a compatibility chart and indicates that careful planning
is applied to the segregation of waste, e.g. during storage. For example, acids, mineral s,
non-oxidising substances (number 1) can generate heat and violent polymerisation
reactions when mixed/blended with aldehydes (number 5).

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Table 2.7: Example of a compatibility chart for the storage of hazardous waste
Name of reactivity
No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 101 102 103 104 105 106 107
group
Acids, minerals, non-
1 1
oxidising
Acids, minerals,
2 2
oxidising
3 Acids, organic GH 3
4 Alcohols, glycols H HF HP 4
5 Aldehydes HP HF HP 5
H
6 Amides H 6
GT
Amines, aliphatic, H
7 H H H 7
aromatic GT
Azo compounds, diazo H
8 HG HG H 8
comp., hydrazines GT
H
9 Carbamates HG HG 9
GT
10 Caustics H H H H H G 10
GT GT GT
11 Cyanides G 11
GF GF GF
H H H
GF
12 Dithiocarbamates GF GF GF U HG 12
GT
F F GT
13 Esters H HF HG H 13
14 Ethers H HF 14
15 Fluorides, inorganic GT GT GT 15
Hydrocarbons,
16 HF 16
aromatic
H HF H H
17 Halogenated organics HG H 17
GT GT GT GF
HF HP
18 Isocyanates HG HG HP HP HG HG U 18
GT G
19 Ketones H HF HG H H 19
Mercaptans, other GT H F
20 HG H H H 20
organic sulphides GF GT
GF
Metals, alkali, alkaline GF GF GF GF GF GF GF GF GF GF GF GF GF GF GF
21 GT HE 21
earth, elemental HF HF HF HF HF H H H H H H H H H H
H
Metals, other elemental
GF GF EF GF GF GF
22 and alloys as powders, GF U HE 22
HF HF GT H H HF
vapours or sponges
Metals, other elemental
and alloys as sheets, GF GF HF
23 HF 23
rods, drops, moldings, H F H F G
etc.
Metals and metal
24 S S S S S S 24
compounds, toxic

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Name of reactivity
No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 101 102 103 104 105 106 107
group
GF H F H GF GF GF GF GF GF GF GF
25 Nitrides U HG U U E 25
H F E GF H E H H H H H H H
H
HF GF
26 Nitrites GT U HP S 26
GT H
F
H H
Nitro compounds, HF
27 H HE GF GF 27
organic GT
E E
Hydrocarbons,
28 H HF H HE 28
aliphatic, unsaturated
Hydrocarbons,
29 HF 29
aliphatic, saturated
Peroxides and H
H HF HF HE HE HF HP
30 hydroperoxides, HG HE HF HG HE H E HE PG H G GF HP 30
GT E GT GT GT GT GT
organic E
GF GF
31 Phenols and cresols H HF HG HP H 31
H H
Organophosphates,
H H
32 phosphoyhioates, U HE H U 32
GT GT
phosphodithioates
GT HF H
33 Sulphides, inorganic GT H E H 33
GF GT GT
34 Epoxides HP HP HP HP U HP HP HP HP U HP HP HP HP HP H P H P U H P 34
Combustible and H
HF HG HF
101 flammable materials, HG GF 101
GT F GT
misc. F
102 Explosives HE HE HE HE HE HE HE HE HE E E HE HE H E H E H E 102
Polymerisable
103 PH PH PH PH PH PH U PH PH PH PH PH PH PH PH H E 103
compounds
Oxidising agents, H H HF HF HG HF HF H HF HF HF HF HF HF HF HF HF HF HF
104 HF HF HE HF HF HF HF HF HE HF HF HG HF HE 104
strong GT GT GT GT GT GT GT GT GT GT E E E GT GT GT G G GT
H GT
Reducing agents, H HF H GF GF H H GF GF GF H GF GF HP HF
105 GF HG HF HE HE HE GF H HE 105
strong GF GT GF HF H GF GT H H H GF H H GF E
F H
Water and mixtures GF GF GF GT GF
106 H H G HG S 106
containing water H H H GF GT
Water-reactive Extremely reactive!
107 107
substances Do not mix with any chemical or waste material!
No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 101 102 103 104 105 106 107
NB: Key: Reactivity code (capital letter): consequences of mixing/blending
H: Heat generation F: Fire G: Innocuous and non-flammable gas generation GT: Toxic gas generation
GF: Flammable gas generation E: Explosion P: Violent polymerisation S: Solubilisation of toxic substances U: May be hazardous but unknown
Source:[ 31, LaGrega et al. 1994 ]

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Cross-media effects
None.

Technical considerations related to applicability

Technique (a) (see description above) is sometimes considered not applicable for safety reasons.

Economics
Some solid waste streams can be segregated effectively through minor changes in equipment.
Typically, the disposal of mixed waste will be more expensive than the treatment of a stream
composed of a single type of waste.

Driving force for implementation

Legislation. Directive 1999/31/EC on the Landfill of Waste and Directive 2008/98/EC on Waste
provide the EU legislation framework for the mixing and blending of waste.

Example plants
Segregation of waste oils in order to produce a material with a higher value than fuel oil is
common practice.

Reference literature
[ 8, LaGrega et al. 1994 ], [ 11, WT TWG 2003 ], [ 68, UBA Germany 2003 ], [ 13, Schmidt et
al. 2002 ], [ 17, Pretz et al. 2003 ], [ 18, WT TWG 2004 ], [ 19, WT TWG 2004 ],
[ 35, VROM 2004 ], [ 38, UBA Germany 2012 ]

2.3.2.8 Waste compatibility assessment

Description
Set of checks and tests to detect any unwanted and potentially dangerous chemical reactions
between wastes (polymerisation, gas evolution, exothermic reaction, decomposition,
crystallisation, precipitation, etc.) during mixing, blending or other treatment operations.

Technical description

Compatibility assessment can be done at pre-acceptance, acceptance and before any step in the
waste treatment process.

The compatibility assessment is adapted to each waste storage and treatment operation. For
example, it can consist of specific procedures for solid wastes, for long reaction times, for waste
in small packages, etc.

In order to prevent any adverse or unexpected reactions and releases before transfer involving
the following activities, testing takes place prior to the transfer:

 tanker discharge to bulk storage;

 tank-to-tank transfer;
 transfer from container to bulk tank;
 bulking into drums or IBCs;
 bulking of solid waste into drums or skips.

A list of unacceptable waste is established based on the facility's permit and on whether the
waste poses specific risks to the installation or process such as, inter alia:

 risk of explosion (e.g. presence of ammunition, mixing processes that could lead to
explosion);

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 corrosion to the installation (e.g. strong acids);

 risk of uncontrolled reactions (e.g. presence of peroxides or strong oxidants, or
polymerising components such as certain isocyanates);
 risk of the evolution of gases (e.g. presence of cyanides, sulphides, dissolved gas).

The above list is very specific for the treatment operation and final treatment and requires the
waste operators to establish it on a case-by-case basis for their specific operation.

The type of compatibility test varies according to the type of waste and the waste treatment
operation (for example unloading, grouping, homogenisation).

The main principle is to mix a first waste sample with a sample of a second waste with which it
will be mixed. The compatibility test is done in a laboratory and is performed under the same
adiabatic conditions as the full-scale mixing. The test considers the following elements:

 temperature increase, exothermic reaction;

 physical aspect/behaviour of the mixing (e.g. several phases or not, emulsions);
 potential precipitation, crystallisation, polymerisation and other chemical reactions;
 gas emission.

The time of the test varies, for example from 15 minutes to 24 hours, according to the type of
waste.

In order to better characterise the reactivity of the waste, additional tests could be needed such
as oxidant and reduction tests, pH determination, release test. The rejection criteria of the
compatibility tests may be unique or combined and are defined according to the type of waste
and waste treatment process, and can be temperature modifications (for example, an increase of
3 °C upon mixing indicates incompatible wastes), mixing aspects (if polymerisation occurs the
wastes are not compatible for mixing), etc.
Any evolved gases and causes of odour are identified. If any adverse reaction is observed, an
alternative discharge or disposal route is found.

The compatibility tests are risk-based considering, for example, the hazardous properties of the
waste, the risks posed by the waste in terms of process safety, occupational safety and
environmental impact as well as the knowledge of the previous waste holder(s).

Achieved environmental benefits

Prevention of adverse or unexpected reactions and releases before transfer to storage tanks,
mixing/blending or other treatments.

Environmental performance and operational data

To ensure the occupational safety of the test, a risk assessment is carried out prior to the test and
integrated into the test procedure. Operators executing a compatibility test are equipped with
personal protective equipment, such as safety goggles, gloves, protective clothing. The
compatibility tests are carried out under a fume hood in operation.

The laboratory is fitted out with equipment (e.g. turbo-agitators used only briefly for mixing,
slow agitators for floc formation), which roughly simulates the plant conditions.

Cross-media effects
None.

Technical considerations relevant to applicability

Generally applicable to the waste treatment sector.

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Economics
No information provided.

Driving force for implementation

To avoid incidents due to the mixing of incompatible wastes.

Example plants
This technique is commonly used across the waste management sector.

Reference literature
[ 67, UK Environment Agency 1996 ], [ 8, LaGrega et al. 1994 ], [ 9, UK EA 2001 ], [ 11, WT
TWG 2003 ], [ 14, Eucopro 2003 ], [ 18, WT TWG 2004 ], [ 19, WT TWG 2004 ], [ 29, PCT
Subgroup 2015 ]

2.3.2.9 Waste sorting

Description
Sorting techniques for the preparation of the waste input before treatment (pre-sorting). Sorting
of incoming solid waste aims to prevent unwanted material from entering the subsequent waste
treatment process.

Technical description
Sorting is a common process step in waste treatment activities, which is performed, among
other reasons, for:

 ensuring that the waste input is able to be treated in the subsequent waste treatment
process;
 improving the waste treatment process recovery rate;
 ensuring the adequacy of the output for its further use.

Two different sorting strategies exist: positive and negative sorting:

a. Positive sorting means that only the desired materials (e.g. with high calorific values and
low contents of harmful substances) are sorted out of the material flow. This strategy leads
to a higher amount of landfill material and often to a higher quality of the output such as
solid waste fuel.
b. Negative sorting strategies only separate the materials which are not desired in the output
(e.g. if it is required to reduce the content of chlorine in the waste stream because it may
cause problems when the waste stream is incinerated or co-incinerated, one possibility may
be to reduce the content of PVC plastic in the waste stream). With this strategy, the amount
of landfill material might be less because other materials which might have a higher content
of harmful substances end up in the output.

Sorting may be performed manually or automatically.

Manual separation
Manual separation employs visual examination of the waste material by staff on a picking line
or on the floor to either selectively remove a target material from a general waste stream or to
remove contamination from an output stream to increase purity. This technique generally targets
recyclables (glass, plastic, etc.) and any contaminants, hazardous materials and oversize
materials such as WEEE. Removed materials will be deposited into chutes or further conveyors
that then transfer materials to storage bays.

A permanent working place for manual separation is within a covered cabin isolated from the
rest of the treatment hall and equipped with a local exhaust ventilation system, to limit staff
exposure to dust, vehicle movements and vibration. A consistent material feed rate is preferable

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to prevent surges in material and allows for a more efficient manual sorting rate. The following
aspects are considered for optimisation of manual sorting operations:

 throughput (tonnes/hour);
 depth of material on conveyors (m3/hour);
 height and width of manual sorting conveyor belts (mm);
 position of chutes and guardrails.

[ 69, UK EA 2013 ], [ 70, Amlinger et al. 2009 ]

Automatic separation
The material passes a vibrating chute which feeds a conveyor belt. A metal detector is located
under the conveyor belt, which sends specific data for each material to the computer unit.
Additionally, a colour camera located above the conveyor belt sends information to the
computer unit. Both information lines are analysed by special software, before the computer
unit transmits impulses, instructing the nozzles to blow out the single particle or to allow it to
pass (positive or negative sorting). Both the accepted and the rejected products are then
transported by single belts to further treatment or storage.

With a belt width of 1200 mm and depending on the feed material, it is possible to handle a
throughput of 2–8 t/h, for a grain size of 3–250 mm.

Table 2.8 shows examples of the sorting techniques which are described in this section.

Table 2.8: Examples of sorting techniques

Magnetic separation of ferrous metals
Metals separation Electromagnetic separation of non-
ferrous metals
All-metal separators
Optical sorting
X-ray separation
Air classification
Density separation Ballistic separation
Sink-float tanks
Vibration tables
Size separation

Metals separation

Magnetic separation of ferrous metals

Magnetic separation is a common process step in a WT installation. Magnetic separators can be
used to extract iron and steel as a resource, e.g. extracting tin cans from lightweight packaging.
It can also be used to provide the essential service of removing any ferrous metals from the
waste, thereby avoiding downstream operating troubles and improving the product quality, e.g.
magnetic separators are used in cable recycling processes to remove the metals, to protect the
knives of rotary cutters from blunting or snapping and for the subsequent cleaning of the copper
product.

Magnetic separation can also be used on feedstock where ferrous metals need to be negatively
sorted as a contaminant, for example organic material.

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Magnetic separators are used when ferrous metal is present in the waste. Due to the fact that
stainless steel is not, or is only slightly, magnetisable, magnetic separators cannot usually
extract stainless steel.

Overband magnetic separator

The mixed feedstock will be presented via conveyor with the magnet array typically positioned
over the conveyor line. Ferrous metals will be attracted to the magnet and positively sorted from
the feedstock. A conveyor belt positioned around the magnets can be used to transfer the ferrous
metals to a dedicated container. Non-magnetic material will continue along the conveyor and
fall onto a further in-line conveyor or be deposited into a dedicated receptacle.

In order to utilise the entire magnet, the feed conveyor is located directly under the magnet. The
rate of extraction is used as an indicator to determine the optimal speed of the conveyor for
achieving the highest efficiency in terms of the ferrous metal recovery percentage. By sorting,
for example, municipal solid waste (MSW) with a certain content of plastics with a large surface
area, overband magnetic separators will inevitably extract these plastics together with the
ferrous items. Increasing the belt velocity is recommended to minimise this discharge.
Generally, overband magnetic separators give very good results, up to 98 w/w-% iron output.
The following aspects are important for the optimisation of the magnetic separation:

 location of the separator at optimum distance dependent on the density and speed of the
feedstock;
 magnet and belt width;
 magnet and belt length;
 magnetic field depth; and
 drive motor size.

An example of an overband magnetic separator is shown in Figure 2.23 below.

Source: [ 69, UK EA 2013 ]

Figure 2.23: Overband magnetic separator schematic

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Magnetic drum
Material is fed into a magnetic drum separator either via an overfed layout or an underfed
layout. In an overfed layout, the material is charged onto the drum, right before the crest, using
a vibrating chute. In this case, only magnetisable items are held on the drum shell until they
reach the limit of the magnetic field, at which point the material falls off the drum and is
collected behind a non-magnetisable separating plate.
In an underfed layout, the drum shell attracts ferrous metals through the air gap and drops them
similarly to an overband magnetic separator – but not before leaving the magnetic field. For
homogeneous feeding, the use of vibrating chutes is indispensable.

Installation in line (lengthwise) to the belt is preferred since it aids effective separation of the
loosened material out of the trajectory. If the magnet is aligned transversally to the material (i.e.
suspended across the conveyor belt), the power of the magnet must be several times higher than
in a lengthwise alignment, since sometimes non-magnetic objects are situated on top of ferrous
items, which the magnet then has to work through.

The advantage of the overfed layout in magnetic drum separators is that ferrous parts are
directly placed in contact with the strongest magnetic field and, as a consequence, fine-grained
and slightly magnetisable items can be easily separated.

Normally in waste processing, the underfed operation is only relevant for special applications,
e.g. shredder scrap processing. The approach pole of this drum causes a strong and far-reaching
magnetic field to securely extract the shredded and compacted scrap. The transport of the
ferrous material to the dropping line will be achieved by additional weak poles. Because of the
strong abrasion during scrap sorting, the drum shell is manufactured with an 8 mm thick plate
made of hard manganese steel.

The efficiency of magnetic separation of ferrous metals can be increased by:

a. installing an overband magnetic separator lengthwise over the conveyor belts right above
the trajectory of the material;
b. re-sorting the material with a magnetic drum separator or with a magnetic pulley, since
small ferrous particles could still remain under a non-magnetic layer;
c. increasing the conveyor belt’s velocity, to achieve a low level of unwanted material;
d. using the overfed feed design for the magnetic drum separator.

Electromagnetic separation of non-ferrous metals

Non-ferrous metals are sorted out by means of eddy current separators. An eddy current is
induced by a series of rare earth magnetic or ceramic rotors at the head of a conveyor that spins
at high speed independently of the conveyor. This process induces temporary magnetic forces in
non-magnetic metals of the same polarity as the rotor, causing the metals to be repelled away
and then separated from the other feedstock.

The separator is fed with a mixed waste stream, containing non-ferrous metals such as
aluminium die-cast metals, copper. As these separators can sort out non-ferrous particles with a
grain size between 3 mm and 150 mm, a pre-screening step might be advantageous to increase
the separation of non-ferrous metals from the waste.

The magnetic pole system is positioned either eccentrically or centrically. Central pole systems
experience problems with small iron particles, which can find a way between the conveyor belt
and the drum shell. These particles are attracted along the whole perimeter of the drum, become
hot and can lead to damage of the plastic drum. Additionally, the position of the magnetic pole
system in eccentric systems is variable, so that the strongest field can be directed to the rejection
zone. Figure 2.24 below shows an example of an eddy current separator.

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Source: [ 69, UK EA 2013 ]

Figure 2.24: Eddy current separator schematic

Techniques for improving the separation include:

a. conditioning the grain size of the non-ferrous elements of the waste to be between 3 mm
and 150 mm before their separation by an eddy current separator;
b. using a high-frequency alternating magnetic field in order to improve the separation of fine-
grained non-ferrous metals;
c. positioning the magnetic pole system eccentrically;
d. using vibrating chutes to achieve a single grain layer, in order to give good sorting results;
e. separating the fine-grained ferrous particles with a magnetic drum in an overfed layout
before feeding the eddy current.

It is difficult to separate longish and planar components, such as aluminium foil and copper
wires, because of the weak eddy current in these materials.

All-metal separators
All-metal separators are applied for the automatic separation of ferrous and non-ferrous metals,
mainly for plastics processing. High throughputs can be realised if the material is diversified
before auto-recognition.

These devices are used if the content of metal in the feed material is low, when other metal
separation operations do not work efficiently enough because of very high demands on the
product qualities, or when downstream equipment (e.g. rotary cutters) has to be protected.

Detection coils are able to detect metal particle sizes of approximately 1 mm and larger. The
shape and the mass are not important for the separation process.

Usually, all-metal separators operate with a detection coil which is placed at right angles to the
direction of transport and cut into single segments. If a metal particle enters the high-frequency
alternating magnetic field of the coil, it influences the field. This change is detected by an
electronically controlled microprocessor which is able to identify the coil segment close to the
metal particle. This particle is separated by one or more air jets located close to the detection
coils. The metals are separated by a partition plate.

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Optical sorting systems using near infrared spectroscopy

Optical sorting systems are used to separate components according to colour.
Material which has to be separated is often fed on a belt conveyor. The conveyor usually
operates at fast velocities so that its function is almost like an isolating device. Halogen lamps
and the detector are installed above the belt conveyor. The detector consists of a near infrared
spectroscopy (NIRS) sensor which scans the whole width of the conveyor belt and transmits the
characteristic spectra of the different materials to a data processor. The signals are compared
with a database. The analysis considers the calculation of the actual position on the conveyor
belt and the measurement results in only a split second. The sorting then occurs with an air jet
batten in front of the discharge end. The air jet lifter is equipped with several single air jets at a
distance of about 30 mm apart. Each air jet is fed by a pressure reservoir and is steered by
magnetic valves. The data processor transmits a signal if the detection of a material is positive
and the air jet blows it out. Here one or more air jets can be activated. The pressure surge blows
out the particle which is then separated from the material flow by a partition plate.

Figure 2.25 below gives an example of an optical separator.

Source: [ 69, UK EA 2013 ]

Figure 2.25: Optical separator

The process leads to the separation of the waste input constituents, e.g. selective separation of
beverage cartons, paper, cardboard, mixed plastics such as polyethylene (PE), polypropylene
(PP), polystyrene (PS), polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC).
Reduction of the heavy metal content (e.g. Sb, Cd, Pb) and chlorine content of the waste stream
may also occur because specific waste containing these components may be separated.

This technique is applied, for example, to reduce the content of some compounds in the waste
fuel in order to achieve the quality required in the waste fuel produced.

Auto-recognition devices can sort particle sizes between approximately 30 mm and 300 mm.
The operation width of the conveyor belts varies between 500 mm and 1400 mm. The
throughput of pre-classified light packaging with particle sizes between 50 mm and 200 mm
amounts to between 1 t/h and 6 t/h.

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In practice, the recovery of potential recyclables with NIRS can reach 80–90 %, and 85–95 %
with two NIRS sensors in line.

Nevertheless, the separation of dark brown and black materials is impossible since the NIRS
light is almost completely absorbed and hence no irradiation is reflected to the sensor.
The application of this technique generates a waste stream with a higher content of chlorine and
metals that needs to be treated.

X-ray systems
Material composites are sorted according to various material densities, halogen components or
organic components with the aid of X-rays. Sorting can be according to light and heavy metals
or plastics. The characteristics of the different materials are transmitted to a data processor
which controls an air jet for ejecting the materials that have been detected.

Density or centrifugal separation

Air classification
Air classification (or air separation, or aeraulic separation) is a process of approximate sizing of
dry mixtures of different particle sizes into groups or grades at cutpoints ranging from 10 mesh
to sub-mesh sizes. Air classifiers (also called windsifters) complement screens in applications
requiring cutpoints below commercial screen sizes and supplement sieves and screens for
coarser cuts where the special advantages of air classification warrant it.
[ 71, Fisher-Klosterman 2015 ]

The interior space of a classifying device, where solid particles interact with an air stream, is the
separation zone. Four basic separation zones are known, which include gravitational-
counterflow, gravitational-crossflow, centrifugal-counterflow and centrifugal-crossflow.
[ 72, Shapiro et al. 2005 ]. Figure 2.26 shows the principle of air classification.

NB: The air is either released to atmosphere (1) to form an 'open air system' or recirculated (2) to form a 'closed air
system'. Sometimes the fines and air mixture go to another process (3) such as another classifier or a directly fired
pulverised coal burner, etc.
Source: [ 71, Fisher-Klosterman 2015 ]

Figure 2.26: Principle of air classification

The air velocity for dry papers, thin-walled plastics and plastic films for example is
approximately 11–12 m/s. The minimum recovery of this highly calorific lightweight material is

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approximately 70 %. The throughput rate of air classifiers is limited by the specific load, with a
maximum capacity of 0.35 kg solids/(m3 air · h).
Air that has been used for air classifiers and blowdown is reused: approximately 30 % of the air
of the circular flow is discharged on the pressure side of the ventilator and cleaned by a dust
filter.

This operation offers the following advantages:

 the filter to separate the dust can be designed much smaller, since the air to be cleaned is
less than a third of the volume of that of the conventional operation;
 no air loaded with dust is discharged at the loopholes for the feeding conveyor or the
heavyweight discharge;
 the air velocity at the separation zone can be precisely adjusted by butterfly valves.

Sink-float tanks
This method uses the different material densities to separate two solids. A tank is filled with a
medium (for example water) and the materials to be separated: the solid denser than the medium
sinks whereas the solid less dense than the medium floats.

Ballistic separation
The ballistic separator, or ballistic sieve, is composed of a series of parallel paddles, with orbital
motion, arranged with a variable angle. The multiple paddles submit the incoming waste to a
strong shaking. The materials fed into the ballistic separator, having different physical
characteristics (weight, shape, surface, etc.), assume different trajectories following the orbital
movement of the paddles. Lightweight and flat materials are thus conveyed towards the top of
the ballistic separator, while the heavy and rolling materials are conveyed towards the bottom.
Along the way, thanks to the continuous shaking of the material, the powders and the fine
fraction are screened through the perforated surface of the paddles.
This separation technique therefore generates three fractions: the screened fraction, the light
fraction and the heavy fraction.
[ 73, Parini 2015 ]

Vibration tables
Vibration tables are also known as gravity separators or density separators. The principle of
separation is the motion of particles moving according to density and size in a slurry (in the case
of wet tables, or wet density separators) across an inclined table, which oscillates backwards and
forwards essentially at right angles to the slope, in conjunction with riffles which hold back the
particles which are closest to the deck. This motion and configuration causes the fine high-
density particles to migrate closest to the deck and be carried along by the riffles to be
discharged at the highest point of the table, while the low-density coarser particles move or
remain closer to the surface of the slurry and ride over the riffles, and are discharged over the
lowest edge of the table.

In the case of air tables, the feed and separation are dry (dry density separation), with the
moving bed of particles being fluidised by low-pressure air being blown through a canvas deck,
which together with the deck slope, absence of riffles and the oscillating motion of the table,
causes fine low-density particles to move to the top of the bed and coarser high-density particles
to move closest to the deck, the latter being discharged off the lowest part of the table.
[ 74, Falconer 2003 ]

A combination of vibration and air sorting technology can also be applied. In this case, the
heavy fractions are conveyed upwards by the vibration and discharged at the upper end of the
separation table. Lighter components are suspended by the air introduced through the screen and
float downwards to the other end of the system (see Figure 2.27).
[ 75, Umweltbundesamt (AT) 2015 ]

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Source: [ 75, Umweltbundesamt (AT) 2015 ]

Figure 2.27: Basic principle of the separation table, based on a combination of vibration and air
technology

Size separation
Screening or sieving can be carried out by drum screens, linear and circular oscillating screens,
flip-flop screens, flat screens, tumbler screens and moving grates. A very important processing
step within classification is the screening step before and after grinding. Screens are applied to
allow mass and volume division by particle size. It is noticeable that in small particle size
mixtures the content of hazardous substances accumulates compared to the amount found in the
screen overflow. A classification with sieves is applied in waste treatment processing when:

 materials from an upstream process need to undergo some kind of conversion to make
them suitable for further processing steps, i.e. separation into defined size fractions;
 the separation of coarse or fine particle sizes is required;
 a comminution material has a high content of particles of the final particle size and only
oversized particles are reduced in size again;
 certain materials need to be concentrated; in this case, the processing is called sorting
classification (this also includes separation of the small size fractions, which often contain
a high content of heavy metal substances).

a. Avoiding overload of the sieving equipment (either optically by monitoring the equipment
controls or automatically by blocking the filler pump by means of the storage container’s
level indicator).
b. Correctly cleaning the filter apertures as required (optical, empirical). Some good cleaning
measures include applying rapid cleaning and steam or high-pressure water jetting.
c. Ensuring that there is an unimpaired discharge of filter underflow and overflow at all times
(through use of optical, filler pump shut-off mechanisms or other controls).

96 Waste Treatment
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The advantages of sieves are their simple, robust construction, their low maintenance needs and
the fact that they are user-friendly, and offer good reliability. The disadvantages are generally
caused by the wastes themselves, e.g. clogging of the filter apertures can occur as a result of the
degree of viscosity of liquid waste, which then impedes separation.

Figure 2.28 shows two operating modes of the drum screens.

Source: [ 17, Pretz et al. 2003 ], [ 18, WT TWG 2004 ]

Figure 2.28: Drum screens

The drum screen shows the best results at a rotational speed of 70 % of the critical speed in the
cataract mode. The disadvantage of the cascade mode is that the screen will create lumps and
fines will not be well liberated.

To increase the efficiency, lifters are fixed inside the screen or polygon-shaped drums are used
to pick up the material and to carry it higher, so that the material falls down onto a free area.
Feeding material with a high content of coarse particles (approximately 100–250 mm) often
causes problems with blocking of the screen, which then leads to a decrease in efficiency and a
high content of fine particles in the overflow.

Advantages of drum screens are:

 the operation does not need vibrations;

 greater homogenisation is possible; and
 the cleaning of surfaces of adhesive small particles, which often contain a high content of
heavy metal substances, is possible.

Trommel screens are used (e.g. as an initial screening stage in MBT) to separate coarsely
separated feedstock material into two or more fractions based on size. They will typically
separate a fraction with a particle size of 50–100 mm (undersize fraction) in diameter from
larger materials > 100 mm (oversize fraction).

The input material is fed into a cylindrical rotating drum, where the material is lifted by the
action of the drum and falls onto free areas of the drum (see Figure 2.29). The drum will be
fitted with specifically sized apertures that will enable targeted particle size material to fall

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through onto an in-line conveyor. Oversize material unable to pass through the apertures such as
plastic bottles will move forward through the trommel and be ejected from the back of the
screen onto a separate in-line conveyor. The trommel may be inclined to aid movement of
material through the screen and prevent backflow of material out of the entrance.

Source: [ 69, UK EA 2013 ]

Figure 2.29: Trommel screen

The trommel may also be fitted with a variable speed drive which provides the benefit that the
operator can adjust the speed depending on the density and type of feedstock passing through
the screen. Trommels can also be designed with multiple sized apertures occurring in stages,
which enable the targeting of more than one fraction to be separated along the length of the
trommel starting with the smallest size at the beginning of the screening stage.

Some aspects for optimisation of trommel design and positioning for screening operations are:

 capacity (tonnes/hour);
 diameter of drum;
 length of trommel;
 speed of rotation;
 angle of drum (from horizontal plane);
 position of flights within drum (to assist material carriage).

Achieved environmental benefits

 Reduction of the risk of incidents/accidents and prevention of the correlated uncontrolled
emissions.
 Improvement of the waste treatment efficiency.

Environmental performance and operational data

Some operational data are given under 'technical description'.

98 Waste Treatment
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Cross-media effects
None.

Technical considerations relevant to applicability

Not all sorting techniques are adapted to all types of incoming waste. Manual sorting may be
restricted by occupational safety considerations.

Economics
No information provided.

Driving force for implementation

Increase in material recovery rate.

Example plants
Sorting technologies used in waste treatment plants from the reference list are given in Table 2.9
below.

Table 2.9: Examples of sorting techniques used in waste treatment plants from the reference list
Main type of waste treatment
Type of sorting Plant number
performed by the plants
261, 623, 635 Aerobic treatment of excavated soil
Aerobic treatment of source-
251, 459, 592
separated bio-waste
Immobilisation of solid and pasty
482_483
waste
244, 257, 434, 452, 453, 454, 573 MBT
25, 26, 27, 29, 30, 54, 95C, 100, 137,
282C, 285C, 286C, 288C, 289C, 290C, Mechanical treatment in shredders of
291C, 293C, 294C, 316, 364_365, 432, metal waste
455, 456, 464, 478, 516, 571
Manual sorting
Treatment of WEEE containing
629, 630, 636
VFCs and/or VHCs
Mechanical treatment of waste with
116, 133, 312, 326C, 361_363, 632
calorific value
354_360 PCT of excavated contaminated soil
Treatment of water-based liquid
449
waste
299 Repackaging of hazardous waste
Temporary storage of hazardous
200
waste
481 Aerobic treatment of excavated soil
21, 62, 125, 260, 261, 262, 406_407, Aerobic treatment of source-
410_411, 412, 413, 414, 460, 531 separated bio-waste
20, 132, 251, 255, 259, 268, 382, 459 Anaerobic treatment of bio-waste
450 Blending/mixing
Immobilisation of solid and pasty
336, 340, 425_426
waste
17, 19, 37, 89, 127, 239, 243, 244, 257,
Ferromagnetic
266, 279, 337, 434, 452, 453, 454, 519, MBT
separation
566, 573, 594, 628
25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 54, 95C, 100,
136, 137, 282C, 285C, 286C, 288C,
Mechanical treatment in shredders of
289C, 290C, 291C, 293C, 294C,
metal waste
364_365, 432, 441, 455, 456, 464, 478,
588, 590
Treatment of WEEE containing
470, 629, 630, 636
VFCs and/or VHCs

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24, 31, 32, 34, 35, 115, 122C, 133, 219,

269, 270, 273, 277, 278, 280C, 312, Mechanical treatment of waste with
325C, 326C, 361_363, 442C, 443C, calorific value
472, 493, 574, 615, 627, 632, 633
354_360, 489 PCT of excavated contaminated soil
Treatment of water-based liquid
401_404
waste
Recovery of components from
506
catalysts
311 Repackaging of hazardous waste
Treatment of waste containing
589
mercury
19, 37, 127, 243, 244, 257, 266, 279,
337, 434, 452, 453, 454, 519, 566, 573, MBT
594, 628
25, 26, 28, 29, 30, 54, 95C, 100, 136,
282C, 288C, 289C, 290C, 291C, 293C, Mechanical treatment in shredders of
294C, 364_365, 432, 441, 455, 456, metal waste
Eddy current 464, 478, 516, 571, 588, 590
separation Treatment of WEEE containing
470, 629, 630
VFCs and/or VHCs
24, 31, 35, 115, 122C, 269, 270, 273,
Mechanical treatment of waste with
277, 278, 280C, 312, 361_363, 493,
calorific value
627
354_360 PCT of excavated contaminated soil
311 Repackaging of hazardous waste
459 Anaerobic treatment of bio-waste
Immobilisation of solid and pasty
340
Induction all- waste
metal separation 17 MBT
Mechanical treatment in shredders of
29, 30, 95C, 137, 455, 456, 464, 571
metal waste
Electrostatic Mechanical treatment in shredders of
464
Separation metal waste
Aerobic treatment of source-
261
separated bio-waste
266, 267, 279, 337, 452, 594 MBT
Near-Infrared
Mechanical treatment in shredders of
Separation 464, 571
metal waste
32, 122C, 270, 278, 280C, 615, 632, Mechanical treatment of waste with
633 calorific value
Mechanical treatment in shredders of
441
metal waste
X-ray sorting
Mechanical treatment of waste with
24, 280C
calorific value
453, 519, 566, 573 MBT
Mechanical treatment in shredders of
Optical separation 30, 441, 464
metal waste
other than NIS
Mechanical treatment of waste with
280C
calorific value
62, 110, 125, 406_407, 410_411, 412,
Aerobic treatment of source-
413, 418, 419, 460, 518, 520, 521, 531,
separated bio-waste
608, 623
255, 256, 268, 459 Anaerobic treatment of bio-waste
Windsifter / 17, 37, 239, 243, 244, 257, 279, 337,
MBT
air/aeraulic 519, 566, 628
separation 25, 27, 29, 30, 54, 136, 282C, 285C,
Mechanical treatment in shredders of
286C, 288C, 289C, 290C, 291C, 293C,
metal waste
294C, 364_365, 441, 455, 470, 478
Treatment of WEEE containing
470, 630, 636
VFCs and/or VHCs

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24, 32, 34, 35, 133, 270, 273, 277,

Mechanical treatment of waste with
280C, 312, 326C, 361_363, 443C, 493,
calorific value
615, 627, 632, 633
354_360 PCT of excavated contaminated soil
Treatment of water-based liquid
401_404
waste
311 Repackaging of hazardous waste
20, 459, 526, 529 Anaerobic treatment of bio-waste
Sink-float 37, 244, 628 MBT
separation Treatment of WEEE containing
630
VFCs and/or VHCs
Aerobic treatment of source-
62, 125, 406_407, 410_411, 412, 413
separated bio-waste
127, 130, 244, 452, 453, 628 MBT
Mechanical treatment of waste with
Ballistic 442C, 574, 632
calorific value
separation
Treatment of water-based liquid
401_404
waste
Treatment of waste containing
589
mercury
382, 459, 534 Anaerobic treatment of bio-waste
Immobilisation of solid and pasty
336
waste
415 MBT
Treatment of WEEE containing
Density 630
VFCs and/or VHCs
separation (wet)
Mechanical treatment of waste with
24
calorific value
354_360 PCT of excavated contaminated soil
Treatment of water-based liquid
421_422, 423_424, 449
waste
Aerobic treatment of source-
460, 518, 520
separated bio-waste
243, 244, 519 MBT
Mechanical treatment in shredders of
Density 29, 441, 464
metal waste
separation (dry)
Treatment of WEEE containing
630
VFCs and/or VHCs
Mechanical treatment of waste with
280C
calorific value
105, 129, 625 Aerobic treatment of excavated soil
21, 62, 69, 73, 74, 104, 110, 114, 124,
125, 126, 260, 261, 262, 331, 406_407,
410_411, 412, 413, 414, 416, 417, 418, Aerobic treatment of source-
419, 460, 518, 520, 521, 525, 530, 531, separated bio-waste
537, 542, 543, 546, 547, 548, 572, 621,
622, 623, 631
20, 111, 132, 255, 256, 259, 265, 268,
Anaerobic treatment of bio-waste
377, 382, 459, 592
450 Blending/mixing
Screening
Immobilisation of solid and pasty
15, 336, 340
waste
17, 37, 89, 127, 130, 239, 243, 244,
257, 266, 267, 337, 349, 350, 415, 434, MBT
452, 453, 454, 519, 566, 573, 628
25, 26, 28, 29, 30, 54, 95C, 100, 282C,
Mechanical treatment in shredders of
285C, 286C, 293C, 294C, 364_365,
metal waste
432, 455, 456, 464, 478, 516
Treatment of WEEE containing
629
VFCs and/or VHCs

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24, 31, 34, 35, 116, 122C, 133, 219,

269, 270, 273, 280C, 325C, 326C, Mechanical treatment of waste with
361_363, 443C, 493, 574, 615, 627, calorific value
632, 633
14, 353_359, 354_360 PCT of excavated contaminated soil
Treatment of water-based liquid
401_404, 421_422, 423_424
waste
Physico-chemical treatment of waste
469
with calorific value
Temporary storage of hazardous
366
waste
Treatment of waste containing
589
mercury

Reference literature
[ 17, Pretz et al. 2003 ], [ 18, WT TWG 2004 ], [ 51, WT TWG 2005 ], [ 69, UK EA 2013 ], [
13, Schmidt et al. 2002 ], [ 71, Fisher-Klosterman 2015 ], [ 72, Shapiro et al. 2005 ], [ 74,
Falconer 2003 ], [ 73, Parini 2015 ]

2.3.3 Monitoring

2.3.3.1 Overview

Real data are required on the precise effects of the activities of the industrial site on the
environment. It is thus necessary to conduct a planned, regular sampling and monitoring
programme. The parameters monitored include:

 point sources channelled, diffuse and fugitive emissions to the atmosphere, water or
sewer;
 wastes, particularly hazardous wastes;
 contamination of land, water and air;
 use of water, fuels, energy, oxygen, nitrogen and other gases (e.g. argon);
 discharge of thermal energy, noise, odour and dust;
 effects on specific parts of the environment and ecosystems;
 on-site accidents and near misses;
 staff injuries;
 transport accidents;
 complaints from community residents.

Monitoring, however, is not restricted to analytical measuring. It also includes regular

maintenance, and visual and safety checks.

Parallel to this document, a Reference Report on Monitoring of Emissions to Air and Water
from IED installations (ROM) exists to which the reader is referred for further information.

2.3.3.2 Monitoring of influent and effluent waste water

Description
For relevant emissions to water, monitoring of key process parameters at key locations of a
waste water treatment facility.

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Technical description
Proper operation of a waste water treatment facility requires the monitoring and targeted
adjustment of various process parameters in the influent and effluent of the facility. Monitoring
of the relevant parameters can be accomplished by online measurements (that facilitate rapid
intervention and control) or analytical results derived from waste water samples. Parameters to
be monitored and the frequency of monitoring depend on the characteristics of the waste water
to be treated, the final effluent discharge medium and the waste water treatment techniques used
within the facility, based on an inventory of waste water streams. They may include, for
instance, the waste water flow, pH, temperature, conductivity or BOD.

The monitoring is carried out at key locations, e.g. at the point where the emission leaves the
installation and/or at the inlet and/or outlet to pretreatment and at the inlet to final treatment.
Important parameters are monitored at the level of each waste water treatment technique
comprising the facility to ensure the proper operation of the techniques and the subsequent
treatment steps.

Achieved environmental benefits

Monitoring the influent and effluent waste water of a waste water treatment facility helps to
maintain the proper operation of the facility and to detect accidental releases and thus helps to
prevent any possible adverse environmental effects upon discharge of waste waters.

Environmental performance and operational data

No information provided.

Cross-media effects
Some equipment, chemicals and energy are required for carrying out monitoring. The COD
measurement relies on the use of very toxic compounds (i.e. mercury and chromate).

Technical considerations relevant to applicability

The technique is generally applicable.

Economics
The costs associated with monitoring the influent and effluent waste water of a WWTP relate to
personnel and equipment used for sampling and measurement.

Driving force for implementation

To ensure the proper operation of the WWTP and to ensure that the required quality of the
effluent waste water from the WWTP is met and in line with the effluent discharge criteria.

Example plants
Monitoring of influent and effluent in a waste water treatment facility is applied in a number of
installations throughout the EU.

Reference literature
[ 45, COM 2016 ]

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2.3.3.3 Monitoring of emissions to water

Description
Proper operation of a waste treatment plant requires the monitoring and targeted adjustment of
various process parameters in the effluent of the waste treatment plant.

Technical description
Monitoring of the relevant parameters can be accomplished by online measurements (that
facilitate rapid intervention and control) or analytical results derived from waste water samples.
Parameters to be monitored and the frequency of monitoring depend on the characteristics of the
waste water, which are connected inter alia to the type of waste treatment, to the type of wastes
treated in the installation, and to the final effluent discharge medium.

Figure 2.30 summarises the information collected from the questionnaires on parameters
monitored in different types of waste treatment plants.

Figure 2.30: Parameters monitored in emissions to water by type of waste treatment

The monitoring of emissions is carried out in accordance with EN standards or, if EN standards
are not available, ISO, national or other international standards which ensure the provision of
data of an equivalent scientific quality.

Achieved environmental benefits

Monitoring the waste water of a waste treatment plant helps to maintain the proper operation of
the waste treatment plant and to detect accidental releases and thus helps to prevent any possible
adverse environmental effects upon discharge of waste waters.

Environmental performance and operational data

This information is detailed later in this document for each type of waste treatment in the
dedicated chapters (Chapters 3 to 5).

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Cross-media effects
Some equipment, ancillary materials and energy are required for carrying out monitoring. The
COD measurement relies on the use of very toxic compounds (i.e. mercury and chromate).
Technical considerations related to applicability
Generally applicable to all waste treatment plants where there are emissions to water.

Economics
The costs associated with monitoring the effluent waste water of a waste treatment plant relate
to personnel and equipment used for sampling and measurement.

Driving force for implementation

Legislation on water pollution.

Example plants
See examples in Chapters 3 to 5.

Reference literature
[ 43, COM 2018 ], [ 45, COM 2016 ]

2.3.3.4 Monitoring of channelled emissions to air

Description
Proper operation of a waste treatment plant requires the monitoring and targeted adjustment of
various process parameters in the channelled emissions to air of the waste treatment plant.

Technical description
Monitoring of the relevant parameters can be accomplished by online measurements (which
facilitate rapid intervention and control) or analytical results derived from air samples.
Parameters to be monitored and the frequency of monitoring depend inter alia on the type of
waste treatment and on the characteristics of the type of wastes treated in the installation.

Figure 2.31 summarises the information collected from the questionnaires on parameters
monitored in different types of waste treatment plants.

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Chapter 2

Figure 2.31: Parameters monitored in channelled emissions to air by type of waste treatment

The monitoring of emissions is carried out in accordance with EN standards or, if EN standards
are not available, ISO, national or other international standards which ensure the provision of
data of an equivalent scientific quality.

Achieved environmental benefits

Monitoring the waste gas of a waste treatment plant helps to maintain the proper operation
of the waste treatment plant and to detect accidental releases and thus helps to prevent any
possible adverse environmental effects upon emission of waste gas.

Environmental performance and operational data

This information is detailed later in this document for each type of waste treatment in
the dedicated chapters (Chapters 3 to 5).

Cross-media effects
Some equipment, ancillary materials and energy are required for carrying out monitoring.

Technical considerations related to applicability

Generally applicable to all waste treatment plants where there are channelled emissions to air.

Economics
The costs associated with monitoring the waste gas of a waste treatment plant relate to
personnel and equipment used for sampling and measurement.

Driving force for implementation

Legislation on air pollution.
106 Waste Treatment
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Example plants
See examples in Chapters 3 to 5.

Reference literature
[ 43, COM 2018 ], [ 45, COM 2016 ]

2.3.3.5 Odour monitoring

Description
Odour monitoring is carried out using analytical methods (i.e. physical and chemical analysis)
or sensorial approaches. Sensorial analyses, being assigned to the 'human sensor', are the cause
of significant uncertainties.

Technical description
The techniques include:

 for odour concentration determination (expressed in OUE/m3, to control limit values):

dynamic olfactometry (measured according to the European standard EN 13725);
 for odour in ambient air: the grid method (according to the European standard EN 16841-
1) or the plume method (according to the European standard EN 16841-2) to determine
the odour exposure;
 for odour perception in the surrounding area (impact): odour surveys (see odour intensity
mapping and odour wheels);
 electronic noses.

To determine the odour concentration, an air sample must be taken. The sampling techniques
are similar to those used for measuring individual compounds.

Techniques for odour monitoring are described in [ 43, COM 2018 ], and in [ 45, COM 2016 ]

Achieved environmental benefits

The achieved environmental benefit is the facilitation of the minimisation of odorous emissions.

Environmental performance and operational data

See [ 43, COM 2018 ] and [ 45, COM 2016 ]

Cross-media effects
None.

Technical considerations related to applicability

Odour monitoring is applicable where an odour nuisance at sensitive receptors is expected
and/or has been substantiated.

Economics
See [ 43, COM 2018 ] and [ 45, COM 2016 ]

Driving force for implementation

The driving forces for implementation include legislation and complaints occurring in the
vicinity of the installation/site.

Example plants
See Chapters 3 to 5.

Reference literature
[ 43, COM 2018 ], [ 45, COM 2016 ]

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2.3.4 Techniques for the prevention and control of channelled

emissions to air

2.3.4.1 Overview

This section contains techniques used in the waste treatment sector to prevent, reduce or control
the emissions to air. Emphasis needs to be placed on the prevention of the production and
displacement of pollutants.

Channelled emissions relate to those emissions that result from the collection of gas from a
vessel or area and that are passed on, either via abatement or directly, to a stack or vent.

This section only covers those techniques most relevant to the waste treatment sector. These
techniques have already been described and analysed in the CWW BREF[[ 45, COM 2016 ].
For this reason, it is not intended in this section to provide a complete analysis of each of the
different techniques. Instead, only a short description of the techniques is given as well as
examples of plants of the data collection where these techniques are applied. Preventive
techniques are covered in the following chapters since they are very dependent on the type of
process/activity carried out.

2.3.4.2 Cyclone

Description
In all types of cyclones, centrifugal forces are used to separate solid particles or liquid droplets
from waste gases. Cyclone filters are used to remove heavier particulates, which ‘fall out’ as the
waste gases are forced into a rotating motion before they leave the separator again.

Example plants
Table 2.10 shows the list of plants from the reference list equipped with a cyclone. Almost all of
them carry out shredding of waste.

Table 2.10: Plants equipped with cyclonic separation

Plants equipped with cyclonic
Main type of waste treatment
separation as an abatement technique

25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 54, 55, 136, 282C, 288C, 289C, Mechanical treatment in shredders of metal
290C, 291C, 293C, 294C, 455, 456, 464, 478 waste

Mechanical treatment of waste with

133, 280C
calorific value
Aerobic treatment of source-separated bio-
460
waste

Reference literature
[ 45, COM 2016 ]

2.3.4.3 Electrostatic precipitator (ESP)

Description
An electrostatic precipitator (ESP) is a particulate collection device that removes particles from
a flowing gas using the force of an induced electrostatic charge.

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Example plants
Table 2.11 shows the list of plants equipped with an ESP. This abatement technique is clearly
not widespread in the waste treatment sector as only two plants are equipped with it.

Table 2.11: Plants equipped with an electrostatic precipitator (ESP)

Plants equipped with an ESP as
Main type of waste treatment
an abatement technique
401_404 Treatment of water-based liquid waste
Re-refining and other preparations for reuse of
620
waste oils

Reference literature
[ 45, COM 2016 ]

2.3.4.4 Fabric filter

Description
The creation of a barrier separates the dust from the waste gases. Solid particles are trapped by a
woven fabric while the gas flow can pass through it.

Example plants
Table 2.12 shows the plants from the reference list equipped with a fabric filter. This abatement
technique is essentially used in dust-generating processes such as mechanical treatment of waste
or physico-chemical treatment of solid/pasty waste.

Table 2.12: Plants equipped with a fabric filter

Plants equipped with a fabric filter as an
Main type of waste treatment
abatement technique
100, 29, 293C, 294C, 364_365, 432, 455, 464, Mechanical treatment in shredders of metal
588, 590 waste
24, 31, 34, 35, 122C, 133, 269, 270, 277, 278,
Mechanical treatment of waste with calorific
280C, 312, 326C, 361_363, 442C, 443C, 615,
value
627, 632
Treatment of WEEE containing VFCs and/or
458, 630, 636
VHCs
17, 243, 244, 257, 267, 279, 337, 628 MBT
15, 176, 181C, 187C, 222, 223, 224, 225, 226,
Physico-chemical treatment of solid/pasty waste
228, 229, 340, 399, 425_426, 613, 614
40, 188 Treatment of excavated contaminated soil
Regeneration/recovery of pollution abatement
505
components / FGT residues
299 Repackaging of hazardous waste
306, 366 Temporary storage of hazardous waste
589 Treatment of waste containing mercury
347 Treatment of water-based liquid waste
Aerobic treatment of source-separated bio-
260
waste
485 Anaerobic treatment of bio-waste

Reference literature
[ 45, COM 2016 ]

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2.3.4.5 Absolute filter

Description
In absolute filters (e.g. HEPA (high-efficiency particle air filter), ULPA (ultra-low penetration
air filter)), the filter medium is paper or matted glass fibre with a high packing density. The
waste gas stream is passed through the filter medium, where dust is collected. The dust cake that
forms on the filter medium can increase the collection efficiency. The filter medium is pleated
to provide a smaller A/C ratio (volume flow rate to surface area).

The most common designs are a box filter cell and a cylindrical filter cell. In a box filter cell,
the pleated medium is placed in a rigid, square frame constructed of wood or metal. The air
flows from the front to the back of the filter. In a cylindrical filter cell, a metal cap seals the
medium at one end. The air flows from the outside to the inside of the filter.

Example plants
Table 2.13 shows the plants from the reference list equipped with absolute filtration.

Table 2.13: Plants equipped with absolute filtration

Plants equipped with absolute filtration as
Type of waste treatment
an abatement technique
327, 588, 589, 590 Treatment of waste containing mercury
Physico-chemical treatment of solid and/or pasty
187C
waste
260 Aerobic treatment of source-separated bio-waste

Reference literature
[ 45, COM 2016 ]

2.3.4.6 Thermal oxidation

Description
Thermal oxidation (also often referred to as 'incineration', 'thermal incineration' or 'oxidative
combustion') is the oxidation of combustible gases and odorants in a waste gas stream by
heating a mixture of contaminants with air or oxygen above its ignition point in a combustion
chamber and maintaining it at a high temperature for sufficient time to complete combustion to
carbon dioxide and water.

Thermal oxidisers are used to reduce emissions from almost all VOC sources, including reactor
vents, distillation vents, solvent operations and operations performed in ovens, dryers and kilns.
They can handle minor fluctuations in flow, but large fluctuations require the use of other
techniques such as flares and flash tanks. Their fuel consumption can be high when low-loaded
waste gases are fed so thermal units are best suited for smaller process applications with
moderate to high VOC loadings.

Several types of thermal oxidisers are operated:

 the straight thermal oxidiser;

 the regenerative thermal oxidiser;
 the recuperative thermal oxidiser;
 gas engines, kilns or steam boilers.

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Example plants
Table 2.14 below shows the plants from the reference list equipped with thermal oxidation
systems.

Table 2.14: Plants equipped with a thermal oxidation system

Plants equipped with a thermal oxidation
Main type of waste treatment
system as an abatement technique
239, 243, 244, 257, 267, 279, 628 MBT
425_426, 494, 569 Physico-chemical treatment of solid/pasty waste
188C Treatment of excavated contaminated soil
Regeneration/recovery of pollution abatement
505
components / FGT residues
368_369_370_371, 401_404 Treatment of water-based liquid waste
394 Regeneration of spent solvents
Re-refining and other preparations for reuse of
160C, 570, 620, 624
waste oils
191C Treatment of waste containing POPs
Physico-chemical treatment of waste with
78, 79_80_81_82, 172C, 469
calorific value
327 Treatment of waste containing mercury

Reference literature
[ 45, COM 2016 ]

2.3.4.7 Biofiltration

Description
The waste gas stream is passed through a bed of organic material (such as peat, heather,
compost, root wood, tree bark, peat, compost, softwood and different kinds of combinations) or
some inert material (such as clay, activated carbon, and polyurethane), where it is biologically
oxidised by naturally occurring microorganisms into carbon dioxide, water, inorganic salts and
biomass.

Biofiltration is well suited to low concentrations of pollutants that are easily soluble in water. It
is normally not suitable, however, for waste gases containing many different and/or changing
pollutants or air flow rates. Biofilters are also used to reduce bioaerosols emissions, although in
some circumstances they may be net emitters of bioaerosols [ 76, Sniffer 2014 ] as well as of
NH3 [ 76, Sniffer 2014 ], [ 77, E.la Pagans et al. 2005 ] and H2S [ 78, UK EA 2013 ], [ 79, Omri
et al. 2011 ]. Methane is not abated because the residence time needed would be too long for
normal filter dimensions.

When concentrations of nitrogenous, sulphurous or chlorous organic or inorganic compounds

are too high, the formation of nitric acid, sulphuric acid and hydrochloric acid respectively may
acidify the filter material, rendering it useless, and thus drastically increase the required
replacement frequency. When applying biofiltration, it is important to monitor the pH within the
filter material and to ensure that this pH is in the range of 7–8 to decompose organic
components. At a pH value of 6.5, the decomposition speed decreases.

A biofilter construction is shown in Figure 2.32.

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Source: [ 45, COM 2016 ]

Figure 2.32: Biofilter construction

The biofilter is designed considering the types of waste to be treated. The appropriate medium
type in terms of water retention capacity, bulk density, porosity, structural integrity, etc. is
selected. Appropriate medium height and surface area, associated with a suitable ventilation and
air circulation system, are selected in order to ensure a uniform air distribution through the
medium and a sufficient residence time of the waste gas inside the medium (e.g. empty bed
residence time from 40 to 100 seconds).

A prior treatment of the waste gas with a water or acid scrubber may be needed in the case of
high NH3 content (e.g. 5–40 mg/Nm3) in order to control the medium pH and to limit the
formation of N2O in the biofilter.

Some other odorous compounds (e.g. mercaptans, H2S) can cause acidification of the biofilter
medium, and using a water or alkaline scrubber in combination with the biofilter may also be
needed in this case. The biofilter is operated by monitoring and controlling the medium
moisture content and medium pH and by monitoring and controlling the temperature and
humidity of the waste gas entering the biofilter.
The abatement efficiency of the biofilter is monitored via the comparison of the biofilter air
inlet and outlet NH3, H2S and/or odour concentration.

Biofilters can be divided into open biofilters and enclosed biofilters.

Example plants
Table 2.15 shows the list of reference plants equipped with a biofilter. These are mainly plants
carrying out biological treatment of waste.

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Table 2.15: Plants equipped with a biofilter

Plants equipped with a biofilter as
Main type of waste treatment
an abatement technique
62, 114, 261, 262, 328, 372, 406_407, 410_411,
Aerobic treatment of source-separated bio-
412, 413, 414, 416, 460, 511, 518, 520, 537,
waste
542, 543, 608, 609, 621, 623, 634, 635
71, 111, 251, 255, 256, 265, 268, 339, 341,
Anaerobic treatment of bio-waste
377, 459, 484, 485, 526, 528, 529, 541
17, 19, 37, 127, 243, 244, 266, 267, 279, 337,
MBT
338, 349, 350, 415, 452, 454, 566, 573
Mechanical treatment of waste with calorific
32, 161C, 278, 280C
value
Treatment of WEEE containing VFCs and/or
212
VHCs
340, 495_496, 569 Physico-chemical treatment of solid/pasty waste
03, 07, 08, 156C, 163C, 368_369_370_371, 607 Treatment of water-based liquid waste

Reference literature
[ 45, COM 2016 ], [ 76, Sniffer 2014 ], [ 78, UK EA 2013 ], [ 80, ÖWAV 2002 ], [ 81, VDI
2016 ], [ 77, E.la Pagans et al. 2005 ], [ 79, Omri et al. 2011 ], [ 82, Yang et al. 1994 ], [ 83, UK
EA 2013 ], [ 84, Dumont et al. 2014 ], [ 70, Amlinger et al. 2009 ]

2.3.4.8 Condensation and cryogenic condensation

Description
Condensation is a technique that eliminates VOC vapours from a waste gas stream by reducing
its temperature below its dew point.

There are different methods of condensation, depending on the operating temperature range and
including:

 coolant condensation, for a condensation temperature down to about 25 °C;

 refrigerant condensation, for a condensation temperature down to about 2 °C;
 brine condensation, for a condensation temperature down to about -10 °C;
 ammonia brine condensation, for a condensation temperature down to about -40 °C (one-
stage) or -60 °C (two-stage);
 cryogenic condensation, for a condensation temperature down to about -120 °C, in
practice often operated between -40 °C and -80 °C in the condensation device;
 closed-cycle inert gas condensation.

As for cryogenic condensation, temperatures below the freezing point of water require an
essentially water-free gas feed which may imply a pretreatment to remove water. This
pretreatment is not possible when the gas humidity is too high.

Example plants
Table 2.16 shows the plants from the reference list equipped with condensation (coolant or
cryogenic) systems.

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Table 2.16: Plants equipped with a condensation system

Plants equipped with a condensation
Main type of waste treatment
system as an abatement technique
Treatment of WEEE containing VFCs and/or
470, 629
VHCs
311 Repackaging of hazardous waste
327 Treatment of waste containing mercury
450 Blending/mixing
56, 168C, 169C, 170 Regeneration of spent solvents
Re-refining and other preparations for reuse of
605
waste oils

Reference literature
[ 45, COM 2016 ]

2.3.4.9 Adsorption

Description
Adsorption is a heterogeneous reaction in which gas molecules are retained on a solid or liquid
surface (the adsorbent is also referred to as a molecular sieve) that prefers specific compounds
to others and thus removes them from effluent streams. When the surface has adsorbed as much
as it can, the adsorbent is replaced or the adsorbed content is desorbed as part of the
regeneration of the adsorbent. When desorbed, the contaminants are usually at a higher
concentration and can either be recovered or disposed of.

Typical adsorbents include:

 granular activated carbon (GAC), the most common adsorbent with a wide efficiency
range and not restricted to polar or non-polar compounds; GAC can be impregnated, e.g.
with oxidants such as potassium permanganate or with sulphur compounds (improving
the retention of heavy metals);
 zeolites, with properties depending on their manufacturing, working either as mere
molecular sieves, selective ion exchangers or hydrophobic VOC adsorbers;
 macroporous polymer particles, which are used as granules or beads, without being
highly selective with respect to VOCs;
 silica gel;
 sodium-aluminium silicates.

The application of adsorption encompasses:

 the recovery of VOCs (raw material, product, solvent, etc.) for reuse or recirculation; it
may be used as a stand-alone system, as a concentration step to improve the viability of
further recovery operations such as membrane separation or to treat the tail gas emissions
from an abatement system;
 the abatement of pollutants (hazardous substances from production or treatment facilities
(e.g. WWTP) such as VOCs, H2S, odours, trace gases) that cannot be recirculated or
otherwise used, possibly with GAC as an adsorbent which is then not regenerated but
incinerated;
 its use as a guard filter after final treatment facilities.

The most important measurement is the pressure drop across the dust filters (if fitted) and across
the adsorbent bed. Across the filters, the pressure should rise steadily after renewal or cleaning.
Too rapid a rise gives warning of too high a pressure drop later on due to an abnormal dust load.

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Across the bed, the pressure should remain roughly constant. Any increase indicates either dust
bypassing the dust filter or adsorbent dust from granule breakdown. There should also be an
alarm for high pressure.

Example plants
Table 2.17 shows the list of plants from the reference list equipped with activated carbon
adsorption. Activated carbon filters have been tested for a number of months in two metal
shredder plants in Europe after different preliminary treatments of the air flow in order to
protect against any deflagration risk, and to eliminate dust and/or heating to reduce the humidity
content. [ 26, Mech. subgroup 2014 ]

Table 2.17: Plants equipped with activated carbon adsorption

Plants equipped with activated carbon
Type of waste treatment
adsorption as an abatement technique
127, 244, 434 MBT
54, 364_365, Mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste
Mechanical treatment of waste with calorific
32, 35, 277, 280C
value
Treatment of WEEE containing VFCs and/or
138, 458, 629, 630, 636
VHCs
176C, 181C, 425_426, 495_496 Physico-chemical treatment of solid/pasty waste
40, 188C, 353_359 Treatment of excavated contaminated soil
Regeneration/recovery of pollution abatement
497
components / FGT residues
311 Repackaging of hazardous waste
Physico-chemical treatment of waste with
148C, 172C, 174C, 553
calorific value
59, 146C, 589 Treatment of waste containing mercury
03, 08, 140_141_142_143C, 148C, 149_150C,
Treatment of water-based liquid waste
151C, 156C, 163C, 216, 217, 317, 347, 463
324 Blending/mixing
56, 170, 394, 476, 554 Regeneration of spent solvents
Re-refining and other preparations for reuse of
92, 619, 620
waste oils
191C Treatment of waste containing POPs
588, 590 Treatment of mercury-containing waste
260 Aerobic treatment of source-separated bio-waste
484, 485, 526, 528 Anaerobic treatment of bio-waste

Reference literature
[ 45, COM 2016 ]

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2.3.4.10 Scrubbing

Description
Wet scrubbing (or absorption) is a mass transfer between a soluble gas and a solvent – often
water – in contact with each other. Physical scrubbing is preferred for chemical recovery,
whereas chemical scrubbing is restricted to removing and abating gaseous compounds. Physico-
chemical scrubbing takes an intermediate position. The component is dissolved in the absorbing
liquid and involved in a reversible chemical reaction, which enables the recovery of the gaseous
component.

Scrubbing or absorption is widely used as a raw material and/or product recovery technique for
the separation and purification of gaseous streams which contain high concentrations of VOCs,
especially compounds soluble in water such as alcohols, acetone or formaldehyde. The use of
absorption as the primary control technique for organic vapours is subject to the availability of a
suitable solvent, with a high solubility for the gas, low vapour pressure and low viscosity.

The major waste gas treatment applications of scrubbing processes are as follows:

 The removal of gaseous pollutants, such as hydrogen halides, SO2, ammonia, hydrogen
sulphide (H2S) or volatile organic solvents.
 The removal of dust with certain types of scrubbers. Wet dust scrubbing entails
separating the dust by intensively mixing the incoming gas with water, usually combined
with the removal of the coarse particles through the use of centrifugal force. In order to
achieve this, the gas is inserted tangentially (at an angle from the side). This technique
allows the abatement of dust emissions and bioaerosols as well as inorganic chemicals
(such as SO2, NH3, NH4Cl), VOCs and heavy metals that may be attached to the dust.

Depending on the pollutants to be removed, several aqueous scrubbing liquids are used
including the following:

 Water, to remove solvents and gases such as hydrogen halides or ammonia, with the
main aim being to recover and reuse these contaminants.
 Alkaline solutions (e.g. caustic soda (i.e. sodium hydroxide) and sodium carbonate), to
remove acid components such as hydrogen halides, sulphur dioxide, hydrogen sulphide
(H2S), phenols, chlorine; also used for second-stage scrubbing to remove residual
hydrogen halides after first-stage aqueous absorption; and for biogas desulphurisation.
 Alkaline oxidation solutions, i.e. alkaline solutions with oxidants such as sodium
hypochlorite (NaClO), chlorine dioxide (ClO2), ozone (O3) or hydrogen peroxide (H2O2).
 Oxidation solutions, to recover NOX from concentrated waste gases.
 Sodium hydrogen sulphite solutions, to remove odour (e.g. aldehydes).
 Na2S4 solutions, to remove mercury from waste gas.
 Acidic solutions, to remove alkaline components, e.g. ammonia, amines and esters. The
dosing of the acid is done by means of pH regulation.
 Monoethanolamine and diethanolamine solutions, suitable for the absorption and
recovery of hydrogen sulphide.
 Organic solvents with low volatility, e.g. chilled nonane for the recovery of light VOCs
such as butanes and pentanes.

Example plants
Table 2.18 shows the list of reference plants equipped with wet scrubbers (either water, acid or
alkaline scrubbers).

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Table 2.18: Plants equipped with a wet scrubbing system

Plants equipped with a wet scrubbing system
Type of waste treatment
as an abatement technique
19, 37, 127, 239, 566, 573 MBT
25, 26, 27, 28, 54, 55, 95C, 282C, 288C, 289C, Mechanical treatment in shredders of metal
290C, 291C, 364_365, 432, 441, 455, 456, 571 waste
Mechanical treatment of waste with calorific
161C, 278
value
15, 340, 348, 399, 425_426, 475, 495_496, 569 Physico-chemical treatment of solid/pasty waste
14, 188C Treatment of excavated contaminated soil
552 Repackaging of hazardous waste
04, 06, 07, 08 140_141_142_143C,
144_145_147C, 154_155C, 192C, 194C, 215,
Treatment of water-based liquid waste
217, 317, 322, 368_369_370_371, 401_404,
461, 468, 550
168C, 169C, 394, 554 Regeneration of spent solvents
Re-refining and other preparations for reuse of
570, 605, 620, 624
waste oils
114, 126, 260, 262, 328, 372, 416, 460, 608, 634 Aerobic treatment of source-separated bio-waste
71, 111, 251, 255, 268, 377, 459 Anaerobic treatment of bio-waste
332, 450 Blending/mixing
193C Other

Reference literature
[ 45, COM 2016 ], [ 76, Sniffer 2014 ]

2.3.4.11 Sorbent injection

Description
The principle of sorbent injection is the introduction of reactive material to, and its dispersion
in, the waste gas stream. This material reacts with SOX species to form a solid which has to be
removed afterwards from the waste gas stream (often with a filter, e.g. a bag filter).

The most frequently used sorbents are:

 limestone and its derivatives;

 dolomite and its derivatives;
 sodium hydrogen carbonate (sodium bicarbonate);
 sodium carbonate (soda ash).

The choice of sorbent depends on the process conditions (temperature, flow rate, humidity,
pollutant contents) and its availability.

These sorbents are also effective at removing other acid gases, particularly hydrogen chloride
(HCl) and hydrogen fluoride (HF). If these acid gases are intended to be recovered, the waste
gas needs to be pretreated (water scrubbing, see Section 2.3.4.10).

Example plants
Table 2.19 shows the plants from the reference list equipped with sorbent injection systems.

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Table 2.19: Plants equipped with a sorbent injection system

Plants equipped with a sorbent injection
Type of waste treatment
as an abatement technique
243, 244, 267, 337 MBT
27 Mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste
Physico-chemical treatment of liquid waste with
469
calorific value
03 Treatment of water-based liquid waste
Re-refining and other preparations for reuse of
235
waste oils

Reference literature
[ 45, COM 2016 ]

2.3.5 Techniques for the prevention and control of odour and

diffuse/fugitive emissions to air

2.3.5.1 Odour management plan

Description
An odour management plan (OMP) is part of the environmental management system (EMS) of
the installation (see Section 2.3.1.1) and includes elements to prevent or reduce odorous
nuisances.

Technical description
The OMP includes the following:

 A protocol containing actions and timelines.

 A protocol for conducting odour monitoring. It may be complemented by measurement/
estimation of odour exposure (e.g. according to EN 16841-1 or -2) or estimation of odour
impact.
 A protocol for response to identified odour incidents (including the management of
complaints: identification of operations carried out, weather conditions such as
temperature, wind direction, rainfall, communication with the authority and with
complainant, etc.).
 An odour prevention and reduction programme designed to identify the source(s), to
measure/estimate odour exposure, to characterise the contributions of the sources, and to
implement prevention and/or reduction measures.

Achieved environmental benefits

Prevention or reduction of the emissions of those odorous releases that may be offensive and
detectable beyond the boundaries of the site.

Environmental performance and operational data

No information provided.

Cross-media effects
No information provided.

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Technical considerations related to applicability

The technique is applicable to new and existing plants provided that an odour nuisance in
residential or other sensitive areas (e.g. recreational areas, workplaces) is expected and/or has
been reported.

Economics
No information provided.

Driving force for implementation

Reduction of number of complaints from the neighbourhood.

Example plants
Table 2.20 shows the plants from the reference list where an odour management plan is
implemented. This is essentially used in odour-generating processes such as biological
treatment of waste, especially aerobic treatments.

Table 2.20: Plants where an odour management plan is implemented

Plants where an odour management plan is
Main type of waste treatment
implemented
21, 62, 128, 129, 328, 460, 511, 518, 520, 521,
530, 531,537, 542, 543, 544, 546, 547, 548, 572, Aerobic treatment of source-separated bio-waste
579, 608, 609, 621, 622, 623
131, 459, 485, 526, 528, 529, 534, 541, Anaerobic treatment of bio-waste
130, 266, 337, 338, 453, 519, 628 MBT
487, 493 Mechanical treatment of waste with calorific value
58, 340, 348, 427, 495 Physico-chemical treatment of solid/pasty waste
494 Treatment of excavated contaminated soil
Regeneration/recovery of pollution abatement
497
components / FGT residues
59 Treatment of waste containing mercury
153, 347, 421, 423 Treatment of water-based liquid waste
Physico-chemical treatment of waste with calorific
79, 332, 469,
value
92, 619, 620 Re-refining of waste oil

Reference literature
[ 85, Scori 2002 ], [ 9, UK EA 2001 ], [ 10, Babtie Group Ltd 2002 ], [ 86, VDI and Dechema
2002 ], [ 11, WT TWG 2003 ], [ 33, Irish EPA 2003 ], [ 87, Prantner 2002 ], [ 13, Schmidt et al.
2002 ], [ 18, WT TWG 2004 ], [ 35, VROM 2004 ]

2.3.5.2 Prevention or reduction of odour emissions from waste treatment

Description
The main techniques used to reduce odorous emissions are: minimising residence times, using
chemical treatment and optimising aerobic treatment.

Technical description
The techniques given below can be used to minimise odour emissions:

 Minimise the residence time of (potentially) odorous waste in collection, storage and
handling systems (e.g. pipes, tanks, containers), in particular under anaerobic conditions
(when relevant, adequate provisions are made for the acceptance of seasonal peak
volumes of waste).
 Use chemicals to destroy or to reduce the formation of odorous compounds (e.g. to
oxidise or to precipitate hydrogen sulphide).

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 Optimise the aerobic treatment, e.g. by controlling the oxygen content and frequent
maintenance of the aeration system. In the case of aerobic treatment of water-based liquid
waste, the optimisation may also include: use of pure oxygen and/or removal of scum in
tanks.
 Cover or enclose facilities for storing, handling, collecting and treating odorous waste
(including waste water and sludge) and collect the odorous waste gas for further
treatment.
 End-of-pipe treatment.

For more information on minimising the residence time of putrescible waste in storage, see
Section 4.5.1.2.

Table 2.21 provides an overview of end-of-pipe odour treatment techniques.

Table 2.21: Overview of end-of-pipe odour treatment techniques

Reported odour
Technique abatement Comments
efficiency (%) (1)
Adsorption 70–99 ─
Wet scrubbing 60–85 ─
Alkaline oxidative
80–90 Variant of the absorption technique
scrubbing
Thermal oxidation 98–99.9 ─
Catalytic oxidation 80–95 ─
Low shift of pollution to
any other media.
Biofiltration (2) 70–99
Few chemical agents added.
Low energy consumption
Bioscrubbing (2) 70–80 ─
Biotrickling 70–90 ─
Moving-bed
> 90 ─
trickling filter
(1) As reported in the corresponding sections of this document where the techniques are described.
(2) Biofiltration and bioscrubbing can be combined into one system to benefit from the advantages of both
techniques. The bioscrubber would act as a humidifier and degrade a high portion of the odorous load. It
will also display a buffering effect to prevent high concentrations of odorous substances from entering the
biofilter, which otherwise might lead to a rise in temperature in the biofilter material due to an increasing
degradation process. Elevated temperatures would result in a lower efficiency of the biofilter.
Source: [ 45, COM 2016 ], [ 88, Waste refinery 2013 ]

See [ 45, COM 2016 ] for more details on odour abatement techniques.

Achieved environmental benefits

Reduction of odorous emissions.

Cross-media effects
The cross-media effects associated with the abatement techniques used (e.g. scrubber,
incinerator/oxidiser) are described in the section of the BREF relevant to each specific
technique.

Management-type techniques have no cross-media effects.

Removing surface scum and skimmings in waste water treatment tanks entails the use of energy.

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Environmental performance and operational data

See [ 45, COM 2016 ]

Applicability
The minimisation of residence times is only applicable to open systems, as the enclosed systems
allow the prevention of odour emissions.

Chemical treatments to destroy or reduce the formation of odorous compounds may not be
applicable if it may hamper the desired output quality.

Economics
No information provided.

Driving force for implementation

The driving forces for the implementation of the techniques mentioned include:

 national legislation on odours (e.g. TA Luft in Germany);

 odour nuisances (especially from treatment of biodegradable wastes) in the case of nearby
housing and workplaces;
 occurrence of odorous substances from anaerobic reactors, especially when waste water
contains high concentrations of sulphate, which is converted to sulphides.

Example plants
See Chapters 3 to 5.

Reference literature
[ 45, COM 2016 ]

2.3.5.3 Reduction of diffuse emissions

Description
Selection of operational and design measures, as part of the EMS, which can be implemented to
prevent or reduce diffuse emissions to air of dust, bioaerosols and/or VOCs.

Technical description
Several operational and design measures might be selected, on the basis of the expected type of
emissions:

Minimisation of the number of potential emission sources

 To design piping layout appropriately by:
o minimising pipe run length;
o reducing the number of flanges (connectors) and valves;
o using welded fittings and pipes.
 To use, if possible, gravity transfer rather than pumps.

Selection of high-integrity equipment

 To use high-integrity equipment such as:
o valves with double packing seals or equally efficient equipment;
o fitting high-integrity gaskets (such as spiral wound, kammprofile or ring joints)
for critical applications;
o pumps/compressors/agitators fitted with mechanical seals instead of packing;
o magnetically driven pumps/compressors/agitators;

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o appropriate service hoses, access ports, piercing piers, drill heads, e.g. when
degassing WEEE containing VFCs and/or VHCs.

Corrosion prevention
 To ensure that all equipment (e.g. gaskets) is selected appropriately for each process
application.
 To avoid corrosion by appropriate selection of construction material.
 To prevent corrosion by lining or coating of equipment, by painting pipes to prevent
external corrosion and by using corrosion inhibitors for materials in contact with
equipment.

Containment and collection of diffuse emissions

 To store, treat and handle waste and material that may generate diffuse emissions in
enclosed buildings and/or enclosed equipment (e.g. conveyor belts).
 To enclose (partially or completely) liquid effluent drainage systems and tanks used for
liquid effluent storage/treatment. Emissions from tanks containing wastes that may
generate emissions to air (such as VOCs) are controlled, e.g. with flow-balancing
systems, and/or abated, e.g. with activated carbon filters.
 To minimise emissions during sampling by using closed sampling systems or in-line
analysers.
 To install a maintenance drain-out system to eliminate open discharges from drains.
 To cover conveyor belts, especially the connection points and discharge areas.
 To enclose transfer points and sorting facilities.
 To ensure enclosure by work instructions or automation, e.g. closing doors.
a. To have the enclosed equipment or buildings under adequate pressure;
b. To have the enclosed systems or buildings equipped with extraction, and connected
to a suitable abatement system.
c. To design extraction systems to take into account the removal of the large volumes
of air present due to the dimensions of the mixing areas and the need to have
vehicular access for loading and unloading. The extraction systems are capable of
controlling all foreseeable emissions, other than in emergency situations.
 To have localised extraction and/or misting/sprinkler systems on equipment with
significant dust formation (e.g. screening drums) or in storage areas, at handling or
dust-intensive process steps such as unloading. These systems distribute a fine spray of
water that stops the dust from rising while binding the water at the same time to prevent
waste water.
 To use air suction systems close to the emission sources.
 To have separate suction and abatement units for sorting and transportation units.
 To use wind barriers.

Selection of input waste

 To place emphasis on pre-acceptance screening (see Section 2.3.2.1) and on the rejection of
specific wastes. For example, and particularly for odorous materials, they need to be
handled in dedicated sealed handling areas which incorporate an extraction system leading
to abatement equipment.

Storage of waste
 To store containerised wastes under cover. Covered areas have adequate provision for
ventilation (resulting in the storage area being kept above or below atmospheric pressure).
This applies to any container held in general storage, reception storage (pending

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acceptance), quarantine, or which is being emptied, repackaged or otherwise managed.

The air is treated before it is released depending on the type of contamination, if any.
 To store drums and containers of odorous materials in enclosed buildings connected to
abatement units.
 To store the waste and materials that can generate diffuse emissions of dust (e.g. SLF,
SHF in the case of shredders) in enclosed buildings or containers.
 To minimise the height of waste piles that can generate diffuse emissions.
 To install extraction systems for dust abatement or spray damping in storage bunkers.

Handling of waste
 To dampen the material that can generate diffuse emissions of dust with water before and
during loading and conditioning processes.
 To dampen potential sources of diffuse dust emissions (e.g. waste storage, open handling
processes and traffic areas) with water or fog cannons.
 To reduce the drop height for the material.
 To avoid traffic routes through the delivery area.
 To set speed limits for trucks.
 To minimise the storage time of wastes in the delivery area.

Mixing of waste
 To implement measures to restrict dusty reagents.
 To mix reagents and waste using impellers or mixing systems integral to the mixing
vessel.
 To use screw feeders, gravity or pneumatic means for handling systems for bulk transfer
of dry wastes and reagents.
 To deliver the feedstock by pipe into the mixing vessel.

Maintenance
 To facilitate maintenance activities by ensuring access to potentially leaky equipment.
 To regularly control and maintain protective equipment, e.g. lamellar curtains.

Cleaning
 To keep the pollution of the exhaust air low by:
o using surfaces and work equipment that are easy to clean;
o cleaning the floor of the hall regularly with an appropriate sweep-suction
cleaner or industrial vacuum cleaner.
 To reinforce, maintain and wash driveways during periods of dry weather.
 To regularly clean the whole waste treatment area (halls, traffic areas, storage areas, etc.),
sunshades, conveyor bands, other equipment and containers.
 To use a tyre-washing plant to prevent dispersion of waste by vehicles to the outer areas
of the plant.

Achieved environmental benefits

Reduction of VOC, odour and dust emissions.

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Environmental performance and operational data

Common abatement systems can be connected to the venting systems for tanks, to reduce
solvent losses to the air due to displacement when filling tanks and tankers. Sites handling dusty
wastes may have specific hoods, filters and extraction systems.

Cross-media effects
One cross-media effect is the water usage when dampening the material.

A positive side effect of enclosure is the reduction of noise for workers on site.

Technical considerations relevant to applicability

The use of high-integrity equipment may be restricted in the case of existing plants due to
operability requirements (for instance, magnetically driven equipment may not be applicable in
the case of liquids containing ferrous particles).

The use of enclosed equipment or buildings may be restricted by safety considerations such as
the risk of explosion or oxygen depletion. The use of enclosed equipment or buildings may also
be constrained by the volume of waste.

Not all measures are applicable for all types of diffuse emissions (dust, bioaerosols, odour,
VOCs).

Economics
No information provided.

Driving force for implementation

 Legislation on air pollution.
 Reduction of number of complaints from the neighbourhood.

Example plants
The majority of chemical plants have an air extraction and scrubbing system for the main
processing tanks and for any pretreatment operations that could produce a toxic gaseous
discharge to air. Most WT plants have some abatement systems in place to control emissions to
air, but the type and level of control vary widely.

Sites storing organic wastes with a solvent content tend to have a carbon filter system to control
discharges to air and to undertake some monitoring of the exit gas. Some VOCs can be returned
to solution through aqueous scrubbers or mineral oil scrubbers, whilst other VOCs can be
trapped in activated carbon filters. Roofed tanks are common when storing materials containing
products with a high vapour pressure. Special equipment is required when storing highly
flammable products. Special care is typically taken in order to avoid leaks and spillages to the
ground which would pollute the soil and groundwater or allow material to enter the surface
water. Some sites have balancing systems (with nitrogen gas) to reduce the air displacement
when filling the tanks. All storage tanks used in a re-refining process are blanketed and
balanced. The amount of displacement to vents during the transfer of contents is minimised in
some cases by connected vent pipes.

Reference literature
[ 89, Eklund et al. 1997 ], [ 85, Scori 2002 ], [ 9, UK EA 2001 ], [ 10, Babtie Group Ltd 2002 ],
[ 90, Hogg et al. 2002 ], [ 14, Eucopro 2003 ], [ 17, Pretz et al. 2003 ], [ 91, UBA Germany
2003 ], [ 18, WT TWG 2004 ], [ 19, WT TWG 2004 ], [ 26, Mech. subgroup 2014 ], [ 45, COM
2016 ]

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2.3.5.4 Leak detection and repair programme

Description
A leak detection and repair (LDAR) programme for plants handling volatile materials.

Technical description
An LDAR programme may include the following:

 Identifying and, where possible, quantifying significant fugitive emissions to air from all
relevant sources, estimating the proportion of total emissions which are attributable to
fugitive releases for each substance.
 Direct monitoring of valves, pump seals, etc. using a portable organic vapour analysis
instrument to check for leaks (sniffing or optical gas imaging (OGI), [ 45, COM 2016 ]).
 Using non-intrusive tank volume measurements.
 Replacing filter pot lids when cleaning filters.
 Storing filter slops in sealed drums.
 Storing contaminated waters which have the potential for odours in covered tanks.
 Using drum storage (see Section 2.3.13.2).
 Ensuring that regular cleaning/desludging of tanks is carried out, using maintenance
schedules to avoid large-scale decontamination activities.
 Tanker washing if the load is likely to give rise to odour. The washing water/aqueous
waste from the washing needs to be directly discharged to abated storage systems before
opening the tankers. Opening tankers for the minimum amount of time possible.
 Undertaking maintenance activities for fixing any detected leaks, e.g. replacing valve
packing.

The LDAR programme is risk-based, considering the design of the plant and the amount and
nature of organic compounds handled.

Achieved environmental benefits

Detection of leaks of VOCs from valves, pumps and other piping components.

Environmental performance and operational data

No information provided.

Cross-media effects
None.

Technical considerations related to applicability

Generally applicable to plants handling volatile organic compounds.

Economics
The investment costs for an analyser were reported to be EUR 5 000–20 000 for sniffing and
EUR 70 000–100 000 for OGI. During operation, the main difference is the time required for
surveying. When using sniffing methods, only about 500 components can be checked per day
by a surveying team. In contrast, optical gas imaging techniques allow 15 000 to 20 000
components per day to be surveyed. Therefore, sniffing methods are generally less expensive in
the case of small plants, while OGI is less expensive in the case of large plants
[ 45, COM 2016 ].

In a typical US refinery or large petrochemical plant with over 200 000 regulated components,
the annual cost for an LDAR programme is reported to exceed EUR 750 000 (actual cost
USD 1 million, calculated using the average 2010 USD/EUR exchange rate) with the US EPA
Method 21 based on sniffing.

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Driving force for implementation

 Legislation on air pollution.
 Optimisation of process performance.
 Health and safety of staff.

Example plants
No information provided.

Reference literature
[ 9, UK EA 2001 ], [ 10, Babtie Group Ltd 2002 ], [ 11, WT TWG 2003 ], [ 33, Irish EPA 2003
], [ 18, WT TWG 2004 ], [ 45, COM 2016 ]

2.3.5.5 Flaring

Description
Flaring is a high-temperature oxidation process used to burn combustible components of waste
gases from industrial operations. Flares are used for safety reasons or during non-routine
operating conditions (e.g. start-ups, shutdowns).

Technical description
Flaring is used to safely combust vented flammable gases (hydrocarbons) at a pressure drop
which does not compromise plant relief systems.

Flaring is also used at plants using anaerobic digesters to produce biogas (see Section 4.3).
These plants generate a methane-rich biogas. The biogas that is not consumed or stored is
flared.

Because flaring is both a source of pollution and leads to the burning of a potentially valuable
product, its use should be limited to non-routine, momentary stoppages or emergency releases.
Uncontrolled emissions (especially VOCs) from vents and relief valves should be routed to
recovery systems, with flares serving only as a backup system.

See [ 45, COM 2016 ] for further details on flaring.

Techniques to prevent or reduce emissions from flaring are as follows ([ 45, COM 2016 ]):

 Correct plant design: includes sufficient flare gas recovery system capacity, the use of
high-integrity relief valves and other measures to use flaring only as a safety system for
other than normal operations (start-up, shutdown, emergency).
 Plant management: includes organisational and control measures to reduce flaring
events by balancing the gas system, using advanced process control, etc.
 Flare design: includes height, pressure, assistance by steam, air or gas, type of flare tips,
automatic ignition, flame detection, provision to face failure of electric power, etc. It aims
to enable smokeless and reliable operations and ensure the efficient combustion of excess
gases when flaring from non-routine operations.
 Monitoring and reporting: continuous monitoring (measurements of gas quantity and
estimations of other parameters) of gas sent to flaring and associated combustion
parameters (e.g. flow gas mixture and heat content, ratio of assistance, velocity, purge gas
flow rate, pollutant emissions). Reporting of flaring events (e.g. with flame monitoring
devices) makes it possible to include the flaring ratio as a requirement in the EMS and to
prevent future events. Visual remote monitoring of the flare can also be carried out using
colour TV monitors during flaring events.

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Some national regulations or technical rules require specific flare design, e.g. combustion yield
(> 99 %) in the German Clean Air Act – TA Luft, minimum height and safety distances in ISO
20675 part 2 and a technical rule of the German Associations DVGW, DWA and German
Biogas Association.

Achieved environmental benefits

Incineration of emergency releases.

Environmental performance and operational data

Abatement efficiencies and emission levels associated with flaring are given in Table 2.22.

Table 2.22: Abatement efficiencies and emission levels associated with flaring
Elevated flare Ground flare
Pollutant Abatement Emission level (2) Abatement Emission level (2)
efficiency (1) (%) (mg/Nm3) efficiency (1) (%) (mg/Nm3)
VOCs
> 98 (3) NI > 99 (3) NI
(including CH4)
NI 400 (200 ppm) NI 400 (200 ppm)
NOX
NI 108 NI 108
CO NI 588 NI 588
(1) Efficiency depends on the specific plant configuration and operational conditions; the performances indicated
are based upon half-hourly averages.
(2) The emission levels reported are indicative of what is being achieved at some industrial installations under
normal operating conditions; because emission levels strongly depend on the specific plant configuration and
operating conditions, the values given should be used with extreme caution for permitting.
(3) Under optimum conditions, i.e. heat content of waste gas > 8–11 MJ/Nm, low flows and low heat content
achieve lower combustion efficiencies (as low as 65 %).
NB: NI = No information provided.
Source: [ 45, COM 2016 ]

The achievable emission levels mentioned in Table 2.22 report the destruction of air pollutants
(VOCs) by flaring. The other parameters (NOX) refer to emissions caused by flaring. Flaring has
no waste gas treatment installed, hence pollutants generated by the incineration of waste gases
which contain sulphur and/or halogens, NOX, carbon monoxide, soot, etc. are normally not
controlled. For these reasons, ground flares are not suited for toxic gases. The
combination/recombination reaction to form dioxins, however, is not favoured because of the
lack of a 'recombination window' and metal surfaces acting as catalysts.

The abatement performance of flaring, as described in the table above, will be > 98 % if the
flare is designed and operated properly. Important parameters for achieving the optimum
combustion efficiency are described below under operational data. The performance range
under non-optimum conditions may be well below 98 %.

See [ 45, COM 2016 ] for more operational data.

Cross-media effects
Flare emissions will include, at minimum, nitrogen oxides (NOX), carbon monoxide (CO) and
uncombusted flared gas compounds (e.g. VOCs). In addition, if the flared gas contains sulphur-
bearing compounds, emissions will also include hydrogen sulphide (H2S) and sulphur dioxide
(SO2), thus causing potential odour nuisances (mainly for ground flares).

The main utilities and consumables include:

 smoke suppressants (steam, air, water, natural gas);
 ignition gas for the ignition pilot (propane or butane);

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 purge gas (nitrogen or fuel) to keep the system on overpressure;

 pilot gas;
 energy.

Flaring can cause noise emissions. The most significant noise sources are:

 smoke suppressant injection;

 combustion processes;
 vents.

The suppression of noise is a crucial environmental issue and is thus an important design aspect
that needs to be addressed for new flares. Noise avoidance aspects include:

 reducing or attenuating the high-frequency steam jet noise by using multiport steam
injectors, which can also lead to increased coke formation under low flow conditions;
design of the orifice to cope with this drawback is essential;
 installing the injectors in a way that allows the jet streams to interact and reduce the
mixing noise;
 increasing the efficiency of the suppressant with better and more responsive forms of
control;
 restricting the steam pressure to < 0.7 MPa gauge;
 using a silencer around the steam injector as an acoustic shield for the injectors;
 using air-blown flares or enclosed ground flares.

Further impacts include:

 light nuisance from elevated flares;

 odour nuisance because of insufficient combustion (mostly with ground flares).

Technical considerations related to applicability

Application limits and restrictions are given in Table 2.23.

Table 2.23: Application limits and restrictions associated with flaring

Parameters Limits/restrictions
3
Typical gas flows (Nm /h) 0–1 800 000 (upper limit for elevated flares)
Minimum calorific value of incoming waste gas
8–11
(MJ/Nm3)
Combustion temperature (°C) > 800
Pressure Atmospheric
Oxygen content after incineration (%) > 5 (muffle flare)
Flare velocity (m/s) 0–20 (to prevent flashback)
Source: [ 45, COM 2016 ]

Economics
Economics associated with flaring are given in Table 2.24.

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Table 2.24: Economics associated with flaring

Type of costs Elevated flare Ground flare

Investment/capital costs Could cost three to four times
~ 100 000–650 000 (1)
(EUR per 1 000 Nm3/h) as much as elevated flares
Operating costs
NI NI
(per 1 000 Nm3/h)
Can also vary widely; the skill of the maintenance
Labour
personnel is the essential factor here
Cost-effectiveness
(per tonne of pollutant controlled NI NI
per year)
Cost-determining parameters Potential additional fuel
Benefits None
(1) Onshore design without landing. The costs can vary widely because they are dependent on the number of hours
the flare is used. Because a flare is primarily a safety system, the number of hours it is used will be low (10 to
100 hours per year).
NB: NI = No information provided.
Source: [ 45, COM 2016 ]

Driving force for implementation

The main driving force for implementation is safety.

National regulations to prevent the release of biogas are also a driving force.

Example plants
Table 2.25 shows the list of reference plants using flaring.

Table 2.25: Examples of plants using flaring

Plants using flaring Main type of waste treatment

132, 251, 341, 415, 528, 529, 541, 592 Anaerobic treatment of bio-waste

Re-refining and other preparations for reuse of

605, 610, 619
waste oils

Reference literature
[ 45, COM 2016 ] [ 92, COM 2015 ]

2.3.6 Techniques for the prevention and control of emissions to water

2.3.6.1 Treatment of waste water from waste treatment plants

Description
Treatment of waste water using one or a combination of the techniques described in Section
2.3.6.2.

Technical description
Treatment typically involves an agitation phase, which not only homogenises the slurry but also
promotes the following actions:

 breakdown of solid particles;

 desorption of waste from solid particulates;

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Chapter 2

 contact between organic waste and microorganisms;

 oxidation of the slurry by aeration.
Waste water treatment combines chemical, physical and biological treatments. Usually this will
include an aerobic stage, where the effluent is aerated in an aeration tank (0.5–3 days retention
time) to convert soluble organics into microorganisms (sludge) and a cleaner final effluent.
Biological degradation only occurs for organics that are dissolved in water and not for
suspended or free-phase organics. In general, the treatment and purification of waste waters
from waste treatment plants is an important element of these plants, mostly due to the
potentially high pollution loads that may be in the waste water. A distinction can be made
between separation and conversion processes.

Separation processes are, for instance:

 mechanical treatment;
 evaporation;
 adsorption;
 filtration;
 nanofiltration or ultrafiltration;
 reverse osmosis;
 centrifugation.

Meanwhile, conversion processes include:

 wet oxidation using H2O2 for example;

 ozonisation;
 precipitation/neutralisation;
 anaerobic and aerobic biological treatments of waste waters.

Various combinations of techniques described in Section 2.3.6.2 are used for waste water
treatment, depending mainly on the inventory of waste water streams (see Section 2.3.1.2) and
on local conditions (e.g. direct/indirect discharge).

In the case of indirect discharge, it is ensured that the level of emission of the remaining
pollutants does not have a negative impact on the downstream WWTP or on the efficiency of
this downstream installation at treating those remaining pollutants.

Figure 2.33 shows an example of an effluent management system for a WT plant.

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 Chapter 2

Source: [ 9, UK EA 2001 ]
Figure 2.33: Example of effluent management within a waste treatment plant

Section 2.3.6.2 introduces the individual waste water treatment techniques as described in [ 45,
COM 2016 ]. In the same way as for the techniques for the prevention and control of emissions
to air (see Section 2.3.4), it is not intended in this section to provide a complete analysis of each
of the different techniques. Instead, only a short description of the techniques is given as well as
examples of plants of the data collection where these techniques are applied.

Achieved environmental benefits

The achieved environmental benefits of this technique include the reduction of emissions to
water.

Environmental performance and operational data

See Section 2.3.6.1.1 for the plants not carrying out treatment of water-based liquid waste and
Section 2.3.6.1.2 for plants treating water-based liquid waste.

Cross-media effects
See the CWW BREF [ 45, COM 2016 ].

Technical considerations relevant to applicability

See the CWW BREF [ 45, COM 2016 ] for technical considerations relevant to the applicability
of individual techniques.

Economics
See the CWW BREF [ 45, COM 2016 ].

Driving force for implementation

Environmental legislation.

Example plants
See Sections 2.3.6.1.1 and 2.3.6.1.2.

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Reference literature
[ 93, Physico-Chem. Subgroup 2014 ], [ 29, PCT Subgroup 2015 ], [ 42, WT TWG 2014 ], [
45, COM 2016 ]

2.3.6.1.1 Environmental performance of all waste treatment plants except for those
treating water-based liquid waste

Table 2.26 to Table 2.30 below present the environmental performance of waste treatment
plants discharging directly to water for TSS, COD, TOC, nitrogen, phosphorus and phenols.
Table 2.31 to Table 2.40 show the environmental performance of waste treatment plants
discharging directly and indirectly to water for THC, HOI and metals (As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, Ni,
Hg, Zn). Additional information, for example, on the processes, the techniques used, waste
input and output, can be found in each specific chapter (i.e. Chapter 3 for mechanical treatment
of waste, Chapter 4 for biological treatment of waste, and Chapter 5 for physico-chemical
treatment of waste).

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Table 2.26: Environmental performance of waste treatment plants directly discharging to water
(TSS)

Effluent Effluent Effluent

Waste
conc. conc. conc. Main techniques to
Plant code treatment
Min. Average Max. prevent/reduce emissions
process
(mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l)

Physico-
Filtration, Powdered activated
chemical
carbon treatment, Decantation,
172C_1 treatment of 0 5 7
Intermediate storage before
waste with
release
calorific value
Steam stripping (sour water
stripper - pretreatment unit to
Re-refining of WWTP), Equalisation,
620_1 1 3 12
waste oil Skimming, Activated sludge
system - conventional, Filtration,
Sand filtration
Physico-
chemical Chemical precipitation,
427 treatment of 23 12 13 Sedimentation (ponds), Filtration,
solid and/or Activated carbon adsorption
pasty waste

Physico-
chemical
174C treatment of 5 14 27 Decantation, Buffer tanks
waste with
calorific value
Mechanical
treatment in Sedimentation (ponds), API oil-
478 10 20 27
shredders of water separator system
metal waste
Physico-
chemical
Powdered activated carbon
079_80_81_82 treatment of 1 14 28
treatment
waste with
calorific value
Mechanical
treatment in Decantation, Oil and grease
464_W1 8 16 30
shredders of separator
metal waste
Aerobic
521 treatment of 36 36 36 Reed bed systems
waste
Mechanical
treatment in Buffer tanks, Decantation,
136 20 41 64
shredders of Parallel plate interceptor system
metal waste
Mechanical
treatment in Decantation, Oil and grease
464_W3 4 18 64
shredders of separator
metal waste

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Table 2.27: Environmental performance of waste treatment plants directly discharging to water
(TOC and COD)

Effluent Effluent Effluent

Waste
Pollutant/ conc. conc. conc. Main techniques to
Plant code treatment
Parameter Min. Average Max. prevent/reduce emissions
process
(mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l)
Physico-
chemical Filtration, Powdered activated
treatment of carbon treatment, Decantation,
172C_1 COD 3 21 30
waste with Intermediate storage before
calorific release
value
Steam stripping (sour water
stripper - pretreatment unit to
Re-refining WWTP), Equalisation,
620_1 COD 2 33 67
of waste oil Skimming, Activated sludge
system - conventional, Filtration,
Sand filtration

Activated sludge systems -

Regeneration conventional, Coagulation,
170 of spent COD 100 100 100 Decantation, Flocculation,
solvents Powdered activated carbon
treatment, Aeration, Air stripping
Physico-
chemical
treatment of
174C COD 8 60 113 Decantation, Buffer tanks
waste with
calorific
value
Physico-
chemical
treatment of Powdered activated carbon
079_80_81_82 COD 15 45 140
waste with treatment
calorific
value
Aerobic
521 treatment of COD 175 175 175 Reed bed systems
waste
Physico-
chemical Chemical precipitation,
427 treatment of TOC 7.8 15.1 70.7 Sedimentation (ponds),
solid and/or Filtration, Adsorption
pasty waste

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Table 2.28: Environmental performance of waste treatment plants directly discharging to water
(nitrogen)

Effluent Effluent Effluent

Waste
Plant Pollutant/ conc. conc. conc. Main techniques to
treatment
code Parameter Min. Average Max. prevent/reduce emissions
process
(mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l)
Aerobic
609 treatment of Total N 0.0 0.3 1.5 Biological
waste
Aerobic
521 treatment of Total N 4.2 5.3 7.5 Reed bed systems
waste
Physico-
chemical Filtration, Powdered activated
treatment of carbon treatment, Decantation,
172C_1 Total N 0.5 3.7 9.9
waste with Intermediate storage before
calorific release
value

Mechanical
treatment in Sedimentation (ponds), API oil-
441 Total N 0.5 5.4 10.0
shredders of water separator system
metal waste

Anaerobic
Equalisation, Activated sludge
341_1 treatment of Total N 0.5 5.8 11.0
system (SBR), Evaporation
waste
Steam stripping (sour water
stripper - pretreatment unit to
Re-refining WWTP), Equalisation,
620_1 NH3-N 0.2 5.1 14.9
of waste oil Skimming, Activated sludge
system - conventional, Filtration,
Sand filtration
Mechanical
treatment in Sedimentation (ponds), API oil-
478 Total N 5.8 8.8 21.0
shredders of water separator system
metal waste
Steam stripping (sour water
stripper - pretreatment unit to
Re-refining WWTP), Equalisation,
620_1 NO2-/NO3- 1.4 7.9 25.7
of waste oil Skimming, Activated sludge
system - conventional, Filtration,
Sand filtration

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Table 2.29: Environmental performance of waste treatment plants directly discharging to water
(phosphorus)

Effluent Effluent Effluent

Waste
conc. conc. conc. Main techniques to
Plant code treatment
Min. Average Max. prevent/reduce emissions
process
(mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l)
Physico-
Filtration, Powdered activated
chemical
carbon treatment, Decantation,
172C_1 treatment of 0.1 0.2 0.4
Intermediate storage before
waste with
release
calorific value
Anaerobic
Equalisation, Activated sludge
341_1 treatment of 0.1 0.3 0.5
system (SBR), Evaporation
waste
Activated sludge system -
Regeneration conventional, Coagulation,
170 of spent 1.0 1.0 1.0 Decantation, Flocculation,
solvents Powdered activated carbon
treatment, Aeration, Air stripping
Steam stripping (sour water
stripper - pretreatment unit to
Re-refining of WWTP), Equalisation,
620_1 0.0 0.8 1.7
waste oil Skimming, Activated sludge
system - conventional, Filtration,
Sand filtration
Mechanical
treatment in Sedimentation (ponds), API oil-
441 0.2 1.0 2.0
shredders of water separator system
metal waste

Table 2.30: Environmental performance of waste treatment plants directly discharging to water
(phenols)

Effluent Effluent Effluent

Waste
conc. conc. conc. Main techniques to
Plant code treatment
Min. Average Max. prevent/reduce emissions
process
(mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l)
Steam stripping (sour water
stripper - pretreatment unit to
Re-refining of WWTP), Equalisation,
620_1 0.01 0.04 0.04
waste oil Skimming, Activated sludge
system - conventional,
Filtration, Sand filtration
Physico-
chemical
174C treatment of 0.006 0.023 0.072 Decantation, Buffer tanks
waste with
calorific value

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Table 2.31: Environmental performance of waste treatment plants directly and indirectly
discharging to water (THC)
Effluent Effluent Effluent
Waste Direct/
conc. conc. conc. Main techniques to
Plant code treatment indirect
Min. Average Max. prevent/reduce emissions
process discharge
(mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l)
Physico- Sieving, Electrocoagulation,
chemical Activated sludge system -
152C_1 treatment of Indirect 0.1 0.5 0.5 SBR (fixed bed
waste with technology), Sand filtration,
calorific value Flotation, Buffer tanks
Activated sludge system -
conventional, API oil-water
separator system, Chemical
Re-refining of oxidation, Decantation,
619_1 Indirect 1.0 0.7 1.0
waste oil Equalisation, Evaporation,
Flotation, Skimming, Steam
stripping, Powdered
activated carbon treatment
Physico-
chemical
174C treatment of Direct < 0.05 0.5 2.1 Decantation, Buffer tanks
waste with
calorific value
Chemical oxidation,
Treatment of
Chemical precipitation,
excavated
353_359 Indirect 0.1 1.3 3.0 Chemical reduction,
contaminated
Coagulation, Decantation,
soil
Filtration
Chemical oxidation,
Mechanical
Chemical precipitation,
treatment of
361_363_1 Indirect 0.1 1.3 3.0 Chemical reduction,
waste with
Coagulation, Decantation,
calorific value
Filtration
Chemical oxidation (by
adding hydrogen peroxide,
sulphuric acid, sodium
hydroxide), Chemical
precipitation (by adding
sulphuric acid, ferric
chloride, sodium hydroxide,
Mechanical
polyelectrolyte), Chemical
treatment in
364_365_1 Indirect 0.1 1.3 3.0 reduction (by adding
shredders of
ferrous sulphate, hydrogen
metal waste
peroxide, sulphuric acid,
sodium hydroxide),
Coagulation (with ferric
chloride, polyelectrolyte),
Decantation, Filtration
(sand and activated carbon
filter)
Mechanical
treatment in Decantation, Oil and grease
464W_1 Direct 2.0 3.3 4.0
shredders of separation
metal waste
Mechanical
treatment in Decantation, Oil and grease
464W_2 Direct 2.0 3.4 4.0
shredders of separation
metal waste
Mechanical
treatment in
028 Indirect 0.3 2.3 5.0 Oil separation
shredders of
metal waste

Waste Treatment 137

Chapter 2

Effluent Effluent Effluent

Waste Direct/
conc. conc. conc. Main techniques to
Plant code treatment indirect
Min. Average Max. prevent/reduce emissions
process discharge
(mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l)
Mechanical
treatment in Decantation, Oil and grease
464W_3 Direct 2.0 3.9 5.6
shredders of separator
metal waste
Mechanical
Buffer tanks, Decantation,
treatment in
136 Direct 1.5 3.3 6.1 Parallel plate interceptor
shredders of
system
metal waste
Mechanical
treatment in
137 NI 0.2 2.1 7.3 Decantation, Filtration
shredders of
metal waste
NB: NI = No information.

Table 2.32: Environmental performance of waste treatment plants directly and indirectly
discharging to water (HOI)
Effluent Effluent Effluent
Direct/
Plant Waste treatment conc. conc. conc. Main techniques to
indirect
code process Min. Average Max. prevent/reduce emissions
discharge
(mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l)
Filtration, Powdered activated
Physico-chemical
carbon treatment,
172C_1 treatment of waste Direct < 0.1 0.3 0.5
Decantation, Intermediate
with calorific value
storage before release
Steam stripping, Skimming,
Flotation, Activated sludge
Re-refining of
235 Indirect 0.1 0.5 1.7 system - conventional,
waste oil
Nitrification/denitrification,
Press filtering
Mechanical
treatment in Sedimentation (ponds), API
478 Direct 0.1 1.1 5.3
shredders of metal oil-water separator system
waste
Equalisation, Sedimentation
(ponds), API oil-water
605 in Re-refining of
Indirect 1.0 4.6 7.0 separator system, Membrane
2012 waste oil
bioreaction, Ultrafiltration,
Dewatering
Mechanical
Retention basin with
treatment in
282C Indirect < 0.1 <2 12.0 integrated sludge trap,
shredders of metal
Coalescence separator
waste

138 Waste Treatment

 Chapter 2

Table 2.33: Environmental performance of waste treatment plants directly and indirectly
discharging to water (arsenic)
Effluent Effluent Effluent
Waste Direct/
conc. conc. conc. Main techniques to
Plant code treatment indirect
Min. Average Max. prevent/reduce emissions
process discharge
(mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l)
Equalisation, Sedimentation
(ponds), API oil-water separator
605 before Re-refining of
Indirect < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01 system, Activated sludge,
2012 waste oil
Aeration and clarification,
Dewatering
Equalisation, Sedimentation
605 in Re-refining of (ponds), API oil-water separator
Indirect < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01
2012 waste oil system, Membrane bioreaction,
Ultrafiltration, Dewatering
Physico-
Filtration, Powdered activated
chemical
carbon treatment, Decantation,
172C_1 treatment of Direct 0.000 0.007 0.010
Intermediate storage before
waste with
release
calorific value
Treatment of Chemical oxidation, Chemical
excavated precipitation, Chemical reduction,
353_359 Indirect 0.010 0.010 0.010
contaminated Coagulation, Decantation,
soil Filtration
Mechanical Chemical oxidation, Chemical
treatment of precipitation, Chemical reduction,
361_363_1 Indirect 0.010 0.010 0.010
waste with Coagulation, Decantation,
calorific value Filtration
Chemical oxidation (by adding
hydrogen peroxide, sulphuric
acid, sodium hydroxide),
Chemical precipitation (by adding
sulphuric acid, ferric chloride,
Mechanical sodium hydroxide,
treatment in polyelectrolyte), Chemical
364_365_1 Indirect 0.010 0.010 0.010
shredders of reduction (by adding ferrous
metal waste sulphate, hydrogen peroxide,
sulphuric acid, sodium
hydroxide), Coagulation (with
ferric chloride, polyelectrolyte),
Decantation, Filtration (sand and
activated carbon filter)
Mechanical
treatment in Buffer tanks, Biological
054_1 Indirect 0.000 0.001 0.019
shredders of treatment, Sand filtration
metal waste
Mechanical
biological
243 Indirect 0.005 0.009 0.021 Nitrification/denitrification
treatment of
waste
Mechanical
biological Nitrification/denitrification,
257_1 Indirect 0.001 0.020 0.030
treatment of Ultrafiltration
waste
Decantation, Press filtering,
Treatment of Filtration, Active carbon
excavated filtration/adsorption, pH control
40 Indirect 0.020 0.010 0.033
contaminated and regulation with CO2 injection,
soil Buffer tanks, Biological nutrient
removal
NB: NI = No information.

Waste Treatment 139

Chapter 2

Table 2.34: Environmental performance of waste treatment plants directly and indirectly
discharging to water (cadmium)
Effluent Effluent Effluent
Waste Direct/
conc. conc. conc. Main techniques to
Plant code treatment indirect
Min. Average Max. prevent/reduce emissions
process discharge
(mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l)
Mechanical
treatment in Coalescence separator with
293C Indirect 0.010 0.010 0.010
shredders of integrated sludge trap
metal waste
Mechanical
Absorption,
biological
244 Indirect 0.000 0.001 0.016 Nitrification/denitrification,
treatment of
Ultrafiltration
waste
Steam stripping, Skimming,
Flotation, Activated sludge
Re-refining
235 Indirect < 0.02 < 0.02 < 0.02 system - conventional,
of waste oil
Nitrification/denitrification,
Press filtering
Mechanical
biological Nitrification/denitrification,
257_1 Indirect 0.001 0.011 0.030
treatment of Ultrafiltration
waste
Mechanical
treatment in Decantation, Flotation, Press
571 Indirect < 0.05 < 0.05 < 0.05
shredders of filtering, Oil separation
metal waste
Treatment of
Decantation, Flocculation,
excavated
14_1 Indirect 0.000 0.008 0.055 Neutralisation, Sedimentation
contaminated
(ponds)
soil

140 Waste Treatment

 Chapter 2

Table 2.35: Environmental performance of waste treatment plants directly and indirectly
discharging to water (chromium)
Effluent Effluent Effluent
Waste Direct/
conc. conc. conc. Main techniques to
Plant code treatment indirect
Min. Average Max. prevent/reduce emissions
process discharge
(mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l)
Mechanical
biological Nitrification/denitrification,
257_1 Indirect 0.007 0.009 0.010
treatment of Ultrafiltration
waste
Mechanical
Retention basin with
treatment in
282C Indirect < 0.01 < 0.01 0.010 integrated sludge trap,
shredders of
Coalescence separator
metal waste
Mechanical
treatment in Sedimentation (ponds), API
478 Direct 0.003 0.006 0.010
shredders of oil-water separator system
metal waste
Mechanical
Buffer tanks,
treatment in
054_1 Indirect 0.000 0.001 0.011 Biological treatment,
shredders of
Sand filtration
metal waste
Steam stripping, Skimming,
Flotation, Activated sludge
Re-refining
235 Indirect < 0.02 < 0.02 < 0.02 system - conventional,
of waste oil
Nitrification/denitrification,
Press filtering
Mechanical
treatment in Decantation,
455_1 Indirect 0.023 0.028 0.028
shredders of Oil separation
metal waste
Mechanical
treatment in Decantation,
456 Indirect 0.023 0.028 0.028
shredders of Oil separation
metal waste
Physico-
chemical
treatment of Powdered activated carbon
079_80_81_82 Direct 0.001 0.008 0.037
waste with treatment
calorific
value
Mechanical
treatment in API oil-water separator
095C Indirect 0.003 0.019 0.047
shredders of system
metal waste
Mechanical
Buffer tanks, Decantation,
treatment in
136 Direct < 0.0025 < 0.02 < 0.05 Parallel plate interceptor
shredders of
system
metal waste
Steam stripping (sour water
stripper - pretreatment unit
Re-refining to WWTP), Equalisation,
620_1 Direct 0.002 0.040 0.050
of waste oil Skimming, Activated sludge
system - conventional,
Filtration, Sand filtration
Mechanical
Activated sludge system -
treatment of
SBR, Chemical
487 waste with Indirect 0.018 0.036 0.063
precipitation, Infiltration of
calorific
leachate in waste cells
value

Waste Treatment 141

Chapter 2

Mechanical
biological
243 Indirect 0.008 0.040 0.085 Nitrification/denitrification
treatment of
waste
Mechanical
Absorption,
biological
244 Indirect 0.006 0.039 0.085 Nitrification/denitrification,
treatment of
Ultrafiltration
waste
Equalisation, Sedimentation
(ponds), API oil-water
605 before Re-refining
Indirect < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 separator system, Activated
2012 of waste oil
sludge, Aeration and
clarification, Dewatering
Equalisation, Sedimentation
(ponds), API oil-water
Re-refining
605 in 2012 Indirect < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 separator system, Membrane
of waste oil
bioreaction, Ultrafiltration,
Dewatering
Mechanical
treatment in Coalescence separator with
293C Indirect 0.050 0.067 0.101
shredders of integrated sludge trap
metal waste
Mechanical
Decantation, Flotation,
treatment in
571 Indirect < 0.13 < 0.13 < 0.13 Press filtering, Oil
shredders of
separation
metal waste
Decantation, Press filtering,
Treatment of Filtration, Active carbon
excavated filtration/adsorption, pH
40 Indirect 0.110 0.082 0.140
contaminated control and regulation with
soil CO2 injection, Buffer tanks,
Biological nutrient removal

142 Waste Treatment

 Chapter 2

Table 2.36: Environmental performance of waste treatment plants directly and indirectly
discharging to water (copper)
Efflu
Effluent Effluent ent
Waste Direct/
conc. conc. conc. Main techniques to
Plant code treatment indirect
Min. Average Max. prevent/reduce emissions
process discharge
(mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l )

Mechanical
treatment in Decantation, Flotation, Press
571 Indirect 0.050 0.050 0.050
shredders of filtering, Oil separation
metal waste
Mechanical
biological Indirect
434_1 0.063 0.063 0.063 Buffer tanks
treatment of discharge
waste
Chemical oxidation,
Treatment of
Chemical precipitation,
excavated
353_359 Indirect 0.010 0.036 0.083 Chemical reduction,
contaminated
Coagulation, Decantation,
soil
Filtration
Chemical oxidation,
Mechanical
Chemical precipitation,
treatment of
361_363_1 Indirect 0.01 0.036 0.083 Chemical reduction,
waste with
Coagulation, Decantation,
calorific value
Filtration
Chemical oxidation (by
adding hydrogen peroxide,
sulphuric acid, sodium
hydroxide),
Chemical precipitation (by
adding sulphuric acid, ferric
chloride, sodium hydroxide,
Mechanical
polyelectrolyte),
treatment in
364_365_1 Indirect 0.010 0.036 0.083 Chemical reduction (by
shredders of
adding ferrous sulphate,
metal waste
hydrogen peroxide, sulphuric
acid, sodium hydroxide),
Coagulation (with ferric
chloride, polyelectrolyte),
Decantation,
Filtration (sand and activated
carbon filter)
Mechanical
Buffer tanks, Decantation,
treatment in
136 Direct 0.051 0.071 0.091 Parallel plate interceptor
shredders of
system
metal waste
Equalisation, Sedimentation
(ponds), API oil-water
605 before Re-refining of
Indirect < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 separator system, Activated
2012 waste oil
sludge, Aeration and
clarification, Dewatering
Equalisation, Sedimentation
(ponds), API oil-water
605 in Re-refining of
Indirect < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 separator system, Membrane
2012 waste oil
bioreaction, Ultrafiltration,
Dewatering
Activated sludge system -
conventional, Coagulation,
Decantation, Flocculation,
170 PCT_solvent Direct 0.06 0.07 0.10
Powdered activated carbon
treatment, Aeration, Air
stripping

Waste Treatment 143

Chapter 2

Activated sludge system -

Mechanical
conventional, Biological
biological
127 Indirect 0.11 0.11 0.11 nutrient removal,
treatment of
Ultrafiltration, Absorption,
waste
Landspread
Mechanical
treatment in
137 NI 0.000 0.063 0.130 Decantation, Filtration
shredders of
metal waste
Physico-
chemical
174C treatment of Direct 0.01 0.09 0.2 Decantation, Buffer tanks
waste with
calorific value
Steam stripping, Skimming,
Flotation, Activated sludge
Re-refining of
235 Indirect 0.02 0.06 0.2 system - conventional,
waste oil
Nitrification/denitrification,
Press filtering
Mechanical
treatment in Decantation,
455_1 Indirect 0.117 0.241 0.241
shredders of Oil separation
metal waste
Mechanical
treatment in Decantation,
456 Indirect 0.117 0.241 0.241
shredders of Oil separation
metal waste
Mechanical
treatment in Sedimentation (ponds), API
441 Direct 0.100 0.220 0.300
shredders of oil-water separator system
metal waste
Mechanical
treatment in
028 Indirect 0.100 0.183 0.310 Oil separation
shredders of
metal waste
Mechanical
treatment in API oil-water separator
095C Indirect 0.070 0.197 0.353
shredders of system
metal waste
Mechanical
treatment in Sedimentation (ponds), API
478 Direct 0.003 0.053 0.360
shredders of oil-water separator system
metal waste
Mechanical
biological
243 Indirect 0.011 0.103 0.362 Nitrification/denitrification
treatment of
waste
Mechanical
Buffer tanks,
treatment in
054_1 Indirect 0.000 0.101 0.430 Biological treatment,
shredders of
Sand filtration
metal waste
Mechanical
treatment in
shredders of
630W_2 Indirect 0.01 0.11 0.43 Filtration
WEEE
containing
refrigerants
Treatment of
Decantation, Flocculation,
excavated
14_1 Indirect 0.012 0.184 0.464 Neutralisation, Sedimentation
contaminated
(ponds)
soil
NB: NI = No information.

144 Waste Treatment

 Chapter 2

Table 2.37: Environmental performance of waste treatment plants directly and indirectly
discharging to water (lead)
Effluent Effluent Effluent
Waste Direct/
conc. conc. conc. Main techniques to
Plant code treatment indirect
Min. Average Max. prevent/reduce emissions
process discharge
(mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l)
Steam stripping (sour water
stripper - pretreatment unit
to WWTP), Equalisation,
Re-refining
620_1 Direct 0.0002 0.03 0.06 Skimming, Activated
of waste oil
sludge system -
conventional, Filtration,
Sand filtration
Steam stripping,
Skimming, Flotation,
Re-refining Activated sludge system -
235 Indirect < 0.08 < 0.08 < 0.08
of waste oil conventional,
Nitrification/denitrification,
Press filtering
Mechanical
Sedimentation (ponds),
treatment in
478 Direct 0.003 0.029 0.087 API oil-water separator
shredders of
system
metal waste
Mechanical
Activated sludge system -
treatment of
SBR, Chemical
487 waste with Indirect 0.004 0.016 0.13
precipitation, Infiltration of
calorific
leachate in waste cells
value
Mechanical
Retention basin with
treatment in
282C Indirect 0.010 0.056 0.140 integrated sludge trap,
shredders of
Coalescence separator
metal waste
Mechanical
Buffer tanks, Decantation,
treatment in
136 Direct 0.080 0.113 0.150 Parallel plate interceptor
shredders of
system
metal waste
Mechanical
Buffer tanks,
treatment in
054_1 Indirect 0.000 0.035 0.200 Biological treatment,
shredders of
Sand filtration
metal waste
Mechanical
treatment in Decantation,
456 Indirect 0.085 0.230 0.230
shredders of Oil separation
metal waste
Mechanical
treatment in
137 NI 0.000 0.134 0.236 Decantation, Filtration
shredders of
metal waste
Mechanical
biological
243 Indirect 0.006 0.068 0.242 Nitrification/denitrification
treatment of
waste
Treatment of
Decantation, Flocculation,
excavated
14_1 Indirect 0.000 0.035 0.244 Neutralisation,
contaminated
Sedimentation (ponds)
soil
Mechanical
treatment in
028 Indirect 0.080 0.150 0.260 Oil separation
shredders of
metal waste

Waste Treatment 145

Chapter 2

Mechanical
Decantation, Flotation,
treatment in
571 Indirect < 0.3 < 0.3 < 0.3 Press filtering, Oil
shredders of
separation
metal waste
Activated sludge system -
Physico-
conventional, Coagulation,
chemical
Flocculation, Flotation.
treatment of
549 Indirect 0.3 0.3 0.3 The plant does not have a
waste with
final clarifying system and
calorific
no activated sludge line
value
return.
Mechanical
treatment in Decantation,
455_1 Indirect 0.057 0.315 0.315
shredders of Oil separation
metal waste

NB: NI = No information.

146 Waste Treatment

 Chapter 2

Table 2.38: Environmental performance of waste treatment plants directly and indirectly
discharging to water (nickel)
Effluent Effluent Effluent
Waste Direct/
conc. conc. conc. Main techniques to
Plant code treatment indirect
Min. Average Max. prevent/reduce emissions
process discharge
(mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l)
Steam stripping,
Skimming, Flotation,
Re-refining Activated sludge system -
235 Indirect 0.02 0.04 0.05
of waste oil conventional,
Nitrification/denitrification,
Press filtering
Mechanical
Retention basin with
treatment in
282C Indirect < 0.01 < 0.02 0.060 integrated sludge trap,
shredders of
Coalescence separator
metal waste
Steam stripping (sour water
stripper - pretreatment unit
to WWTP), Equalisation,
Re-refining
620_1 Direct 0.001 0.04 0.06 Skimming, Activated
of waste oil
sludge system -
conventional, Filtration,
Sand filtration
Mechanical
treatment in Sedimentation (ponds), API
478 Direct 0.001 0.019 0.079
shredders of oil-water separator system
metal waste
Mechanical
Activated sludge system -
treatment of
SBR, Chemical
487 waste with Indirect 0.007 0.04 0.081
precipitation, Infiltration of
calorific
leachate in waste cells
value
Mechanical
treatment in API oil-water separator
095C Indirect 0.014 0.047 0.093
shredders of system
metal waste
Equalisation,
Sedimentation (ponds), API
605 before Re-refining oil-water separator system,
Indirect < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1
2012 of waste oil Activated sludge, Aeration
and clarification,
Dewatering
Equalisation,
Sedimentation (ponds), API
Re-refining
605 in 2012 Indirect < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 oil-water separator system,
of waste oil
Membrane bioreaction,
Ultrafiltration, Dewatering
Mechanical
biological Nitrification/denitrification,
257_1 Indirect 0.01 0.05 0.11
treatment of Ultrafiltration
waste
Mechanical
treatment in Coalescence separator with
293C Indirect 0.050 0.085 0.130
shredders of integrated sludge trap
metal waste
Physico-
chemical
treatment of Powdered activated
079_80_81_82 Direct 0.049 0.085 0.141
waste with carbon treatment
calorific
value

Waste Treatment 147

Chapter 2

Mechanical
biological
243 Indirect 0.02 0.06 0.16 Nitrification/denitrification
treatment of
waste
Physico-
chemical
treatment of
174C Direct 0.01 0.11 0.31 Decantation, Buffer tanks
waste with
calorific
value
Mechanical
Absorption,
biological
244 Indirect 0.01 0.05 0.46 Nitrification/denitrification,
treatment of
Ultrafiltration
waste
Activated sludge system -
conventional, Coagulation,
Regeneration
Decantation, Flocculation,
170 of spent Direct < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5
Powdered activated carbon
solvents
treatment, Aeration, Air
stripping

148 Waste Treatment

 Chapter 2

Table 2.39: Environmental performance of waste treatment plants directly and indirectly
discharging to water (mercury)
Effluent Effluent Effluent
Waste Direct/
conc. conc. conc. Main techniques to
Plant code treatment indirect
Min. Average Max. prevent/reduce emissions
process discharge
(mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l)
Mechanical Chemical oxidation,
treatment of Chemical precipitation,
361_363_1 waste with Indirect 0.0005 0.0005 0.0005 Chemical reduction,
calorific Coagulation, Decantation,
value Filtration
Chemical oxidation (by
adding hydrogen peroxide,
sulphuric acid, sodium
hydroxide),
Chemical precipitation (by
adding sulphuric acid,
ferric chloride, sodium
Mechanical hydroxide, polyelectrolyte),
treatment in Chemical reduction (by
364_365_1 Indirect 0.0005 0.0005 0.0005
shredders of adding ferrous sulphate,
metal waste hydrogen peroxide,
sulphuric acid, sodium
hydroxide),
Coagulation (with ferric
chloride, polyelectrolyte),
Decantation,
Filtration (sand and
activated carbon filter)
Mechanical
Buffer tanks,
treatment in
054_1 Indirect 0.0000 0.0001 0.0006 Biological treatment,
shredders of
Sand filtration
metal waste
Physico-
chemical
treatment of Powdered activated carbon
079_80_81_82 Direct 0.0001 0.0003 0.0007
waste with treatment
calorific
value
First decantation and oil
Physico- separation, then the water
chemical is stored in a dedicated
treatment of basin (minimum: 650 m3)
148C Indirect 0.001 0.001 0.001
waste with before release by batch to
calorific an external water station.
value Controls are done before
each batch.
Mechanical
treatment in Decantation,
455_1 Indirect 0.0001 0.0016 0.0016
shredders of Oil separation
metal waste
Mechanical
treatment in API oil-water separator
095C Indirect 0.0005 0.0008 0.0020
shredders of system
metal waste
Decantation, Press
filtering, Filtration, Active
Treatment of carbon
excavated filtration/adsorption, pH
40 Indirect 0.001 0.001 0.002
contaminated control and regulation with
soil CO2 injection, Buffer
tanks, Biological nutrient
removal

Waste Treatment 149

Chapter 2

Mechanical
biological
243 Indirect 0.0001 0.0008 0.0027 Nitrification/denitrification
treatment of
waste
Mechanical
Decantation, Flotation,
treatment in
571 Indirect < 0.004 < 0.004 0.0040 Press filtering, Oil
shredders of
separation
metal waste
Chemical oxidation,
Treatment of
Chemical precipitation,
excavated
353_359 Indirect 0.005 0.005 0.005 Chemical reduction,
contaminated
Coagulation, Decantation,
soil
Filtration
Mechanical
Absorption,
biological
244 Indirect 0.0003 0.0006 0.0053 Nitrification/denitrification,
treatment of
Ultrafiltration
waste

150 Waste Treatment

 Chapter 2

Table 2.40: Environmental performance of waste treatment plants directly and indirectly
discharging to water (zinc)
Effluent Effluent Effluent
Waste Direct/ Main techniques to
conc. conc. conc.
Plant code treatment indirect prevent/reduce
Min. Average Max.
process discharge emissions
(mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l)
First decantation and oil
Physico- separation, then the water
chemical is stored in a dedicated
treatment of basin (minimum: 650 m3)
148C Indirect 0.02 0.05 0.10
waste with before release by batch to
calorific an external water station.
value Controls are done before
each batch.
Mechanical
Decantation, Flotation,
treatment in
571 Indirect 0.10 0.10 0.10 Press filtering, Oil
shredders of
separation
metal waste
Equalisation,
Sedimentation (ponds),
API oil-water separator
Re-refining
605 in 2012 Indirect < 0.2 < 0.2 < 0.2 system, Membrane
of waste oil
bioreaction,
Ultrafiltration,
Dewatering
Equalisation,
Sedimentation (ponds),
605 before Re-refining API oil-water separator
Indirect < 0.2 < 0.2 < 0.2
2012 of waste oil system, Activated sludge,
Aeration and clarification,
Dewatering
Mechanical
Absorption,
biological
244 Indirect 0.00 0.04 0.20 Nitrification/denitrificatio
treatment of
n, Ultrafiltration
waste
Chemical oxidation,
Treatment of
Chemical precipitation,
excavated
353_359 Indirect 0.01 0.10 0.27 Chemical reduction,
contaminated
Coagulation, Decantation,
soil
Filtration
Mechanical Chemical oxidation,
treatment of Chemical precipitation,
361_363_1 waste with Indirect 0.01 0.10 0.27 Chemical reduction,
calorific Coagulation, Decantation,
value Filtration
Chemical oxidation (by
adding hydrogen
peroxide, sulphuric acid,
sodium hydroxide),
Chemical precipitation
(by adding sulphuric acid,
ferric chloride, sodium
hydroxide,
Mechanical
polyelectrolyte),
treatment in
364_365_1 Indirect 0.01 0.10 0.27 Chemical reduction (by
shredders of
adding ferrous sulphate,
metal waste
hydrogen peroxide,
sulphuric acid, sodium
hydroxide),
Coagulation (with ferric
chloride, polyelectrolyte),
Decantation,
Filtration (sand and
activated carbon filter)

Waste Treatment 151

Chapter 2

Effluent Effluent Effluent

Waste Direct/ Main techniques to
conc. conc. conc.
Plant code treatment indirect prevent/reduce
Min. Average Max.
process discharge emissions
(mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l)
Steam stripping,
Skimming, Flotation,
Re-refining Activated sludge system -
235 Indirect 0.01 0.07 0.30
of waste oil conventional,
Nitrification/denitrificatio
n, Press filtering
Mechanical
Buffer tanks,
treatment in
054_1 Indirect 0.04 0.17 0.40 Biological treatment,
shredders of
Sand filtration
metal waste
Activated sludge system -
Physico- conventional,
chemical Coagulation,
treatment of Flocculation, Flotation.
549 Indirect 0.40 0.40 0.40
waste with The plant does not have a
calorific final clarifying system
value and no activated sludge
line return.
Mechanical
biological
434_1 Indirect 0.45 0.45 0.45 Buffer tanks
treatment of
waste
Physico-
chemical
treatment of
174C Direct 0.10 0.33 0.64 Decantation, Buffer tanks
waste with
calorific
value
Physico-
chemical
treatment of Powdered activated
079_80_81_82 Direct 0.09 0.26 0.69
waste with carbon treatment
calorific
value
Mechanical
Buffer tanks, Decantation,
treatment in
136 Direct 0.48 0.61 0.77 Parallel plate interceptor
shredders of
system
metal waste
Mechanical
treatment in Decantation,
464_W2 Direct 0.06 0.40 0.97
shredders of Oil and grease separation
metal waste
Mechanical
biological Nitrification/
243 Indirect 0.04 0.45 1.17
treatment of denitrification
waste
Mechanical
treatment in Decantation,
456 Indirect 0.55 1.30 1.30
shredders of Oil separation
metal waste
Mechanical
Activated sludge system -
treatment of
SBR, Chemical
487 waste with Indirect 0.05 0.18 1.40
precipitation, Infiltration
calorific
of leachate in waste cells
value
Mechanical
treatment in
028 Indirect 0.60 1.03 1.50 Oil separation
shredders of
metal waste

152 Waste Treatment

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Effluent Effluent Effluent

Waste Direct/ Main techniques to
conc. conc. conc.
Plant code treatment indirect prevent/reduce
Min. Average Max.
process discharge emissions
(mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l)
Mechanical
treatment in Decantation,
464_W1 Direct 0.10 0.46 1.51
shredders of Oil and grease separation
metal waste
Mechanical
treatment in Decantation,
455_1 Indirect 1.54 1.54 1.54
shredders of Oil separation
metal waste
Mechanical
treatment in
shredders of
630W_2 Indirect 0.06 0.68 1.62 Filtration
WEEE
containing
refrigerants
Treatment of
Decantation, Flocculation,
excavated
14_1 Indirect 0.00 0.33 1.87 Neutralisation,
contaminated
Sedimentation (ponds)
soil
Mechanical
Sedimentation (ponds),
treatment in
478 Direct 0.03 0.48 1.90 API oil-water separator
shredders of
system
metal waste

2.3.6.1.2 Environmental performance of plants treating water-based liquid waste

Table 2.41 to Table 2.45 below present the environmental performance of plants treating water-
based liquid waste and directly discharging to water for TSS, COD, TOC, nitrogen, phosphorus
and phenols. Table 2.46 to Table 2.57 show the environmental performance of plants treating
water-based liquid waste and directly and indirectly discharging to water for THC, HOI, CN-,
AOX and metals (As, Cd, Cr, Cr(VI), Cu, Pb, Ni, Hg, Zn). Additional information on, for
example, the processes, the techniques used, waste input and output, can be found in
Section 5.7.

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Table 2.41: Environmental performance of water-based liquid waste treatment plants directly
discharging to water (TSS)

Effluent Effluent Effluent

conc. conc. conc.
Plant code Main techniques to prevent/reduce emissions
Min. Average Max.
(mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l)
Activated sludge system - conventional,
Neutralisation, Decantation, Press filtering,
154_155C 18 33 52 Chemical precipitation, Membrane extraction,
Flocculation, Aeration, Buffer tanks,
Centrifugation
Activated sludge system - conventional, Chemical
precipitation, Coagulation, Emulsion breaking,
569_1 10 30 32 Flocculation, Flotation, Press filtering,
Precipitation, Reverse osmosis system, Sand
filtration

Table 2.42: Environmental performance of water-based liquid waste treatment plants directly
discharging to water (COD and TOC)

Effluent Effluent Effluent

Pollutant/ conc. conc. conc. Main techniques to prevent/reduce
Plant code
Parameter Min. Average Max. emissions
(mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l)
Activated sludge system -
conventional, Chemical
precipitation, Coagulation, Emulsion
569_1 COD 76 88 70
breaking, Flocculation, Flotation,
Press filtering, Precipitation, Reverse
osmosis system, Sand filtration

Filtration,
449 COD 17 75 162
Biological treatment

Activated sludge system -

conventional, Neutralisation,
Decantation, Press filtering,
154_155C TOC 39 52 69
Chemical precipitation, Membrane
extraction, Flocculation, Aeration,
Buffer tanks, Centrifugation
Buffer tanks,
ST:
ST: 122 Wet oxidation, Neutralisation,
ST: 33.9 147.4
COD LT: Distillation/Rectification,
LT: 67.3 LT:
122.4 Decantation, Activated sludge
368_369_370_371_1 134.7
system,
ST: 10.2
TOC ST: 40.8 Biological nutrient removal,
LT: 20.5 ST: 48.9
LT: 40.7 Nitrification/denitrification,
LT: 46.5
Sedimentation, Dewatering

ST: 30 ST: 184 ST: 326 Activated sludge system -

140_141_142_143C_1 TOC
LT: 132 LT: 180 LT: 229 conventional, Ultrafiltration

NB:
ST: short-term average.
LT: long-term average.

154 Waste Treatment

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Table 2.43: Environmental performance of water-based liquid waste treatment plants directly
discharging to water (nitrogen)

Effluent Effluent Effluent

Pollutant/ conc. conc. conc. Main techniques to prevent/reduce
Plant code
Parameter Min. Average Max. emissions
(mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l)

NO2-/NO3- 0.07 9.6 35 Activated sludge system -

140_141_142_143C_1
TKN 11 81 194 conventional, Ultrafiltration

Buffer tanks,
Wet oxidation, Neutralisation,
Distillation/Rectification,
NH3-N 0.1 2.1 7.3 Decantation, Activated sludge
368_369_370_371_1
NO2-/NO3- <1 2.5 11 system,
Biological nutrient removal,
Nitrification/denitrification,
Sedimentation, Dewatering
Buffer tanks, Activated sludge
Total N 21 39.6 57
system - conventional
392 NO2-/NO3- 0.0006 0.015 0.12
Nitrification/denitrification,
TKN 6.6 8.4 14
Sedimentation (ponds)
Buffer tanks, Activated sludge
Total N 13 35.9 100
system - conventional,
393 NH3-N 0.05 0.8 3.1
Nitrification/denitrification
TKN 7.8 13.1 19
Sedimentation (ponds)
Chemical precipitation, Flotation,
NH3-N 19 92 92 Activated sludge system -
423_424
NO2-/NO3- 2 3 3 conventional, Moving-bed trickling
filter system

Filtration,
449 NH3-N 2.0 10.1 18.2
Biological treatment

Activated sludge system -

conventional, Chemical
precipitation, Coagulation, Emulsion
569_1 Total N 7.6 12.4 10.2
breaking, Flocculation, Flotation,
Press filtering, Precipitation, Reverse
osmosis system, Sand filtration

Waste Treatment 155

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Table 2.44: Environmental performance of water-based liquid waste treatment plants directly
discharging to water (phosphorus)

Effluent Effluent Effluent

conc. conc. conc.
Plant code Main techniques to prevent/reduce emissions
Min. Average Max.
(mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l)

Filtration,
449 0.3 0.3 0.3
Biological treatment

Activated sludge system - conventional, Chemical

precipitation, Coagulation, Emulsion breaking,
569_1 0.7 0.7 0.7
Flocculation, Flotation, Press filtering, Precipitation,
Reverse osmosis system, Sand filtration

Buffer tanks, Activated sludge system -

392 0.2 0.9 1.9 conventional, Nitrification/denitrification,
Sedimentation (ponds)

Buffer tanks, Activated sludge system -

393 0.4 1.5 3.3 conventional, Nitrification/denitrification,
Sedimentation (ponds)

Buffer tanks,
Wet oxidation, Neutralisation,
Distillation/Rectification, Decantation, Activated
ST: 0.6 ST: 2.1 ST: 3.3
368_369_370_371_1 sludge system,
LT: 1.1 LT: 2 LT: 2.4
Biological nutrient removal,
Nitrification/denitrification, Sedimentation,
Dewatering
NB:
ST: short-term average.
LT: long-term average.

Table 2.45: Environmental performance of water-based liquid waste treatment plants directly
discharging to water (phenols)

Effluent Effluent Effluent

conc. conc. conc. Main techniques to prevent/reduce
Plant code
Min. Average Max. emissions
(mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l)
Buffer tanks,
Wet oxidation, Neutralisation,
Distillation/Rectification, Decantation,
ST: < 0.05 ST: < 0.06 ST: < 0.07
368_369_370_371_1 Activated sludge system,
LT: < 0.05 LT: < 0.05 LT: < 0.06
Biological nutrient removal,
Nitrification/denitrification,
Sedimentation, Dewatering
ST: 0 ST: 0.03 ST: 0.24 Activated sludge system - conventional,
140_141_142_143C_1
LT: 0.001 LTL 0.03 LT: 0.05 Ultrafiltration
Activated sludge system - conventional,
Chemical precipitation, Coagulation,
569_1 0.3 0.3 0.3 Emulsion breaking, Flocculation,
Flotation, Press filtering, Precipitation,
Reverse osmosis system, Sand filtration
NB:
ST: short-term average.
LT: long-term average.

156 Waste Treatment

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Table 2.46: Environmental performance of water-based liquid waste treatment plants directly
and indirectly discharging to water (THC and HOI)

Effluent Effluent Effluent

Direct/
Pollutant/ conc. conc. conc. Main techniques to
Plant code indirect
parameter Min. Average Max. prevent/reduce emissions
discharge
(mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l)
Inorganics:
Detoxication (CN and
Cr(VI)), Neutralisation
(including nitric and
140_2W_AI_INORG Direct THC 0.1 0.1 0.1 sulphuric acid), Dissolution
(oxidisers), Metal
precipitation in hydroxides,
Biological treatment,
Ultrafiltration.
Organics:
Separation by centrifugation,
Evapo-condensation, MCV,
Emulsion breaking by
coagulation, Flocculation,
140_3W_AI_ORG Direct THC 0.1 0.1 0.1 (air) Flotation, Biological
treatment by buffer tank,
Activated sludge system -
conventional, Finishing by
Ultrafiltration, Sand
filtration.

148C Indirect THC < 0.1 < 0.1 0.1 Oil separation

149_150C Indirect THC < 0.1 < 0.1 0.1 Decantation

Activated sludge system -

194C Indirect THC 0.05 0.1 0.2
conventional, Ultrafiltration

Emulsion breaking,
Ultrafiltration,
03 Indirect THC 0.24 1.58 0.63
Neutralisation,
Biological treatment

Organics:
Separation by centrifugation,
Decantation, Oil separation,
MCV, Emulsion breaking by
coagulation, Flocculation,
194C_AI Indirect THC 0.05 0.25 1 (air) Flotation, Biological
treatment by buffer tank,
Activated sludge system -
conventional, Bio-membrane,
O2 addition, Finishing by
ultrafiltration
Inorganics: Detoxification,
Neutralisation, Chemical
precipitation.
468_1_AI NI HOI 0.8 1.2
Organics: Centrifugation,
Decantation, Oil separation,
Buffer tanks, Bio-membrane.

Waste Treatment 157

 Chapter 2

Effluent Effluent Effluent

Direct/
Pollutant/ conc. conc. conc. Main techniques to
Plant code indirect
parameter Min. Average Max. prevent/reduce emissions
discharge
(mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l)
Buffer tanks,
Wet oxidation,
Neutralisation,
ST:
Distillation/Rectification,
ST: <1 ST: <1.2 <1.3
368_369_370_371_1 Direct THC Decantation, Activated
LT: <1 LT: <1.2 LT:
sludge system,
<1.3
Biological nutrient removal,
Nitrification/denitrification,
Sedimentation, Dewatering

ST: 0.1 ST: 0.12 ST: 1.3 Activated sludge system -

140_141_142_143C_1 Direct THC
LT: 0.1 LT: 0.1 LT: 0.1 conventional, Ultrafiltration

Coagulation, Flocculation,
Chemical precipitation,
351_352 Indirect THC 0.1 0.5 2
Sedimentation (ponds),
Neutralisation

Inorganics:
Detoxication (CN, Cr(VI)),
Neutralisation (including
nitric and sulphuric acid),
Precipitation (in hydroxides,
in sulphides), Activated
317_AI Indirect NI 2.1 2.1 2.1
carbon if needed.
Organics:
Separation by centrifugation,
Emulsion breaking by
flocculation, Finishing by
active carbon filter.

Oil separation,
See Neutralisation,, Precipitation
08 Indirect THC 0.74 2.37
remarks Filtration, Activated sludge
system - SBR, Adsorption

2-phase centrifugation, 3-
phase centrifugation,
Emulsion breaking (Organic
physico-chemical treatment),
Membrane bioreactor using
ultrafiltration membranes
(UF), Nanofiltration,
Deconditioning, Detoxication
156C_1W Direct THC 0.05 0.65 3
(reduction of the Cr(VI),
oxidation of the cyanides or
phenols), Neutralisation,
Metals precipitation, Sludges
filtration, Biological
treatment (activated sludge),
Adsorption on activated
carbon
Emulsion breaking,
Buffer tanks,
215_1 Indirect HOI 0.04 1.4 3.1 Dewatering,
Filtration,
Flocculation

158 Waste Treatment

 Chapter 2

Effluent Effluent Effluent

Direct/
Pollutant/ conc. conc. conc. Main techniques to
Plant code indirect
parameter Min. Average Max. prevent/reduce emissions
discharge
(mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l)
Inorganics: Detoxication
(CN, Cr(VI)), Neutralisation
(including nitric and
sulphuric acid), Precipitation
(in hydroxides, in sulphides),
Stripping.
Organics: Separation by
217_AI Indirect HOI 1 2.1 4.7
centrifugation, Decantation,
Oil separation, Emulsion
breaking by coagulation,
Flocculation, Finishing by
vacuum rotating drum,
adsorbers and stripping when
needed
Emulsion breaking, Chemical
oxidation, Chemical
322 Indirect HOI 2 4.1388889 6 reduction, Neutralisation,
Chemical precipitation, Press
filtering
2-phase centrifugation, 3-
phase centrifugation,
Emulsion breaking (Organic
physico-chemical treatment),
Membrane bioreactor using
ultrafiltration membranes
(UF), Nanofiltration,
Deconditioning, Detoxication
156C_2W Indirect THC 0.05 0.55 6.24
(reduction of the Cr(VI),
oxidation of the cyanides or
phenols), Neutralisation,
Metals precipitation, Sludges
filtration, Biological
treatment (activated sludge),
Adsorption on activated
carbon

Activated sludge system -

159C Indirect THC 0 0.34 7
conventional, Ultrafiltration

Activated sludge system -

151C Indirect THC 0.05 0.4 7.1
conventional, Ultrafiltration

NB:
ST = Short-term average.
LT = Long-term average.
NI = No information.

Waste Treatment 159

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Table 2.47: Environmental performance of water-based liquid waste treatment plants directly
and indirectly discharging to water (cyanide)

Effluent Effluent Effluent

Direct/
conc. conc. conc. Main techniques to prevent/reduce
Plant code indirect
Min. Average Max. emissions
discharge
(mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l)

Emulsion breaking,
Buffer tanks,
215 Indirect < 0.02 < 0.02 < 0.03 Dewatering,
Filtration,
Flocculation
Adsorption, Aeration, Air stripping,
Buffer tanks, Centrifugation, Chemical
oxidation, Chemical precipitation,
217 Indirect 0.05 0.05 0.05
Chemical reduction, Dewatering,
Emulsion breaking, Press filtering,
Skimming, Neutralisation
2-phase centrifugation, 3-phase
centrifugation, Emulsion breaking
(Organic physico-chemical treatment),
Membrane bioreactor using ultrafiltration
membranes (UF), Nanofiltration,
156C_1W Direct 0.005 0.014 0.063 Deconditioning, Detoxication (reduction
of the Cr(VI), oxidation of the cyanides or
phenols), Neutralisation, Metals
precipitation, Sludges filtration, Biological
treatment (activated sludge), Adsorption
on activated carbon

Activated sludge system - SBR,

07 Indirect 0.055 0.0676667 0.078 Flocculation, Emulsion breaking, Press
filtering

2-phase centrifugation, 3-phase

centrifugation, Emulsion breaking
(Organic physico-chemical treatment),
Membrane bioreactor using ultrafiltration
membranes (UF), Nanofiltration,
156C_2W Indirect 0.005 0.026 0.092 Deconditioning, Detoxication (reduction
of the CrVI, oxidation of the cyanides or
phenols), Neutralisation, Metals
precipitation, Sludges filtration, Biological
treatment (activated sludge), Adsorption
on activated carbon
Absorption, Aeration, Buffer tanks,
Centrifugation, Chemical oxidation,
317 Indirect 0.01 0.045 0.1 Chemical precipitation, Chemical
reduction, Dewatering, Emulsion
breaking, Neutralisation, Press filtering

148C Indirect 0.1 0.1 0.1 Oil separation

Emulsion breaking, Chemical oxidation,

322 Indirect 0.1 0.1 0.1 Chemical reduction, Neutralisation,
Chemical precipitation, Press filtering

160 Waste Treatment

 Chapter 2

Table 2.48: Environmental performance of water-based liquid waste treatment plants directly
and indirectly discharging to water (AOX)

Effluent Effluent Effluent

Direct/
conc. conc. conc. Main techniques to prevent/reduce
Plant code indirect
Min. Average Max. emissions
discharge
(mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l)

Emulsion breaking,
Buffer tanks,
215_1 Indirect 0.1 0.2 0.3 Dewatering,
Filtration,
Flocculation
Inorganics:
Detoxication (CN, Cr(VI)), Neutralisation
(including nitric and sulphuric acid),
Precipitation (in hydroxides, in sulphides),
317_AI Indirect 0.1 0.3 0.4 Activated carbon if needed.
Organics:
Separation by centrifugation, Emulsion
breaking by flocculation, Finishing by
active carbon filter.
Activated sludge system - conventional,
Neutralisation, Decantation, Press
154_155C Direct 0.02 0.14 0.5 filtering, Chemical precipitation,
Membrane extraction, Flocculation,
Aeration, Buffer tanks, Centrifugation
Inorganics:
Detoxication (Cr(VI)), Neutralisation
(including nitric and sulphuric acid),
Dissolution (oxidisers), Precipitation (in
hydroxides, in sulphides), Ion exchange
215_1_AI Indirect < 0.1 < 0.2 0.5 resins, Evaporation, Gravel filtration.
Organics:
Separation by oil separation, Evapo-
concentration, Emulsion breaking by
coagulation, Flocculation, Finishing by
sand filtration, Gravel filtration.
Inorganics: Detoxication (CN, Cr(VI)),
Neutralisation (including nitric and
sulphuric acid), Precipitation (in
hydroxides, in sulphides), Stripping.
217_AI Indirect 0.1 0.4 0.5 Organics: Separation by centrifugation,
Decantation, Oil separation, Emulsion
breaking by coagulation, Flocculation,
Finishing by vacuum rotating drum,
adsorbers and stripping when needed.
Absorption, Aeration, Buffer tanks,
Centrifugation, Chemical oxidation,
317 Indirect 0.0 0.3 0.7 Chemical precipitation, Chemical
reduction, Dewatering, Emulsion
breaking, Neutralisation, Press filtering

Emulsion breaking, Chemical oxidation,

322 Indirect 0.1 0.5 1 Chemical reduction, Neutralisation,
Chemical precipitation, Press filtering

Waste Treatment 161

Chapter 2

Table 2.49: Environmental performance of water-based liquid waste treatment plants directly
and indirectly discharging to water (arsenic)

Effluent Effluent Effluent

Direct/
conc. conc. conc. Main techniques to prevent/reduce
Plant code indirect
Min. Average Max. emissions
discharge
(mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l)

Coagulation, Flocculation, Precipitation,

144_145_147C Direct 0.001 0.01 0.01
Decantation

Inorganics:
Detoxication (CN, Cr(VI)), Neutralisation
(including nitric and sulphuric acid),
Precipitation (in hydroxides, in
317_AI Indirect 0.01 0.01 0.01 sulphides), Activated carbon if needed.
Organics:
Separation by centrifugation, Emulsion
breaking by flocculation, Finishing by
active carbon filter.

Coagulation, Flocculation, Chemical

351_352 Indirect 0.0095 0.01 0.01 precipitation, Sedimentation (ponds),
Neutralisation

Oil separation, Neutralisation,

08 Indirect NI 0.01 0.01 Precipitation, Filtration, Activated sludge
system - SBR, Adsorption

Activated sludge system - SBR,

07 Indirect 0.015 0.015 0.015 Flocculation, Emulsion breaking, Press
filtering

Activated sludge system - SBR,

473 Indirect 0.044 0.011 0.025
Evaporation

Absorption, Aeration, Buffer tanks,

Centrifugation, Chemical oxidation,
317 Indirect 0.01 0.02 0.03 Chemical precipitation, Chemical
reduction, Dewatering, Emulsion
breaking, Neutralisation, Press filtering

Emulsion breaking, Chemical oxidation,

322 Indirect 0.02 0.02 0.03 Chemical reduction, Neutralisation,
Chemical precipitation, Press filtering

Ultrafiltration,
421_422 Direct 0.005 0.013 0.03 Nanofiltration,
Biological treatment

Emulsion breaking,
Ultrafiltration,
03 Indirect 0 0.024 0.035
Neutralisation,
Biological treatment

162 Waste Treatment

 Chapter 2

Buffer tanks, Activated sludge system -

393 Direct 0.005 0.024 0.044 conventional, Nitrification/denitrification,
Sedimentation (ponds)

Organics:
Separation by centrifugation, Evapo-
condensation, MCV, Emulsion breaking
by coagulation, Flocculation, (air)
140_3W_AI_ORG Direct 0 0.02 0.05
Flotation, Biological treatment by buffer
tank, Activated sludge system -
conventional, Finishing by ultrafiltration,
Sand filtration

Activated sludge system - conventional,

151C Indirect 0.05 0.05 0.05
Ultrafiltration

Activated sludge system - conventional,

Neutralisation, Decantation, Press
154_155C Direct 0.01 0.03 0.06 filtering, Chemical precipitation,
Membrane extraction, Flocculation,
Aeration, Buffer tanks, Centrifugation

Buffer tanks, Activated sludge system -

392 Direct 0.009 0.023 0.073 conventional, Nitrification/denitrification,
Sedimentation (ponds)

Emulsion breaking,
347 Indirect 0.001 0.0153 0.082 Precipitation,
Filtration

ST: 0.08
ST: 0 ST: 0.01 Activated sludge system - conventional,
140_141_142_143C_1 Direct LT:
LT: 0 LT: 0.008 Ultrafiltration
0.025

Aeration, Buffer tanks, Coagulation,

Centrifugation, Detoxification,
401_404_2W Indirect 0.1 0.1 0.1
Dewatering, Filtration, Flocculation,
Flotation, Skimming

463_1 Indirect 0.07 0.09 0.1 NI

Organics: Centrifugation, Decantation,

Oil separation, Evaporation, Separation,
Coagulation, Flocculation.
463_1_AI Indirect 0.07 0.09 0.1
Inorganics: Detoxification, Neutralisation,
Dissolution (oxidisers), Precipitation,
Evaporation.
Activated sludge system - conventional,
Chemical precipitation, Coagulation,
569_1 Direct 0.01 0.1 0.1 Emulsion breaking, Flocculation,
Flotation, Press filtering, Precipitation,
Reverse osmosis system, Sand filtration

Waste Treatment 163

Chapter 2

Air stripping, Neutralisation, Chemical

04 Indirect < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1
reduction, Chemical oxidation

Inorganics:
Detoxication (Cr(VI)), Neutralisation
(including nitric and sulphuric acid),
Dissolution (oxidisers), Precipitation (in
hydroxides, in sulphides), Ion exchange
215_1_AI Indirect < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 resins, Evaporation, Gravel filtration.
Organics:
Separation by oil separation, Evapo-
concentration, Emulsion breaking by
coagulation, Flocculation, Finishing by
sand filtration, Gravel filtration.
Inorganics: Detoxification, Neutralisation,
Chemical precipitation.
471_1_AI Indirect < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1
Organics: Evaporation, Coagulation,
Flocculation, Activated sludge system,
Nitrification/denitrification.
Buffer tanks,
Wet oxidation, Neutralisation,
ST: ST: ST:
Distillation/Rectification, Decantation,
< 0.1 < 0.102 < 0.105
368_369_370_371_1 Direct Activated sludge system,
LT: LT: LT:
Biological nutrient removal,
< 0.1 < 0.103 < 0.105
Nitrification/denitrification,
Sedimentation, Dewatering
NB:
ST = Short-term average.
LT = Long-term average.
NI = No information.

164 Waste Treatment

 Chapter 2

Table 2.50: Environmental performance of water-based liquid waste treatment plants directly
and indirectly discharging to water (cadmium)

Effluent Effluent Effluent

Direct/
conc. conc. conc. Main techniques to prevent/reduce
Plant code indirect
Min. Average Max. emissions
discharge
(mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l)

Emulsion breaking,
347 Indirect 0.00 0.00 0.01 Precipitation,
Filtration

Activated sludge system - SBR,

07 Indirect 0.00 0.01 0.02 Flocculation, Emulsion breaking, Press
filtering

Decantation, Buffer tanks, Filtration,

486 Direct 0.00 0.00 0.02 Ultrafiltration, Reverse osmosis system,
Evaporation, Neutralisation

Emulsion breaking,
Ultrafiltration,
03 Indirect 0.02 0.03 0.03
Neutralisation,
Biological treatment

Neutralisation: acid-base neutralisation

within a hybrid physico-chemical process
including destabilisation, centrifugation,
evaporation, solid-liquid separation steps
for waste emulsions treatment, and acid-
base neutralisation of the resulting
153C Indirect 0.00 0.00 0.04
clarified water phase.
Biological nutrient removal:
Microbiological conversion of residual
organic content in the water phases
originating from the previous physico-
chemical steps.
Activated sludge system - conventional,
Neutralisation, Decantation, Press
154_155C Direct 0.01 0.02 0.04 filtering, Chemical precipitation,
Membrane extraction, Flocculation,
Aeration, Buffer tanks, Centrifugation

Absorption, Buffer tanks, Decantation,

Emulsion breaking, Evaporation,
216 Indirect 0.05 0.05 0.05
Filtration, Ultrafiltration, Vacuum
distillation

Absorption, Aeration, Buffer tanks,

Centrifugation, Chemical oxidation,
317 Indirect 0.01 0.04 0.05 Chemical precipitation, Chemical
reduction, Dewatering, Emulsion
breaking, Neutralisation, Press filtering
Inorganics:
Detoxication (CN, Cr(VI)), Neutralisation
(including nitric and sulphuric acid),
Precipitation (in hydroxides, in
317_AI Indirect 0.05 0.05 0.05 sulphides), Activated carbon if needed.
Organics:
Separation by centrifugation, Emulsion
breaking by flocculation, Finishing by
active carbon filter.

Waste Treatment 165

Chapter 2

Emulsion breaking, Chemical oxidation,

322 Indirect 0.05 0.05 0.06 Chemical reduction, Neutralisation,
Chemical precipitation, Press filtering

Organics:
Separation by centrifugation, Evapo-
condensation, MCV, Emulsion breaking
by coagulation, Flocculation, (air)
140_3W_AI_ORG Direct 0.00 0.01 0.07
Flotation, Biological treatment by buffer
tank, Activated sludge system -
conventional, Finishing by ultrafiltration,
Sand filtration

Chemical precipitation, Centrifugation,

154_155C_AI Direct 0.00 0.02 0.07 Decantation, Emulsion breaking,
Activated sludge system, Buffer tanks

Inorganics:
Detoxication (Cr(VI)), Neutralisation
(including nitric and sulphuric acid),
Dissolution (oxidisers), Precipitation (in
hydroxides, in sulphides), Ion exchange
215_1_AI Indirect < 0.001 < 0.05 0.07 resins, Evaporation, Gravel filtration.
Organics:
Separation by oil separation, Evapo-
concentration, Emulsion breaking by
coagulation, Flocculation, Finishing by
sand filtration, Gravel filtration.

Activated sludge system - conventional,

140_141_142_143C_1 Direct 0.00 0.00 0.07
Ultrafiltration

Activated sludge system - conventional,

151C Indirect 0.00 0.01 0.08
Ultrafiltration

Organics:
Separation by centrifugation,
Decantation, Oil separation, MCV,
Emulsion breaking by coagulation,
194C_AI Indirect 0.00 0.01 0.08
Flocculation, (air) Flotation, Biological
treatment by buffer tank, Activated sludge
system - conventional, Bio-membrane, O2
addition, Finishing by ultrafiltration

Aeration, Buffer tanks, Coagulation,

Centrifugation, Detoxification,
401_404_2W Indirect 0.10 0.10 0.10
Dewatering, Filtration, Flocculation,
Flotation, Skimming

Activated sludge system - conventional,

Chemical precipitation, Coagulation,
569_1 Direct 0.01 0.10 0.10 Emulsion breaking, Flocculation,
Flotation, Press filtering, Precipitation,
Reverse osmosis system, Sand filtration

Activated sludge system - conventional,

194C Indirect 0.00 0.01 0.10
Ultrafiltration

166 Waste Treatment

 Chapter 2

Buffer tanks,
Wet oxidation, Neutralisation,
Distillation/Rectification, Decantation,
368_369_370_371_1 Direct < 0.004 < 0.01 < 0.02 Activated sludge system,
Biological nutrient removal,
Nitrification/denitrification,
Sedimentation, Dewatering
Emulsion breaking,
Buffer tanks,
215_1 Indirect < 0.05 < 0.05 < 0.05 Dewatering,
Filtration,
Flocculation

Air stripping, Neutralisation, Chemical

04 Indirect < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1
reduction, Chemical oxidation

Inorganics: Detoxification, Neutralisation,

Chemical precipitation.
471_1_AI Indirect < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1
Organics: Evaporation, Coagulation,
Flocculation, Activated sludge system,
Nitrification/denitrification

Waste Treatment 167

Chapter 2

Table 2.51: Environmental performance of water-based liquid waste treatment plants directly
and indirectly discharging to water (chromium)

Effluent Effluent Effluent

Direct/indirect conc. conc. conc. Main techniques to
Plant code
discharge Min. Average Max. prevent/reduce emissions
(mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l)

Activated sludge system -

conventional,
468_1 NI 0.01 0.01 0.01
Centrifugation,
Chemical precipitation

Inorganics: Detoxification,
Neutralisation, Chemical
precipitation.
468_1_AI NI 0.01 0.01 0.01
Organics: Centrifugation,
Decantation, Oil separation, Buffer
tanks, Bio-membrane.

Indirect
Chemical oxidation, Chemical
discharge:
91 0.01 0.01 0.01 precipitation, Dewatering,
urban/municipal
Flocculation, Adsorption
sewer system

Indirect
Coagulation, Flocculation, Chemical
discharge:
351_352 0.01 0.01 0.01 precipitation, Sedimentation
urban/municipal
(ponds), Neutralisation
sewer system

Buffer tanks, Activated sludge

Direct system - conventional,
392 0.01 0.01 0.01
discharge Nitrification/denitrification,
Sedimentation (ponds)

Chemical precipitation, Flotation,

Direct Activated sludge system -
423_424 0.02 0.02 0.02
discharge conventional, Moving-bed trickling
filter system

Decantation, Buffer tanks, Filtration,

Direct
486 0.00 0.00 0.03 Ultrafiltration, Reverse osmosis
discharge
system, Evaporation, Neutralisation

Direct Activated sludge system -

discharge conventional, Chemical
90 0.00 0.01 0.03
without precipitation, Filtration,
treatment Centrifugation

Buffer tanks, Activated sludge

Direct system - conventional,
393 0.01 0.02 0.03
discharge Nitrification/denitrification,
Sedimentation (ponds)

168 Waste Treatment

 Chapter 2

Indirect
discharge to an
on-site common
WWT facility
mainly Evaporation, Ultrafiltration,
489 0.00 0.01 0.04
influenced by Biological purification
streams coming
from activities
other than WT
plant

Indirect
Oil separation, Neutralisation,
discharge:
08 NI 0.03 0.04 Precipitation, Filtration, Activated
urban/municipal
sludge system - SBR, Adsorption
sewer system

Indirect
Activated sludge system - SBR,
discharge:
07 0.01 0.03 0.05 Flocculation, Emulsion breaking,
urban/municipal
Press filtering
sewer system

Adsorption, Aeration, Air stripping,

Buffer tanks, Centrifugation,
Indirect
Chemical oxidation, Chemical
discharge:
217 0.05 0.05 0.05 precipitation, Chemical reduction,
urban/municipal
Dewatering, Emulsion breaking,
sewer system
Press filtering, Skimming,
Neutralisation
Inorganics: Detoxication (CN,
Cr(VI)), Neutralisation (including
nitric and sulphuric acid),
Precipitation (in hydroxides, in
Indirect
sulphides), Stripping.
discharge:
217_AI 0.05 0.05 0.05 Organics: Separation by
urban/municipal
centrifugation, Decantation, Oil
sewer system
separation, Emulsion breaking by
coagulation, Flocculation, Finishing
by vacuum rotating drum, adsorbers
and stripping when needed.

Indirect
discharge:
463_1 0.01 0.03 0.05 NI
urban/municipal
sewer system

Organics: Centrifugation,
Decantation, Oil separation,
Indirect Evaporation, Separation,
discharge: Coagulation, Flocculation.
463_1_AI 0.05 0.05 0.05
urban/municipal Inorganics: Detoxification,
sewer system Neutralisation, Dissolution
(oxidisers), Precipitation,
Evaporation

Indirect
discharge: off-
149_150C < 0.01 0.02 0.07 Decantation
site common
WWT

Indirect
discharge: Activated sludge system -
151C 0.00 0.02 0.07
urban/municipal conventional, Ultrafiltration
sewer system

Waste Treatment 169

Chapter 2

Indirect
Air stripping, Neutralisation,
discharge:
04 0.10 0.10 0.10 Chemical reduction, Chemical
urban/municipal
oxidation
sewer system

Activated sludge system -

Direct conventional, Neutralisation,
discharge Decantation, Press filtering,
154_155C 0.03 0.03 0.10
without Chemical precipitation, Membrane
treatment extraction, Flocculation, Aeration,
Buffer tanks, Centrifugation

Indirect Absorption, Buffer tanks,

discharge: Decantation, Emulsion breaking,
216 0.10 0.10 0.10
urban/municipal Evaporation, Filtration,
sewer system Ultrafiltration, Vacuum distillation

Inorganics:
Detoxication (CN, Cr(VI)),
Neutralisation (including nitric and
Indirect sulphuric acid), Precipitation (in
discharge: hydroxides, in sulphides), Activated
317_AI 0.10 0.10 0.10
urban/municipal carbon if needed.
sewer system Organics:
Separation by centrifugation,
Emulsion breaking by flocculation,
Finishing by active carbon filter.
Activated sludge system -
conventional, Chemical
Direct precipitation, Coagulation, Emulsion
569_1 discharge to a 0.10 0.10 0.10 breaking, Flocculation, Flotation,
river/stream Press filtering, Precipitation,
Reverse osmosis system, Sand
filtration
2-phase centrifugation, 3-phase
centrifugation, Emulsion breaking
(Organic physico-chemical
treatment), Membrane bioreactor
using ultrafiltration membranes
Indirect
(UF), Nanofiltration,
discharge:
156C_2W 0.01 0.02 0.15 Deconditioning, Detoxication
urban/municipal
(reduction of the Cr(VI), oxidation
sewer system
of the cyanides or phenols),
Neutralisation, Metals precipitation,
Sludges filtration, Biological
treatment (activated sludge),
Adsorption on activated carbon

Indirect Emulsion breaking,

discharge: off- Ultrafiltration,
03 0.13 0.14 0.15
site common Neutralisation,
WWT Biological treatment

Absorption, Aeration, Buffer tanks,

Indirect Centrifugation, Chemical oxidation,
discharge: Chemical precipitation, Chemical
317 0.10 0.11 0.15
urban/municipal reduction, Dewatering, Emulsion
sewer system breaking, Neutralisation, Press
filtering
Organics:
Separation by centrifugation,
Decantation, Oil separation, MCV,
Indirect
Emulsion breaking by coagulation,
discharge:
194C_AI 0.00 0.02 0.20 Flocculation, (air) Flotation,
urban/municipal
Biological treatment by buffer tank,
sewer system
Activated sludge system -
conventional, Bio-membrane, O2
addition, Finishing by ultrafiltration

170 Waste Treatment

 Chapter 2

Inorganics:
Detoxication (Cr(VI)),
Neutralisation (including nitric and
sulphuric acid), Dissolution
(oxidisers), Precipitation (in
Indirect
hydroxides, in sulphides), Ion
discharge:
215_1_AI 0.01 < 0.1 0.20 exchange resins, Evaporation,
urban/municipal
Gravel filtration.
sewer system
Organics:
Separation by oil separation, Evapo-
concentration, Emulsion breaking by
coagulation, Flocculation, Finishing
by sand filtration, Gravel filtration.
Inorganics: Detoxification,
Neutralisation, Dissolution
Direct
156C_1W_AI_INORG 0.01 0.04 0.30 (oxidisers), Precipitation,
discharge
Finishing (decantation + air
flotation)

Indirect Precipitation, Buffer tanks,

discharge: Adsorption, Filtration, Ion
06 0.03 0.05 0.31
urban/municipal exchange, Neutralisation, Press
sewer system filtering, Sand filtration

Indirect
discharge: off-
148C < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01 Oil separation
site common
WWT

Emulsion breaking,
Indirect
Buffer tanks,
discharge:
215_1 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 Dewatering,
urban/municipal
Filtration,
sewer system
Flocculation
Inorganics: Detoxification,
Neutralisation, Chemical
Indirect
precipitation.
discharge:
471_1_AI < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1
urban/municipal
Organics: Evaporation, Coagulation,
sewer system
Flocculation, Activated sludge
system, Nitrification/denitrification

ST: ST:
Direct ST: 0 0.033 0.094 Activated sludge system -
140_141_142_143C_1
discharge LT: 0 LT: LT: conventional, Ultrafiltration
0.002 0.006

Buffer tank,
Wet oxidation, Neutralisation,
Distillation/Rectification,
Direct ST: 0.02 ST: 0.05 ST: 0.2 Decantation, Activated sludge
368_369_370_371_1
discharge LT: 0.04 LT: 0.05 LT: 0.09 system,
Biological nutrient removal,
Nitrification/denitrification,
Sedimentation, Dewatering
NB:
ST = Short-term average.
LT = Long-term average.
NI = No information.

Waste Treatment 171

Chapter 2

Table 2.52: Environmental performance of water-based liquid waste treatment plants directly
and indirectly discharging to water (Cr(VI))

Effluent Effluent Effluent

Direct/indirect conc. conc. conc. Main techniques to
Plant code
discharge Min. Average Max. prevent/reduce emissions
(mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l)

Air stripping, Neutralisation,

04 Indirect 0.01 0.01 0.01 Chemical reduction, Chemical
oxidation

Chemical precipitation, Flotation,

Activated sludge system -
423_424 Direct 0.02 0.02 0.02
conventional, Moving-bed trickling
filter system

Coagulation, Flocculation,
144_145_147C Direct 0.01 0.01 0.04
Precipitation, Decantation

Inorganics:
Detoxication (Cr(VI)),
Neutralisation (including nitric and
sulphuric acid), Dissolution
(oxidisers), Precipitation (in
hydroxides, in sulphides), Ion
215_1_AI Indirect < 0.05 < 0.05 < 0.05 exchange resins, Evaporation,
Gravel filtration.
Organics:
Separation by oil separation, Evapo-
concentration, Emulsion breaking by
coagulation, Flocculation, Finishing
by sand filtration, Gravel filtration.
Buffer tanks,
Wet oxidation, Neutralisation,
Distillation/Rectification,
Decantation, Activated sludge
368_369_370_371_1 Direct < 0.01 < 0.04 < 0.05
system,
Biological nutrient removal,
Nitrification/denitrification,
Sedimentation, Dewatering
Absorption, Aeration, Buffer tanks,
Centrifugation, Chemical oxidation,
Chemical precipitation, Chemical
317 Indirect 0.01 0.03 0.05
reduction, Dewatering, Emulsion
breaking, Neutralisation, Press
filtering
Inorganics:
Detoxication (CN, Cr(VI)),
Neutralisation (including nitric and
sulphuric acid), Precipitation (in
hydroxides, in sulphides), Activated
317_AI Indirect 0.05 0.05 0.05
carbon if needed.
Organics:
Separation by centrifugation,
Emulsion breaking by flocculation,
Finishing by active carbon filter.

Emulsion breaking,
347 Indirect 0.01 0.04 0.05 Precipitation,
Filtration

172 Waste Treatment

 Chapter 2

Activated sludge system -

conventional, Chemical
precipitation, Coagulation, Emulsion
569_1 Direct 0.00 0.05 0.05 breaking, Flocculation, Flotation,
Press filtering, Precipitation,
Reverse osmosis system, Sand
filtration

Precipitation, Buffer tanks,

Adsorption, Filtration, Ion
06 Indirect 0.03 0.04 0.06
exchange, Neutralisation, Press
filtering, Sand filtration

Neutralisation,
Complex mineral precipitation,
192C Direct 0.05 0.05 0.07 Flocculation,
Sedimentation (ponds),
Press filtering

Emulsion breaking, Chemical

oxidation, Chemical reduction,
322 Indirect 0.10 0.10 0.10
Neutralisation, Chemical
precipitation, Press filtering

Waste Treatment 173

Chapter 2

Table 2.53: Environmental performance of water-based liquid waste treatment plants directly
and indirectly discharging to water (copper)

Effluent Effluent Effluent

Direct/indirect conc. conc. conc. Main techniques to
Plant code
discharge Min. Average Max. prevent/reduce emissions
(mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l)
Inorganics: Detoxication (CN,
Cr(VI)), Neutralisation (including
nitric and sulphuric acid),
Precipitation (in hydroxides, in
sulphides), Stripping.
217_AI Indirect 0.05 0.05 0.05 Organics: Separation by
centrifugation, Decantation, Oil
separation, Emulsion breaking by
coagulation, Flocculation, Finishing
by vacuum rotating drum, adsorbers
and stripping when needed.
Organics: Centrifugation,
Decantation, Oil separation,
Evaporation, Separation,
Coagulation, Flocculation.
463_1_AI Indirect 0.05 0.05 0.05
Inorganics: Detoxification,
Neutralisation, Dissolution
(oxidisers), Precipitation,
Evaporation.

Activated sludge system - SBR,

473 Indirect 0.02 0.01 0.08
Evaporation

Coagulation, Flocculation, Chemical

351_352 Indirect 0.01 0.02 0.09 precipitation, Sedimentation
(ponds), Neutralisation

Adsorption, Aeration, Air stripping,

Buffer tanks, Centrifugation,
Chemical oxidation, Chemical
217 Indirect 0.05 0.06 0.09 precipitation, Chemical reduction,
Dewatering, Emulsion breaking,
Press filtering, Skimming,
Neutralisation
Emulsion breaking,
Buffer tanks,
215_1 Indirect < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 Dewatering,
Filtration,
Flocculation
Inorganics: Detoxification,
Neutralisation, Chemical
precipitation.
471_1_AI Indirect NI < 0.1 < 0.1
Organics: Evaporation, Coagulation,
Flocculation, Activated sludge
system, Nitrification/denitrification.

Emulsion breaking,
Ultrafiltration,
03 Indirect 0.11 0.14 0.10
Neutralisation,
Biological treatment

174 Waste Treatment

 Chapter 2

Air stripping, Neutralisation,

04 Indirect 0.10 0.10 0.10 Chemical reduction, Chemical
oxidation

Absorption, Aeration, Buffer tank,;

Centrifugation, Chemical oxidation,
Chemical precipitation, Chemical
317 Indirect 0.10 0.10 0.10
reduction, Dewatering, Emulsion
breaking, Neutralisation, Press
filtering
Inorganics:
Detoxication (CN, Cr(VI)),
Neutralisation (including nitric and
sulphuric acid), Precipitation (in
hydroxides, in sulphides), Activated
317_AI Indirect 0.10 0.10 0.10
carbon if needed.
Organics:
Separation by centrifugation,
Emulsion breaking by flocculation,
Finishing by active carbon filter.
Activated sludge system -
conventional, Chemical
precipitation, Coagulation, Emulsion
569_1 Direct 0.1 0.1 0.1 breaking, Flocculation, Flotation,
Press filtering, Precipitation,
Reverse osmosis system, Sand
filtration

149_150C Indirect < 0.02 0.05 0.11 Decantation

Activated sludge system - SBR,

07 Indirect 0.03 0.08 0.16 Flocculation, Emulsion breaking,
Press filtering

Ultrafiltration,
421_422 Direct 0.02 0.06 0.17 Nanofiltration,
Biological treatment

Activated sludge system -

conventional, Neutralisation,
Decantation, Press filtering,
154_155C Direct 0.03 0.06 0.21
Chemical precipitation, Membrane
extraction, Flocculation, Aeration,
Buffer tanks, Centrifugation

Chemical oxidation, Chemical

91 Indirect 0.23 0.23 0.23 precipitation, Dewatering,
Flocculation, Adsorption

Activated sludge system -

151C Indirect 0.00 0.02 0.23
conventional, Ultrafiltration

Waste Treatment 175

Chapter 2

Neutralisation: acid-base
neutralisation within a hybrid
physico-chemical process including
destabilisation, centrifugation,
evaporation, solid-liquid separation
steps for waste emulsions treatment,
153C Indirect 0.00 0.01 0.26 and acid-base neutralisation of the
resulting clarified water phase.
Biological nutrient removal:
Microbiological conversion of
residual organic content in the water
phases originating from the previous
physico-chemical steps.
Organics:
Separation by centrifugation, Evapo-
condensation, MCV, Emulsion
breaking by coagulation,
140_3W_AI_ORG Direct < 0.001 < 0.03 0.30 Flocculation, (air) Flotation,
Biological treatment by buffer tank,
Activated sludge system -
conventional, Finishing by
ultrafiltration, Sand filtration
Inorganics:
Detoxication (Cr(VI)),
Neutralisation (including nitric and
sulphuric acid), Dissolution
(oxidisers), Precipitation (in
hydroxides, in sulphides), Ion
215_1_AI Indirect < 0.1 < 0.1 0.30 exchange resins, Evaporation,
Gravel filtration.
Organics:
Separation by oil separation, Evapo-
concentration, Emulsion breaking by
coagulation, Flocculation, Finishing
by sand filtration, Gravel filtration.

Chemical precipitation,
Centrifugation, Decantation,
154_155C_AI Direct 0 0.08 0.4
Emulsion breaking, Activated
sludge system, Buffer tanks

Precipitation, Buffer tanks,

Adsorption, Filtration, Ion
06 Indirect 0.14 0.30 0.43
exchange, Neutralisation, Press
filtering, Sand filtration

Emulsion breaking, Chemical

oxidation, Chemical reduction,
322 Indirect 0.25 0.30 0.43
Neutralisation, Chemical
precipitation, Press filtering

Organics:
Separation by centrifugation,
Decantation, Oil separation, MCV,
Emulsion breaking by coagulation,
194C_AI Indirect < 0.001 < 0.05 0.50 Flocculation, (air) Flotation,
Biological treatment by buffer tank,
Activated sludge system -
conventional, Bio-membrane, O2
addition, Finishing by ultrafiltration

Activated sludge system -

194C Indirect 0 0.021 0.5
conventional, Ultrafiltration

176 Waste Treatment

 Chapter 2

Buffer tanks,
Wet oxidation, Neutralisation,
Distillation/Rectification,
ST: 0.02 ST: 0.03 ST: 0.05 Decantation, Activated sludge
368_369_370_371_1 Direct
LT: 0.02 LT: 0.03 LT: 0.04 system,
Biological nutrient removal,
Nitrification/denitrification,
Sedimentation Dewatering
NB:
ST = Short-term average.
LT = Long-term average.
NI = No information.

Table 2.54: Environmental performance of water-based liquid waste treatment plants directly
and indirectly discharging to water (lead)

Effluent Effluent Effluent

Direct/indirect conc. conc. conc. Main techniques to
Plant code
discharge Min. Average Max. prevent/reduce emissions
(mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l)
Adsorption, Aeration, Air stripping,
Buffer tanks, Centrifugation,
Indirect
Chemical oxidation, Chemical
discharge:
217 0.05 0.05 0.05 precipitation, Chemical reduction,
urban/municipal
Dewatering, Emulsion breaking,
sewer system
Press filtering, Skimming,
Neutralisation
Inorganics: Detoxication (CN,
Cr(VI)), Neutralisation (including
nitric and sulphuric acid),
Precipitation (in hydroxides, in
Indirect
sulphides), Stripping.
discharge:
217_AI 0.05 0.05 0.05 Organics: Separation by
urban/municipal
centrifugation, Decantation, Oil
sewer system
separation, Emulsion breaking by
coagulation, Flocculation, Finishing
by vacuum rotating drum, adsorbers
and stripping when needed

Indirect
Activated sludge system - SBR,
discharge:
07 0.024 0.048 0.07 Flocculation, Emulsion breaking,
urban/municipal
Press filtering
sewer system

Indirect
discharge:
471_1 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 NI
urban/municipal
sewer system

Inorganics: Detoxification,
Neutralisation, Chemical
Indirect
precipitation.
discharge:
471_1_AI NI < 0.1 < 0.1
urban/municipal
Organics: Evaporation, Coagulation,
sewer system
Flocculation, Activated sludge
system, Nitrification/denitrification.

Direct Coagulation, Flocculation,

144_145_147C 0.1 0.1 0.1
discharge Precipitation, Decantation

Waste Treatment 177

Chapter 2

Absorption, Aeration, Buffer tanks,

Indirect Centrifugation, Chemical oxidation,
discharge: Chemical precipitation, Chemical
317 0.1 0.1 0.1
urban/municipal reduction, Dewatering, Emulsion
sewer system breaking, Neutralisation, Press
filtering
Inorganics:
Detoxication (CN, Cr(VI)),
Neutralisation (including nitric and
Indirect sulphuric acid), Precipitation (in
discharge: hydroxides, in sulphides), Activated
317_AI 0.1 0.1 0.1
urban/municipal carbon if needed.
sewer system Organics:
Separation by centrifugation,
Emulsion breaking by flocculation,
Finishing by active carbon filter.
Organics: Centrifugation,
Decantation, Oil separation,
Indirect Evaporation, Separation,
discharge: Coagulation, Flocculation.
463_1_AI 0.1 0.1 0.1
urban/municipal Inorganics: Detoxification,
sewer system Neutralisation, Dissolution
(oxidisers), Precipitation,
Evaporation.
Activated sludge system -
conventional, Chemical
Direct precipitation, Coagulation, Emulsion
569_1 discharge to a 0.02 0.1 0.1 breaking, Flocculation, Flotation,
river/stream Press filtering, Precipitation,
Reverse osmosis system, Sand
filtration
Emulsion breaking,
Indirect
Buffer tanks,
discharge:
215_1 < 0.2 < 0.2 < 0.2 Dewatering,
urban/municipal
Filtration,
sewer system
Flocculation
Inorganics:
Detoxication (Cr(VI)),
Neutralisation (including nitric and
sulphuric acid), Dissolution
(oxidisers), Precipitation (in
Indirect
hydroxides, in sulphides), Ion
discharge:
215_1_AI < 0.01 < 0.1 0.2 exchange resins, Evaporation,
urban/municipal
Gravel filtration.
sewer system
Organics:
Separation by oil separation, Evapo-
concentration, Emulsion breaking by
coagulation, Flocculation, Finishing
by sand filtration, Gravel filtration.

Indirect Emulsion breaking,

discharge: off- Ultrafiltration,
03 0.27 0.24 0.25
site common Neutralisation,
WWT Biological treatment

Indirect Emulsion breaking, Chemical

discharge: oxidation, Chemical reduction,
322 0.25 0.25 0.25
urban/municipal Neutralisation, Chemical
sewer system precipitation, Press filtering

Activated sludge system -

Direct conventional, Neutralisation,
discharge Decantation, Press filtering,
154_155C 0.025 0.063 0.27
without Chemical precipitation, Membrane
treatment extraction, Flocculation, Aeration,
Buffer tanks, Centrifugation

178 Waste Treatment

 Chapter 2

Indirect
Air stripping, Neutralisation,
discharge:
04 0.1 0.1 0.3 Chemical reduction, Chemical
urban/municipal
oxidation
sewer system

Direct Chemical precipitation,

discharge Centrifugation, Decantation,
154_155C_AI 0 0.07 0.3
without Emulsion breaking, Activated
treatment sludge system, Buffer tanks

Indirect
discharge: Activated sludge system -
194C 0 0.067 0.3
urban/municipal conventional, Ultrafiltration
sewer system

Indirect
discharge:
463_1 0.1 0.144 0.3 NI
urban/municipal
sewer system

NI = No information.

Waste Treatment 179

Chapter 2

Table 2.55: Environmental performance of water-based liquid waste treatment plants directly
and indirectly discharging to water (nickel)

Effluent Effluent Effluent

Direct/indirect conc. conc. conc. Main techniques to
Plant code
discharge Min. Average Max. prevent/reduce emissions
(mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l)

149_150C Indirect 0.03 0.04 0.06 Decantation

Coagulation, Flocculation, Chemical

351_352 Indirect 0.02 0.04 0.06 precipitation, Sedimentation
(ponds), Neutralisation

Buffer tanks, Activated sludge

system - conventional,
393 Direct 0.02 0.03 0.07
Nitrification/denitrification,
Sedimentation (ponds)

Organics: Centrifugation,
Decantation, Oil separation,
Evaporation, Separation,
Coagulation, Flocculation,
463_1_AI Indirect 0.05 0.06 0.07
Inorganics: Detoxification,
Neutralisation, Dissolution
(oxidisers), Precipitation,
Evaporation
Inorganics:
Detoxication (CN, Cr(VI)),
Neutralisation (including nitric and
sulphuric acid), Precipitation (in
hydroxides, in sulphides), Activated
317_AI Indirect 0.10 0.10 0.10
carbon if needed.
Organics:
Separation by centrifugation,
Emulsion breaking by flocculation,
Finishing by active carbon filter.

463_1 Indirect 0.01 0.05 0.10 NI

Activated sludge system -

conventional, Chemical
precipitation, Coagulation, Emulsion
569_1 Direct 0.30 0.20 0.10 breaking, Flocculation, Flotation,
Press filtering, Precipitation,
Reverse osmosis system, Sand
filtration

Chemical precipitation, Flotation,

Activated sludge system -
423_424 Direct 0.11 0.11 0.11
conventional, Moving-bed trickling
filter system

Activated sludge system -

conventional, Chemical
90 Direct 0.00 0.04 0.15
precipitation, Filtration,
Centrifugation

180 Waste Treatment

 Chapter 2

Decantation, Buffer tanks, Filtration,

486 Direct 0.00 0.01 0.16 Ultrafiltration, Reverse osmosis
system, Evaporation, Neutralisation

Activated sludge system -

conventional,
468_1 NI 0.20 0.20 0.20
Centrifugation,
Chemical precipitation

Inorganics: Detoxification,
Neutralisation, Chemical
precipitation.
468_1_AI NI 0.20 0.20 0.20
Organics: Centrifugation,
Decantation, Oil separation, Buffer
tanks, Bio-membrane.

471_1 Indirect 0.20 0.30 0.30 NI

Inorganics: Detoxification,
Neutralisation, Chemical
precipitation.
471_1_AI Indirect NI 0.20 0.30
Organics: Evaporation, Coagulation,
Flocculation, Activated sludge
system, Nitrification/denitrification.

Evaporation, Ultrafiltration,
489 Indirect 0.00 0.02 0.30
Biological purification

Buffer tanks,
Wet oxidation, Neutralisation,
ST: Distillation/Rectification,
ST: 0.02 0.037 ST: 0.31 Decantation, Activated sludge
368_369_370_371_1 Direct
LT: 0.02 LT: LT: 0.1 system,
0.034 Biological nutrient removal,
Nitrification/denitrification,
Sedimentation Dewatering
Activated sludge system -
conventional, Neutralisation,
Decantation, Press filtering,
154_155C Direct 0.10 0.20 0.32
Chemical precipitation, Membrane
extraction, Flocculation, Aeration,
Buffer tanks, Centrifugation

Ultrafiltration,
421_422 Direct 0.01 0.02 0.39 Nanofiltration,
Biological treatment

Air stripping, Neutralisation,

04 Indirect 0.20 0.60 0.40 Chemical reduction, Chemical
oxidation

Chemical precipitation,
Centrifugation, Decantation,
154_155C_AI Direct 0.00 0.20 0.40
Emulsion breaking, Activated
sludge system, Buffer tanks

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Chapter 2

Adsorption, Aeration, Air stripping,

Buffer tanks, Centrifugation,
Chemical oxidation, Chemical
217 Indirect 0.05 0.19 0.41 precipitation, Chemical reduction,
Dewatering, Emulsion breaking,
Press filtering, Skimming,
Neutralisation

Oil separation, Neutralisation,

08 Indirect NI 0.34 0.48 Precipitation, Filtration, Activated
sludge system - SBR, Adsorption

Activated sludge system - SBR,

07 Indirect 0.23 0.36 0.50 Flocculation, Emulsion breaking,
Press filtering

Organics: Separation by
centrifugation, Decantation, Oil
separation, Evapo-condensation,
MCV,
Emulsion breaking by coagulation,
156C_1W_AI_ORG Direct 0.00 0.10 0.50
Flocculation,
Air flotation,
Biological treatment by buffer tanks,
Activated sludge, Biomembrane,
Finishing by nanofiltration
Inorganics: Detoxication (CN,
Cr(VI)), Neutralisation (including
nitric and sulphuric acid),
Precipitation (in hydroxides, in
sulphides), Stripping.
217_AI Indirect 0.08 0.10 0.50 Organics: Separation by
centrifugation, Decantation, Oil
separation, Emulsion breaking by
coagulation, Flocculation, Finishing
by vacuum rotating drum, adsorbers
and stripping when needed.

Emulsion breaking,
Ultrafiltration,
03 Indirect 0.77 0.66 0.56
Neutralisation,
Biological treatment

Emulsion breaking, Chemical

oxidation, Chemical reduction,
322 Indirect 0.19 0.34 0.57
Neutralisation, Chemical
precipitation, Press filtering

Absorption, Aeration, Buffer tanks,

Centrifugation, Chemical oxidation,
Chemical precipitation, Chemical
317 Indirect 0.04 0.21 0.60
reduction, Dewatering, Emulsion
breaking, Neutralisation, Press
filtering

Emulsion breaking,
347 Indirect 0.02 0.31 0.76 Precipitation,
Filtration

Activated sludge system -

151C Indirect 0.00 0.18 0.76
conventional, Ultrafiltration

182 Waste Treatment

 Chapter 2

Emulsion breaking,
Buffer tanks,
215_1 Indirect 0.17 0.48 0.80 Dewatering,
Filtration,
Flocculation
Inorganics:
Detoxication (Cr(VI)),
Neutralisation (including nitric and
sulphuric acid), Dissolution
(oxidisers), Precipitation (in
hydroxides, in sulphides), Ion
215_1_AI Indirect 0.10 0.40 0.80 exchange resins, Evaporation,
Gravel filtration.
Organics:
Separation by oil separation, Evapo-
concentration Emulsion breaking by
coagulation, Flocculation, Finishing
by sand filtration, Gravel filtration.
Organics:
Separation by centrifugation,
Decantation, Oil separation, MCV,
Emulsion breaking by coagulation,
194C_AI Indirect 0.00 0.40 0.90 Flocculation, (air) Flotation,
Biological treatment by buffer tank,
Activated sludge system -
conventional, Bio-membrane, O2
addition, Finishing by ultrafiltration

Precipitation, Buffer tanks,

Adsorption, Filtration, Ion
06 Indirect 0.42 0.69 0.92
exchange, Neutralisation, Press
filtering, Sand filtration

Aeration, Buffer tanks, Coagulation,

Centrifugation, Detoxification,
401_404_2W Indirect 1.00 1.00 1.00
Dewatering, Filtration, Flocculation,
Flotation, Skimming

NB:
ST = Short-term average.
LT = Long-term average.
NI = No information.

Waste Treatment 183

Chapter 2

Table 2.56: Environmental performance of water-based liquid waste treatment plants directly
and indirectly discharging to water (mercury)

Effluent Effluent Effluent

Direct/indirect conc. conc. conc. Main techniques to
Plant code
discharge Min. Average Max. prevent/reduce emissions
(mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l)
Inorganics: Detoxification,
Neutralisation, Chemical
precipitation.
468_1_AI Indirect NI 0.003 0.001
Organics: Centrifugation,
Decantation, Oil separation, Buffer
tanks, Bio-membrane.

Coagulation, Flocculation, Chemical

351_352 Indirect 0.000 0.000 0.002 precipitation, Sedimentation
(ponds,) Neutralisation

Adsorption, Aeration, Air stripping,

Buffer tanks, Centrifugation,
Chemical oxidation, Chemical
217 Indirect 0.000 0.001 0.002 precipitation, Chemical reduction,
Dewatering, Emulsion breaking,
Press filtering, Skimming,
Neutralisation

Emulsion breaking,
347 Indirect 0.000 0.000 0.002 Precipitation,
Filtration

Emulsion breaking,
Buffer tanks,
215_1 Indirect < 0.02 < 0.025 < 0.025 Dewatering,
Filtration,
Flocculation
Buffer tanks,
Wet oxidation, Neutralisation,
Distillation/Rectification,
Decantation, Activated sludge
368_369_370_371_1 Direct < 0.002 < 0.002 < 0.003
system,
Biological nutrient removal,
Nitrification/denitrification,
Sedimentation, Dewatering

149_150C Indirect < 0.001 0.002 0.003 Decantation

Activated sludge system -

conventional,
468_1 Indirect 0.003 0.003 0.003
Centrifugation,
Chemical precipitation

Emulsion breaking,
Ultrafiltration,
03 Indirect 0.000 0.004 0.004
Neutralisation,
Biological treatment

184 Waste Treatment

 Chapter 2

ST:
ST: 0 ST: 0 0.005 Activated sludge system -
140_141_142_143C_1 Direct
LT: 0 LT: 0 LT: conventional, Ultrafiltration
0.0003

Oil separation, Neutralisation,

08 Indirect NI 0.005 0.005 Precipitation, Filtration, Activated
sludge system s -SBR, Adsorption

Air stripping, Neutralisation,

04 Indirect 0.010 0.010 0.010 Chemical reduction, Chemical
oxidation

Organics:
Separation by centrifugation, Evapo-
condensation, MCV, Emulsion
breaking by coagulation,
140_3W_AI_ORG Direct < 0.003 0.003 0.010 Flocculation, (air) Flotation,
Biological treatment by buffer tanks,
Activated sludge system -
conventional, Finishing by
ultrafiltration, Sand filtration
Activated sludge system -
conventional, Neutralisation,
Decantation, Press filtering,
154_155C Direct 0.010 0.010 0.010
Chemical precipitation, Membrane
extraction, Flocculation, Aeration,
Buffer tanks, Centrifugation
Absorption, Aeration, Buffer tank,;
Centrifugation, Chemical oxidation,
Chemical precipitation, Chemical
317 Indirect 0.001 0.007 0.010
reduction, Dewatering, Emulsion
breaking, Neutralisation, Press
filtering
Inorganics:
Detoxication (CN, Cr(VI)),
Neutralisation (including nitric and
sulphuric acid), Precipitation (in
hydroxides, in sulphides), Activated
317_AI Indirect 0.010 0.010 0.010
carbon if needed.
Organics:
Separation by centrifugation,
Emulsion breaking by flocculation,
Finishing by active carbon filter.

Aeration, Buffer tanks, Coagulation,

Centrifugation, Detoxification,
401_404_2W Indirect 0.010 0.010 0.010
Dewatering, Filtration, Flocculation,
Flotation, Skimming

Coagulation, Flocculation,
144_145_147C Direct 0.001 0.001 0.013
Precipitation, Decantation

Waste Treatment 185

Chapter 2

Inorganics:
Detoxication (Cr(VI)),
Neutralisation (including nitric and
sulphuric acid), Dissolution
(oxidisers), Precipitation (in
hydroxides, in sulphides), Ion
215_1_AI Indirect < 0.025 < 0.05 < 0.05 exchange resins, Evaporation,
Gravel filtration.
Organics:
Separation by oil separation, Evapo-
concentration, Emulsion breaking by
coagulation, Flocculation, Finishing
by sand filtration, Gravel filtration.

471_1 Indirect < 0.05 < 0.05 < 0.05 NI

Inorganics: Detoxification,
Neutralisation, Chemical
precipitation.
471_1_AI Indirect NI < 0.05 < 0.05
Organics: Evaporation, Coagulation,
Flocculation, Activated sludge
system, Nitrification/denitrification.
NB:
ST = Short-term average.
LT = Long-term average.
NI = No information.

186 Waste Treatment

 Chapter 2

Table 2.57: Environmental performance of water-based liquid waste treatment plants directly
and indirectly discharging to water (zinc)

Effluent Effluent Effluent

Direct/indirect conc. conc. conc. Main techniques to
Plant code
discharge Min. Average Max. prevent/reduce emissions
(mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l)

148C Indirect 0.0 0.1 0.1 Oil separation

Inorganics:
Detoxication (CN, Cr(VI)),
Neutralisation (including nitric
and sulphuric acid), Precipitation
(in hydroxides, in sulphides),
317_AI Indirect 0.1 0.1 0.1 Activated carbon if needed.
Organics:
Separation by centrifugation,
Emulsion breaking by
flocculation, Finishing by active
carbon filter.

Emulsion breaking,
Ultrafiltration,
03 Indirect 0.3 0.2 0.1
Neutralisation,
Biological treatment

Chemical oxidation, Chemical

91 Indirect 0.2 0.2 0.2 precipitation, Dewatering,
Flocculation, Adsorption

Activated sludge system -

conventional,
468_1 Indirect 0.2 0.2 0.2
Centrifugation,
Chemical precipitation

Inorganics: Detoxification,
Neutralisation, Chemical
precipitation.
468_1_AI Indirect NI 0.2 0.2
Organics: Centrifugation,
Decantation, Oil separation,
Buffer tanks, Bio-membrane.
Organics: Centrifugation,
Decantation, Oil separation,
Evaporation, Separation,
Coagulation, Flocculation.
463_1_AI Indirect 0.1 0.2 0.2
Inorganics: Detoxification,
Neutralisation, Dissolution
(oxidisers), Precipitation,
Evaporation.

Coagulation, Flocculation,
Chemical precipitation,
351_352 Indirect 0.0 0.1 0.2
Sedimentation (ponds),
Neutralisation

463_1 Indirect 0.1 0.1 0.2 NI

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Chapter 2

Centrifugation, Oil separation,

216_AI Indirect 0.1 0.2 0.3 Evapoconcentration, Ultra-
filtration, Activated carbon filter

Inorganics: Evaporation.

Organics:
473_AI Indirect NI 0.7 0.3
Evaporation (Evapo-
condensation), Activated sludge
system - SBR.

Activated sludge system - SBR,

07 Indirect 0.2 0.2 0.3 Flocculation, Emulsion breaking,
Press filtering

Precipitation, Buffer tanks,

Adsorption, Filtration, Ion
06 Indirect 0.2 0.2 0.3
exchange, Neutralisation, Press
filtering, Sand filtration

Absorption, Buffer tanks,

Decantation, Emulsion breaking,
216 Indirect 0.1 0.2 0.3 Evaporation, Filtration,
Ultrafiltration, Vacuum
distillation
Adsorption, Aeration, Air
stripping, Buffer tanks,
Centrifugation, Chemical
oxidation, Chemical
217 Indirect 0.1 0.2 0.5
precipitation, Chemical
reduction, Dewatering, Emulsion
breaking, Press filtering,
Skimming, Neutralisation
Absorption, Aeration, Buffer
tanks, Centrifugation, Chemical
oxidation, Chemical
317 Indirect 0.1 0.2 0.5 precipitation, Chemical
reduction, Dewatering, Emulsion
breaking, Neutralisation, Press
filtering

149_150C Indirect 0.1 0.3 0.5 Decantation

Emulsion breaking, Chemical

oxidation, Chemical reduction,
322 Indirect 0.1 0.2 0.5
Neutralisation, Chemical
precipitation, Press filtering

Air stripping, Neutralisation,

04 Indirect 0.3 0.4 0.6 Chemical reduction, Chemical
oxidation

Oil separation, Neutralisation,

Precipitation, Filtration,
08 Indirect NI 0.7 0.7
Activated sludge system - SBR,
Adsorption

188 Waste Treatment

 Chapter 2

Activated sludge system - SBR,

473 Indirect 0.1 0.2 0.7
Evaporation

Inorganics: Detoxication (CN,

Cr(VI)), Neutralisation
(including nitric and sulphuric
acid), Precipitation (in
hydroxides, in sulphides),
Stripping.
217_AI Indirect 0.1 0.3 1.0 Organics: Separation by
centrifugation, Decantation, Oil
separation, Emulsion breaking
by coagulation, Flocculation,
Finishing by vacuum rotating
drum, adsorbers and stripping
when needed.
Aeration, Buffer tanks,
Coagulation, Centrifugation,
401_404_2W Indirect 1.0 1.0 1.0 Detoxification, Dewatering,
Filtration, Flocculation,
Flotation, Skimming

Activated sludge system -

151C Indirect 0.0 0.2 1.5
conventional, Ultrafiltration

Inorganics:
Detoxication (Cr(VI)),
Neutralisation (including nitric
and sulphuric acid), Dissolution
(oxidisers), Precipitation (in
hydroxides, in sulphides), Ion
exchange resins, Evaporation,
215_1_AI Indirect < 0.1 0.6 1.6
Gravel filtration.
Organics:
Separation by oil separation,
Evapo-concentration, Emulsion
breaking by coagulation,
Flocculation Finishing by sand
filtration, Gravel filtration.

Emulsion breaking,
347 Indirect 0.1 0.3 1.8 Precipitation,
Filtration

Emulsion breaking,
Buffer tanks,
215_1 Indirect 0.1 0.5 1.8 Dewatering,
Filtration,
Flocculation

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Chapter 2

Neutralisation: acid-base
neutralisation within a hybrid
physico-chemical process
including destabilisation,
centrifugation, evaporation,
solid-liquid separation steps for
waste emulsions treatment, and
153C Indirect 0.0 0.4 2.0 acid-base neutralisation of the
resulting clarified water phase.
Biological nutrient removal:
Microbiological conversion of
residual organic content in the
water phases originating from
the previous physico-chemical
steps.

Evaporation, Ultrafiltration,
489 Indirect 0.0 0.2 2.2
Biological purification

NB: NI = No information.

2.3.6.2 Descriptions of individual waste water treatment techniques

2.3.6.2.1 Equalisation

Description
Buffer facilities ensure reasonably constant conditions of certain parameters, especially pH,
hydraulic load (or flow rate) and contaminant loads/concentrations for the waste water treatment
plant (WWTP).

Example plants
Table 2.58 shows the plants from the reference list performing equalisation of waste water.

Table 2.58: Plants performing equalisation of waste water

Plants performing equalisation of waste water Main type of waste treatment
266, 415, 434 MBT
54, 136 Mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste
40 Treatment of excavated contaminated soil
154_155C, 215, 216, 217, 317, 368,
Treatment of water-based liquid waste
392, 393, 401_404, 486
Re-refining and other preparations
605, 619, 620
for reuse of waste oils
73, 417, 418, 419 Aerobic treatment of source-separated bio-waste
341 Anaerobic treatment of bio-waste
152C, 174C PCT of waste with calorific value

Reference literature
[ 45, COM 2016 ]

2.3.6.2.2 Neutralisation

Description
Neutralisation is the process by which the pH of the incoming waste water is adjusted to the
neutral pH level (approximately 7) by the addition of chemicals so as to make it biologically

190 Waste Treatment

 Chapter 2

treatable in the waste water treatment plants and also to make it comply with discharge
standards.

Example plants
Table 2.59 shows the plants from the reference list performing neutralisation of waste water.

Table 2.59: Plants performing neutralisation of waste water

Plants performing neutralisation
Main type of waste treatment
of waste water
14 Treatment of excavated contaminated soil
04, 06, 153C, 154_155C, 192C, 322, 351_352,
Treatment of water-based liquid waste
368, 395, 486, 550

Reference literature
[ 45, COM 2016 ]

2.3.6.2.3 Mechanical separation of insoluble contaminants

2.3.6.2.3.1 Oil-water separation

Description
The separation of oil and water and subsequent oil removal can be divided into:

 gravity separation of free oil, using separation equipment; and

 emulsion breaking, using emulsion-breaking chemicals.

Example plants
Table 2.60 and Table 2.61 show the plants from the reference list performing oil-water
separation.

Table 2.60: Plants equipped with oil separators

Plants equipped with oil separators Type of waste treatment
Mechanical treatment of waste with calorific
31, 133
value
95C, 136, 288, 289, 290, 291, 441, 455, 456, 464,
Mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste
478
Re-refining and other preparations for reuse of
605, 619
waste oils
440 PCT of waste with calorific value
148C Treatment of water-based liquid waste
307 Temporary storage of hazardous waste

Waste Treatment 191

Chapter 2

Table 2.61: Plants performing emulsion breaking

Plants performing emulsion breaking Type of waste treatment

Physico-chemical treatment of solid and/or
569
pasty waste
07, 215, 216, 317, 322 Treatment of water-based liquid waste
307 Temporary storage of hazardous waste
Mechanical treatment in shredders of metal
282, 293
waste

Reference literature
[ 45, COM 2016 ]

2.3.6.2.3.2 Coagulation and flocculation

Description
Coagulation and flocculation are used to separate suspended solids from waste water. They
occur in successive steps which are intended to overcome the forces stabilising the suspended
particles, allowing particle collision and the growth of the floc.

Coagulation is the first step. It aims at destabilising the particles' charge by neutralising their
electrical surface charge. This is carried out by adding coagulants with charges opposite to those
of the suspended solids to the waste water. This allows the particles to stick together into
slightly larger particles.

Flocculation is a gentle mixing stage which aims at increasing the particle size. Collisions of
microfloc particles cause them to bond to produce larger floc. This occurs in the presence of
inorganic (formed by the coagulant) or added organic polymers. Contact times for flocculation
range from 15 or 20 minutes to an hour or more.

Once the floc has reached the optimum size and strength, the waste water can be brought to
sedimentation (see Section 2.3.6.2.3.4).

Example plants
Table 2.62 and Table 2.63 show the plants from the reference list performing coagulation and
flocculation of waste water respectively.

Table 2.62: Plants performing coagulation of waste water

Plants performing coagulation of waste water Type of waste treatment
Mechanical treatment in shredders of metal
364_365
waste
353_359, 354_360 Treatment of excavated contaminated soil
144_145_147C, 351_352, 401_404 Treatment of water-based liquid waste
170 Regeneration of spent solvents
366 Temporary storage of hazardous waste
152 PCT of waste with calorific value
Physico-chemical treatment of solid and/or
569
pasty waste
Mechanical treatment of waste with calorific
361_363
value

192 Waste Treatment

 Chapter 2

Table 2.63: Plants performing flocculation of waste water

Plants performing flocculation of waste water Type of waste treatment

170 Regeneration of spent solvents
569 Physico-chemical treatment of solid/pasty waste
14 Treatment of excavated contaminated soil
07, 91, 215, 144_145_147C, 154_155,
Treatment of water-based liquid waste
351_352, 401_404

Reference literature
[ 45, COM 2016 ]

2.3.6.2.3.3 Electrocoagulation

Description
The aim of electrocoagulation is to form precipitates and compounds between colloids so that
these substances can be separated in subsequent operations.

The release of coagulants in the waste water to be treated is realised by electrolytically

dissolving an electrode (i.e. an anode, normally made of iron or aluminium). When the electrode
is dissolved, gas is released (i.e. O2, H2) which results in a flotation effect. If necessary, a
(support) flocculant can be added to improve the flotation yield.

Example plants
Only Plant 152C is equipped with an electrocoagulation system. This plant performs physico-
chemical treatment of waste with calorific value.

Reference literature
[ 45, COM 2016 ]

2.3.6.2.3.4 Sedimentation

Description
Sedimentation, or clarification, is the separation of suspended particles and floating material by
gravitational settling.

Example plants
See Table 2.64.

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Chapter 2

Table 2.64: Plants equipped with a sedimentation or decantation system

Plants performing sedimentation/decantation
Type of waste treatment
of waste water
55, 136, 137, 294C, 364_365, 441,
Mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste
455, 456, 464, 478, 571
14, 40, 353_359, 354_360 Treatment of excavated contaminated soil
144_145_147C, 149_150C, 154_155C, 192C,
Treatment of water-based liquid waste
216, 351_352, 368, 392, 393, 486
170 Regeneration of spent solvents
366 Temporary storage of hazardous waste
172C, 174C PCT of waste with calorific value
Physico-chemical treatment of solid and/or pasty
427
waste
Mechanical treatment of waste with calorific
280C, 361_363, 443C
value
481, 625 Aerobic treatment of excavated soil
104 Aerobic treatment of source-separated bio-waste
251 Anaerobic treatment of bio-waste
Re-refining and other preparations for reuse of
605, 619
waste oils

Reference literature
[ 45, COM 2016 ]

2.3.6.2.3.5 Flotation

Description
Flotation is a process in which solid or liquid particles or particulates are separated from the
waste water phase by attaching to fine gas bubbles, usually air (nitrogen or fuel gas are
commonly used in the oil industry). The buoyant particles accumulate at the water surface and
are collected with skimmers.

Example plants
See Table 2.65.

Table 2.65: Plants performing flotation for waste water treatment

Plants performing flotation of waste water Type of waste treatment

571 Mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste
401_404, 423_424 Treatment of water-based liquid waste
152C PCT of waste with calorific value
Physico-chemical treatment of solid and/or pasty
569
waste
412 Aerobic treatment of source-separated bio-waste
Re-refining and other preparations for reuse of
235, 619
waste oils

Reference literature
[ 45, COM 2016 ]

194 Waste Treatment

 Chapter 2

2.3.6.2.3.6 Filtration

Description
Filtration is the separation of solids from waste water effluents passing through a porous
medium.

In waste water treatment, filtration is frequently used as the final separation stage after
sedimentation processes (see Section 2.3.6.2.3.4) or flotation (see Section 2.3.6.2.3.5), if low
emissions of particulates are wanted, such as:

 separation of flocs, heavy metal hydroxides, etc. after sedimentation, to cope with
discharge requirements;
 removal of activated sludge after the central biological WWTP, in addition to
sedimentation, to improve the quality of biologically treated waste water effluent;
 dewatering of sludge, flotate, etc.;
 recovery of free oil, with rotary drum filters and the help of polymer addition.

Commonly used types of filter systems include:

 the granular medium filter or sand filter, which is widely used as a waste water
treatment device (the medium of sand filters need not literally be sand), mainly for waste
water with a low solids content;
 the gravity drum filter, used for sewerage treatment and the removal of activated sludge
flocs; its efficiency is dependent on the screen fabric;
 the rotary vacuum filter, which is used for oily sludge dewatering and slop de-
emulsification;
 the membrane filter (see Section 2.3.6.2.3.7);
 the belt filter press, which is largely used for sludge dewatering, but also for liquid-solid
separation operations;
 the filter press, which is usually used for sludge dewatering (see Section 2.3.6.3), but
also for liquid-solid separation operations, and is suitable for high solid contents.

Example plants
See Table 2.66.

Table 2.66: Plants performing filtration of waste water

Plants performing filtration of waste water Type of waste treatment
54, 55, 137, 364_365 Mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste
40, 353_359, 354_360 Treatment of excavated contaminated soil
06, 90, 215, 216, 368_369_370_371,
Treatment of water-based liquid waste
401_404, 486, 550
366 Temporary storage of hazardous waste
152C, 172C PCT of waste with calorific value
Physico-chemical treatment of solid and/or pasty
427, 569
waste
Mechanical treatment of waste with calorific
361_363
value
Re-refining and other preparations for reuse of
620
waste oils

Reference literature
[ 45, COM 2016 ]

Waste Treatment 195

Chapter 2

2.3.6.2.3.7 Membrane filtration

Description
Microfiltration (MF) and ultrafiltration (UF) are membrane processes that retain certain
substances contained in waste waters on one side of the membrane.

Membrane filtration is applied when solid-free waste water is desired for downstream
treatments, e.g. reverse osmosis or the complete removal of hazardous contaminants such as
insoluble heavy metals. The choice between MF and UF depends on the particle size.

Common MF applications include:

 degreasing processes;
 metal particle recovery;
 metal plating waste water treatment;
 sludge separation after the activated sludge process in a central biological WWTP,
replacing a secondary clarifier (activated membrane process), though UF can also be
used.

Common UF applications include:

 removal of non-toxic degradable pollutants such as proteins and other macromolecular

compounds and toxic non-degradable components, e.g. dyes and paints, with molecular
weights greater than 1 000;
 segregation of oil-water emulsions;
 separation of heavy metals after complexation or precipitation;
 separation of components not readily degradable in sewerage treatment effluents, which
are subsequently recycled to the biological stage;
 pretreatment step prior to reverse osmosis (see Section 2.3.6.2.4.4) or ion exchange (see
Section 2.3.6.2.4.6).

Example plants
See Table 2.67.

Table 2.67: Plants equipped with membrane filtration for waste water treatment
Plants performing membrane filtration of
Type of waste treatment
waste water
140_141_142_143C, 151C, 159C,
Treatment of water-based liquid waste
194C, 216, 486, 489
127, 244, 257 MBT
460 Aerobic treatment of source-separated bio-waste
459 Anaerobic treatment of bio-waste
Re-refining and other preparations for reuse of
605
waste oils

Reference literature
[ 45, COM 2016 ]

196 Waste Treatment

 Chapter 2

2.3.6.2.4 Physico-chemical treatment of soluble non-biodegradable or inhibitory

contaminants

2.3.6.2.4.1 Precipitation of metals

Description
Precipitation is a chemical reaction to form particulates (i.e. solid precipitate) that can
subsequently be separated from the water portion by an additional process.

Typical precipitation chemicals are:

 lime (with lime milk, the preparation devices are part of the treatment unit) to precipitate
heavy metals;
 dolomite to precipitate heavy metals;
 sodium hydroxide to precipitate heavy metals;
 sodium carbonate to precipitate heavy metals;
 calcium salts (other than lime) to precipitate sulphate or fluoride;
 sodium sulphide to precipitate heavy metals, e.g. arsenic, mercury, chromium, cadmium,
nickel;
 polyorganosulphides to precipitate mercury.

Example plants
See Table 2.68.

Table 2.68: Plants using precipitation for waste water treatment

Plants performing precipitation of waste water Type of waste treatment

364_365 Mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste
353_359, 354_360 Treatment of excavated contaminated soil
90, 91, 144_145_147C, 154_155C, 217, 317, 322,
Treatment of water-based liquid waste
351_352, 395, 423_424, 468, 550, 607
366 Temporary storage of hazardous waste
Physico-chemical treatment of solid and/or pasty
427, 569
waste
361_363 Mechanical treatment of waste with calorific value
412, 413 Aerobic treatment of source-separated bio-waste
193C Other

Reference literature
[ 45, COM 2016 ]

2.3.6.2.4.2 Chemical oxidation

2.3.6.2.4.2.1 General

Description
Chemical oxidation is the conversion of pollutants by chemical-oxidising agents other than
oxygen/air or bacteria into similar but less harmful or hazardous compounds and/or to short-
chained and more easily degradable or biodegradable organic components. Chemical oxidation
is also used to degrade organic compounds causing odour, taste and colour and for disinfection
purposes.

Chemical-oxidising agents include:

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 chlorine;
 sodium or calcium hypochlorite;
 chlorine dioxide;
 permanganate;
 ozone (with or without UV light);
 hydrogen peroxide;
 hydroxyl radicals generated by hydrogen peroxide (known as the Advanced Oxidation
Process) in combination with:
o ferrous salts (Fenton's agent), see [ 45, COM 2016 ] for a detailed description of
an oxidation technique involving hydrogen peroxide and a ferrous ion catalyst;
o ozone;
o UV light;
o pressure;
o temperature.

Example plants
See Table 2.69.

Table 2.69: Plants using chemical oxidation for waste water treatment
Plants performing chemical oxidation
Type of waste treatment
of waste water
338 MBT
Mechanical treatment in shredders of metal
364_365
waste
353_359, 354_360 Treatment of excavated contaminated soil
04, 91, 217, 317, 322, 401_404 Treatment of water-based liquid waste
366 Temporary storage of hazardous waste
Mechanical treatment of waste with calorific
361_363
value
Re-refining and other preparations for reuse of
610, 619
waste oils

Reference literature
[ 45, COM 2016 ]

2.3.6.2.4.2.2 Wet oxidation

Description
Wet oxidation (WO) is the reaction of oxygen in the aqueous phase at a high pressure and
temperature, and is used to increase the solubility of oxygen in water.

Wet oxidation is applied to waste water which contains contaminants that are either not readily
biodegradable or might disturb the biological process in a downstream biological WWTP, or
which have properties which are too harmful to allow them to be released into an ordinary
sewer.

Example plants
Plant 368_369_370_371 (treating water-based liquid waste) has two different wet oxidation
units, operating at different conditions and treating different wastes. The first one, treating only
liquid wastes, operates at a temperature of about 300 °C, pressure of about 130-140 bar and
reaction time of about 30-40 minutes. The second wet oxidation unit is fed with both liquid
wastes and surplus sludge from the biological activated sludge plant and operates at

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temperatures of about 250 °C, pressures of about 50 bar and reaction times of about 40-80
minutes. Pollutants are mainly converted to carbon dioxide, water and intermediate oxidation
products (low molecular weight organic compounds, such as acetic and propionic acid).

Reference literature
[ 45, COM 2016 ]

2.3.6.2.4.3 Chemical reduction

Description
Chemical reduction is the conversion of pollutants by chemical-reducing agents into similar but
less harmful or hazardous compounds. The target contaminants are inorganic compounds:
chemical reduction is less effective with organic compounds.

Examples of such contaminants are:

 chromium (VI), which is reduced to chromium (III);

 chlorine or hypochlorite, which are reduced to chloride;
 hydrogen peroxide, which is reduced to water and oxygen;
 nitrite, using urea or amidosulphonic acid at a low pH.

Common chemical-reducing agents include:

 sulphur dioxide;
 sodium hydrogen sulphite/metabisulphite;
 ferrous sulphate;
 sodium sulphide and sodium hydrogen sulphide;
 urea or amidosulphonic acid (at low pH).

Example plants
See Table 2.70.

Table 2.70: Plants using chemical reduction for waste water treatment
Plants performing chemical reduction
Type of waste treatment
of waste water
Mechanical treatment in shredders of metal
364_365
waste
353_359, 354_360 Treatment of excavated contaminated soil
04, 217, 317, 322 Treatment of water-based liquid waste
366 Temporary storage of hazardous waste
Mechanical treatment of waste with calorific
361_363
value

Reference literature
[ 45, COM 2016 ]

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2.3.6.2.4.4 Nanofiltration and reverse osmosis

Description
A membrane process is the permeation of a liquid through a membrane, to be segregated into a
permeate which passes through the membrane and a concentrate which is retained. The driving
force of this process is the pressure difference across the membrane.

Nanofiltration (NF) and reverse osmosis (RO) membranes can hold back all particles down to
the size of organic molecules and even ions.

NF is applied to remove larger organic molecules and multivalent ions in order to recycle and
reuse the waste water or reduce its volume and simultaneously increase the concentration of
contaminants to such an extent that subsequent destruction processes are feasible.

RO is a process to separate water and the dissolved constituents down to ionic species. It is
applied when a high grade of purity is required. The segregated water phase is recycled and
reused. Examples are:

 desalination;
 final removal of, for example:
o degradable components if biological treatment is not available,
o heavy metals,
o toxic components;
 segregation of pollutants with the aim of concentrating or further processing them.

NF and RO are often used in combination with post-treatment techniques for the permeate, e.g.
ion exchange (see Section 2.3.6.2.4.6) or GAC adsorption (see Section 2.3.6.2.4.8).

Example plants
See Table 2.71.

Table 2.71: Plants equipped with reverse osmosis system

Plants equipped with reverse osmosis system Type of waste treatment
486 Treatment of water-based liquid waste
Physico-chemical treatment of solid and/or
569
pasty waste
Aerobic treatment of source-separated bio-
580
waste

Reference literature
[ 45, COM 2016 ]

2.3.6.2.4.5 Stripping

Description
Waste water stripping is an operation in which waste water is brought into contact with a high
flow of a gas current in order to transfer volatile pollutants from the water phase to the gas
phase.

Stripping is applied to separate volatile contaminants from water, e.g.:

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 chlorinated hydrocarbons, such as trichloroethene, perchloroethene, trichloromethane,

dichloroethane, trichloroethane;
 ammonia and hydrogen sulphide; their volatility is strongly dependent on temperature and
pH, thus pH control is essential (pH > 9.5 with ammonia, pH 2–3 with hydrogen
sulphide);
 ammonia and hydrogen sulphide together in a two-stage steam stripping unit; [145, BREF
REF 2015]
 organic solvents, petrol, diesel fuel, low aromatics, phenol, mercaptans.

Example plants
See Table 2.72.

Table 2.72: Plants equipped with waste water stripping

Plants performing air/steam stripping
Type of waste treatment
of waste water
04, 217 Treatment of water-based liquid waste
Re-refining and other preparations for reuse of
235, 619, 620
waste oils
170 Regeneration of spent solvents

Reference literature
[ 45, COM 2016 ], [ 92, COM 2015 ]

2.3.6.2.4.6 Ion exchange processes

Description
Ion exchange is the removal of undesired or hazardous ionic constituents from waste water and
their replacement by more acceptable ions from an ion exchange resin, where the undesired ions
are temporarily retained and afterwards released into a regeneration or backwashing liquid.

Ion exchange is applied to remove unwanted ionic and ionisable species from waste water, such
as:

 heavy metal ions, cationic or anionic, e.g. Cr3+ or cadmium and its compounds, with low
feed concentrations, and CrO42- even with high feed concentrations;
 ionisable inorganic compounds, such as H3BO3;
 soluble, ionic or ionisable organic compounds, e.g. carboxylic acids, sulphonic acids,
some phenols, amines as acid salt, quaternary amines, alkyl sulphates.

Ion exchangers commonly in use are macroporous granule resins with cationic or anionic
functional groups, such as:

 strong acid cation exchangers, neutralising strong bases and converting neutral salts into
their corresponding acids;
 weak acid cation exchangers, able to neutralise strong bases and used for dealkalisation;
 strong base anion exchangers, neutralising strong acids and converting neutral salts into
their corresponding bases;
 weak base anion exchangers, neutralising strong acids and used for partial
demineralisation.

Example plants
See Table 2.73 below.

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Chapter 2

Table 2.73: Plants using ion exchange for waste water treatment
Plants using ion exchange for waste water
Type of waste treatment
treatment
06 Treatment of water-based liquid waste
193C Other

Reference literature
[ 45, COM 2016 ]

2.3.6.2.4.7 Evaporation

Description
Evaporation of waste water is a distillation process where water is the volatile substance,
leaving the concentrate as bottom residue to be disposed of. The aim of evaporation is to reduce
the volume of waste water or to concentrate mother liquors. The volatile steam is collected in a
condenser and the condensed water is, if necessary after subsequent treatment, recycled.

Example plants
See Table 2.74 below.

Table 2.74: Plants performing evaporation of waste water

Plants performing evaporation of waste water Type of waste treatment
266 MBT
216, 473, 486, 489 Treatment of water-based liquid waste
113, 341 Anaerobic treatment of bio-waste
Re-refining and other preparations for reuse
92, 619
of waste oils

Reference literature
[ 45, COM 2016 ]

2.3.6.2.4.8 Adsorption

Description
Adsorption is the transfer of soluble substances (solutes) from the waste water phase to the
surface of solid, highly porous particles (the adsorbent).
The adsorbent most commonly used is activated carbon. It is used as granulate (GAC) in
columns or as powder (PAC) dosed to a treatment tank or basin. Other commonly used
adsorbents are lignite coke, activated aluminium oxide, adsorber resins and zeolites.

GAC adsorption is applied to remove organic contaminants, mainly those with refractory,
toxic, coloured and/or odorous characteristics, and residual amounts of inorganic contaminants,
such as nitrogen compounds, sulphides and heavy metals. Granular medium filters, e.g. sand
filters, are commonly used upstream of the GAC adsorber to remove the suspended solids
present.

PAC adsorption is applied to the same contaminants as GAC.

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Lignite coke is processed and applied like GAC and might replace it when lower cleaning
effects are sufficient. Its lower price is set against its lower adsorption efficiency, thus requiring
larger amounts of adsorbent or more frequent regeneration cycles.

Activated aluminium oxide is used to adsorb hydrophilic substances, e.g. fluoride and
phosphate.

Adsorber resins are applied for the targeted removal of both hydrophobic and hydrophilic
organic contaminants, e.g. to facilitate the recovery of the organic compounds. The resins tend
to swell over the course of time by taking up the organic compounds.

Zeolites are applied to remove ammonia or heavy metals, e.g. cadmium. When applied for
ammonia removal, they are only effective on very weak streams (up to 40 mg/l).
Since the adsorbent-active surface is often liable to clogging and blockage, the waste water
needs to be as free of solid content as possible, which often makes an upstream filtration step
necessary. Blockage can lead to the replacement of the adsorbent-active surface before it is
chemically saturated, thus increasing the operational costs.

Example plants
See Table 2.75 below.

Table 2.75: Plants equipped with an adsorption system for waste water treatment
Plants equipped with an adsorption system
Type of waste treatment
for waste water treatment
Mechanical treatment in shredders
55
of metal waste
91, 216, 217, 317 Treatment of water-based liquid waste
127, 244 MBT
Physico-chemical treatment of
427
solid and/or pasty waste
619 Re-refining of waste oils
172C PCT of waste with calorific value
170 Regeneration of spent solvents
40 Treatment of excavated contaminated soil

Reference literature
[ 45, COM 2016 ]

2.3.6.2.4.9 Distillation/rectification

Description
Distillation or rectification is the separation of waste water from its contaminants by transferring
them into the vapour phase. The enriched vapour phase is condensed afterwards.

Waste water distillation or rectification has a limited application. It is often used as a process-
integrated measure to recover starting material and/or product from mother liquors. As a waste
water treatment operation, it is applied for the following reasons:

 to recover solvent after waste water extraction;

 to recover solvent from waste water, e.g. separation of alcohols from methyl cellulose
production;
 to treat oil emulsions;

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 as a pretreatment to remove the main contaminant content from the waste water stream in
order to recover it and afterwards discharge the waste water to further downstream
treatment;
 to recover organics from scrubbing liquors.

Example plants
Plants 216 and 368.

Reference literature
[ 45, COM 2016 ]

2.3.6.2.5 Biological treatment of waste water

Description
Biological treatment processes have repeatedly been shown to be effective for the elimination of
biodegradable organic compounds, nitrogen compounds and phosphorus. In contrast to other
treatment techniques, biological treatment makes use of microorganisms that can react to the
manifold boundary conditions of their existence and are therefore able to adjust optimally to the
compounds that are to be degraded (adaptation).

2.3.6.2.5.1 Aerobic treatment

Description
Aerobic treatment is the biological oxidation of dissolved organic substances using the
metabolism of microorganisms. In the presence of dissolved oxygen – injected as air or pure
oxygen – the organic components are converted (mineralised) into carbon dioxide, water or
other metabolites and biomass (i.e. the activated sludge).

Aerobic waste water treatment generally represents the final biological step. It offers the
advantage of a high rate of sludge growth which not only enables the handling of the various
components of toxic waste water but also provides a COD removal efficiency that is normally
superior to that of anaerobic treatment.

Common aerobic biological treatment techniques are:

 complete mix activated sludge process;

 membrane bioreactor process;
 trickling or percolating filter process;
 expanded-bed process;
 fixed-bed biofilter process.

Complete mix activated sludge

The complete mix activated sludge process is a method often used within the chemical
industry and as such is the most common treatment technique for biodegradable waste water.
The microorganisms are maintained as a suspension in the waste water and the whole mixture is
mechanically aerated. The activated sludge mixture is sent to a separation facility from where
the sludge is recycled to the aeration tank. The separation facility can be:

 a sedimentation or settling tank (see Section 2.3.6.2.3.4);

 an air flotation facility (see Section 2.3.6.2.3.6);
 a MF or UF membrane (see Section 2.3.6.2.3.7); (for a membrane bioreactor, see below).

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The complete mix process is operated with several variants, depending on the amount of waste
water, the availability of space, the requirements for emissions to air, etc. Examples of variants
are:

 the oxidant agent: air or pure oxygen, the latter having the advantage of fewer stripping
effects and less odorous release, because less gas is blown through the waste water, and
of faster and more effective biological reaction;
 the aeration chamber: a more or less flat tank or a tower, the latter taking into account the
higher degradation efficiency because of smaller air bubbles ascending in a high column
of waste water and thus considerably increasing the air/waste water mass transfer;
 the clarification step: sedimentation or membrane filtration (membrane bioreactor, see
below), the latter requiring less space, the former probably supported by a final flotation
stage.

In general, the complete mix activated sludge process is applicable to all biodegradable waste
water streams, be it as a high-load pretreatment of tributary streams or as the main part of a
central WWTP.

Membrane bioreactor (MBR)

The membrane bioreactor process, as a combination of biological activated sludge treatment
and membrane separation, is a biological treatment process used for urban and industrial waste
water (see the CWW BREF [ 45, COM 2016 ] for more details on membrane bioreactors). The
different variations of this process are:

 an external recirculation loop between the activated sludge tank and the membrane
module;
 immersion of the membrane module in the aerated activated sludge tank, where the
effluent is filtered through the hollow fibre membrane, and the biomass remains in the
tank; this variant consumes less energy and results in a more compact plant.

These variants together with the conventional activated sludge process are shown in
Figure 2.34.

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Chapter 2

Source: [ 45, COM 2016 ]

Figure 2.34: Variants of membrane bioreactor, compared with a conventional activated sludge
process

Trickling or percolating filter

In the trickling or percolating filter process the microorganisms are attached to a highly
permeable medium through which the waste water is trickled or percolated. The filter medium
normally consists of rock or various types of plastic.

The liquid is collected in an underdrain system and passes to a settling tank and part of the
liquid is recycled to dilute the strength of the incoming waste water.

Expanded-bed process
The expanded-bed process is operated as described for anaerobic treatment (see
Section 2.3.6.2.5.2) with the distinction that air or oxygen is introduced and aerobic instead of
anaerobic bacteria are fixed in the biofilm. The advantage of this version of aerobic treatment is
the reduced space requirement with the same performance.

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Fixed-bed biofilter
In the fixed-bed biofilter process the biofilm is maintained at the surface of a carrier. The
waste water stream is treated when passing through this biofilm; suspended solids are retained
in the filter, from where they are backwashed regularly. This technology has been developed as
a compact (high turnover rate per volume and omission of a secondary clarifier) and odourless
alternative to the conventional activated sludge process.

Biofilters are used to treat urban and some industrial waste water (e.g. effluent highly loaded
with COD in the pulp and paper industry), but also to upgrade an existing activated sludge plant
(which is the case with expanded-bed reactors too). The advantages of the fixed biofilm on the
carrier material are the lower vulnerability to high salt contents and the better conditions for
slow-growing bacteria because of the long-term retention in the system. Biofilters are also used
as a direct pretreatment or final polishing step to an activated sludge process.

Example plants
Table 2.76 and Table 2.77 show the list of plants from the reference list equipped with
Activated sludge system and MBR systems respectively.

Table 2.76: Plants equipped with an activated sludge system

Plants equipped with an activated sludge
Type of waste treatment
system
127 MBT
170 Regeneration of spent solvents
07, 90, 140_141_142_143C, 151C, 154_155C,
159C, 194C, 368_369_370_371, 392, 393, Treatment of water-based liquid waste
423_424, 468, 473, 607
111, 341 Anaerobic treatment of bio-waste
Physico-chemical treatment of solid and/or pasty
569
waste
152 PCT of waste with calorific value
Re-refining and other preparations for reuse of
235, 610, 619, 620
waste oils

Table 2.77: Plants equipped with an MBR system

Plants equipped with an MBR system Type of waste treatment

154_155C Treatment of water-based liquid waste
Re-refining and other preparations for reuse of
605
waste oils

Reference literature
[ 45, COM 2016 ]

2.3.6.2.5.2 Anaerobic treatment

Description
Anaerobic waste water treatment converts the organic content of waste water, with the help of
microorganisms and without entry of air, to a variety of products such as methane, carbon
dioxide, and sulphide.

Anaerobic waste water treatment is essentially used only as a pretreatment for waste water
which is characterised by a high organic load (> 2 g/l) and a more or less constant quality. It is
applicable mostly in sectors with effluents with consistently high BOD loads.

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The biogas consists of about 70 % methane and 30 % carbon dioxide and other gases such as
hydrogen and hydrogen sulphide, the quantity of which depends on the sulphate content in the
waste water. The process is carried out in an airtight stirred tank reactor, and the
microorganisms are retained in the tank as biomass (sludge).

There are several reactor types available. The most commonly used are:

 anaerobic contact reactor;

 upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB);
 fixed-bed reactor;
 expanded-bed reactor.

Example plants
Plant 592 (anaerobic treatment of waste) is the only plant from the reference list performing
anaerobic treatment of waste water.

Reference literature
[ 45, COM 2016 ]

2.3.6.2.5.3 Nitrogen removal by biological nitrification/denitrification

Description
Nitrogen, or more precisely ammonium, is removed by a special biological treatment that
consists of two steps:

 Aerobic nitrification, where special microorganisms oxidise ammonium (NH4+) to the

intermediate nitrite (NO2-) which is further converted to nitrate (NO3-). Ammonium can
also be oxidised to nitrite without further conversion to nitrate.
 Anoxic denitrification, where microorganisms convert nitrate into nitrogen gas.

Nitrification may not be applicable in the case of high chloride concentrations (i.e. around
10 g/l) and when the reduction of the chloride concentration prior to nitrification would not be
justified by the environmental benefits. Nitrification is not applicable when the temperature of
the waste water is low (e.g. below 12 °C).

Example plants
See Table 2.78 below.

Table 2.78: Plants performing nitrification/denitrification of waste water

Plants performing nitrification/denitrification Type of waste treatment
243, 244, 257 MBT
368_369_370_371, 392, 393 Treatment of water-based liquid waste
20, 459 Anaerobic treatment of bio-waste
Aerobic treatment of source-separated bio-
110, 460
waste
Re-refining and other preparations for reuse
235, 610
of waste oils

Plants 392 and 393 provided information on the optimisation of nitrification/denitrification,

when treating waste with a low C:N ratio and containing mostly non-degradable carbon, by
means of:

 fine-tuning the retention time;

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 lowering aeration and recirculation rates;

 adding a suitable carbon source and nutrients (e.g. phosphate).

Reference literature
[ 45, COM 2016 ]

2.3.6.3 Sludge treatment techniques

Description
Most waste water treatment processes result in sludge, although the amount, consistency and
content depend on the waste water content and treatment technique. It is usually a liquid, or
semi-solid liquid, with a solids content between 0.25 w/w-% and 12 w/w-% and containing
primarily the pollutants removed from the waste water. Excess activated sludge from a
biological WWTP consists mostly of degradation (mineralisation) products and bacterial tissue
as well as attached pollutants such as heavy metals.

Untreated WWTP sludge is not suitable for discharge or disposal, because:

 its content of pollutants offensive to air prevents its deposition;

 its content of pollutants offensive to water bodies prevents it from being discharged into a
receiving river;
 the large amount of water it contains makes incineration an unattractive option because of
the energy needed.

Mechanical, biological, thermal and/or chemical techniques are used to reduce the sludge
burden with the objective being to:

 reduce the quantity of waste sludge;

 achieve a better dewaterability of the sludge;
 provoke a release of the soluble chemical oxygen demand (COD) from the sludge;
 destroy the filamentous microorganisms responsible for sludge bulking.

Such treatment operations for WWTP sludge are:

 preliminary operations, such as:

o grinding,
o blending or mixing,
o storage,
o degritting;
 sludge thickening operations, such as:
o gravity thickening,
o centrifugal thickening,
o flotation thickening (DAF),
o gravity belt thickening,
o rotary drum thickening;
 sludge stabilisation, such as:
o chemical stabilisation (lime),
o thermal stabilisation,
o anaerobic digestion,

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o aerobic biodegradation,
o dual sludge stabilisation;
 sludge conditioning, such as:
o chemical conditioning,
o thermal conditioning;
 sludge dewatering techniques, such as:
o centrifugal dewatering,
o belt filter presses,
o filter presses;
 drying operations, such as:
o rotary drying,
o spray-drying,
o flash drying,
o evaporation;
 thermal sludge oxidation, using techniques such as:
o fluidised-bed incineration,
o multiple hearth drying/incineration,
o wet air oxidation,
o deep shaft oxidation,
o incineration with other (e.g. solid) waste.

The treatment operations and disposal routes can be seen as single options or as a combination
of single options. The listing mainly follows the path of degree of reduction and is not meant in
any way as a ranking. The availability (or unavailability) of a disposal route can be a strong
driver, at least at a local level, for the choice of the sludge treatment technique.

Example plants
See Table 2.79.

Table 2.79: Plants performing sludge dewatering

Plants performing dewatering of sludge Type of waste treatment
Mechanical treatment in shredders of metal
571
waste
06, 07, 91, 154_155C, 192C, 215, 217,
Treatment of water-based liquid waste
317, 322, 395, 401_404, 550
Re-refining and other preparations for reuse of
235, 605
waste oils
Physico-chemical treatment of solid and/or
569
pasty waste
40 Treatment of excavated contaminated soil

Reference literature
[ 45, COM 2016 ]

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2.3.7 Techniques for the optimisation of water usage and reduction of

waste water generation

Description
Some important – and normally easily retrofittable – production-integrated measures relevant to
waste water are described in the CWW BREF [ 45, COM 2016 ].

Their introduction, e.g. as water-saving measures, however, has to be carefully assessed.

Though their influence is normally environmentally beneficial, they might under specific
circumstances lead to negative impacts on other environmental aspects that might overshadow
the benefits of water conservation or pollutant decrease.

Some techniques to consider are:

Water management
 Drawing up a water-saving action plan and performing regular water audits, with the aim
of reducing water usage and preventing water contamination, including:
o flow diagrams and water mass balances;
o the establishment of water efficiency objectives; process integration by
implementing water pinch techniques or other water optimisation techniques.
 Using water-efficient techniques at source.
 Optimising the water used in cleaning and washing down (subject to the impact on dust
emissions) by:
o vacuuming, scraping or mopping in preference to hosing down;
o evaluating the scope for reusing washing water;
o using trigger controls on all hoses, hand lances and washing equipment;
o identifying the components that may be present in the items to be washed (e.g.
solvents);
o transferring washed waste to appropriate storage and then treating this in the
same way as the waste from which it was derived.
 Avoiding the use of potable water for processes and air pollution abatement techniques.
 Monitoring water consumption. This includes direct measurements, calculation or
recording, e.g. using suitable meters or invoices. The monitoring is broken down at the
most appropriate level (e.g. at process or plant/installation level) and considers any
significant changes in the plant/installation.

Water recirculation
a. Recirculating water within the plant as far as possible, if necessary after treatment. This
may require the identification of the scope for substituting water from recirculation sources
and the water quality requirements associated with each use. The degree of water
recirculation is limited by the water balance of the plant, the content of impurities (e.g.
odorous compounds) and/or the characteristics of the water streams (e.g. nutrient content).
Reusing rainwater in the process (e.g. cooling water).

Reduction of the waste water generated

b. Separately discharging uncontaminated roof and surface water.
c. Discharging rainwater to interceptors.
d. Preventing the generation of waste water as far as possible by construction measures.
Depending on the risks posed by the waste in terms of soil and/or water contamination, it
may include the roofing of the storage, treatment and reception area.
e. Monitoring the amount of waste water and sludges generated.

Achieved environmental benefits

The achieved environmental benefits include:

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 reduction of water usage;

 reduction of pollutants released to water;
 reduction of sludge generation.

The washing of drums and IBCs is usually only carried out where there is an adjacent treatment
plant to accept the washing water or when there are other possibilities available to treat it
properly.

Washing and cleaning procedures are generally carried out using treated waste water. The
resultant washing and cleaning waste water is returned to the process or to the WWTP plant for
retreatment. In some cases, the WWTP is installed outside the WT plant.
Handling is usually more complicated in covered areas than in uncovered ones. It is also
necessary to take into account the access requirements for covered storages for firefighting.

It is not necessary to store all containerised waste under cover. Typically, the waste and
containers that are not sensitive to light, heat, extreme ambient temperatures or water ingress are
excluded. Under such circumstances, adequate bunding of storage areas and
containment/treatment of water run-off is usually enough to ensure effective environmental
protection.

Cross-media effects
There may be some cross-media effects depending on the concrete measures taken to reduce
water usage (e.g. consumption of energy).

Recycling processes often generate risks for the quality of the recycled water (e.g. increase of
the pollutant concentration). An upset in a waste water treatment process used prior to recycling
may require another source of water to be used temporarily.

In some cases (e.g. biological treatment of waste), recycling water may generate odorous
emissions and/or inhibit biological degradation.

Technical considerations relevant to applicability

Typically the water-saving action plan is a part of an EMS (Section 2.3.1.1) for the plant which
is adapted to the nature, scale and complexity of the plant, and the range of environmental
impacts it may have.

The drainage infrastructure and the segregation of water streams are generally applicable to new
plants and are generally applicable to existing plants within the constraints associated with the
configuration of the water drainage system.

Applicability of roofing of storage and treatment areas may be constrained when high volumes
of waste are stored or treated (e.g. mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste).

Economics
No information provided.

Driving force for implementation

 Environmental legislation.
 Economic incentives to reduce waste water generation and water usage. In some EU
countries, there are incentive systems in place which aim to encourage a reduction in
water usage.

Example plants
See examples given in Sections 4.5.1.5, 5.2.3.2 and 5.6.3.2.1 for reuse of water.

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Reference literature
[ 94, Vrancken et al. 2001 ], [ 9, UK EA 2001 ], [ 10, Babtie Group Ltd 2002 ], [ 11, WT TWG
2003 ], [ 18, WT TWG 2004 ], [ 13, Schmidt et al. 2002 ]

2.3.8 Techniques for the prevention or reduction of consumption of

raw materials and chemicals

Description
Waste is used to substitute chemicals or raw materials in the treatment of other wastes.

Technical description
Some techniques are as follows:
 Identify the raw and auxiliary materials, other substances and water that have been
proposed for use. This involves compiling a list of the materials used (including generic
information about the materials; note that grouping together those of a similar type is
normally adequate rather than listing every commercial alternative used) which have the
potential for significant environmental impact, including:
o the chemical composition of the materials where relevant;
o the quantities used;
o the fate of the material (i.e. approximate percentages going to each media and to
the product);
o the environmental impact where known (e.g. degradability, bioaccumulation
potential, toxicity to relevant species);
o any reasonably practicable alternative raw materials which may have a lower
environmental impact (i.e. applying the substitution principle).
 Justify (for example, on the basis of emissions, product quality and economic reasons) the
continued use of any substance for which there is a less hazardous alternative.
 Maintain a detailed inventory of the raw materials used on site.
 Implement procedures for the regular review of new developments in raw materials and
the regular implementation of any suitable materials that are less hazardous.
 Have quality assurance procedures in place for the control of the content of raw materials.
 Explore the options for the use of waste as a raw material for the treatment of other
wastes, such as:
o spent lime from acid gas abatement systems;
o waste alkalis or strong waste acids;
o fly ashes or flue-gas treatment (FGT) residues.

Achieved environmental benefits

The environmental benefits of this technique include:

 reduction of the use of chemicals and other materials;

 improvement of the understanding of the fate of by-products and contaminants, and their
potential environmental impact.

Environmental performance and operational data

Due to the nature of WT processes, the consumption of raw material is influenced by the
variation of the input waste. Moreover, there are cases where substitution of raw materials by
waste is not possible. For example, raw lime has a much higher alkalinity than spent lime, and
consequently larger volumes of spent lime are required. This places a constraint on the size of
reactor vessel. This requires a similar scale-up with mixing tanks to produce the lime solution.

The following raw material substitutions are considered for application in the UK (Table 2.80).

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Table 2.80: Examples of raw material substitution

Raw material Possible substitute
Sodium hydroxide Only mercury-free NaOH is used (1)
Only fully biodegradable products with known safe
Demulsifiers
degradation products are used
(1) Industry producers of NaOH consider that mercury-free NaOH should contain
less than 50 µg/kg.
Source: [ 9, UK EA 2001 ], [ 11, WT TWG 2003 ]

In one plant (Plant 497), it is estimated that using FGT residues could reduce raw material
consumption by 50 %. Other properties of the FGT residues can be beneficial as they are able to
effectively precipitate soluble sulphates and fluorides which may be present from the acidic
waste.

Cross-media effects
 When reusing spent lime, attention is paid to the level of metal and organic contamination
that may be present.
 When reusing FGT residues:
o as the FGT residues contain other solid material besides lime, a greater quantity
of slurry is required to have the same neutralisation capacity; this causes the
process to be less efficient in terms of operational hours;
o hydrogen may be generated when FGT residues containing carbonate are mixed
with water.

Technical considerations related to applicability

The scope to minimise the potential environmental impact of the use of raw materials is
sometimes limited in terms of the quantity used (waste minimisation) or of their nature (for
example, presence of contaminants, use of less harmful alternatives).

The use of waste as a reagent may be limited, e.g. due to local constraints.

Some applicability limitations for the substitution of material by waste derive from the risk of
contamination posed by the presence of impurities (e.g. heavy metals, POPs, salts, pathogens) in
the waste that substitutes other materials. Another limitation is the compatibility of the waste
substituting other materials with the waste input.

Driving force for implementation

The driving forces for implementation are economic and environmental reasons. For
concentrated acids (> 70 w/w-%), there is a market for blended or reconcentrated acids. It has
become viable to use 50 w/w-% acids, although this requires a greater energy input.

Example plants
Of 27 plants performing physico-chemical treatment of solid and/or pasty waste, eight (Plants
176, 181, 187, 348, 475, 495, 497 and 569) reported the use of waste input as a reagent. The
amount of waste input used as raw material, which varies in relation to the type of process and
waste input, and with the size of the plant, ranges from 2 000 tonnes to 42 000 tonnes (average
over the three reference years). The waste input reportedly used as raw materials is made up of
fly ashes (used as binders), mineral residues, acids, etc. Meanwhile, the reported amount of raw
materials used (average over the three reference years) ranges from 1 400 tonnes to
22 000 tonnes.

Plant 497 reported the use of FGT residues as a replacement for hydrated lime in the
neutralisation of waste acids. The plant was installed in September 2013. In the first six months
of 2014, the plant processed approximately 843 tonnes of FGT residues. This represents
approximately 280 tonnes of hydrated lime.

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Reference literature
[ 9, UK EA 2001 ], [ 11, WT TWG 2003 ], [ 13, Schmidt et al. 2002 ], [ 18, WT TWG 2004 ],
[ 42, WT TWG 2014 ]

2.3.9 Techniques for the efficient use of energy

2.3.9.1 Energy efficiency plan

Description
The energy efficiency plan gathers a set of organisational and technical measures aiming at
using energy efficiently. It is part of the environmental management system (EMS).

Technical description
Extensive information about energy efficiency can be found in [ 95, COM 2009 ]. Some
techniques applicable to increase the energy efficiency of WT plants are as follows:
 Appraising the costs and benefits of different energy options.
 Monitoring energy flows (consumption and generation by source) and the targeting of
areas for reductions.
 Defining and calculating the specific energy consumption of the activity (or activities),
and setting key performance indicators on an annual basis (e.g. MWh/tonne of waste
processed). For example, based on the primary energy consumption for the products or
raw material inputs which most closely match the main purpose or production capacity of
the plant.
 Carrying out an energy survey to identify the opportunities for further energy savings.
 Using combined heat and power (CHP).
 Applying operating, maintenance and housekeeping measures to the most relevant energy
consumption plants, such as:
o air conditioning, process refrigeration and cooling systems (leaks, seals,
temperature control, evaporator/condenser maintenance);
o operation of motors and drives (e.g. high-efficiency motors);
o compressed gas systems (leaks, procedures for use);
o steam distribution systems (leaks, traps, insulation);
o room heating and hot water systems;
o lubrication to avoid high friction losses (e.g. mist lubrication);
o boiler maintenance, e.g. optimising excess air;
o other maintenance relevant to the activities within the plant;
o reviewing equipment requirements on a regular basis;
 Using techniques that reduce energy consumption and thereby reduce both direct (heat
and emissions from on-site generation) and indirect (emissions from a remote power
station) emissions. For example:
o building insulation;
o use of energy-efficient site lighting;
o vehicle maintenance;
o efficient plant layout to reduce pumping distances;
o phase optimisation of electronic motors;
o heat recovery;
o ensuring equipment is switched off, if safe to do so, when not in use;
o ensuring on-site vehicle movements are minimised and engines are switched off
when not in use.

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 Applying basic, low-cost, physical techniques to avoid gross inefficiencies; including

insulation, containment methods (for example, seals and self-closing doors) and avoiding
unnecessary discharges of heated water or air (for example, by fitting simple control
systems).
 Applying energy efficiency techniques to building services.
 Setting the time of operation of the high-energy equipment to off-peak periods.
 Using landfill gas to produce electricity and heat.
 Using heat from the furnaces and engines for vaporisation, drying and for preheating
activities.
 Selecting the appropriate waste to be treated in the plant. Typically, plants not designed to
treat a certain type of waste consume more energy when treating such waste.

Achieved environmental benefits

Utilising an energy efficiency plan and switching to cleaner fuels can reduce the energy
consumption and the environmental emissions of that energy use. An increase in the energy
efficiency of the boilers and heaters reduces the emissions of VOCs, due to the more complete
combustion and the minimisation of fuel losses.

Environmental performance and operational data

No information provided.

Cross-media effects
None.

Technical considerations related to applicability

The technique is fully applicable. However, in installations where several WT activities are
performed, the energy consumption may be difficult to allocate to each activity due to the
integrated approach typically used by the energy system.

These techniques are more extensively applied to large consumers of energy. For energy-
intensive industries, the application of energy efficiency techniques to building services may
only have a minor impact and should not distract effort away from the major energy issues.
They can, nonetheless, find a place in the improvement programme, particularly where they can
constitute more than 5 % of the total energy consumption.

Economics
Energy-efficient systems typically have higher investment costs. However, their operating costs
are usually lower (or the revenues higher). Costs are typically higher for existing plants than for
new plants. Some examples are shown in Table 2.81.

Table 2.81: Economics of the integration of different improvements to energy efficiency

techniques
Net Payback
Value (NPV) NPV/CO2 saved
Energy efficiency option
(thousand (EUR/tonne)
EUR)
7 MW CHP plant 2 058 15
High-efficiency motor 0.75 52.5
NB: Indicative only, based on cost-benefit appraisal.
Source: [ 9, UK EA 2001 ]

The improvement of the energy efficiency needs to be balanced with the cost of achieving this.
Waste treatments consume some sort of energy (electricity, steam, etc.) and the possibility to
decrease the consumption in an existing plant, or when dealing with an enhanced complexity in

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waste streams for example for improving waste recovery, may be limited in some cases. In such
cases, the efforts required may not be economically or environmentally justified.

Driving force for implementation

Energy savings.

Example plants
Of 329 reference plants, 42 reported having an energy saving plan.

Reference literature
[ 9, UK EA 2001 ], [ 10, Babtie Group Ltd 2002 ], [ 96, WT TWG 2003 ], [ 33, Irish EPA 2003 ], [ 91,
UBA Germany 2003 ], [ 91, UBA Germany 2003 ], [ 18, WT TWG 2004 ], [ 51, WT TWG 2005 ]

2.3.9.2 Energy balance

Description
In order to improve the energy system from an environmental point of view, the system needs to
be well understood and fully reported. Below are some techniques that may be used:

a. Reporting energy consumption information in terms of delivered energy. For electricity, this
may be converted to primary energy consumption using national/regional factors (e.g. in the
UK for the public electricity supply, a conversion factor of 2.6 is typically used). An
example format of how the information may be presented is given in Table 2.82 below.

Table 2.82: Example format of energy consumption reporting

Energy consumption
Energy source
Delivered Primary % of total
(MWh) (MWh)
Electricity* - - -
Gas - - -
Liquid fuels - - -
Waste - - -
Other (operator to specify) - - -
* Specify source.
Source: Based on [ 9, UK EA 2001 ]

b. Reporting the energy exported from the plant.

c. Providing energy flow information (for example, diagrams or energy balances) showing
how the energy is used throughout the process. This information may allow operators to
define or calculate the specific energy consumption of the plant.

Achieved environmental benefits

Reduction of energy consumption.

Environmental performance and operational data

The reduction of emissions from the energy system can only be evaluated with a proper
calculation of the actual emissions generated. The breakdown between generation and
consumption can help to optimise the balance between them and hence to optimise the use of
energy resources.

Cross-media effects
In some cases, the environmental benefit of this technique is limited. The reason is that the
possibility to decrease the consumption in an existing plant may be limited, and possible efforts

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to decrease consumption need to be balanced against possible higher emissions from the
treatment.

Technical considerations related to applicability

The technique is fully applicable throughout the WT sector. However, in certain circumstances
(e.g. historical development of the installation/site), it may be difficult to relate consumption
levels to each single process/treatment carried out within the overall WT process. These reports
are typically produced every year or every six months. Higher frequencies may be applied in the
case of a higher variation in the types of waste treated.

Economics
The requirements are basic and cost little.

Driving force for implementation

Reduction of energy costs.

Reference literature
[ 9, UK EA 2001 ], [ 33, Irish EPA 2003 ], [ 18, WT TWG 2004 ], [ 51, WT TWG 2005 ]

2.3.10 Techniques for the prevention and control of noise and

vibration emissions

2.3.10.1 Noise and vibration management plan

Description
Implementation of a noise and vibration management plan as part of the environmental
management system (EMS) (see Section 2.3.1.1).

Technical description
Such a plan normally does the following:

 Describes the main sources of noise and vibration (including infrequent sources), and the
nearest noise-sensitive locations. This description covers the following information for
each main source of noise and vibration within the installation:
o the source and its location on a scaled plan of the site;
o whether the noise or vibration is continuous/intermittent, fixed or mobile;
o the hours of operation;
o a description of the noise or vibration, e.g. clatter, whine, hiss, screech, hum,
bangs, clicks, thumps or has tonal elements;
o its contribution to the overall site noise emission, e.g. categorised as high,
medium or low unless supporting data are available.
 Also provides the above information for the operation of infrequent sources of noise and
vibration (such as infrequently operated/seasonal operations, cleaning/maintenance
activities, on-site deliveries/collections/transport or out-of-hours activities, emergency
generators or pumps and alarm testing).
 Details the appropriate noise surveys, measurements, investigations (which can involve
detailed assessments of sound power levels for individual plant items) or modelling that
may be necessary for either new or existing installations taking into consideration the
potential for noise problems.
 Describes a protocol for response to identified noise and vibration incidents, e.g.
complaints.
 Contains appropriate actions to be undertaken and timelines.

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Achieved environmental benefits

Reduction of noise levels generated by the installation.

Environmental performance and operational data

No information provided.

Cross-media effects
None.

Technical considerations related to applicability

A common-sense approach needs to be adopted in determining which sources to include. The
ones which need to be considered are those which may have an environmental nuisance impact;
for example, a small unit could cause an occupational noise issue in an enclosed space but
would be unlikely to cause an environmental issue. Conversely a large unit or a number of
smaller units enclosed within a building could, for example, cause a nuisance only if the doors
are left open. It also needs to be remembered that some noise, which is not particularly
noticeable during the day, may become more noticeable at night.

The applicability is restricted to cases where a noise or vibration nuisance in sensitive areas is
expected and/or has been reported.
Economics
No information provided.

Driving force for implementation

Environmental legislation.

Example plants
Of 329 reference plants, 69 reported having a noise and vibration management plan. Half of
these plants carried out multiple waste treatment activities on site.

Reference literature
[ 9, UK EA 2001 ], [ 18, WT TWG 2004 ]

2.3.10.2 Noise and vibration reduction at source and noise abatement

Description
Implementation of operational and maintenance techniques, as well as low-noise equipment and
buildings.

Technical description
Techniques to reduce noise and vibration emissions include:

 appropriate location of equipment and buildings: noise levels can be reduced by

increasing the distance between the emitter and the receiver, by using buildings as noise
screens and by relocating buildings' exits or entrances;
 inspection and maintenance of equipment;
 use of low-noise equipment (e.g. compressor with a noise level < 85 dB(A), speed-
controlled pumps and fans, direct drive motors);
 soundproofing of buildings to shelter any noisy operations including:
o sound-absorbing walls and ceilings,
o sound-isolating doors,
o double-glazed windows;
 use of vibration or acoustic insulation, or vibration isolation;
 enclosure of noisy equipment;

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 reduction of noise propagation by inserting appropriate obstacles such as protection walls,

embankments, and buildings.

Achieved environmental benefits

Reduction of noise emissions.

Environmental performance and operational data

In mixed scrap shredding plants, local screening and localised noise barriers placed around
particular activities or processes would achieve a significant noise reduction. With use of the
appropriate noise-absorbing materials, this could be 5–10 dB on the screened side (see also
section 3.1.3.2.2).

Cross-media effects
None.

Technical considerations relevant to applicability

For existing plants, the relocation of equipment and building exits or entrances may be restricted
by a lack of space or excessive costs. Low-noise equipment can be installed when the old
equipment is replaced. The use of other noise-reducing equipment is subject to space
availability.

Total enclosure of mixed scrap shredder plants is not appropriate due to possible deflagrations,
but screening can be located along the entire length of shredders and enclosing whole metal
recycling yards in order to control and reduce noise levels.

Economics
No information provided.

Driving force for implementation

Environmental legislation.

Example plants
Of 329 reference plants, 96 reported applying noise and vibration reduction techniques.

Reference literature
[ 26, Mech. subgroup 2014 ], [ 45, COM 2016 ]

2.3.11 Techniques for the prevention and reduction of soil and water
contamination

Description
These techniques relate to water spills and other fugitive emissions into soil and groundwater:
 impermeable surface and secondary containment;
 adequate drainage infrastructure;
 design and maintenance provisions to allow detection and repair of leaks;
 buffer storage for contaminated surges.

Technical description
Some specific techniques include the following:
 Having in place containment measures to prevent wastes from escaping. All bunds,
humps, vessels, tanks, pipes, containers are sound, and maintained and checked as
required.

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 Providing and then maintaining the surfaces of operational areas, including applying
measures to prevent or quickly clear away leaks and spillages, and ensuring maintenance
of drainage systems and other subsurface structures.
 Depending on the risks posed by the waste in terms of soil and/or water contamination,
making the surface of the whole waste treatment areas (e.g. waste reception, handling,
storage, treatment and dispatch areas) impermeable to the liquids concerned. This
impermeable surface and internal site drainage systems lead to storage tanks or to
interceptors that can collect rainwater and any spillages. Interceptors with an overflow to
the sewer usually need automatic monitoring systems, such as a pH check, which can shut
down the overflow.
 Collecting rainwater falling on the storage and processing areas along with tanker wash
water, occasional spillages, drum wash water, etc. Rainwater is returned to the processing
plant or collected for further treatment if it is found to be contaminated (see also Section
2.3.13.1).
 Ensuring that the drainage infrastructure is capable of collecting and discharging all run-
off water in case of heavy rains.
o Applying separate drainage systems and sumps to enable the isolation of
specific areas of the site where waste is stored, handled and bulked, in order to
contain all possible spills. Minimising the use of underground vessels and
pipework. When underground or partially underground vessels are used, and
depending on the risks posed by the waste contained in those vessels in terms of
soil and/or water contamination, a secondary containment is put in place,
o regular monitoring for potential leakages is carried out and, when necessary,
equipment is repaired. The need for inspection, and the method, the type and
the extent of inspections are evaluated depending upon the risk and the
consequence of failure. [ 95, COM 2009 ]

 Having in place a regular inspection and maintenance programme of underground

equipment, including:
o replacement of the underground or partially underground vessels without
secondary containment by aboveground structures;
o replacement of structures without secondary containment.

 Depending on the risks posed by the liquids in terms of soil and/or water contamination,
ensuring that the areas where liquids are transferred are bunded and that the bund is
resistant to stored materials. The bund is designed so that in the event of an accident the
liquid can be contained until security measures are in place. The bund has sufficient
capacity to cope with any spillage and firefighting water (it is normally sized to
accommodate the loss of containment of the largest tank within the secondary
containment) and is used to ensure containment of wastes and raw materials.
 Ensuring that bunded areas are designed and built to prevent seepage, e.g. by painting,
coatings, concrete quality, sealing systems applied on the inside. There, it must be
possible for the sealing system to be inspected at any time.

 Systems already applied for the prevention of fugitive emissions are generally relevant to
drainage systems too (see also Section 2.3.5.3):
o having procedures in place to ensure that the composition of the contents of a
bund sump, or sump connected to a drainage system, are checked before
treatment or disposal;
o equipping drainage sumps with a high level alarm or sensor with a pump to
suitable storage (not to discharge);
o having a system in place to ensure that the sump levels are kept to a minimum
at all times;

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o not routinely using high level alarms, etc. as the primary method of level
control.
 inspecting pavements, drainage and bunds daily. Particular attention is paid to signs of
damage, deterioration and leakage. Records are kept detailing any action taken. Damages
and deterioration are repaired as soon as practicable. If the containment capacity or the
capability of the bund, sump or pavement is compromised the waste is immediately
removed until the repair is completed (unless repairing is quicker than waste removal and
working with wastes in close proximity does not compromise safety).

Achieved environmental benefits

The environmental benefits of this technique include:

 prevention of short- and long-term contamination of the site;

 minimisation of underground vessels and pipes, which makes maintenance and
inspections easier.

Environmental performance and operational data

Problems such as cracks, blocked outlets on drains, and drainage channels of gravel between
concrete slabs have all been identified in some cases.

Cross-media effects
None identified.

Technical considerations related to applicability

Installation of above-ground components is generally applicable to new plants. It may be
limited however by the risk of freezing. The installation of secondary containment for
underground piping may be limited in the case of existing plants.

Economics
No information provided.

Driving force for implementation

Some EU directives and national legislation are intended to prevent the contamination of soil.

Example plants
Plants performing physico-chemical treatment of waste are typically equipped with seal systems
to prevent spillages which can lead to groundwater or subsoil contamination. Of fundamental
importance for all technical emission protection measures is the selection of construction
materials, which need to offer high resistance, e.g. against acids, alkalis, or organic solvents
(depending on the application).

Reference literature
[ 85, Scori 2002 ], [ 9, UK EA 2001 ], [ 10, Babtie Group Ltd 2002 ], [ 11, WT TWG 2003 ],
[ 13, Schmidt et al. 2002 ], [ 97, UBA Germany 2003 ], [ 18, WT TWG 2004 ],
[ 95, COM 2009 ]

2.3.12 Techniques for the prevention or reduction of residues

generation

The word ‘residue’ is used in this subsection to mean the solid waste generated by the waste
treatment activity and is not directly related to the type of waste treated in the plant. This is the
same type of convention used throughout this document. This subsection covers the techniques
to prevent or reduce the residues generated by waste treatment.

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Description
The residue management plan is a set of measures to optimise the production of residues
generated by the treatment of waste, to optimise the reuse, regeneration, recycling and/or
recovery of the residues and to establish the proper disposal of internal residues or waste.

Technical description
A variety of techniques can be used for residue optimisation and they range:
 from basic housekeeping techniques;
 through statistical measurement techniques;
 to the application of clean technologies;
 to the use of residues as fuel and the reuse of packaging.

In particular, a residue management plan includes the following:

 Undertaking an analysis of the sludge/filter cake to ensure that the treatment process
objectives are being met and that the process is working effectively. Filter cakes and
treatment sludges may not be suitable for landfilling, as they may not fulfil the criteria of
the Landfill Directive.
 Identifying, characterising and quantifying each of the residue streams generated.
Maintaining a residue tracking system can help operators to record the quantity, nature,
origin and, where relevant, the destination, frequency of collection, mode of transport and
treatment method of any residue which is disposed of or recovered on that site.
 Identifying the current or proposed handling arrangements.
 Fully describing how each residue stream is proposed to be recovered or disposed of. If it
is to be disposed of, the plan explains why recovery is not technically or economically
possible and then describes/explains the measures planned to avoid or reduce the impact
on the environment.
 Ensuring that the dry solids content is not less than 15 w/w-%, to facilitate the handling of
the mixture.
 Ensuring that dust accumulations requiring removal are analysed, in order to ensure the
correct disposal route is chosen, for example, for pH, COD, heavy metals and other
known contaminants from the spillage.

Residues minimisation may include the following:

a. Recycling the filter cake arising from treatment of acidic and alkali solutions and metal
precipitation, as it may contain metals such as zinc and copper with options for metal
recovery.
b. Reusing uncontaminated drums. Undamaged 205-litre drums and 800- and 1000-litre IBCs
can be recovered with washing and reconditioning. Damaged containers for which there is
no reconditioning market and which have held non-hazardous materials may be released
into the secondary metals market. Where possible, empty containers which are in sound
condition and which are free from, or which contain only insignificant quantities of, residual
waste need to be sent for reconditioning and reuse or recycling.
c. Using multiuse containers instead of drums for all purposes if available.
d. Utilising residues with sufficient calorific value and low contamination values (see Section
2.3.9) as primary/secondary fuel.
e. Applying housekeeping operations; these can be as simple as sweeping prior to washing
floors and can substantially reduce residue volumes.

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Achieved environmental benefits

The steps above help to ensure the prudent use of natural resources and can reduce residue
generation in the WT plant. They reduce emissions from the management of the residues
handled in the plants and minimise the amount of residue arising, as well as helping to identify a
good disposal route.

Environmental performance and operational data

For technique (b) (above), before reusing drums, the labels and inscriptions need to be removed.

Cross-media effects
The burning of residues can lead to higher emissions to air than from the use of conventional
fuels.

Technical considerations related to applicability

For technique (a), the concentrations of metals in the filter cake may be too low for metal
recovery to be economically viable.

For technique (b), the reuse of drums needs to take into account the risks of contamination of
the waste posed by the reused packaging. Drums unsuitable for direct reuse are typically sent to
appropriate treatment, e.g. incineration. The reuse of packaging and palettes also depends on
whether the packaging is made for reuse or not. In several cases, such a reuse may conflict with
ADR regulations if the packaging is not retrofitted appropriately.

For technique (d), the use of residues as primary/secondary fuel depends on whether a suitable
combustion plant (permitted to use such fuel) is present in the installation.

Economics
In terms of capital expenditure and operating costs, sludge treatment is a significant component
and the management and disposal of solid waste will remain one of the most fundamental issues
facing operators.

Driving force for implementation

The prevention of waste generation is a principle of the IED [ 98, Directive 2010/75/EU 2010 ]
and the Waste Directive [ 39, WFD 98/EC 2008 ].

Example plants
In Germany, the use of drums has been reduced as much as possible.

Reference literature
[ 9, UK EA 2001 ], [ 10, Babtie Group Ltd 2002 ], [ 11, WT TWG 2003 ],
[ 18, WT TWG 2004 ], [ 19, WT TWG 2004 ]

2.3.13 Techniques for the prevention or reduction of the environmental

consequences of accidents and incidents

2.3.13.1 General techniques for the prevention or limitation of the

environmental consequences of accidents and incidents

Description
Management and technical measures are taken to prevent accidents which may have
environmental consequences, and to limit those consequences.

Technical description
These measures include the following:

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Accident management plan

A structured accident management plan includes the following:

 Identifying the hazards to the environment posed by the plant. Particular areas to consider
may include waste types, overfilling of vessels, failure of the plant and/or equipment (e.g.
over-pressure of vessels and pipework, blocked drains), failure of containment (e.g. bund
and/or overfilling of drainage sumps), failure to contain firefighting water, making the
wrong connections in drains or other systems, preventing incompatible substances
coming into contact, unwanted reactions and/or runaway reactions, emission of an
effluent before adequate checking of its composition has taken place, vandalism/arson,
extreme weather conditions, e.g. flooding, very high winds.
 Assessing all risks (hazard multiplied by probability) of accidents and their possible
consequences. Having identified the hazards, the process of assessing the risks can be
viewed as addressing six basic questions:
o what is the estimated probability of their occurrence? (source, frequency);
o what may be emitted and how much? (risk evaluation of the event);
o where does it go? (predictions for the emission – what are the pathways and
receptors?);
o what are the consequences? (consequence assessment – the effects on the
receptors);
o what is the overall risk? (determination of the overall risk and its significance
for the environment);
o what can be done to prevent or reduce the risk? (risk management – measures to
prevent accidents and/or reduce their environmental consequences).
In particular, identifying fire risks that may be posed for example by:
o arson or vandalism;
o self-combustion (e.g. due to chemical oxidation);
o plant or equipment failure & other electrical faults;
o naked lights & discarded smoking materials;
o hot works (e.g. welding or cutting), industrial heaters and hot exhausts;
o reactions between incompatible materials;
o neighbouring site activities;
o sparks from loading buckets;
o hot loads deposited at the site.
The depth and type of assessment will depend on the characteristics of the plant and its location.
The main factors taken into account are:
o the scale and nature of the accident hazard presented by the plant and the
activities;
o the risks to areas of population and the environment (receptors);
o the nature of the plant and complexity of the activities and the relative difficulty
in deciding on and justifying the adequacy of the risk control techniques.
 Identifying the roles and responsibilities of personnel involved in accident management.
Together with this, clear guidance is available on how each accident scenario needs to be
managed; for example, containment or dispersion, to extinguish fires or to let them burn.
 Establishing communication routes with relevant authorities and emergency services both
before and in the event of an accident. Post-accident procedures include an assessment of
the harm that may have been caused and remediation actions to be taken.
 Putting in place emergency procedures, including safe shutdown procedures and
evacuation procedures.
 Appointing one facility employee as an emergency coordinator to take leadership
responsibility for implementing the plan. It is important that the facility offers training to

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its employees to perform their duties effectively and safely so that staff know how to
respond to an emergency.

Event information collection and assessment system

The following measures can be taken in order to prevent recurrence of events that may lead to
an accident:
 Keeping an up-to-date plant log/diary to record all accidents, incidents, near misses,
changes to procedures, abnormal events, and the findings of maintenance inspections.
Leaks, spills and accidents can be recorded in the site diary. The incident and response
are then available to estimate notifiable releases for the annual report.
 Establishing procedures to identify, respond to and learn from such incidents and
accidents.

Inventory
 Maintaining an inventory of substances, which are present or likely to be present, which
could have environmental consequences if they escape. It should not be forgotten that
many apparently innocuous substances can be environmentally damaging if they escape
(for example, a tanker of milk spilt into a watercourse could destroy its ecosystem). (The
inventory is also related to traceability, see Section 2.3.2.5).

Compatibility
 Having procedures in place for checking raw materials and wastes to ensure compatibility
with other substances with which they may accidentally come into contact (see Section
2.3.2.8).
 Keeping apart incompatible wastes and substances according to their hazard potential.
Incompatible waste types need to be segregated by bays or stored in dedicated buildings.
The minimum requirement involves a kerbed perimeter and separate drainage collection.
Measures also need to be in place to prevent containers falling over into other storage
areas.

Emissions in case of accident

 Ensuring that process waters, site drainage waters, emergency firefighting water,
chemically contaminated waters and spillages of chemicals are, where appropriate,
contained and, where necessary, routed to the effluent system, with a provision to contain
surges and storm water flows. Sufficient buffer storage capacity needs to be provided to
ensure that this can be achieved. This capacity is defined using a risk-based approach
(e.g. taking into account the nature of the pollutants, the effects of downstream waste
water treatment, and the receiving environment). The discharge of waste water from this
buffer storage is only possible after appropriate measures are taken (e.g. control, treat,
reuse).
 Spill contingency procedures also need to be put in place to minimise the risk of an
accidental emission of raw materials, products and waste materials and to prevent their
entry into water. The emergency firefighting water collection system takes account of the
additional firefighting water flows or firefighting foams. Emergency storage lagoons may
be needed to prevent contaminated firefighting water reaching receiving water body (see
also Section 2.3.7).
 Considering and, therefore if appropriate, planning for the possibility of containment or
abatement for accidental emissions from vents and safety relief valves/bursting discs.
Where this may be inadvisable on safety grounds, attention needs to be focused on
reducing the probability of the emission.

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Security
 Having in place sufficient security measures, including personnel, to prevent vandals and
inadvertent intruders who could be exposed to harmful substances by contact with waste,
or to prevent damage to the equipment, or illicit dumping. Most facilities use a
combination of security guards, total enclosure (usually with fences), controlled entry
points, adequate lighting, proper warning signs, and 24-hour surveillance. Typically, the
guards also operate the gatehouse where they prevent entry of unscheduled trucks and
monitor the entry of visitors.

Fire protection
 Having in place a fire protection and explosion protection system, containing equipment
for prevention, detection and extinction.
 Applying suitable procedures and provisions for the storage of certain types of hazardous
waste, for example automatic alarms and possibly sprinklers. The facility has an adequate
water supply for extinguishing fires and the capability to collect and store firefighting
water run-off. The storage or treatment of any water-reactive waste will necessitate an
alternative type of fire protection system.
 Isolating drainage systems from flammable waste storage areas to prevent fire being
spread along the drainage system by solvents or other flammable hydrocarbons.
Other protection measures
 Maintaining the good state of the plant through a preventive maintenance programme and
a control and testing programme.
 Ensuring that all measurement and control devices needed in case of emergency are easily
accessible and easy to operate in emergency situations.
 Maintaining plant control in emergency situations, considering the utilisation of process
design alarms, trips and other control aspects, e.g. automatic systems based on
microprocessor control and valve control or tank level readings, such as ultrasonic
gauges, high level warnings, process interlocks and process parameters.
 Using techniques, such as suitable barriers, to prevent damage to equipment from the
movement of vehicles (see Section 2.3.13.3).
 Putting in place procedures to avoid incidents occurring as a result of poor
communication among operating staff during shift changes and following maintenance or
other engineering work.
 When relevant, utilising equipment and protective systems intended for use in potentially
explosive atmospheres (Directive 94/9/EC).

Achieved environmental benefits

The most significant environmental risks associated with waste treatment operations are from
the storage of hazardous wastes, from emissions resulting from wastes reacting together either
from leaks or spillages or from treatment processes going out of control.

Combinations of inappropriate equipment and poor inspection and maintenance procedures can
also increase the accident risks through, for example, tank overfill situations where level
indicators may not be working or have not been correctly calibrated.

Environmental performance and operational data

The event information collection system (see Technical description) is typically a computer-
based system.

Cross-media effects
None identified.

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Technical considerations related to applicability

The putting in place of sufficient buffer storage capacity is generally applicable to new plants.
For existing plants, applicability may be limited by space availability and by the configuration
of the water collection system.

Driving force for implementation

 Mainly health and safety reasons (reducing accidents).
 Protection of assets.

Example plants
These techniques are standard procedures applied in all types of WT plants.

Reference literature
[ 9, UK EA 2001 ], [ 10, Babtie Group Ltd 2002 ], [ 11, WT TWG 2003 ],
[ 33, Irish EPA 2003 ], [ 14, Eucopro 2003 ], [ 17, Pretz et al. 2003 ][ 18, WT TWG 2004 ],
[ 19, WT TWG 2004 ]

2.3.13.2 Techniques for the reduction of the environmental risk of storing

waste

As most of the techniques related to storage are covered in the EFS (Emissions from Storage)
BREF [117, COM 2006], this section only covers techniques to consider in the determination of
BAT for storage activities in a WT plant.

Description
Design, management and maintenance of storage and storage equipment for the prevention of
leakages, incidents and accidents.

Technical description
These techniques include the following:

Storage design and location

a. Storage areas are located:
o as far as technically and economically possible from sensitive receptors,
watercourses, etc.;
o in such a way so as to eliminate or minimise the unnecessary handling of wastes
within the plant (e.g. the same wastes are handled twice or more or the transport
distances on site are unnecessarily long).
b. Storage area drainage infrastructure contains all possible contaminated run-off, prevents
incompatible wastes coming into contact with each other, and ensures that fire cannot
spread (see also the EFS BREF [ 99, COM 2006 ]).
c. Bulk storage vessels are located on an impervious surface which is resistant to the material
being stored, with self-contained drainage to prevent any spillage entering the storage
systems or escaping off site. Bulk storage vessels have sealed construction joints.
d. Sludge build-up and emergence of foams in tanks are controlled, for example by regularly
sucking out the sludge and using anti-foaming agents.
e. Storage and treatment tanks are equipped with an automatic level monitoring system and an
associated alarm system. These systems are sufficiently robust (e.g. able to work if sludge
and foam are present) and regularly maintained.
f. All connections to vessels, tanks and secondary containment can be closed via suitable
valves.
g. Overflow pipes are directed to a contained drainage system (e.g. the relevant secondary
containment) (see the EFS BREF [ 99, COM 2006 ]), or to another vessel provided suitable
control measures are in place.

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h. Tanks' and vessels' thickness, storage area engineering and design are validated by an
independent expert. This validation is performed on a routine basis and recorded. Where a
particular control measure is deemed inadequate, waste is not stored in that vessel, tank or
storage area.

Storage capacity
The storage capacity is adapted to, and consistent with, the process capacity. Measures are taken
to avoid storage/accumulation of waste:
 Waste acceptance planning.
 The maximum storage capacity is clearly established and not exceeded taking into
account the characteristics of the wastes, e.g. regarding the risk of fire and the treatment
capacity.
 The quantity of stored waste is regularly monitored against the allowed maximum
capacity.
 The maximum residence time of waste is clearly established. Wastes are treated on, or
removed from, the site as soon as possible, preferably within one month of receipt, and at
a maximum within six months. This applies even when the waste might be used as a
reactant. [ 29, PCT Subgroup 2015 ]

Safe storage operation

General techniques related to safety storage conditions are described in the EFS BREF [ 99,
COM 2006 ]. Specific techniques related to safety waste storage conditions include the
following:

a. Systems are in place to ensure that loading, unloading and storage are safe considering any
associated risks. This can include piping and instrumentation diagrams; ticketing systems;
key locked coupling systems; colour coding points, fittings and hoses; use of specific
coupling and hose sizes.
b. A site plan which identifies all of the tanks, vessels, storage areas, bunds and drainage on
site is established and kept up to date. All containers are adequately labelled in accordance
with acceptance requirements (the unique tracking system reference number, the date of
arrival on site and at least a primary hazard code). Containers are handled and stored so that
the label is readily visible and continues to be legible. The waste inventory (see
Section 2.3.2.5) is readily available.
c. Storage areas of hazardous waste are clearly marked and signed with regards to the quantity
and hazardous properties of the wastes stored in them. As a general rule, no open-topped
tanks, vessels or pits are used for storage or treatment of hazardous or liquid wastes.
d. When flammable materials are being stored or handled, particular attention is paid to avoid
the build-up of static electricity. Leak detection and alarms (for example VOC alarms), and
automatic fire suppression equipment are put in place.
e. All pipes, hoses, connections, couplings, transfer lines, etc. are fit for purpose and resistant
to the wastes being stored. A suitable pipework coding system is used (e.g. RAL European
standard colour coding).
f. Chemical incompatibilities and safe storage distances (for example given in chemical
warehousing standards) guide the segregation and separation required during storage. This
includes laboratory chemicals where incompatible substances must not be stored within the
same container.
g. Aerosols are stored under cover in closed containers or cages.
h. Loading and unloading are supervised by site staff either directly or via CCTV.
i. Only well-maintained and adapted couplings are used; the couplings are able to withstand
the maximum shut valve pressure of the transfer pump.
j. Vehicular (e.g. forklift) and pedestrian access to the whole storage area is available at any
time, making possible the transfer of containers without having to move others, except for
drums in the same row.
k. Substances known to be sensitive to heat, light, air and water are protected from such
ambient conditions. These storage provisions apply to any container held in general storage,

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reception storage (pending acceptance) or quarantine, or which is being emptied,

repackaged or otherwise managed.
l. Drums and other mobile containers are moved between different locations (or loaded for
removal off site) in accordance with written procedures. The waste tracking system (see
Section 2.3.2.5) reflects these movements.
m. Containers and drums are stored stably and upright on pallets and are not stacked more than
two high. Access for inspection on all sides is kept available.
n. Containers are fit for purpose; they are kept undamaged, not corroded, leak-free, and within
the manufacturer’s use-by dates (particularly for plastic containers). Caps, valves and bungs
are present and secure. Containers, and any pallets they may be stored on, are checked daily
and non-conformances are recorded. Non-compliant containers are made safe. Any
unsound, poorly labelled or unlabelled containers are immediately and appropriately
managed (e.g. relabelling, over-drumming, transferring container contents).
o. Containers, tanks and vessels are not used beyond their specified design life or used in a
manner or for substances for which they were not designed.
p. The atmosphere of tanks containing organic liquid waste with a low flashpoint (e.g. less
than 21 °C) is inerted (e.g. with nitrogen).

Packaged hazardous waste

a. Using a dedicated area/store which is equipped with all necessary measures related to the
specific risk of the wastes for sorting and handling packaged hazardous waste or similar
waste. These wastes are sorted according to their hazard classification, with due
consideration of any potential incompatibility problems, and then repackaged. After that,
they are moved to the appropriate storage area.
b. Where laboratory smalls are decanted into larger containers, carrying this out in a closed
building with a ventilation system and exhaust air treatment and in a bunding system
without drainage.
c. Having a small bulking unit that is designed to allow laboratory smalls to be decanted into a
lime slurry in 205-litre drums prior to disposal at the treatment plant. This will utilise a
hood placed over the drum which is connected to an exhaust system and activated carbon
filter. The system is not airtight, since the operator has to be able to empty the bottles into
the container, but it might provide a simple system for making an estimate of the discharges
to air during the decanting of solvents at minimum cost.
d. Sorting laboratory smalls at source in order to make reopening unnecessary.
e. Producing and following written procedures for the segregation and packing of laboratory
smalls. A qualified chemist/person present at the site of the waste producer/holder may help
with checking the laboratory smalls, classifying the substances, and packaging the drums
into specific containers accordingly.

Achieved environmental benefits

The environmental benefits of this technique include:
 reduction of fugitive emissions (e.g. VOCs, odours, dust) and of the risk of leakages;
 reduction of the amount of potentially contaminated water that may be produced in the
event of any spillage;
 prevention of incidents resulting from incompatible substances reacting, and of escalation
should an incident occur.

Environmental performance and operational data

Some of the above techniques relate to a quality management system (QMS).

Cross-media effects
None.

Technical considerations relevant to applicability

Tagging all valves with an identifier which is then shown on the process and instrumentation
diagram is not common practice, even in the chemical industry.

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The choice of the storage location is applicable to new plants only.

Economics
No information provided.

Driving force for implementation

Prevention of accidents.

Example plants
Many examples exist in the sector.

Reference literature
[ 89, Eklund et al. 1997 ], [ 4, Viscolube 2002 ], [ 85, Scori 2002 ], [ 9, UK EA 2001 ], [ 10,
Babtie Group Ltd 2002 ], [ 11, WT TWG 2003 ], [ 33, Irish EPA 2003 ], [ 13, Schmidt et al.
2002 ], [ 14, Eucopro 2003 ], [ 17, Pretz et al. 2003 ][ 18, WT TWG 2004 ], [ 19, WT TWG
2004 ], [ 51, WT TWG 2005 ], [ 101, Mech. subgroup 2014 ], [ 99, COM 2006 ], [ 29, PCT
Subgroup 2015 ], [ 49, Bio. subgroup 2014 ]

2.3.13.3 Techniques for the reduction of the environmental risk of handling

and transferring waste

Description
Handling and transfer procedures to ensure that wastes are safely handled and transferred to the
appropriate storage or treatment.

Technical description
Handling and transfers and discharges of waste are duly documented, validated prior to
execution and verified after execution. Some general techniques are as follows:

 Ensuring that the transfer from a tanker to a drum (or vice versa) uses a minimum of two
people to check the pipes and valves at all times.
 Ensuring that transfers only take place after compatibility testing has been completed (see
Section 2.3.2.8) and then only with the sanction of an appropriate manager. The approval
specifies which batch/load of material is to be transferred; the receiving storage vessel;
the equipment required, including spillage control and recovery equipment; and any
special provisions relevant to that batch/load.
 Having in place systems to prevent ‘tanker drive off’, i.e. a vehicle pulling away whilst
still coupled.
 Assuring that these processes are only carried out by competent staff and with an
appropriate amount of time so as not to cause pressure to work more quickly than deemed
acceptable.
 Having in place measures to ensure that the couplings are a correct fit; this will prevent
the coupling loosening or becoming detached. Issues related to coupling include the
following:
o An installation providing and maintaining hoses can help to guarantee the
integrity and fitness of the couplings.
o Ensuring that special care is taken so that the coupling is able to withstand the
maximum shut valve pressure of the transfer pump; otherwise a serious event
could occur.
o Protecting the transfer hose may be unnecessary where a gravity feed system is
in place. It will however still be important to maintain a sound coupling at each
end of the transfer hose.
o Controlling potential leaks due to coupling devices by fairly simple systems
such as drip trays, or by designated areas within the bund system. Rainwater

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falling over the rest of the bund area falls to a sump and, if uncontaminated, can
be pumped to the site interceptor and discharge points. The bund areas are
inspected, maintained and cleaned. Pollution of water discharges can occur but
are minimised by design and management.
o Good housekeeping practices requiring constant attention and cleaning.
 Providing routine maintenance, so that a more acute accident situation does not arise due
to the failure of the plant or equipment. This may include the failure of a pump seal or the
blockage of a filter pot commonly used at transfer points.
 Having an emergency storage for leaking vehicles, to minimise any acute incident
associated with the failure of the seal on the road tanker.
 Having measures in place to ensure that the correct waste is discharged to the correct
transfer point and that the waste is then transferred to the correct storage point, e.g. by
means of a lockable isolating valve fitted to the loading connection that is kept locked
during periods when the unloading points are not supervised.
 Having in place systems and procedures to ensure that waste due to be transferred is
packaged and transported in accordance with legislation concerning the safe carriage of
dangerous goods.
 Continuing the waste tracking system that began at the pre-acceptance stage, linked with
acceptance, throughout the duration the waste is kept at the site (see Section 2.3.2.5).
 Recording in the site diary any small spills. Spills need to be retained within the bunded
areas and then collected using absorbents. If this is not done, the spillage will exit the site
through the rainwater collection systems or may generate fugitive emissions (e.g. VOCs).
 Ensuring that tankers are not used as reaction vessels as this is not their designed purpose.
 Blending by bulking into tankers only takes place once suitable verification and
compatibility testing have been carried out.
 Taking operation and design precautions when mixing or blending wastes, depending on
the composition and consistency of the wastes to be mixed or blended (e.g. vacuuming
dusty/powdery wastes).
 Training forklift drivers in the handling of palletised goods, to minimise forklift truck
damage to the integrity of drums.
 Using rotary-type pumps equipped with a pressure control system and safety valve.
 Using pumping of sludges instead of open movement.
 Keeping the container lidded/sealed as much as possible.
 Transferring wastes in containers into storage vessels using a dip pipe.
 During bulking to tankers, using vapour balance lines connected to appropriate abatement
equipment.
 Manipulating drums using mechanical means, for example a forklift truck with a rotating
drum-handling fitting.
 Securing the drums together with shrink wrap.
 Performing mixing, treating or repackaging of waste in a dedicated area away from
storage areas.
 Not carrying out activities that represent a clear fire risk within the storage area.
Examples include grinding; welding or brazing of metalwork; smoking; parking of
normal road vehicles except while unloading; and recharging of the batteries of forklift
trucks.

Achieved environmental benefits

The environmental benefit of this technique includes prevention of unexpected releases or
reactions and the associated emissions.

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Environmental performance and operational data

Most sites have a full concrete base, with falls to internal site drainage systems leading to
storage tanks or to interceptors that collect rainwater and any spillages. Interceptors with
overflows to sewers usually have automatic monitoring systems, such as a check on pH, which
can shut down the overflow.
Cross-media effects
None.

Technical considerations relevant to applicability

The systems and procedures are adapted to the characteristics of the waste (e.g. liquid, solid).
Handling and transfer procedures are risk-based considering the likelihood of accidents and
incidents and their environmental impact.

Economics
No information provided.

Driving force for implementation

Legislation concerning the safe carriage of dangerous goods.

Example plants
The larger solvent transfer stations reduce displacement losses from loading and unloading
tankers and drums with balancing systems or VOC recovery systems. Many chemical treatment
plants and solvent storage sites have pollution abatement equipment to minimise acidic and
VOC emissions.

Sites storing organic wastes with a solvent content tend to utilise a carbon filter system to
control discharges to air.

Reference literature
[ 67, UK Environment Agency 1996 ], [ 85, Scori 2002 ], [ 9, UK EA 2001 ], [ 10, Babtie
Group Ltd 2002 ], [ 11, WT TWG 2003 ], [ 33, Irish EPA 2003 ], [ 14, Eucopro 2003 ], [ 18,
WT TWG 2004 ], [ 19, WT TWG 2004 ], [ 51, WT TWG 2005 ], [ 38, UBA Germany 2012 ]

2.3.14 Techniques for the decommissioning of the plant

Description
Set of organisational and technical measures to be taken throughout the plant lifetime to
optimise the plant decommissioning and reduce any associated environmental impacts.

Technical description
Techniques include the following:
 Considering the decommissioning at the design stage, thereby making suitable plans to
minimise risks during later decommissioning.
 For existing plants where potential problems are identified, putting in place a programme
of design improvements. These designs improvements need to ensure that:
o underground tanks and pipework are avoided; if it is not economically possible
to replace them, they are protected by secondary containment or a suitable
monitoring programme;
o there is provision for the draining and clean-out of vessels and pipework prior
to dismantling;
o lagoons and landfills are designed with a view to their eventual clean-up;
o insulation is provided which is readily dismantled without dust or hazard;
o any materials used are recyclable (having regard for operational or other
environmental objectives).

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 Maintaining a decommissioning plan to demonstrate that, in its current state, the plant can
be decommissioned to avoid any pollution risk and to return the site of operation to a
satisfactory state. The plan is kept updated as material changes occur. However, even at
an early stage, the decommissioning plan can include details on:
o either the removal or the flushing out of pipelines and vessels where appropriate
and their complete emptying of any potentially harmful contents;
o plans covering all the underground pipes and vessels;
o the method and resources necessary for the clearing of lagoons;
o the method of closure of any on-site landfills;
o the removal of asbestos or other potentially harmful materials, unless it has
been agreed that it is reasonable to leave such liabilities to future owners;
o methods of dismantling buildings and other structures, for the protection of
surface water and groundwater at construction and demolition sites;
o the testing of the soil required to ascertain the degree of any pollution caused by
the site activities and information on what is needed for any remediation to
return the site to a satisfactory state as defined by the initial site report;
o the measures proposed, upon definitive cessation of activities, to avoid any
pollution risk and to return the site of operation to a satisfactory state
(including, where appropriate, measures relating to the design and construction
of the plant);
o the clearing of deposited residues, waste and any contamination resulting from
the waste treatment activities.
 Ensuring that equipment taken out of use is decontaminated and removed from the site.

Achieved environmental benefits

Prevention of environmental issues during decommissioning.

Environmental performance and operational data

No information provided.

Cross-media effects
None.

Technical considerations related to applicability

The techniques mentioned here are applicable to the plant's operating lifetime, the design and
building stage of the activities and the site closure.

Driving force for implementation

Environmental legislation.

Example plants
The decommissioning of whole plants or parts of them occurs frequently in the sector.

Reference literature
[ 9, UK EA 2001 ], [ 33, Irish EPA 2003 ], [ 18, WT TWG 2004 ]

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3 MECHANICAL TREATMENT OF WASTE

This chapter covers the treatment in shredders of metal waste, including waste electrical and
electronic equipment (WEEE) and end-of-life vehicles (EoLVs) and their components (Annex I
to [ 98, Directive 2010/75/EU 2010 ]). It also covers the mechanical treatment in shredders of
WEEE containing refrigerants, and the mechanical treatment of solid waste with calorific value.

3.1 Mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste

[ 26, Mech. subgroup 2014 ]

3.1.1 Applied processes and techniques

Purpose and principle of operation

In shredders, the waste input is reduced into smaller material components by means of
fragmentation and attrition. Treatment in shredders includes treatment in plants such as hammer
mills, chain mills, plants using rotary shears and other similar equipment that is designed to
fragment metal into smaller pieces to allow the separation of the metallic and the non-metallic
fractions. It does not include shears and guillotines which utilise a range of hydraulic machinery
that comprise hard steel blades to cut metals into manageable sizes. The shredded components
are then separated from one another in a downstream sorting process. Large items of scrap can
also be shredded.

The main output is quality steel scrap with a high density, high degree of purity and
predominantly homogeneous size. This shredder steel scrap can be used directly in metal works
to produce steel. The other end fractions are shredded non-ferrous fractions, containing other
metallic products, and shredder residues. These other fractions and residues can be further
treated in order to recover as much material as possible and minimise the amount of waste sent
for disposal.

Process description
The main process steps in a shredder are:

1. delivery, reception and acceptance;

2. pre-sorting and pretreatment;
3. shredder technology;
4. post-shredder processes;
5. end-of-pipe abatement techniques.

Figure 3.1 shows an example of a shredder with typical feedstock (mixed EoLVs and scraps)
and outputs (shredder light and heavy fractions).

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Source: [ 26, Mech. subgroup 2014 ]

Figure 3.1: Example of a mixed scrap shredder plant

Grabbers, excavators or front-end loaders can be used for the sorting and charging of the
material. Feedstock is generally fed by grab crane to a ground-level conveyor which elevates the
material to the shredder feed chute. The feed materials then fall by gravity into the shredder box.
Within the shredder box is a heavy, fast-spinning rotor equipped with hammers which cut the
material on anvils within the shredder box and then drive the cut (shredded) materials through
sizing grates to further process the scrap to the desired state of liberation, size and density.

In Figure 3.1, the first air treatment step is carried out by a cyclone (red to orange) and the
second step by a wet scrubber (orange to green). The shredder light fraction  and shredder
heavy fraction  are then further treated. Non-ferrous metals recovered during the shredding
process or in downstream plants (e.g. sink-float plants in heavy media plants) are used
industrially for non-ferrous metal production.

The mixed shredded materials are then transported to a range of separation systems which
separate the shredded materials into streams of ferrous scrap, mixed non-ferrous scrap and
residual non-metallic materials. These residual non-metallic materials are then sent to other
plants for subsequent use or treatment, e.g. for energy recovery in waste treatment plants or for
material recovery in post-shredder technology (PST) plants including recycling of plastics. Final
non-metallic fractions without a commercial market may also be disposed of to landfill.

The ferrous stream is a furnace-ready material. Individual operators may choose to improve the
quality of the mixed non-ferrous output by further separation stages, for example eddy current
separators and metal-sensing or colour-sorting machinery. This further processing can be carried
out online as part of the shredder downstream equipment, but is generally carried out offline in
purpose-built premises and so does not form part of the shredder plant. It is therefore not
discussed further in this document. Alternatively, the mixed non-ferrous materials may be
separated by dense media separation, which is always an entirely separate process.

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Delivery, reception and acceptance

The improvement of the metal shredder's environmental performance can be dealt with in two
principal ways: one is to control outputs and emissions, the other is to control the quality and
type of feed to the plant in the first place. In basic terms, what goes in to the fragmentiser will
come out.

Scrap feed which contains dirt or other added non-metals, concealed items such as untreated and
unemptied gas cylinders, or contaminated materials such as non-depolluted or poorly depolluted
EoLVs and WEEE, and contaminated drums, is not acceptable. There are significant
environmental and health and safety issues associated with the inadvertent processing of these
types of poor quality material.

A material reception area is designed with trained staff controlling the inspection, reception and
validation of materials at the plant; and quarantine areas established for materials that are
prohibited, awaiting full inspection, testing or removal.

The delivery area of an industrial shredder plant consists of a sufficiently sized acceptance area,
which is a paved or impermeable surface with a weighing platform (weighbridge) and
corresponding weighbridge office. The weights of all material input and output streams are
recorded at the weighing station.

The delivery area offers the possibility to carry out an intake control, for both commercial and
legal reasons with regard to the waste, and to make a preselection according to visually
recognisable criteria.

The visual inspection can be done directly at the weighing station or during offloading in the
delivery area. It serves to preselect waste into its main groups and detect elements containing
harmful substances or impurities. This area can also be used for pricing.

Shredder feed is delivered in containers, walking-floor vehicles and normal lorries which are
registered for the transport of waste. Sites with water or rail connections also use ships or trains
for their input/output logistics.

The delivery area also includes means of checking the delivered materials for an increased level
of radioactivity. The delivery vehicles (road or rail) need to pass through radiation monitoring at
a very slow speed to ensure an accurate reading. Another possibility for measuring radioactivity
is by detectors attached to the grab, magnetic plate or arm of the unloading equipment. This
technique can be found when unloading ships or rail cars, for example. More details about
radioactivity monitoring and response measures are given in [ 102, UNECE 2006 ].

After the acceptance check, the shredder feed goes into interim storage in the delivery area.
The areas for storage, sorting and feeding of material usually consist of a secure open space
where regulations for storage areas apply (storage area for incoming goods with separate spaces
for different input materials). In areas with heavy mechanical stress (e.g. pre-sorting), the
surface is often reinforced by massive steel plates. The storage area is a paved surface
impermeable to water connected to the plant's waste water system to avoid contaminated run-
off.

Pre-sorting and pretreatment

Pre-sorting is a part of integral stock management. The goal is to sort out impurities and
homogenise or keep separate selected input materials in order to be able to produce the qualities
the customer demands. Pre-sorting can be done manually or mechanically (e.g. with a
grab/magnet).

Pre-sorting is an important way of increasing plant availability and throughput, homogenising

the material input and reducing the ancillary costs of the plant operation. It also guards against
deflagrations or unshreddable items.

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The shredder feed undergoes pretreatment before being sent to the shredder. In practice, there
can be various types of pretreatment, depending on the operational requirements. The aim of the
pretreatment processes is to maximise plant availability, minimise shredder downtime, and
achieve an optimised composition of the input material from an economic point of view as
regards the quantity and quality of the output streams.

With the exception of heavy scrap such as cast iron parts and bulky parts (rail tracks, sectional
steels and girders), which usually undergo separate processing, most types of scrap can be
shredded in shredder plants. Even scrap cars, which may make up an appreciable proportion of
shredder feed, can be handled without any prior size reduction.

Pre-shredding
Another considerably more elaborate and costly pretreatment measure can be to reduce the size
of the feed prior to shredding. The equipment used may be shears or pre-shredders. A pre-
shredder or ripper (see Figure 3.2) is a slow-running machine installed upstream from the main
shredder. The pre-shredder rips up the material fed into the shredder thus ensuring a maximum
size for the input materials. Pre-shredding can also reduce the risk of deflagrations, for example
when car wrecks that may contain fuel traces are treated. However, pre-shredding will be a
source of emissions. For reasons of space, the pre-shredder may not be available for larger
shredders whose requisite throughput would need several such units.

Source: [ 26, Mech. subgroup 2014 ]

Figure 3.2: Example of a pre-shredder

Shredding
The material pushed into the shredder box by the feed rollers (see Figure 3.3) is torn between
the rotating hammers and the edge of the primary anvil (1). The torn pieces are then further
shredded on the lower grid (2) and, once shredded to the requisite size, will exit the shredder
box through the lower grid or upper grid (3).

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Source: [ 26, Mech. subgroup 2014 ] METSO

Figure 3.3: Detail of shredding process

Any material which has not been shredded small enough on the first pass is flung against the
rear wall of the shredder (4) and then torn again between the hammers and a secondary anvil
(5), proceeding then to mix with new incoming feedstock for a second pass. This process of
tearing and shredding continues until the material has passed through the grids. It is important to
keep the shredder box filled with material to optimise shredding efficiency; this is generally
achieved by the blending of different feedstock streams.

In order to achieve a particularly high density of shredded product, some shredders are equipped
with a mechanism (6) to cover the upper grid and thus retain more material within the shredder
box for a second or further passes.

Unshreddable materials are discharged through the hydraulically actuated ejection door (7).

The intake pipes (8) in the dedusting device aspirate the dust when the shredder box is fitted
with an aspiration system. In a damp shredder this pipe will be blanked.

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Mixed scrap (or conventional) shredder

Mixed scrap shredders have a drive power of up to 9 200 hp (7 000 kW), or some 400 t/h. These
plants are the largest and most common type of shredding plant in the EU, often misdescribed as
car shredders. However, cars (in the form of depolluted end-of-life vehicles) usually form only a
minority percentage of the material being processed by such plants. The remaining material
feedstock is comprised of any light steel and, in the case of larger plants, sometimes heavier
steel, suitable for shredding in either clean (e.g. cladding from buildings) or complex/composite
(e.g. non-hazardous and depolluted waste electrical and electronic equipment) form.

Source: [ 26, Mech. subgroup 2014 ]

Figure 3.4: A typical EU mixed scrap shredder plant

The purpose of such plants is threefold: (1) to separate the materials in the feedstock from each
other; (2) to ensure that the metals produced are sufficiently clean to facilitate their re-melting
into new metal products; and (3) to densify the metals so that they are of a size suitable for re-
melting furnaces.

Densification also increases logistical efficiency (and thus decreases the economic impact of
transporting these product materials). For similar reasons, feedstock to these plants has often
been pre-densified (by other operators in the supply chain) in the form of sheared or baled
material.

Figure 3.5 illustrates how a conventional shredder plant works.

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1. Chute 7. Secondary anvil

2. Drive pulleys 8. Upper grid cover
3. Anvil 9. Ejection door
4. Lower grid (optional) 10. Intake pipe
5. Upper grid 11. Vibrating conveyor
6. Shredder wall 12. Conveyor
Source: [ 26, Mech. subgroup 2014 ]

Figure 3.5: Conventional shredder plant mechanism

The shredders used to reduce mixed scrap are rotor hammer mills. The hammer mill consists of
a rotor in which several hammers weighing between 70 kg and 260 kg are suspended. The rotor
is driven by a motor with a rating of up to 7 000 kW and rotates at 450–600 rpm. The hammers
swing out as a result of the centripetal forces caused by the rotation.

Special shredders
Zerdirators have a drive power of between 500 kW and 4 000 kW. Zerdirators are rotor mills for
processing lightweight scrap. Material discharge from the rotor chamber is different from that of
conventional shredders because the Zerdirator has a grid at the top and the bottom.

Kondirators have a drive power of between 750 kW and 3 000 kW. Kondirators were developed
to reprocess medium-heavy mixed scrap that is too heavy for conventional shredders. Compared
with conventional shredders, the rotors rotate in the opposite direction and the process scrap
discharge from the rotor chamber differs. In the Kondirator, bulky or long items of scrap can be
separated from the remaining shredded material during the shredding process through a separate
discharge outlet.

Damp or semi-wet shredders

In these types of shredders, an electronically controlled injection of water suppresses dust
during the shredding process. The water is taken from a supply tank and injected into the rotor
chamber at several places via a pump station and mist sprays. The small diameter of the water
mist droplets facilitates the encapsulation of dust particles, thus directing them to co-mingling
with the material stream leaving the plant for further downstream separation. Water addition

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also helps to minimise inadvertent deflagration events and cools the rotor and the pieces of
scrap. The steam/mist that is produced escapes through the openings in the shredder, i.e. around
the feed chute and the vibrating extraction conveyor. Most of this steam is captured by the
soundproof housing of the shredder (if applicable).

Wet shredders
Wet shredders operate with pre-wetted shredder material. For this reason, material separation is
different from that of other shredders. The fact that the shredder feed is wet reduces the
proportion of low-density materials as compared with dry processes and which later accumulate
as shredder residue. However, a considerable quantity of sludge accumulates when the
contaminated waste water is cleaned and this has to be disposed of. Scrap vehicles and light to
medium-heavy scrap metal and industrial scrap are shredded in wet shredders. The scrap quality
is that of customary shredder scrap.

Shredders for cables

[EEB comment #285 in [ 21, WT TWG 2016 ]]

The shredding of cables can comprise the following steps:

 Pre-shredding with slow-running units (e.g. between 20 rpm and 190 rpm). The output
particle size ranges from 3 cm to 10 cm.
 Separation of metals with an overbelt magnetic separator.
 Two-step shredding with edge mills. A rotor with cutting blades turns against a stator
with a cutting edge, causing the material to shred via shearing and friction forces. The
rotational speed varies between 150 rpm and 500 rpm. The output particle size is
approximately 1 cm.
 Post-treatment steps including separation of the plastic fraction (cable sheath).

Feed and output streams

The waste input material delivered to shredder plants (feed) comprises:

 pretreated scrap vehicles from dismantling facilities;

 scrap from municipal collections;
 scrap from commercial collections;
 industrial scrap from production or demolition;
 depolluted WEEE (requirement of Directive 2012/19/EU on WEEE); scrap from waste
incineration plants;
 metal mixes (ferrous and non-ferrous) from processing and sorting plants;
 other metal scrap.

The proportion of each type of scrap in the total volume is difficult to calculate since the
composition of the shredder feed varies from one plant to another and depends on the season
and the region.

Irrespective of the type of shredder being used, the following output fractions are the result of
the average input from the shredder process. The size of the iron/steel fraction scrap (also called
‘Fe fraction’ or ‘shredder scrap’) is fairly homogeneous, ranging from 50 mm to 150 mm, and is
over 98 % iron or steel. The recovery of this fraction is the main reason for operating a shredder
plant. It is sold to steelworks globally. The iron/steel fraction corresponds to approximately 65–
75 wt-% of the shredder feed.
On average, the non-ferrous metal fraction (also called ‘shredder heavy fraction’/‘SHF’) makes
up approximately 5–10 wt-% of the shredder feed and mainly consists of aluminium, copper and
zinc mixed with non-metals (e.g. rubber, plastics, glass or stones). These non-metals represent
an impurity in terms of using the valuable non-ferrous metals.

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Before further metallurgical reprocessing (e.g. in foundries), the non-metallic content of the
non-ferrous fractions has to be removed. They are reprocessed in online or offline treatment
stages until the non-metal content is removed and the non-ferrous metals are separated.
Increasingly today (2015), the non-metallic materials are being further refined in order to extract
recyclable plastics, aggregates and solid recovered fuel, while minimising the residual waste to
landfill.

In the process of shredding, the input materials are separated and broken apart into small pieces.
Heavy materials are discharged from the shredder, whereas the shredder light fraction (‘SLF’,
the remaining light components of the input material) is discharged by the forced air supply of
the cyclone and air separator systems. The SLF mix thus also contains components of the input
material in a shredded form. These are essentially:

 textiles (e.g. seat covers);

 foamed plastics (e.g. from seat cushioning);
 plastics and plastic sheeting (e.g. from trims);
 mineral components (e.g. adhesions in the wheelhouses and on the undercarriage);
 screws, nuts, non-ferrous metal pieces, aluminium pieces, foils and rust;
 wood and elastomers.

Up to 30 wt-% of the shredder feed, depending on its composition, is shredder light fraction. Its
material composition varies greatly and is largely influenced by the type of feed. The individual
proportion of any type of scrap in the total volume is difficult to determine since the
composition of the feed varies greatly from plant to plant and also according to the season and
the region.

The fluctuations in the composition of the shredder feed are passed to the composition of the
shredder light fraction. The shredding of scrap vehicles thus leads to a disproportionately high
proportion of plastics in the shredder light fraction, just as the shredding of mixed scrap and
industrial scrap (e.g. pipelines and light sectional metal sheets used in composite structures for
construction/building with remaining concrete adhesions) causes a considerably lower
proportion of plastics in the shredder light fraction.

Moreover, the type of air separation has a substantial impact on the composition of the SLF.
With a weak air current the SLF contains fewer plastics and with a strong air current the SLF
contains more plastics. Shredder operators will regularly monitor the SLF to ensure that metal
inclusions are minimised and, if present, reprocessed.

Post-shredder processes
Post-shredder technology (PST) is the further reprocessing of shredder residues (SLF and/or
SHF) and goes beyond the technologies described below. This can be done online with the
shredder plant or offline on the same site or at another site. Online is the continuous feeding of
the material stream from the place it (the SLF or SHF) is generated into a reprocessing facility,
generally via a belt conveyor system. Offline is a discontinuous plant operation, e.g. in batches
via a wheel loader.

Many industrial shredder operators have PST systems at either the shredder site or elsewhere.
Their main goal is to recover materials from the SLF and SHF to comply with the basic legal
requirements such as recycling quotas or any immediate landfill ban, etc. Consequently, the
reprocessing extent of the PST may vary in accordance with the respective shredder process
configuration, the characteristics of the SLF, and the local availability of economic disposal
possibilities.
The summary below is not comprehensive and does not purport to be complete. The basic
mixed scrap shredder plant can be taken as an elevating feed conveyor, shredder box (mill),
windsifting system, rotary magnet(s), air extraction and classification systems, and vibrating

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and belt conveyors. The PST steps listed below could be carried out either within (online) or
outside (offline) the shredder plant. Most operators carry out these processes offline due to
throughput constraints of these techniques and to facilitate smoother metering of materials to
these techniques. The PST processes' steps can be combined in different ways as regards the
process.

Scrap cleaning step

The mixed shredded product is generally conveyed via vibrating and/or belt conveyors to a
zigzag windsifter where light material (SLF) is aspirated from heavier materials.

The light air aspirated material (SLF) is then passed through an air classification system and
deposited onto a stacking conveyor which conveys it to a bin, bunker/truck or rail car.

Cleaned materials fall on a vibrating conveyor installed under the air classifier cascade.

Separation of materials
The cleaned non-ferrous metals and steel scrap are continuously fed from the air classifier,
generally via a vibrating conveyor, to a rotating magnetic drum separator. Steel scrap is
attracted from the product flow and lifted up and over the rotating magnet onto a belt conveyor.
Non-magnetic metals are not attracted and fall beneath the magnet onto a different conveyor.
The steel scrap is agitated on the magnet drum to release any tramp pieces of non-magnetic
material.

The steel scrap is then passed over a slow-moving sorting conveyor, where armatures (and other
copper-bearing composites) and any tramp non-metallic materials are removed to a bin or
bunker. The sorting conveyor generally discharges to a stacking conveyor which in turn
discharges to a bin, bunker/truck or rail car.

Some non-ferrous metals may also be sorted from a conveyor and are then further mechanically
separated, online and/or offline. Most operators will carry out the mechanical separation of non-
ferrous metals offline due to throughput imbalances and to facilitate better metering.

See Section 2.3.2.9 for more detailed descriptions of the material separation steps listed below.

 Manual picking: manual sorting is widely used for the coarse fractions from shredder
residues, particularly from SHF, to separate the larger residual metal parts.
 Screening/sifting.
 Air separation/density separation: usually after upstream shredding and screening steps
for fractions that are separated according to their specific density with accurately
adjustable separation equipment.
 Size reduction: for better fractioning, shredder residues are often reduced in size, i.e. the
particle size is reduced to a homogeneous size suited to the subsequent reprocessing step.
 Eddy current separation.
 Induction sorting systems: usually employed to extract from non-metallic materials those
metals which cannot be extracted using eddy current separators, e.g. lead and stainless
steel.
 Magnet separator.
 Optical sorting systems: used to separate copper/brass from other heavy metals.
 X-ray systems: metal composites are sorted according to various material densities,
halogen components or organic components with the aid of X-rays. Sorting can be
according to light and heavy metals or plastics.
 Electrostatic sorting: use of the electrostatic properties of the various materials.
 Sink-float tanks: Dense media separation method of sorting to separate two solids by
exploiting the different material densities.

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Users
The plants from the data collection carrying out this type of treatment are: 025, 026, 027, 027,
028, 029, 030, 054, 055, 095C, 100, 136, 137, 282C, 285C, 286C, 288C, 289C, 290C, 291C,
293C, 294C, 364_365, 432, 441, 455, 456, 464, 478, 516, 517, 571.

3.1.2 Current emission and consumption levels

3.1.2.1 Emissions to air

3.1.2.1.1 General overview

[ 42, WT TWG 2014 ]
Emissions to air from a shredder plant are likely to be dust including particles of (heavy) metals,
VOCs, water vapour or, occasionally under other than normal operating conditions (e.g.
deflagration) or when non- or poorly depolluted waste input is shredded, smoke, dust and
potentially dioxins.

When the shredder separates the materials and sorts the magnetic fraction, these operations are
conducted at a high throughput rate, commonly between 40 tonnes and 200 tonnes per hour. At
this rate, even with a strict visual control of the input, it is impossible to avoid the entrance of
some material capable of producing a deflagration in the shredder and, although the risk of an
occurrence can be reduced, it cannot be completely eliminated. Therefore, the shredder itself
cannot be equipped with a bag filter if no mitigation measure is taken (e.g. pressure relief
valves), as this would inevitably be blown out by a deflagration in the shredder.

Consequently, the shredder has to be equipped with dust collection systems compatible with
deflagrations, comprising cyclones and Venturi scrubbers. Hence, the emission at the clean air
exhaust is determined by the efficiency of such abatement equipment. However, from company
to company, and from sample to sample, there are variations in the emissions measured, which
could be due to the infeed, the plant, or the process and procedures. Indeed, because of the
deflagration risk, in some areas of the EU there is no dust collection in the shredding step; some
operators preferring to use water injection for emission control (damp shredding) in the
shredding step, and conventional emission control only in the second step.

Diffuse emissions can cause environment impacts locally and are reduced by the different
techniques described in this document (see Section 2.3.5). It is difficult to give a figure in unit
per time or per tonnage of material processed; rather they represent a concentration in some
areas of the shredder plant. The sources of potential diffuse emissions are manifold: large drop
height of scrap handling, openings in the shredder building, insufficient suction unit, insufficient
road cleaning, etc. Figure 3.6 shows potential sources of emissions to air at a shredding plant.

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Source: [ 26, Mech. subgroup 2014 ]

Figure 3.6: Potential sources of air emission at a shredder plant

A further source of diffuse emissions from shredding plants are deflagrations. Deflagrations can
be caused by residual fuel left in end-of-life vehicles. Analysis of the amount of dust that is
emitted during a deflagration is not available. Figure 3.7 shows the emission from a shredding
plant during a deflagration. This is considered other than normal operating conditions
(OTNOC).

Source: [ 26, Mech. subgroup 2014 ]

Figure 3.7: Emission from a shredding plant during a deflagration

The number of deflagrations varies from one shredder site to another. An efficiently managed
shredder has less than one deflagration per year. It is however in the interest of the operator to
prevent such a potential source of damage to the shredder.

3.1.2.1.2 Dust and particle-bound metals

Although the potential contamination of dust by heavy metals (e.g. lead) is considerably
lowered by the implementation of the EoLV Directive (2000/53/EC) and the WEEE Directive
(2012/19/EU), and their strict depollution requirements, particulate emissions to air from the

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shredding of metal waste (depolluted EoLVs, depolluted WEEE, ferrous and/or non-ferrous
metals) include dust and particle-bound metals. The levels of dust and metal emissions to air
and the associated techniques reported through the data collection are given in Table 3.1 below.

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Table 3.1: Dust and metal emissions to air from mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste – Periodic measurements
Number of
Exhaust measurements
Maximum
Techniques Capacity air flow Dust Ni Pb Cd As Cu Zn during the 3-
Plant code dust load
used (t/day) rate (mg/Nm3) (mg/Nm3) (mg/Nm3) (mg/Nm3) (mg/Nm3) (mg/Nm3) (mg/Nm3) year reference
(kg/h)
(Nm3/h) period (2010–
2012)
Dust: up to 3
Ni: up to 3
Pb: up to 3
Cyclone 20 000–
136, 464-5 80–350 5.3–33 (1) 0.1–0.5 0.08 (1) 0.15 (1) 0.013 (1) 0.007 (1) 0.056 (1) 1.5 (1) Cd: up to 3
alone 136 300
As: up to 3
Cu: up to 3
Zn: up to 3
Dust: up to 9
Ni: up to 9
Pb: up to 9
15 000–
364-2, 464-4 Fabric filter 80–1 120 1.1–2 0.03–0.2 0.008 0.003 0.0006 0.0006 0.003 0.6 Cd: up to 9
65 000
As: up to 9
Cu: up to 9
Zn: up to 3
Dust: up to 3
Ni: up to 3
Pb: up to 3
Venturi 8 500– 0.007– 0.0006– 0.001– 0.001–
95, 441, 571 480–1 000 9.4–24.1 1–1.9 0.02–0.03 0.2 Cd: up to 3
scrubber 64 000 0.02 0.14 0.02 0.29
As: up to 3
Cu: up to 3
Zn: up to 2
Dust: up to 9
25, 26, 27-1, Cyclone & Ni: up to 9
30 000– 2.7–36.3 0.002– 0.00004–
28, 55, 455-1, wet 200–1 100 0.1–6 0.004–2.4 NI 0.02 NI Pb: up to 9
87 000 (2) 0.02 0.001
456 scrubber Cd: up to 9
Cu: up to 9
Dust: up to 3
29, 293, 294, Ni: 1
Cyclone & 9 300–
455, 464-1, 70–4 160 0.1–5 0.005–0.4 0.8 0.006 NI NI 0.12 18 Pb: 1
fabric filter 47 000
464-2, 464-3 Cu: 1
Zn: 1

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Dust: 1
Cyclone,
Pb: 1
Venturi
Cd: 1
54-1, 54-2 scrubber, 350 53 000 < 2.4 0.1 NI < 0.007 < 0.0003 NI 0.008 0.16
As: 1
carbon
Cu: 1
adsorption
Zn: 1
Dust: up to 3
282, 288-1, Cyclone &
21 000– 0.002– Pb: 3
288-2, 289, Venturi 250–1 660 0.1–12.8 0.002–1 NI 0.0044 0.0003 NI NI
100 000 0.008 Cd: 3
290, 291 scrubber
Cu: up to 3
Fabric filter, Dust: 12
Venturi Pb: 6
364-1 scrubber, 1 120 83 000 2.1 0.6 NI 0.02 NI 0.0008 0.02 0.6 As: 7
carbon Cu: 6
adsorption Zn: up to 6
Fabric filter
Dust: 6
432-1, 432-2 & Venturi 1 440 43 000 6.2–7.2 0.4 0.007 NI NI NI NI NI
Ni: 6
scrubber
Dust: 2
Cyclone. Ni: 1
Water Pb: 2
478 800 128 400 1.1 0.2 0.0006 0.003 0.00005 NI 0.002 0.02
injection Cd: 2
into the mill Cu: 2
Zn: 2
285-1, 285-2, 49 000–
NI 1 500 0.1–6 0.1–0.5 NI NI NI NI NI NI Dust: 1
286-1, 286-2 93 000
1
( ) Emission from Plant 136 equipped with a cyclone only.
(2) Measurement before air emissions abatement. The concentration value after abatement is 4.4 mg/Nm3.
The concentration values are the average over the three reference years.
The maximum load shown in the table is the highest load calculated for each of the reference years.
NB: NI = No information.

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Figure 3.8 shows the reported levels of dust emissions to air from mechanical treatment in
shredders of metal waste as well as the abatement techniques used.

NB: NI = No information.

Figure 3.8: Dust emissions to air from mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste

Table 3.2 below shows the heavy metal content of dust samples taken from the ground at
different locations in the shredding plant 285 from Germany. At each location several spot
samples from the area were taken to prepare one mixed (homogenized) sample, according to
VDI-Standard 2267-14 (variant C), which was then used for analysis with flame-atomic
absorption spectrometry (measurement solutions were prepared by dissolution in nitric acid and
hydrogen peroxide). For comparison the sample of the dusty SLF was also analysed (ST 2). The
analyses were conducted in order to analyse the deposition of diffuse dust emissions from
shredding activity and its possible impact on soil contamination (on-site and off-site). As can be
seen from the results below, the composition of the deposits on various locations on the
installation site are similar to the composition of the SLF, reflecting the scale and impact of the
diffuse emissions from various steps of shredding.

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Table 3.2: Heavy metal content of dust deposits at a shredding plant

Parameter (mg/kg dry matter)
Sample Origin of the dust sample
Pb Cd Zn
Yard floor opposite of
ST 1 5137 52 15730
post-treatment of SLF
SLF sample from
ST 2 5703 22 31738
Kondirator shredder
Sample from a vacuum cleaning
ST 3 vehicle used for 4787 32 13656
cleaning plant floor
Fine iron from bottom of
ST 4 3848 10 10119
the SLF heap
From the yard floor in front
ST 7 5840 21 13141
of pre-treatment unit
Dust from filter(1) from
ST 9 9006 67 27368
pre-treatment unit
1
( ) No information on abatement technique.
Source: [ 103, EEB 2017 ]

3.1.2.1.3 Volatile organic compounds (VOCs)

In general, the greatest concentrations of VOCs detected relate to those compounds associated
with petrol and diesel fuels. These include, for example, xylene isomers, toluene and light
hydrocarbons.

Gaseous organic contents in the exhaust air can be reduced to a certain extent with the
commonly used combination of cyclones and wet scrubbers.

The End-of-life Vehicles Directive (2000/53/EC) and Waste Electrical & Electronic Equipment
Directive (2012/19/EU) include specific depollution requirements to extract fuels and oils from
vehicles, refrigerants, oils, and gases from refrigerator foam. This means that the infeed of
shredders does not normally include significant amounts of fuel or refrigerants and,
consequently, VOCs are less likely to be emitted. [ 26, Mech. subgroup 2014 ]

Figure 3.9 below shows the reported emissions to air of organic compounds from mechanical
treatment in shredders of metal waste, as well as the abatement techniques used. When reported,
the standard for TOC measurements is EN 12619, for which the monitoring method is a flame
ionisation detector (FID). The reported values for TOC might therefore be considered as volatile
compounds without the solid phase (particulate).

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Figure 3.9: Emissions of organic compounds to air from mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste

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One plant located in Austria (Plant 25) reported that the level of TOC emissions was reduced by
decreasing the feeding rate of the shredder, thus allowing a better control of the waste input with
regard to its potential content of organic compounds.

3.1.2.1.4 PCB and dioxins

Shredder plants for the treatment of end-of-life vehicles are mentioned in Annex C, Part III, of
the Stockholm Convention on POPs (as amended in 2009), as one of the potential source
categories for the unintentional formation and release of PCDD/Fs and PCB.

Regarding dioxins, company tests have shown that temperatures in the shredding chamber
generally do not exceed 70 °C (although it can be higher locally). Consequently, except under
other than normal operating conditions such as deflagration, which have to be further reduced as
much as possible, the material composition of the products entering the plant is the same as that
found at the different outlets of the plant. [ 104, EuRIC 2015 ]

PCB emissions may occur because end-of-life goods in which PCB has been widely utilised in
the past are processed in shredder plants. Commercial PCB products always contained a small
quantity of dl-PCB and less PCDD/Fs, and the emissions measured can be explained by re-
emission of former used PCB.

End-of-life goods that may generate PCB emissions when processed include:

 PCB-containing capacitors and transformers;

 PCB-containing dip paints for copper windings in electric motors;
 PCB-containing parting compounds in electronic waste, e.g. coated papers, pulps and
plastics;
 metal waste with PCB-containing coatings, e.g. tables, chairs, window frames, steel
beams, support materials for sawtooth roofs.

The shredding process, including the handling of scrap and residues, generates high amounts of
dust containing pollutants such as heavy metals, PCDD/Fs and PCB, which are very susceptible
to dispersion into the environment (channelled and diffuse emissions). Table 3.3 below gives
the levels of PCDD/F and PCB emissions reported through the data collection.

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Table 3.3: PCDD/F and PCB emissions from mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste –
Periodic measurements
Number of
Main techniques periodic
Conc. Conc. Conc.
Plant Pollutant/ to measurements
Min. Average Max.
code parameter prevent/reduce over the 3-year
(ng/Nm3) (ng/Nm3) (ng/Nm3)
emissions reference
period
Activated carbon
adsorption,
Cyclonic
054_1 PCB 0.009 0.009 0.009 separation, 1
Water spraying
(dust), Venturi
scrubber system
Cyclonic
separation,
054_2 PCB 0 0 0 Water spraying 1
(dust), Venturi
scrubber system
Cyclonic
separation,
055_a PCDD/Fs 0.0048 0.0062 0.0075 Water spraying NI
(dust), Wet
scrubbing
Cyclonic
separation,
PCDD/Fs 0.013 0.015 0.018
55_b Water spraying NI
PCB 0.05 0.05 0.05
(dust), Wet
scrubbing
PCDD/Fs 0.008 0.013 0.015 Venturi scrubber 3
095
PCB 2.3 4 5.4 system 3
Cyclonic
PCDD/Fs 0.03 0.03 0.03
285_1 separation, Wet 1
dl-PCB 0.15 0.15 0.15
scrubbing
285_2 dl-PCB 0.0030 0.0030 0.0030 NI 1
Venturi scrubber
PCDD/Fs 0.0002 0.0002 0.0002 1
288_1 system, Cyclonic
PCB 2.4 2.5 2.9 3
separation
Cyclonic
separation, Wet
PCDD/Fs 0.003 0.003 0.003 1
288_2 scrubbing,
PCB 8.5 12 14 3
Venturi scrubber
system
Bag/fabric filter
system, Venturi
364_1 PCB 0.02 0.5 0.9 scrubber system, 4
Activated carbon
adsorption
Bag/fabric filter
364_2 PCB 0.3 0.3 0.5 3
system
NB: dl-PCB and PCDD/F concentration values are expressed as ng I-TEQ/Nm3.
NI = No information.

Table 3.4 shows measured PCDD/F and dioxin-like PCB emissions at three Flemish shredding
plants. These shredders have at least a cyclone filter system for dedusting the waste gases. The
waste gas flow rates are typically about 75 000 Nm3/h. All PCDD/F concentrations, except one,
were below 0.1 ng TEQ/Nm3. Concentrations of dioxin-like PCB varied significantly between
the different shredders and measurement days. Differences in waste gas cleaning and the type
and PCB content of the material being shredded during the measurements are the reasons for

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this. During the measurements, no particular correlation could be found between dust emissions
and PCDD/F or PCB emissions.
[ 26, Mech. subgroup 2014 ], [ 105, Belgium 2007 ]

Table 3.4: PCDD/F and dioxin-like PCB emissions at three Flemish shredder plants
Dioxin-like PCB
PCDD/F
Emission measurement (sum of 12)
(ng TEQ/Nm3)
(ng TEQ/Nm3)
0.0098 0.048
0.012 0.41
Shredder 1
0.0048 0.073
0.0004 0.025
0.077 0.74
Shredder 2 0.043 1.06
0.022 0.30
0.0088 0.171
Shredder 3 0.37 0.34
0.025 0.73

A Flemish study concluded that diffuse emission sources may have a major impact on the
environmental contamination, especially for dioxin-like PCB, and therefore have to be taken
into consideration for the environmental impact of the mechanical treatment in shredders of
metal waste. [ 26, Mech. subgroup 2014 ]

When high amounts of polluted dust are released via diffuse emissions this will also lead to a
significantly high emission load. An overview of the average, minimum and maximum monthly
deposition values, measured between April 2003 and April 2004 in the surroundings of four
Flemish shredder plants, is given in Table 3.5 below. The results show that the deposition levels
of PCB-126 are generally higher than the PCDD/F ones, and that there is no clear correlation
between both compounds. This could indicate that PCDD/Fs and PCB-126 have different
sources and/or pathways to the environment. [ 26, Mech. subgroup 2014 ]

Table 3.5: Result of deposition measurements near four Flemish shredder plants
PCDD/F (pg TEQ/m2 .day) PCB-126 (pg TEQ/m2 .day)
Deposition measurement
Average (Min.–Max.) Average (Min.–Max.)
Shredder 1 (gauge 1) 16 (7–25) 43 (8–102)
Shredder 1 (gauge 2) 27 (12–41) 66 (23–123)
Shredder 2 29 (11–54) 52 (17–83)
Shredder 3 29 (10–45) 137 (21–223)
Shredder 4 27 (17–34) 86 (14–142)

Later results at different Flemish and German shredder plants confirmed the connection between
scrap metal recycling activities and increased levels of dl-PCB in the surroundings.
[ 26, Mech. subgroup 2014 ]

However, although the infeed of shredder plants may occasionally contain used equipment sold
on the market before 1987, in which traces of PCB can be found, the amount of PCB entering
shredders is decreasing and it is expected that it will continue to decrease in the future.
[ 26, Mech. subgroup 2014 ]

The presence of PCB oil from electric heaters and some capacitors has been recognised as a
potential source of PCB in metal waste. The implementation of both the WEEE Directive and

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the EoLV Directive over the past 10 years has imposed depollution before shredding, and the
practice of this depollution step has been significantly expanded.
The information given above shows that the main ways to prevent PCB and dioxin emissions to
air from mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste are:
 to avoid the shredding of waste containing PCB;
 to avoid incidents/accidents such as deflagrations and fires; and
 to avoid or, where that is not practicable, to reduce diffuse emissions of dust to air.

This is done by optimising the knowledge and control of the waste input (see Section 2.3.2), and
by implementing appropriate management and abatement techniques (see Section 3.1.3.1).

3.1.2.1.5 Mercury

Mercury can arise in waste input, principally in the following material streams:

 mercury switches of some WEEE containing refrigerants such as fridges and freezers
(Figure 3.10), or of other equipment (time-relays, float switches, stair light switches);

Source: [ 26, Mech. subgroup 2014 ]

Figure 3.10: Mercury switch

 some LCD/LED flat-panel display backlights (Figure 3.11);

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Source: [ 26, Mech. subgroup 2014 ]

Figure 3.11: Mercury backlight lamp

 certain button cells, although mercury has been banned from this application in Europe
since 2000 (Figure 3.12);

Source: [ 26, Mech. subgroup 2014 ]

Figure 3.12: Mercury button cells

 gas discharge lamps;

 cold cathode fluorescent lamps (CCFL) from scanners and photocopiers.

Treatment of these waste streams is covered by the WEEE Directive which requires preliminary
strict depollution steps. Metal wastes known or suspected to contain these items are processed in
dedicated plants (see Section 5.8.2) and normally not in mixed-metal shredders.
[ 26, Mech. subgroup 2014 ]

Nevertheless, mercury can be present in emissions to air from mechanical treatment in shredders
of metal waste, as shown in Figure 3.13 below.

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Figure 3.13: Mercury emissions to air from mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste

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Just as with PCB and dioxins, the main way to prevent mercury emissions to air from
mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste is to prevent such mercury-containing wastes
from entering the process.

3.1.2.2 Emissions to water and water usage

[ 42, WT TWG 2014 ]

3.1.2.2.1 Emissions to water

Rainwater run-off is collected and drained, as is any water released by processes on site,
including water for damping down for dust suppression or process water releases. Surface water
run-off also includes those waters which percolate through the stored waste input and output.
During percolation, it is possible for the waters to leach soluble components and to suspend and
carry insoluble materials into the drainage system.

Plants have impermeable surfaces composed of concrete paving, which drain via grit traps or
settlement tanks to oil-water interceptors and then to a discharge point.

The objectives are to reduce the quantity of any water to be discharged from the plant, and to
reduce the degree to which this water is exposed to potential contaminants.

Where not reused, waste water is preferably discharged to a sewer. Only where locations or
other engineering constraints prevent connection to a sewer, the waste waters are discharged
directly to the receiving water body [ 26, Mech. subgroup 2014 ]

Table 3.6 below summarises the levels of emissions to water reported through the data
collection. It should be read together with Table 3.7 which gives an indication of the applied
techniques and the origin of the emissions to water.

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Table 3.6: Reported emissions to water from mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste
Number of measurements
Parameter Range during the 3-year
Monitoring Plants concerned
measured (mg/l except for pH and flow) reference period
(2010–2012)
Continuous 54, 441, 478, 6.8–13 NA
Flow (m3/h) 24-hour flow-proportional composite sample 95, 455 9.7–36.9 NA
Estimated 364-365 7 NA
24-hour flow-proportional composite sample 455 8.2–8.4 NA
Composite sample 54, 136 7.5-8.2 3–22
pH
95, 137, 282, 289, 293, 364-365,
Grab sample 6.5–8.1 1–12
441, 464, 478, 571
24-hour flow-proportional composite sample 455 210–298 NA
COD Composite sample 54, 136 59–174 3–35
Grab sample 137, 364-365, 441, 478, 571 38–697 1–10
TOC Grab sample 289, 293, 478 8.4–112 4–13
24-hour flow-proportional composite sample 455 35–98 NA
BOD5 Composite sample 54, 136 5.2-38 NA
Grab sample 137, 293, 441, 571 16–280 1–10
Total N Grab sample 293. 441, 478 5.4–51 4–7
Total P Grab sample 293, 364-365, 441, 571 0.9–5.7 6–8
24-hour flow-proportional composite sample 455, 456 17–129 NA

TSS Composite sample 54, 136 9-41 3–32

Grab sample 137, 282, 293, 364-365, 441, 464, 478, 571 0.1–49 1–10
Composite sample 136 3.3 3
THC
Grab sample 28, 137, 282, 364-365, 441, 464, 478 0.2–8.7 3–7
HOI Grab sample 441, 478 1.1–9.5 10–11
Composite sample 136 0.002 1
PAHs
Grab sample 137 0.000004 1
24-hour flow-proportional composite sample 455 0.005–0.006 NA
Cd Composite sample 54 0.002 19
Grab sample 95, 282, 293, 364-365, 478, 571 0.0008–0.05 1–13
24-hour flow-proportional composite sample 455 0.00007–0.002 NA
Hg Composite sample 54 0.00007 19
Grab sample 95, 364-365, 478, 571 0.0001–0.004 1–13
As 24-hour flow-proportional composite sample 455 0.005 NA

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Composite sample 54 0.001 17

Grab sample 137, 364-365, 478, 571 0.001–0.01 1–13
24-hour flow-proportional composite sample 455, 456 0.06–0.3 NA
Composite sample 54, 136 0.04-0.1 3–31
Pb
28, 95, 137, 282, 289, 293, 364-365, 478,
Grab sample 0.01–0.3 1–13
571
24-hour flow-proportional composite sample 455, 456 0.02–0.03 NA
Cr Composite sample 54 0.0008 14
Grab sample 95, 137, 282, 293, 364-365, 478, 571 0.005–0.13 1–13
24-hour flow-proportional composite sample 455 0.05 NA
Cr(VI)
Grab sample 571 0.01 1
24-hour flow-proportional composite sample 455, 456 0.1–0.2 NA
Composite sample 54, 136 0.07-0.1 3–32
Cu
28, 95, 137, 282, 293, 364-365, 441, 478,
Grab sample 0.04–0.4 1–13
571
24-hour flow-proportional composite sample 455 0.11–0.14 NA
Mn Composite sample 136 0.2 3
Grab sample 137, 364-365 0.006–0.1 1–6
24-hour flow-proportional composite sample 455, 456 0.01–0.03 NA
Ni Composite sample 54, 136 0.009-0.02 2–31
Grab sample 95, 137, 282, 293, 364-365, 478 0.00001-0.09 1–13
V Grab sample 478 0.008 2
24-hour flow-proportional composite sample 455, 456 0.6–1.5 NA
Composite sample 54, 136 0.2-0.6 3–31
Zn
28, 95, 137, 289, 282, 293, 364-365, 464,
Grab sample 0.00007–2.2 1–13
478, 571
24-hour flow-proportional composite sample 455, 456 0.8–7.6 NA
Fe
Grab sample 282, 464, 441 1.4–2.4 6–12
Composite sample 54 0 3
PCB
Grab sample 478 0.02 6
Chlorine Grab sample 478 109 9
AOX Composite sample 28, 54, 137, 282, 289 < 0.2 2–12
EOX Grab sample 478 0.01 2
BTEX Grab sample 478 0.02 2
Surfactant Grab sample 571 0.1 1
NB: Plant 455 reported emission levels as a daily average. Averaging period not indicated for Plant 456.
NA = Not applicable.

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Table 3.7: Mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste – Techniques used, origin of
emissions to water and type of discharge
Origin of
Plant
Techniques used emissions to Type of discharge
code
water
25 NI NI NI
26 NI NI NI
27 NI NI NI
Whole plant,
Indirect discharge (off-site
28 NI including run-off
common WWT facilities)
water
29 NA No emissions NA
30 NI NI NI
Buffer tanks
Indirect discharge (off-site
54 Sand filtration Whole plant
common WWT facilities)
Biological treatment
Decantation
Water treatment Direct discharge via the on-site
55 Absorption
on the scrap yard common WWT facilities
Sand filtration
Indirect discharge (off-site
95 API oil-water separator system Run-off water
common WWT facilities)
100 NA No emissions NA
Buffer tanks
Direct discharge via the on-site
136 Decantation Run-off water
common WWT facilities
Parallel plate interceptor system
Decantation
137 Shredding plant NI
Filtration
Retention basin with integrated
Indirect discharge
282 sludge trap Run-off water
(urban/municipal sewer system)
Coalescence separator
Indirect discharge
285 NI Run-off water
(urban/municipal sewer system)
Indirect discharge
286 NI Run-off water
(urban/municipal sewer system)
Sieving (sludge trap) Indirect discharge
288 Run-off water
Oil separation (urban/municipal sewer system)
Sieving (sludge trap) Indirect discharge
289 Run-off water
Oil separation (urban/municipal sewer system)
Sieving (sludge trap) Indirect discharge
290 Run-off water
Oil separation (urban/municipal sewer system)
Sieving (sludge trap) Indirect discharge
291 Run-off water
Oil separation (urban/municipal sewer system)
Coalescence separator with Indirect discharge
293 Run-off water
integrated sludge trap (urban/municipal sewer system)
294 Sedimentation (ponds) NI NI
Chemical oxidation
Chemical precipitation
Chemical reduction Indirect discharge
364 Whole plant
Coagulation (urban/municipal sewer system)
Decantation
Filtration
432 NI Shredding plant NI
Sedimentation (ponds) Direct discharge via the on-site
441 Whole plant
API oil-water separator system common WWT facilities
Decantation Storage and Indirect discharge
455
Oil separation common steps (urban/municipal sewer system)
Decantation Storage and Indirect discharge
456
Oil separation common steps (urban/municipal sewer system)
Decantation Direct discharge via the on-site
464 Storage
Oil separation common WWT facilities

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Sedimentation (ponds) Direct discharge via the on-site

478 Shredding plant
API oil-water separator system common WWT facilities
516 NI NI NI
517 NI NI NI
Decantation
Run-off water
Flotation Indirect discharge (off-site
571 from the open air
Press filtering common WWT facilities)
storage
Hydrocarbon separation
NB: NI = No information.
NA = Not applicable.

Of the 31 plants that participated in the data collection, five (Plants 55, 136, 441, 464 and 478)
reported discharging directly to the environment. With the exception of Plant 364 (indirect
discharge to an urban/municipal sewer system), the reported implemented techniques aim to
abate particulates (TSS) and hydrocarbons (oil).

Three plants (Plants 55, 136 and 464) indicated that the origin of emissions to water is
rainwater, two (Plants 441 and 478) indicated that the origin of emissions to water is the whole
installation.

Table 3.8 below presents the reported concentration values for emissions to water directly
discharged to the environment.

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Table 3.8: Mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste – Direct discharge to water
Origin of emissions to water
Rainwater Whole plant
Parameter (mg/l)
Plant 136 Plant 464 (1) Plant 441 Plant 478

TSS 41 74 42 19.6
BOD5 38 NI 18.4 NI
COD 174 NI 105.8 328
TOC NI NI NI 95.9
THC 3.3 3.9 8.7 0.2
HOI NI NI 9.5 1.1
PAHs 0.0023 NI NI NI
Total N NI NI 5.4 7.23
Total P NI NI 0.975 NI
Cd NI NI NI 0.00083
Hg 0.0005 NI NI 0.00013
Sb NI NI NI 0.003
As NI NI NI 0.002
Pb 0.13 NI NI 0.03
Cr NI NI NI 0.0063
Cr(VI) NI NI NI NI
Cu 0.073 NI 0.22 0.053
Ni 0.009 NI NI 0.02
Zn 0.6 0.8 NI 0.5
Fe NI 3 2 NI
(1) The figures are the maximum reported values (average over the three reference years) of the three release points
indicated in the questionnaire.
NB: No data were provided by Plant 55.
NI = No information.

3.1.2.2.2 Water usage

Metal waste shredders do not use much water, and many facilities run without water. However,
water may be used for injection into the mill or for wet scrubbing. Then it is commonly reused
in a closed circuit after cleaning. The input of fresh water is limited to water added to make up
for losses due to evaporation or water remaining in the sludge tank. The use of newer methods,
such as the addition of a foaming agent to the mill injection, reduces the quantity of water used.
[ 26, Mech. subgroup 2014 ]

The reported amount of water used in semi-wet or wet shredder systems (either water injected
into the mill or used for the wet (Venturi) scrubber) is 1–10 litres per tonne of waste treated.

3.1.2.3 Noise and vibration

The operation of shredder plants results in noise emissions, caused by the machinery and
material-handling technology, as well as by the delivery of the shredder feed and the
transportation of the output.

Monitoring has been carried out in some Member States of both shredder operational/processing
levels and idle, non-processing levels, and levels associated with the plant when the mill was

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shut down. Such information indicates that the mill is the main source of noise on the site even
though the other operations contribute significantly to the plant noise.

3.1.2.4 Consumption of energy

The energy input in the form of electrical power depends directly on the rotor power and the
types of processes and technologies used. It is thus very specific to each individual case and is
only comparable to a limited extent. Gross monitoring and reporting of total consumption may
be undertaken for cost purposes, and, for example, the rate at which the mill draws current on
site may be monitored, but it is not always recorded.

There is limited detailed monitoring/metering by shredder operators of the power they use to
run the plants, though the Bureau of International Recycling, the world federation of the
recycling industry, has begun Shredder Energy Efficiency Benchmarking.

Manufacturer information suggests the power use estimates are based upon the size (infeed and
mill box size) and power rating of the mill and its production capacity. A 2 200 kW (3000 hp)
metal waste shredder could process around 100–130 tonnes/hour; therefore, the power usage
would be in the order of 17–22 kWh per tonne. This would produce 70–90 tonnes of ferrous
product per hour. The actual use of power varies on a day-to-day basis and depending on the
material. The average power consumption is around 27.2 kWh/t, with a range of 17–47 kWh/t. [
[ 26, Mech. subgroup 2014 ]

According to the data collection, the average specific power consumption (electricity) is around
30 kWh/t, with a range of 7–60 kWh/t.

3.1.3 Techniques to consider in the determination of BAT

3.1.3.1 Techniques for the prevention or reduction of emissions to air

3.1.3.1.1 Abatement of waste gases using cyclone, Venturi scrubber and bag filter
in combination or alone

Description
The equipment units used in the shredding plant (i.e. mill, density separator, conveyors) are
enclosed and connected by pipes. Exhaust air is collected from the mill and the density
separator, and treated before release in order to reduce dust and particle-bound metal PCDD/F
and dioxin-like PCB emissions.

Technical description
There are different types of air collection and treatment system depending on the type of
shedder. Some techniques or combinations of techniques are described below:

 shredder system with single cyclone;

 shredder system with cyclone(s), Venturi scrubber and one air exhaust;
 shredder system with cyclone, bag filter and single air exhaust;
 shredder system with two cyclones (one collecting the offtake from the mill, the other
collecting the flow from the downstream density separator), fabric/bag filter and one air
exhaust;
 shredder system with Venturi scrubber;
 shredder system with cyclone(s), Venturi scrubber, bag filter and two exhausts;
 shredder system with water injection into the mill and cyclone(s) and/or a wet scrubber.

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In all types of systems, the air-classified materials (shredder light fraction) are discharged from
cyclones/plenums via rotary valves onto covered belt conveyors, which carry the material to the
bunker, bin, truck or rail car.

The technical descriptions of each individual technique for dust abatement, e.g. cyclone, Venturi
scrubber and fabric filter, are given in Section 2.3.4.

The abatement system can be interlocked with the plant operation, so that the plant cannot
operate unless the abatement system is working.

Achieved environmental benefits

The achieved environmental benefits of these techniques include:

 reduction of dust and metal emissions to air;

 improvement of the recycling rate by removing the shredder light fraction (SLF) from the
desired shredded material.

Deflagrations may occur in a large shredder plant. In addition to the exhaust air dedusting and to
the separation of the SLF from the shredded materials, a wet scrubber technique has the
important advantage that it can withstand shockwaves of up to 3 bars in case of deflagrations.
[ 26, Mech. subgroup 2014 ]

Water injection into the shredder box does not itself prevent deflagration in shredders, but can
suppress deflagrations.

Environmental performance and operational data

See Table 3.9.

Examples of four types of shredder systems are given below.

 Shredder system with single cyclone: collection of the offtake from the mill and the air
flow from the downstream material windsifter to a single cyclone and a single clean air
exhaust (see Figure 3.14). This system is mostly found in old non-retrofitted plants, and
generally shows low abatement efficiency. Indeed, the main use of cyclones is in
principle preliminary separation of coarse dust.

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(1) Shredder chamber

(6) Rotary valve
(2) Vibrating conveyor
(7) Ventilator
(3) Conveyor
(8) Flap
(4) Density separator
(9) Treated air exhaust
(5) Cyclone
Source: [ 26, Mech. subgroup 2014 ]

Figure 3.14: Shredder system with single cyclone

 Shredder system with two cyclones, Venturi scrubber and single exhaust: collection of
the offtake from the mill and the air flow from the downstream material windsifter to two
cyclones/plenums before directing air to a Venturi scrubber and a single clean air exhaust
(see Figure 3.15).

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(1) Shredder chamber tank (6) Rotary valve (11) Sludge tank
(2) Vibrating conveyor (7) Water injection (12) Exhaust fan
(3) Conveyor (8) Venturi tubes (14) Ventilator
(4) Density separator (9) Droplet separator (15) Flap
(5) Cyclone exhaust (10) Settling tank (18) Clean air exhaust
Source: [ 26, Mech. subgroup 2014 ]
Figure 3.15: Shredder system with two cyclones, Venturi scrubber and single exhaust

 Shredder system with two cyclones, Venturi scrubber, bag filter and two exhausts:
collection of the offtake from the mill to a cyclone/plenum and then to a Venturi
scrubber, and collection of the air flow from the downstream windsifter to a separate
cyclone followed by a bag filter; then two clean air exhausts (see Figure 3.16).

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(1) Shredder chamber (5) Cyclone (16) Bag filter

(2) Vibrating conveyor (6) (17) Dust rotary valve (18) Exhaust ventilator
(3) Conveyor (14) Ventilator (19) Clean air exhaust
(4) Density separator (15) Flap
Source: [ 26, Mech. subgroup 2014 ]
Figure 3.16: Shredder system with two cyclones, Venturi scrubber, bag filter and two exhausts

The dust-laden air is pre-cleaned in a cyclone (5) before being reprocessed in a Venturi scrubber
(A  B). The air from the windsifter is pre-cleaned in another cyclone (5) before being
reprocessed in a bag filter (16).

Much of the pre-cleaned air from the second cyclone is returned to the air classifier (drum or
cascade) by an air-recycling fan (14).

In the scrubber, the dust content of the exhaust air at the outlet of the cyclone is reduced to the
prescribed value. This process is carried out by injection of water in the Venturi neck (see (7) in
Figure 3.15) wherein the water is transformed into fine droplets, which absorb the particles of
dust.

The polluted water is directed into a settling tank (see (10) in Figure 3.15), in order to be
purified. While purified cleaning water is returned to a Venturi pump, solids are discharged into
containers on a conveyor rake (dredge mud).

Apart from Venturi scrubbers, other techniques (e.g. ring scrubbers) can be used for wet dust
separation in large shredder plants. A common feature is their robustness and their ability to
resist pressure shocks.

 Shredder system with water injection into the mill: there is no air extraction from the mill
– the preliminary dust suppression in the shredder box is achieved by water mist sprays.
The airflow that contains residual dust can then be treated using cyclone(s) or a Venturi
scrubber. The injected water is mainly captured by the shredder light fraction (see Figure
3.17).

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Source: [ 26, Mech. subgroup 2014 ]

Figure 3.17: Shredder system with water injection into the mill

Source: [ 26, Mech. subgroup 2014 ]

Figure 3.18: Water injection into the shredder mill

The waste to be shredded is damped by injecting water into the shredder (Figure 3.18). The
amount of water injected is regulated in relation to the amount of waste being shredded (which
may be monitored via the energy consumed by the shredder motor). Downstream windsifter
separation is not affected if the water mist is properly controlled. The air system works without
filter systems, and the dust is separated from the air stream with cyclone(s) and/or a wet
scrubber.

In the winter period in northern Europe, the material can be wet enough (from snow, ice and
rain) that no extra water needs to be injected into the shredder.

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In some countries, the heating of certain components, such as the air locks and water injection
piping, may be necessary.

According to the data collection, it seems that the implementation of the types of shredder
systems described above is linked to the age of the plant. There are few examples of plants in
Europe fitted with a shredder system with water injection into the mill (only one plant located in
Sweden in the data collection). Figure 3.19 below shows the relationship between dust
emissions and plant age.

Figure 3.19: Mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste – Relationship between plant age
and dust emissions to air

The dust emission levels can be seen as an indicator for all other emissions since all essential
emissions are directly connected to dust. With the reduction of dust, other emissions,
particularly metal emissions, are simultaneously reduced. Therefore, an efficient dust abatement
system also reduces metal emissions to air. Table 3.9 and Table 3.10 below show the
environmental performance of mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste, in terms of
dust, lead and copper emissions to air.

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Table 3.9: Environmental performance of mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste (dust emissions to air)
Number of measurements
Conc. Min. Conc. Average Conc. Max. Main techniques to prevent/ during the 3-year
Plant code Type of measurement
(mg/Nm3) (mg/Nm3) (mg/Nm3) reduce emissions reference period
(2010-2012)
Cyclonic separation
025 4.50 7.59 9.90 Periodic 9
Wet scrubbing
Cyclonic separation
026 2.00 2.73 3.40 Periodic 9
Wet scrubbing
Cyclonic separation
027_1 3.00 3.00 3.00 Periodic 1
Wet scrubbing
Cyclonic separation
027_2 < 0.1 < 0.1 0.10 Periodic 1
Dry scrubbing
Cyclonic separation
028_2 4.40 4.40 4.40 Periodic 1
Wet scrubbing
Bag/fabric filter system
029 2.40 2.40 2.40 Periodic 1
Cyclonic separation
Activated carbon adsorption
Cyclonic separation
054_1 2.40 2.40 2.40 Periodic 1
Water spraying (dust)
Venturi scrubber system
Cyclonic separation
054_2 0.00 0.00 0.00 Water spraying (dust) Periodic 1
Venturi scrubber system
Cyclonic separation
055_a 3.40 3.40 3.40 Water spraying (dust) NI NI
Wet scrubbing
Cyclonic separation
055_b 3.50 3.50 3.50 Water spraying (dust) NI NI
Wet scrubbing
Cyclonic separation
282C 5.80 5.80 5.80 Venturi scrubber system Periodic 1
Water spraying (dust)
Cyclonic separation
285C_1 2.00 2.00 2.00 Periodic 1
Wet scrubbing
285C_2 2.00 2.00 2.00 NI Periodic 1
286C_1 6.00 6.00 6.00 NI Periodic 1
286C_2 1.00 1.00 1.00 NI Periodic 1
Venturi scrubber system
288C_1 0.10 0.10 0.10 Periodic 3
Cyclonic separation

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Cyclonic separation
288C_2 1.20 2.43 4.60 Wet scrubbing Periodic 3
Venturi scrubber system
Cyclonic separation
290C 0.80 0.92 1.04 Periodic 3
Venturi scrubber system
Cyclonic separation
291C 2.00 3.37 4.60 Periodic 3
Venturi scrubber system
Cyclonic separation
293C 4.20 4.20 4.20 Bag/fabric filter system Periodic 1
Water spraying (dust)
Cyclonic separation
294C 0.10 0.10 0.10 Bag/fabric filter system Periodic 1
Water spraying (dust)
316 0.30 0.40 0.50 Bag/fabric filter system Periodic 1
Bag/fabric filter system
364_365_1 0.30 2.09 6.10 Venturi scrubber system Periodic 12
Activated carbon adsorption
364_365_2 0.12 1.12 3.44 Bag/fabric filter system Periodic 9
Venturi scrubber system
432_1 2.53 7.17 9.95 Periodic 6
Bag/fabric filter system
Venturi scrubber system
432_2 1.10 6.21 9.95 Periodic 6
Bag/fabric filter system
Cyclonic separation
455_2 5.00 5.00 5.00 Periodic 3
Bag/fabric filter system
Cyclonic separation
456 2.80 2.80 2.80 Periodic 1
Wet scrubbing
Cyclonic separation
464_1 0.85 0.85 0.85 Periodic 1
Bag/fabric filter system
Cyclonic separation
464_2 1.20 1.20 1.20 Periodic 3
Bag/fabric filter system
Cyclonic separation
464_3 1.00 1.00 1.00 Periodic 1
Bag/fabric filter system
464_4 2.01 2.01 2.01 Bag/fabric filter system Periodic 1
464_5 9.60 9.60 9.60 Cyclonic separation Periodic 2
478 0.40 1.05 1.70 Cyclonic separation Periodic 2
NB: NI = No information.

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Table 3.10: Environmental performance of mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste

(dust, Pb and Cu emissions to air)
Number of
Exhaust Average dust measurements
Type of Average Pb Average Cu
Capacity air flow concentration during the 3-
shredder concentration concentration
(t/day) rate (mg/Nm3) year reference
system (mg/Nm3) (mg/Nm3)
(Nm3/h) period (2010-
2012)
Type 1
(single 80 12 000 9.6 NI NI Dust: 1
cyclone)
Type 2
Dust: up to 12
(cyclone, 220– 16 000–
0.1–10.4 < 0.0002–0.02 0.008–0.02 Pb: up to 9
Venturi 1 100 106 000
Cu: up to 9
scrubber)
Type 3
(cyclone,
Dust: up to 9
Venturi 9 000–
70 (1) 0.1–5 0.002–0.2 0.003–0.12 Pb: up to 9
scrubber 83 000
Cu: up to 9
and bag
filter)
Type 4
(water Dust: 2
injection 800 128 400 1.1 0.003 0.002 Pb: 2
into the Cu: 2
mill)
(1) Only one plant (Plant 29) indicated the daily capacity.
NB:
Type 1: 464-5.
Types 2: 25, 26, 27, 28, 54, 55, 95, 282, 285, 288, 290, 291, 441, 455-1, 456, 464-3.
Type 3: 29, 293, 294, 364, 455-2, 464-1, 464-2, 464-4
Type 4: 478.
NI = No information.

Bag filters are usually found in newer shredder plants with separate exhaust air flows for the
rotor and separator cycle and the appropriate separation technology (e.g. air classification).

Venturi scrubbers are established and field-tested technologies.

Scrubbers/wet systems are usually employed as a separation step. In general, these wet dust
separation technologies are tested and suitable for large shredder plants.

The used cleaning water from the wet scrubber can be recycled after conditioning with a drum
screen and mud dredge.

Cross-media effects
 Water usage when water is injected into the mill.
 Depending on local conditions (e.g. winter period in northern countries), energy
consumption for heating water injection piping.
 Mud can be generated when the water injection is not properly controlled.
 Thorough separation increases the amount of dust (bag filter) and slurry (wet scrubber)
for disposal and incineration.

Technical considerations relevant to applicability

A fabric filter may not be applicable to exhaust air ducts directly connected to the shredder
when the effects of deflagration on the fabric filter cannot be mitigated (e.g. by using pressure
relief valves).

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Shredder systems with water injection into the shredder may not be applicable due to local
conditions (e.g. low temperature in winter in northern countries, or drought in summer in
southern countries).

Economics
Investment costs depend on the technique, but a cyclone and scrubber, with all facilities, costs
EUR 1 000 000.

Operation and maintenance costs depend on the throughput, size and water usage, and vary
between EUR 350 000 and EUR 500 000 a year.

Driving force for implementation

Environmental legislation.

Example plants
See Table 3.9.

Reference literature
[ 26, Mech. subgroup 2014 ], [ 42, WT TWG 2014 ]

3.1.3.1.2 Ultrafiltration

Description
Injection of activated carbon and ultrafiltration.

Technical description
The principle of such an automated filtration system originated for use in paint shops and
comprises cells with PTFE membrane filtration, with prior absorption of PCBs and VOCs by a
porous additive. The additive prevents the VOCs and PCBs from reaching the membrane.
Nevertheless, the surface of the membrane is required to capture residual chemicals. The
additive is regenerated in a fluidised bed and, when no longer suitable to be returned to the
system, captured in big bags for disposal or energy recovery. This system is compatible with the
first cyclone flow. Six cells would be necessary to handle an airflow of some 60 000 m3/h.

Figure 3.20 below shows an example of ultrafiltration technique.

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Source: [ 106, Keller 2014 ]

Figure 3.20: Example of ultrafiltration

Achieved environmental benefits

The achieved environmental benefits of this technique include:
 reduction of volatile organic compound emissions to air;
 reduction of PCB emissions to air.

Environmental performance and operational data

This technology is used in one shredder only, located in Belgium. [ 107, Mech. subgroup 2014 ]

Emissions reported by Plant 54 in 2010 are the following regarding dust and PCB:
 dust: 2.4 mg/Nm3;
 PCB: 0.0093 ng/Nm3.

Cross-media effects
No information provided.

Technical considerations relevant to applicability

Activated carbon tends to auto-ignite at certain temperatures.

Economics
The operational cost of this technique is less than EUR 1 per tonne of processed scrap [BE -
plant 54].

The ultrafiltration increases production costs by 3–5 % [ 26, Mech. subgroup 2014 ].

Driving force for implementation

Environmental legislation regarding PCB (airborne or deposited).

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Example plants
Plant 54.

Reference literature
[ 26, Mech. subgroup 2014 ], [ 42, WT TWG 2014 ]

3.1.3.1.3 Prevention or reduction of diffuse emissions

3.1.3.1.3.1 Specific acceptance procedure

Description
Generic techniques to prevent diffuse emissions are described in Section 2.3.5. Specific
acceptance procedures are implemented for the mechanical treatment in shredders of metal
waste.

Technical description
The procedures include:
 performing a detailed inspection of baled waste before shredding;
 removing dangerous items from the waste input stream (e.g. gas cylinders, non-
depolluted EoLVs, non-depolluted WEEE, items contaminated with PCBs or mercury,
radioactive items) and disposing of them safely;
 treating containers only when accompanied by a declaration of cleanliness.

Achieved environmental benefits

The achieved environmental benefits of this technique include the prevention of diffuse
emissions due to accidents and incidents.

Environmental performance and operational data

No information provided.

Cross-media effects
None identified.

Technical considerations relevant to applicability

Generally applicable.

Economics
No information provided.

Driving force to implementation

Safety of the process equipment and workers, as well as legislative requirements and permit
requirements.

Example plants
No information provided.

Reference literature
[ 21, WT TWG 2016 ]

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3.1.3.1.3.2 Pressure relief dampers

Description
Pressure relief dampers are installed to relieve pressure waves coming from deflagrations that
would otherwise cause major damage and subsequent emissions.

Technical description
In the event of a deflagration, the pressure relief dampers release the pressure. In some cases,
they are equipped with rubber flaps that help avoid the leakage of air during normal operating
conditions.

Pressure relief devices, e.g. on side walls or on the roof, can minimise openings in the building
which lead to the release of diffuse emissions.

Figure 3.21 below shows an example of pressure relief dampers at a shredding plant.

Source: [ 26, Mech. subgroup 2014 ]

Figure 3.21: Bird's-eye view of pressure relief dampers at a shredding plant

Achieved environmental benefits

Reduction of diffuse emissions.

Environmental performance and operational data

For pipes, the area for pressure relief dampers is generally calculated as 10 % of the volume of
the pipe (e.g. for a pipe with a volume of 10 m3, an area of 1 m2 for the pressure relief damper is
appropriate).

Cross-media effects
No information provided.

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Technical considerations relevant to applicability

Generally applicable.

Economics
No information provided.

Driving force for implementation

Protection of the assets.

Example plants
No information provided.

Reference literature
[ 26, Mech. subgroup 2014 ]

3.1.3.1.3.3 Deflagration management plan

Description
Implementation of a deflagration management plan, as part of the accident management plan
(see Section 2.3.13 2.3.1.1).

Technical description
A deflagration management plan includes:
 a protocol for response to deflagration incidents;
 a deflagration reduction programme designed to identify the source(s), and to implement
measures to prevent deflagration occurrences (e.g. inspection of waste input and removal
of dangerous items (see Section 3.1.3.1.3.1));
 a review of historical deflagration incidents and remedies, and the dissemination of
deflagration knowledge.

Achieved environmental benefits

The environmental benefits of this technique include:
 the prevention of deflagrations;
 the reduction of diffuse emissions when deflagrations occur (e.g. dust, VOCs, PCB and
dioxins if present).

Environmental performance and operational data

Deflagrations are mostly caused by closed containers such as gas bottles or fuel tanks that go
undetected from delivery, and subsequently undetected with the infeed into the shredder unit.
The reported number of deflagrations at shredding plants participating in the data collection is
given in Table 3.11 below.

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Table 3.11: Mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste – Number of deflagrations per year
Plant Number of deflagrations
code 2010 2011 2012
25 14 14 4
26 8 16 4
27 NI 70 47
28 NI NI 9
29 0 0 0
54 0 0 0
95 NI 21 53
100 0 0 0
136 0 0 0
137 0 0 0
285 11 12 10
286 10 14 13
288 0 0 0
289 0 0 0
290 0 0 0
291 0 1 0
293 NI 42 43
294 22 6 4
364-365 0 0 0
432 NI 0 0
464 0 0 0
516 (1) 60 30 220 (2)
517 (1) 50 NI NI
571 NI NI 0
(1) Calculated on the basis of the reported number of deflagrations/tonnes
of waste, and the reported waste input quantities.
(2) A specific receiving inspection process has been implemented in this
plant, allowing the ratio to be decreased to 2.5 deflagrations/10 000
tonnes of waste treated in 2014.
NB: NI = No information.

With the exception of Plant 516 in 2012, the number of deflagrations per year goes up to 70. As
a maximum, the number of deflagrations per 10 000 tonnes of waste treated is around 2.5.

Three plants (Plants 25, 28 and 516) reported that focusing on the receiving inspection of waste
input, recording deflagrations and identifying their origin has improved deflagration figures (in
2013 for Plant 516).

Cross-media effects
No information provided.

Technical considerations relevant to applicability

Generally applicable.

Economics
No information provided.

Driving force for implementation

Protection of the assets.

Example plants
Plants 29, 25, 28, 364, 516 and 571.

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Reference literature
[ 26, Mech. subgroup 2014 ], [ 42, WT TWG 2014 ]

3.1.3.1.3.4 Pre-shredding

Description
Use of a shredder which operates at a low speed, installed upstream of the main shredder.

Technical description
A pre-shredder or ripper (see Figure 3.2) is a slow-running machine installed upstream of the
main shredder. The pre-shredder rips up the material fed into the shredder thus ensuring a
maximum size for the input materials.

Achieved environmental benefits

The achieved environmental benefits of this technique include the prevention of deflagrations
and subsequent diffuse emissions to air.

Environmental performance and operational data

Plants 29, 364 and 571 reported being equipped with a pre-shredder. According to the
questionnaires, no deflagrations occurred in these plants (see Table 3.11). It should be noted that
Plant 571 was commissioned in 2012, and that the pre-shredder was installed in 2013 in Plant
364.

Cross-media effect
Energy consumption of the pre-shredder.

Technical considerations relevant to applicability

This technique is generally applicable for new plants, depending on the input material.

It is applicable for major plant upgrades where a significant number of deflagrations have been
substantiated.

Economics
No information provided.

Driving force for implementation

Protection of the assets.

Example plants
Plants 29, 364 and 571

Reference literature
[ 26, Mech. subgroup 2014 ], [ 42, WT TWG 2014 ]

3.1.3.2 Techniques for the prevention and control of noise and vibration
emissions

3.1.3.2.1 Vibration management plan

Description
Implementation of a vibration management plan, as part of the environmental management
system (EMS) (see Section 2.3.1.1 and Section 2.3.10.1).

Technical description
A vibration management plan includes:

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 a protocol containing appropriate actions and timelines;

 a protocol for conducting vibration monitoring;
 a protocol for response to identified vibration incidents;
 a vibration reduction programme designed to identify the source(s), to measure vibration
emissions, to measure/estimate vibration exposure, to characterise the contributions of the
sources and to implement elimination and/or reduction measures (dampening adjustment
and resonance assessment);
 a review of historical vibration incidents and remedies and the dissemination of vibration
incident knowledge.

Achieved environmental benefits

Prevention and reduction of vibration emissions.

Environmental performance and operational data

Shredder plants install isolation elements (see Figure 3.22) that are adapted to their individual
fields of use and conditions to prevent major vibrations from the operation of the plant.

Source: [ 26, Mech. subgroup 2014 ] ,

Figure 3.22: Isolation elements (circled) for vibration reduction

During loading and discharging of primary materials and finished goods, vibrations are
detectable, but these are locally confined to the point of impact where the bulk material hits the
ground plate.

Cross-media effects
No information provided.

Technical considerations relevant to applicability

The applicability is restricted to cases where a vibration nuisance in sensitive areas is expected
and/or has been reported.

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Economics
For a 5 000 hp shredder, the costs associated with installing and maintaining vibration isolation
elements represent approximately EUR 50 000 every five years, not including downtime/lost
production time.[ 21, WT TWG 2016 ]

Driving force for implementation

Environmental legislation.

Example plants
Of 329 reference plants, 69 reported having a noise and vibration management plan. Half of
these plants carried out multiple waste treatment activities on site.

Reference literature
[ 26, Mech. subgroup 2014 ]

3.1.3.2.2 Noise barriers

Description
Placement of noise barriers (non-reflective acoustic walls) between the source and the receptor.

Technical description
A shredder mill generates noise, the permissible levels of which are often stipulated in the
permit for the operation. The main mitigation/attenuation measures for noise are distance,
screening, and the use of noise barriers. It is important to consider all kinds of noise sources,
including handling of the material, loading and unloading, the shredder itself, noise from fans,
deflagrations, etc.

Noise barriers in the form of the housing, soundproof walls, splitter silencers, etc. may be
necessary in order to reduce noise levels (see examples in Figure 3.23 and Figure 3.24). A
closed design of the shredder mill is efficient for noise reduction.

Another alternative is to place screens between the site and sensitive receptors. These are made
of a non-reflective material, located as close to the installation as possible, and of sufficient
height to shield the operations. There are examples of this type of screening located along the
entire length of shredders and enclosing whole metal recycling yards in order to control and
mitigate noise levels.

Source: [ 26, Mech. subgroup 2014 ]

Figure 3.23: Protective screening at the Schrott-Bosch GmbH shredder, Germany

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Source: [ 26, Mech. subgroup 2014 ]

Figure 3.24: Splitter silencers at the roof of a shredding plant

Environmental performance and operational data

Local screening and localised noise barriers placed around particular activities or processes
allow significant noise reductions to be achieved. With the use of the appropriate noise-
absorbing materials, the reduction could be up to 5–10 dB on the screened side.

Technical considerations relevant to applicability

Total enclosure of mixed scrap shredder plants is designed in order to take into account possible
deflagrations (e.g. by means of pressure relief control).

Achieved environmental benefits

Reduction of noise emissions.

Cross-media effects
No information provided.

Economics
The cost of noise barriers is approximately EUR 15 per m2.

Driving force for implementation

Environmental legislation.

Example plants
The following plants reported using noise barriers: 54, 55, 100, 137, 282, 288, 289, 290, 291,
294, 364_365, 455 and 456.

Reference literature
[ 26, Mech. subgroup 2014 ]

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3.1.3.3 Techniques to reduce energy consumption

3.1.3.3.1 Shredder feed control

Description
The shredder feed is equalised by avoiding disruption or overload of the waste feed which
would lead to unwanted shutdowns and start-ups of the shredder.

Technical description
The key to controlling and minimising the power usage relates to the shredding operation. The
process requires that the mill chamber/box is full and the feed is consistent. The mill under these
circumstances would pull a consistent current. If the feed varies greatly in density or size then
the rotor will slow down during heavy loading and speed up during light loading.

In the situation of periodic heavy loading, the rotor slows, losing momentum due to the greater
resistance of the material. This requires more power from the motor to increase the rotor speed
and replace the lost momentum. The efficiency of the mill is also reduced when it is left running
empty, or when the load rate falls below the optimum.

Achieved environmental benefits

Efficient use of energy.

Environmental performance and operational data

No information provided.

Cross-media effects
No information provided.

Technical considerations relevant to applicability

Generally applicable.

Economics
No information provided.

Driving force for implementation

Savings in energy consumption costs.

Example plants
No information provided.

Reference literature
[ 26, Mech. subgroup 2014 ]

3.1.3.4 Water management in mechanical treatment in shredders of metal

waste

Description
Management of waste water from mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste to reduce
emissions to water and to reduce water usage.

Technical description
This technique includes:

 reusing in a closed circuit water injected into the mill;

 collecting run-off water and damping water for dust suppression;

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 implementing a suitable combination of abatement techniques and equipment, such as:

o oil-water separator (see Section 2.3.6.2.3.1),
o sedimentation system (see Section 2.3.6.2.3.4),
o filtration system (see Section 2.3.6.2.3.6).

Achieved environmental benefits

The achieved environmental benefits of this technique include:
 reduction of water usage;
 reduction of total suspended solids (TSS) and hydrocarbon (HOI) emissions to water.

Environmental performance and operational data

See Section 2.3.6.1.1.

Cross-media effects
See the CWW BREF [ 45, COM 2016 ].

Technical considerations relevant to applicability

See the CWW BREF [ 45, COM 2016 ].

Economics
See the CWW BREF [ 45, COM 2016 ].

Driving force for implementation

Environmental legislation.

Example plants
See Table 3.7 and Table 3.8.

Reference literature
[ 26, Mech. subgroup 2014 ], [ 45, COM 2016 ] [ 42, WT TWG 2014 ]

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3.2 Treatment of WEEE containing VFCs and/or VHCs

3.2.1 Applied processes and techniques
[ 23, Mech. subgroup 2014 ], [ 107, EERA 2015 ]

Purpose and principle of operation

In the treatment of equipment containing refrigerants such as volatile (hydro)fluorocarbons
(VFCs) or volatile hydrocarbons (VHCs), once the loose inner parts of the temperature
exchange equipment are removed, and oil and VFCs and/or VHCs are properly extracted (Step
1) to be further treated (i.e. in accordance with Regulation EC/1005/2009 for ozone-depleting
substances and Regulation EC/517/2014 for fluorinated greenhouse gases), the devices are
shredded in an encapsulated installation (Step 2) into smaller material components. These
components (ferrous scrap, mixed non-ferrous scrap, foam, and plastics) are separated from one
another in a downstream sorting process. As part of Step 1 and Step 2, VHCs and/or VFCs
contained in the insulating foam are removed and captured. The removal rate and depollution
monitoring of WEEE containing refrigerants are standardised (e.g. EN 50574 and EN 50625
and associated Technical Specifications).

Feed and output streams

A treatment facility for temperature exchange equipment accepts (as feed) household
appliances, which contain VFC (CFC, HCFC, HFC) and VHC (HC) refrigerants and blowing
agents. Household refrigerators and freezers manufactured before 1995 typically contain
chlorofluorocarbon (CFC, e.g. R11 and R12) and hydrochlorofluorocarbon (HCFC, e.g. R22)
refrigerants in the circuit and in the insulation as blowing agents. CFCs and HCFCs are ozone-
depleting substances (ODS) and potent greenhouse gases. Refrigerators and freezers
manufactured since 1995 contain ozone-friendly hydrofluorocarbon (HFC) refrigerants;
however, these refrigerants still need to be carefully handled as they are greenhouse gases. Since
the mid-1990s, producers have also used hydrocarbons (HCs, e.g. R600a) as refrigerants, and
cyclopentane or isopentane as blowing agents. These substances are removed and captured in
accordance with Directive 2012/19/EU on WEEE.

The shredder feed includes:

 fridges and freezer appliances;
 air-conditioning units;
 dehumidifiers;
 water coolers;
 dispensers of cold products
 heat pump tumble dryers.

The following substances or materials result from the process:

 oil
 VFC/VHC refrigerants and blowing agents;
 switches containing mercury;
 iron and steel scrap;
 non-ferrous scrap, aluminium and copper fractions;
 plastic fraction, mainly polystyrene and polyurethane;
 polyurethane foam (PUR foam) in pellets or powder (a refrigerator contains
approximately 4.5 kg of PUR foam);
 shedder light fraction (SLF);

Process description
[ 23, Mech. subgroup 2014 ]

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Before the temperature exchange equipment is broken up, external electrical cables, and the
loose inner parts including glass, plastic racks, etc. are taken out, and, if present, the capacitors
and the mercury switches are removed.

Step 1: removal of the oil and refrigerants

The oil and the refrigerants are removed. VFC and VHC refrigerants extracted from the
temperature exchange equipment are recovered into recovery gastight pressure vessels.
Generally, stationary units such as refrigerators and small air conditioners do not have a service
hose access port (service valve). In such cases, the refrigerant recovery is achieved by using
approved piercing pliers or a drill head. Once the line or compressor is pierced, a small valve
prevents the flow of refrigerant. Service hoses fitted with ‘ball’ valves at one end prevent the
accidental release of fluorocarbon or hydrocarbon refrigerants into the atmosphere, and assist in
the safe removal of the service hoses (see Section 2.3.5.3 on reduction of diffuse emissions).

Extracting oil and refrigerants in the same step by using vacuum suction allows the best possible
outcome to be achieved.

Compressor oil contains high concentrations of dissolved refrigerant and is therefore kept in a
closed system until it is completely degassed. This degassing can be done by heating, agitation,
vacuum or a combination thereof.

The compressor is removed and the cabinet is automatically moved to the shredding system
(Step 2), via twin lock. The remaining oil in the compressor is dripped out under air extraction.
The extracted air is treated to minimise VFC/VHC emissions.

Step 2: extraction of VFC and VHC blowing agents from the insulating material in the
shredding step

A typical fully automated plant will handle between 35 and 75 refrigeration devices per hour.
The refrigerators are automatically moved by hydraulic lifting and/or belt conveyor to the
shredding unit. The shredding operation takes place in an enclosed shredding chamber.

Degasification of the shredding area is performed before the shredded pieces are extracted from
the shredder chamber (see below). The shredded materials are sent to a windsifter, for example,
where the shredded pieces of PUR foam are separated. The PUR foam is then either compressed
to firm pellets in a pelleting press, or it is ground in a mill system to get a fine powder. In some
cases, the polyurethane granulate foam is heated to around 110 °C in a closed heating spiral to
extract the entire remaining blowing agent. The exhaust air from this process step is also
pumped into the cleaning system.

Figure 3.25 below shows an example of a PUR foam degassing system.

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Source: [ 75, Umweltbundesamt (AT) 2015 ]

Figure 3.25: Example of a PUR foam degassing system

The shredded ferrous, non-ferrous and plastic parts are separated following a classic sorting
step, using a magnetic separator, eddy current separator, windsifter, sieve, hydrocyclone, etc.

Treatment of gas containing VFCs/VHCs

The treatment of gas containing VFCs/VHCs coming from the degassing of Step 1 or Step 2 is
done by of one of the following techniques (see Section 3.2.3.1.2):

1. The cryogenic technique: the shredding area is under air suction and VFCs/VHCs are
exhausted inside the cryogenic unit where it is liquefied.

2. The catalytic conversion technique: the shredding area is supplied with air continuously
and the gas is treated in two catalytic converters connected in series where, first,
hydrocarbon compounds are thermally oxidised and, second, VFCs are converted into
hydrogen chloride and hydrogen fluoride. At plants where only hydrocarbon-containing
fridges are processed, the first converter (thermal oxidiser) may be used on its own.

3. The adsorption technique: the gases containing VFCs/VHCs are pumped into
adsorption filters. Mechanical cooling can be used prior to adsorption to avoid rapid
saturation by reducing the amount of water in the process gas. regularly monitored. The
filters can be regenerated in an automatic recovery system or in other specialised plants.

Explosion risk
VHC refrigerants and blowing agents are explosive. Treatment facilities that treat VHC-
containing temperature exchange equipment must comply with explosion protection measures
(Directive 1999/92/EC and 94/9/EC).

The concentration of gases is controlled to prevent the risk of explosion. In most cases, this is
done by either:

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 maintaining the concentration of oxygen below the limiting oxygen concentration by

injecting nitrogen into the shredder, the crusher, and the dust collector; or
 maintaining the hydrocarbon concentration below the lower explosive limit through
forced aeration.

Figure 3.26 below shows an example of safety measures for explosion prevention by injecting
nitrogen.

Source: [ 23, Mech. subgroup 2014 ]

Figure 3.26: Explosion protection measures (decision tree)

At the same time, water sprays may be used in the case of high temperatures in the shredder and
the crusher.

Types of shredders used

Pre-shredder
The pre-shredder is mainly used for the treatment of air-conditioning units, and large and
professional cooling and freezing appliances. It is driven by a planetary gearbox, usually with
hydraulic motors. The rotors can be reversed when the shredder is blocked.

Twin-shaft rotor shear (see Figure 3.27)

The main focus of a twin-shaft shredder is shredding large-diameter and tough material, with an
even and controllable output size. The twin-shaft shredding is characterised by a low speed and
high torque, capable of high throughput rates. The two axes are operated differentially, with the
function of cutting. Small twin-shaft rotor shears are sometimes used for secondary size
reduction to better separate residual insulation foam from shredded material. The rotor shear can
be used with or without a screen under the knives.

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Source: [ 23, Mech. subgroup 2014 ]

Figure 3.27: Twin-shaft rotor shear

Four-shaft rotor shear (see Figure 3.28)

Four-shaft shredders have advantages in standardisation and modularisation design, and high
interchangeability for their components. They have a low rotation speed, big torque and low
noise levels. The four-shaft rotor shear can be used with or without a screen under the knives to
reduce output sizes.

Source: [ 23, Mech. subgroup 2014 ]

Figure 3.28: Four-shaft rotor shear

Super chopper
Super choppers are heavy-duty pre-choppers designed as a first step in some refrigerator
recycling processes.

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Rotor shredder (see Figure 3.29)

These shredders can treat devices of up to 300 kg, depending on the feed conditions. The
chamber of the rotor shredder contains rotating hammers or chains (called in this case cross-
flow shredder) fastened by articulated joints to a high-speed vertical shaft. They are arranged
one above the other and are aligned horizontally and stabilised by centrifugal force. As the
refrigeration units enter the range of the hammers or chains, they are subjected to intense
impact, punching and shear forces, crushing them into small pieces. Once the crushed pieces
have reached the desired size, they exit the chamber through a robust slotted gate. The material
is crushed in a very short time and without interruption, resulting in a high degree of energy
efficiency.

Source: [ 23, Mech. subgroup 2014 ]

Figure 3.29: Rotor shredder

Users
From the data collection: Plants 138, 397, 458, 470, 629, 630 and 636.

References
[ 23, Mech. subgroup 2014 ], [ 107, EERA 2015 ], [ 21, WT TWG 2016 ]

3.2.1.1 Innovative processes

3.2.1.1.1 Treatment of halogen-free cooling and freezing appliances

Purpose
Shredding of cooling and freezing appliances which contain only hydrocarbons.

Principle of operation
This technology may replace the Step 2 described in Section 3.2.1 when only hydrocarbons are
used as blowing agents.

Once the liquids in the cooling system are recovered (pumped out of the cooling system and the
compressor) in the Step 1 of the recycling process (see Section 3.2.1) and the compressor and
the evaporator systems are dismantled, it is then necessary to analyse the type of blowing agent
in the cabinet and the doors of the unit, because laboratory tests have shown an inaccuracy of
approximately 1 % in appliance labelling.
The measurement of the type of blowing agent is currently possible and reliable. However,
further development is needed to bring this testing method to an industrial scale, in order to
ensure that only halogen-free casings enter the specialised foam-capturing shredding process.

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The foam-capturing shredding process takes place in a specialised open shredder for electronic
wastes that is configured to process halogen-free cooling and freezing appliance casings only.
The process combines the control of the shredder rotation rate, the air throughput and the
material throughput rate, in order to optimise foam capture without running any risks of
explosions. The foam itself is kept to the largest possible size, so that it can continue to hold the
blowing agent as it has done for the duration of the lifetime of the cooling or freezing appliance.
By capturing the foam right after a rough shredding of the appliance cabinets and doors, more
than 90 % of the hydrocarbon gases stay within the pores of the PUR insulating foam. The
diffuse hydrocarbon emissions are thus kept to a minimum, with emissions controlled within the
legal requirements. The removal of the hydrocarbon blowing agent takes place with the PUR
foam, so it is an identifiable material stream, apart from the other material fractions of metal,
glass, plastic, etc.

Output streams
The recovered pieces of foam with the embedded hydrocarbon gases are transported to a
suitable incineration unit for thermal recovery.

Users
This process is at an advanced stage of development.

References
[ 108, EFR ESG 2016 ]

3.2.2 Current emission and consumption levels

3.2.2.1 Emissions to air

[ 42, WT TWG 2014 ]

Emissions to air are likely to be dust (which may contain refractory ceramic fibres or fine dust,
e.g. when shredding vacuum-insulated panels) and VFCs/VHCs. The end-of-pipe techniques
generally implemented are fabric (or bag) filters for dust emissions abatement, and activated
carbon filters or cryogenic condensation for the reduction of VFC/VHC emissions.

Table 3.12 gives an overview of the parameters monitored in emissions to air from the
mechanical treatment in shredders of WEEE containing refrigerants.

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Table 3.12: Monitoring of emissions to air from the treatment of WEEE containing VFCs
and/or VHCs
Number of measurements
during the 3-year
Pollutant/parameter Type of measurement Plants concerned
reference period
(2010-2012)
Continuous (1) 458, 629 NA
Flow (Nm3/h)
Periodic 138, 470, 630, 636 1–36
Continuous (1) 458 NA
Dust
Periodic 630, 636 1
TVOC Periodic 629 1
Continuous (1) 630, 636 NA
NMVOC
Periodic 138 3
Continuous (1) 458, 630 NA
CFCs
Periodic 138, 470, 629, 636 1–5
HFC Periodic 629 1
(1) Short-term average when specified.
NB: NA = Not applicable.

3.2.2.1.1 Dust

Table 3.13 gives the reported levels of dust emissions to air from mechanical treatment in
shredders of WEEE containing refrigerants, and the corresponding implemented abatement
techniques.

Table 3.13: Dust emissions to air from the treatment of WEEE containing VFCs and/or VHCs
Exhaust
Capacity air flow Dust
Plant code Origin of emissions Techniques used
(t/day) rate (mg/Nm3)
(Nm3/h)
From the shredder process:
activated carbon adsorption
458 20 Shredder 800 0.12 (1)
From the material transport:
bag/fabric filter system
Recovery of Activated carbon adsorption
636 50 275 3 ( 2)
blowing agents Bag/fabric filter system
Recovery of Activated carbon adsorption
630_1 50 250 3 ( 2)
blowing agent Bag/fabric filter system
Separation of
630_2 50 Bag/fabric filter system 5500 5 (2)
mixed plastics
Treatment of
630_3 50 Bag/fabric filter system 5500 5 (2)
mixed metals
(1) Continuous measurements.
(2) Periodic measurements. One measurement over the three reference years.

See also Figure 2.5 for the dust emissions.

3.2.2.1.2 Volatile fluorocarbons (VFCs)

Table 3.14 below gives the reported levels of CFC emissions to air from mechanical treatment
in shredders of WEEE containing VFCs or VHCs, and the corresponding implemented
abatement techniques.

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Table 3.14: CFC emissions to air from the treatment of WEEE containing VFCs and/or VHCs

CFC (mg/Nm3) Number of

measurements
Exhaust air
Plant Degasification Capacity Origin of during the 3-
Techniques used flow rate Continuous Periodic
code technique (t/day) emissions year reference
(Nm3/h) measurements measurements period (2010–
2012)
From the shredder process:
activated carbon adsorption
Mechanical
458 20 From the material transport: 800 1.5–12 NA NA
shredder
bag/fabric filter system
Cryogenic condensation
470 Cryogenic 35 Shredder Cryogenic condensation 135 NA 139 1
condensation Step 1: recovery
of refrigerants
629-1 40 Activated carbon adsorption 70 0 1.3 1
(refrigerant filling
container + skid)
Step 2: recovery Condensation
629-2 40 140 0.5–15.8 NA NA
of blowing agents Activated carbon adsorption
Activated carbon
138 50 Activated carbon adsorption 310 NA 11.3 3
batteries
Activated Recovery of Activated carbon adsorption
630-1 50 250 3–20 NA NA
carbon blowing agents Bag/fabric filter system
Recovery of Activated carbon adsorption
636 50 270 NA 0.2 6
blowing agents Bag/fabric filter system
NB: NA = Not applicable.

No measurement of HCFC emissions was reported through the data collection.

HFC emissions were reported by one plant (Plant 629), at a level of 10.6 mg/Nm3 (one measurement during the three reference years).

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3.2.2.1.3 VOCs, NMVOC and TOC

Data (graphs) on VOC emissions to air were provided by one plant (Plant 636), ranging from
around 2 mg/Nm3 to 15 mg/Nm3.

Data on TOC emissions to air were provided by one plant (Plant 629), which provided a figure
of 3.6 mg/Nm3 (one measurement during the three reference years).

Data on NMVOC emissions were provided by the three plants using the activated carbon
adsorption technique:

 Plant 138: 17 mg/Nm3, average of three measurements over the three-year reference
period (minimum: 5 mg/Nm3, maximum: 31 mg/Nm3);
 Plant 630: 3–50 mg/Nm3, continuous measurement; and
 Plant 636: 3–20 mg/Nm3, continuous measurement.

3.2.2.2 Emissions to water

[ 42, WT TWG 2014 ]

The treatment of WEEE containing VFCs and/or VHCs does not require a large amount of
water (water may be added to the mill in order to prevent high temperatures in the shredder and
the crusher), and therefore generates limited emissions to water.

Of the seven plants that participated in the data collection, three (Plants 138, 630 and 636, using
the activated carbon degasification technique) reported having emissions to water:

 Plant 138: rainwater collected around the plant; there is no water emission from the
process itself, and roof water is released directly to a nearby river.
 Plant 630:
o condensed water from the blowing agents recovery step (60 l/h; measured
parameters: hydrocarbon oil index (HOI) and trichlorofluoromethane (R11));
the waste water is stored in a closed tank equipped with an activated carbon
filter system, and sent to an off-site waste water treatment plant;
o mixed plastics separation step (1 m3/h; measured parameters: Cu, Zn and
AOX); the waste water is filtered and sent to an off-site waste water treatment
plant.
 Plant 636: condensed water from the blowing agents recovery step (60 l/h; measured
parameters: HOI, AOX and R11). The waste water is stored in a closed tank equipped
with an activated carbon filter system, and sent to an off-site waste water treatment plant.

3.2.2.3 Energy consumption

The specific electrical energy consumption of the treatment of WEEE containing VFCs and/or
VHCs is reported to be on average between 0.1 MWh and 0.2 MWh per tonne of waste treated.

[ 42, WT TWG 2014 ]

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3.2.3 Techniques to consider in the determination of BAT

3.2.3.1 Techniques for the prevention or reduction of emissions to air

3.2.3.1.1 Removal of refrigerants and oils

Description
Optimised removal and capture of refrigerants and oils contained in WEEE containing VFCs
and/or VHCs in order to reduce subsequent emissions to air.

Technical description
In order to reduce emissions at the later steps of the waste treatment, all refrigerants and oils are
removed from the WEEE containing VFCs and/or VHCs at the initial step and captured by a
vacuum suction system (e.g. achieving refrigerant removal of at least 90 %). Refrigerants are
separated from oils and the oils are degassed.

The amount of oil remaining in the compressor is reduced to a minimum so that the compressor
dose not drip.

Achieved environmental benefits

Reduction of diffuse and channelled emissions of VFCs and/or VHCs from the waste treatment.

Environmental performance and operational data

There are two possible options for refrigerants and oils removal:
 In the same stage with a specifically designed unit (e.g. by piercing the base of the
compressor and extracting refrigerant and oil). In this case, more than 90 % of the oil and
refrigerant mix can be removed from the cooling circuit and compressor at typical
temperatures of 5–10 °C.
 In two stages, e.g. by first extracting the refrigerant by nipping the refrigerant circuit, and
then pumping the oil out of the compressor.

Extracting oils and refrigerants in the same step by using a vacuum suction system allows the
best removal rate.

Cross-media effects
No information provided.

Technical considerations relevant to applicability

Generally applicable.

Economics
No information provided.

Driving force for implementation

 Environmental legislation such as:
o Regulation (EU) 517/2014 on fluorinated greenhouse gases;
o Regulation (EC) 1005/2009 on substances that deplete the ozone layer;
o Directive 2012/19/EU on waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE).
 Increase of recycling and usage rates.

Example plants
The technique is used in plants specialised in the treatment of WEEE containing VHCs and/or
VHCs.

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Reference literature
[ 26, Mech. subgroup 2014 ], [ 23, Mech. subgroup 2014 ], [ 107, EERA 2015 ],
[ 42, WT TWG 2014 ]

3.2.3.1.2 Treatment of gas containing organic compounds such as VFCs/VHCs

Description
Treatment of gas containing VFCs/VHCs coming from the degassing of Step 1 (removal of oil
and refrigerants) or Step 2 (extraction of VFC and VHC blowing agents in the shredding step)
by:
 cryogenic technique; or
 adsorption technique; or
 catalytic conversion technique.

Technical description
The gas containing VFCs/VHCs is treated using one of the following techniques:

 Cryogenic technique (see also Section 2.3.4.8): gas containing VFCs/VHCs is sucked out
and sent to a cryogenic condensation unit where it is liquefied. The liquid gases are stored
in gastight vessels for further treatment according to Regulation 1005/2009/EC. The inert
gas is recovered and reused.

Figure 3.30 below gives an example of degasification and waste gas treatment by cryogenic
condensation.

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Source: plant #629 in [ 42, WT TWG 2014 ]

Figure 3.30: Degasification of Step 2 - Cryogenic condensation

A general description of the cryogenic condensation abatement technique can be found in the
CWW BREF [ 45, COM 2016 ]

 Adsorption technique (see also Section 2.3.4.9): the gases are pumped into adsorption
filters. An adsorption process generally consists of at least two filters which are switched
in parallel so that at least one is adsorbing and one is regenerating. The used activated
carbon is regenerated by means of heated air pumped into the filter to evaporate trapped
VFCs and VHCs. After the filter, the regeneration waste gas is compressed and cooled in
order to liquefy the VFCs and VHCs (in some cases by cryogenic condensation). The
liquefied gases are then stored in gastight vessels. The remaining waste gas is usually led
back into the adsorbing filter in order to minimise VFC or VHC emissions. Adsorption
filters are also sometimes used after cryogenic units in order to improve their efficiency.
Figure 3.31 below gives an example of degasification and waste gas treatment with
activated carbon adsorption.

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Source: Plant #636 in [ 42, WT TWG 2014 ]

Figure 3.31: Degasification of Step 2- Activated carbon adsorption

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A general description of activated carbon adsorption can be found in the CWW BREF [ 45,
COM 2016 ].

 Catalytic conversion technique: the gas is sent to two catalytic converters connected in
series. The hydrocarbon compounds (e.g. isobutane, pentane) are thermally oxidised in
the first converter to form water and carbon dioxide (CO2). In the second reactor, VFCs
are converted into hydrogen chloride (HCl), hydrogen fluoride (HF) and CO2. HCl and
HF gases are either absorbed in water to produce dilute acid, or neutralised, for example
with liquid alkaline solutions (sodium hydroxide) or solid sodium bicarbonate. As the
process in the first reactor is exothermic, it simultaneously acts as a preheater for the
second catalytic converter stage. Similarly, the thermal energy in the gases emitted from
the second reactor is used to preheat the untreated gases before they enter the first reactor.

Achieved environmental benefits

The achieved environmental benefits of these techniques include:
 reduction of diffuse and channelled VFC/VHC emissions;
 reduction of diffuse and channelled VOC emissions.

Environmental performance and operational data

Cryogenic technique: The shredding chamber is encapsulated under suction, VFCs/VHCs are
exhausted and N2 is blown in to reduce the O2 level to < 4 %. For a shredding chamber
measuring 2000 mm x 1200 mm x 1000 mm, the total amount of air exhausted would be
400 m3/hour. The VFCs/VHCs are then exhausted inside the unit, which cools them down with
liquid nitrogen to −90 °C. At that freezing temperature the gases turn into liquids. The liquefied
gases are then stored in tanks. The tank is placed on a scale, which makes it possible to see how
much gas is recovered and when the tank has to be changed.

The specific consumption of N2 reported via the data collection is around 0.06 t/tonne of waste
treated. [ 26, Mech. subgroup 2014 ]

See also Section 3.2.2.1.2 for CFCs, HFCs and HCFCs emissions to air, and Section 3.2.2.1.3
for organic compounds emissions to air.

Adsorption technique: The gases from the shredding area are pumped into adsorption filters.
Cooling can be used prior to adsorption to reduce the amount of water in the process gas. VFCs
and VHCs are captured by activated carbon in the adsorption filters. An adsorption process
always consists of at least two filters which are switched in parallel so that at least one is
adsorbing and one is regenerating. During the filter regeneration, heated outside air is pumped
into the filter to evaporate trapped VFCs and VHCs. After the filter, the gas is compressed and
cooled in order to liquefy the VFCs and VHCs (in some cases by cryogenic condensation). The
liquefied gases are then stored in gastight vessels.

The specific consumption of activated carbon reported via the data collection is below
0.5 kg/tonne of waste treated.
[ 26, Mech. subgroup 2014 ]

See also Section 3.2.2.1.2 for CFCs, HFCs and HCFCs emissions to air, and Section 3.2.2.1.3
for organic compounds emissions to air.

Catalytic oxidation technique: This system lowers the overall energy requirements of the plant.
This process layout even results in the catalytic oxidation becoming fully self-sufficient in terms
of energy once the proportion of pentane refrigeration units passes a certain threshold.
[ 26, Mech. subgroup 2014 ]

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Cross-media effects
 Energy consumption when using cryogenic condensation and adsorption techniques.
 Production of waste to be disposed of when using the catalytic conversion technique.

Technical considerations relevant to applicability

Generally applicable.

Economics
There are generation and transportation costs if nitrogen is purchased in bottles, or a generation
cost if nitrogen is produced on site.

In the current state of the art, the cost of the Step 1 (extraction of the oil and refrigerants) and
Step 2 (extraction of VFC and VHC blowing agents from the insulating material) processes are
higher than the price of recovered materials. In some Member States (e.g. France), this is taken
into account by a visible fee on new equipment such as fridges.[ 109, INERIS 2015 ]

Driving force for implementation

 Environmental legislation such as:
o Regulation (EU) 517/2014 on fluorinated greenhouse gases;
o Regulation (EC) 1005/2009 on substances that deplete the ozone layer;
o Directive 2012/19/EU on waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE).
 Safety issues.
 Increase of recycling and usage rates.

Example plants
Cryogenic condensation: Plants 458, 470 and 629.
Activated carbon adsorption: Plants 138, 630 and 636.

Reference literature
[ 26, Mech. subgroup 2014 ], [ 23, Mech. subgroup 2014 ], [ 107, EERA 2015 ], [ 42, WT TWG
2014 ]

3.2.3.1.3 Reduction of dust emissions

Description
Fabric filter.

Technical description
See Section 2.3.4.4 and the CWW BREF [ 45, COM 2016 ]

Achieved environmental benefits

Reduction of dust emissions to air.

Environmental performance and operational data

See Table 3.13.

Cross-media effects
See the CWW BREF [ 45, COM 2016 ].

Technical considerations relevant to applicability

See the CWW BREF [ 45, COM 2016 ].

Economics
See the CWW BREF [ 45, COM 2016 ].

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Driving force for implementation

Environmental legislation.

Example plants
See Table 3.13.

Reference literature
[ 42, WT TWG 2014 ]

3.2.3.2 Techniques to prevent explosion

Description
Prevention of an explosive atmosphere in the shredding area and confined spaces by:
 maintaining the oxygen concentration below 4 %, for example, by injection of inert gas
(e.g. nitrogen);
 maintaining the hydrocarbon concentration below the lower explosive limit (LEL)
through forced ventilation.

Technical description
The concentration of gases is controlled to prevent the risk of explosion (e.g. limiting the
concentration of pentane, or the concentration of oxygen). In most cases, nitrogen is injected
into the machine (e.g. shredder, crusher, dust and foam collector) based on the pentane
concentration.

The concentration of pentane is monitored automatically, by IR sensors at different measuring

points (redundancy), set to the LEL (lower explosive limit) in the filling hopper.

The following measures are adjusted depending on the concentration of pentane (see also Figure
3.26):

 < 10 %: no action;
 10–30 %: nitrogen injection via a regulating valve; flow volume is monitored;
 30–40 %: stop the feeding; close the hopper flap; extraction system continues; possibly
increase extraction;
 > 40 %: emergency stop; stop shredding; extraction system continues; nitrogen feeding
continues.

If the concentration of pentane subsequently falls below 30 %, the plant continues to run, and
below 10 % the nitrogen valve is closed.

In most cases nitrogen is constantly injected into the shredder, the crusher and the dust collector
in order to prevent explosions. At the same time, water sprays may be used to prevent high
temperatures in the shredder and crusher.

In confined spaces (e.g. pelletisers for foam degassing), inerting is not done based on the
pentane concentration, but on the oxygen level which is maintained lower than, for example,
4 %.

When the volume of extracted gas is sufficiently high (mostly in systems using catalytic
conversion), the lower explosive limit (LEL) of pentane cannot be reached. In such cases,
inerting is not necessary.

Achieved environmental benefits

Prevention of explosive atmosphere and related uncontrolled emissions.

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Environmental performance and operational data

No information provided.

Cross-media effects
No information provided.

Technical considerations relevant to applicability

Generally applicable.

Economics
No information provided.

Driving force for implementation

Safety issues.

Example plants
Plants 138, 458, 470, 629, 630 and 636.

Reference literature
[ 26, Mech. subgroup 2014 ], [EERA comment #27 in [ 21, WT TWG 2016 ]]

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3.3 Mechanical treatment of waste with calorific value

3.3.1 Overview

This section covers treatment methods and processes mainly used to obtain a material from non-
hazardous waste so that it can be used as fuel. However, some treatment methods may produce
outputs that may be used for purposes other than fuel.

3.3.2 Applied processes and techniques

Purpose
The main purpose is to prepare a combustible material out of non-hazardous solid waste, in
some cases municipal solid waste (MSW). This section also covers the preparation of solid fuels
by blending/mixing.

The main function of the fuel preparation is to upgrade selected materials into a specified fuel.
In the case of feedstock with no biodegradable fraction, the facility upgrades the feed mainly by
removing non-combustible materials.

In the case of feedstock with a biodegradable fraction on which a biological treatment is

performed additionally to the mechanical one, this is dealt with in Section 4.4 related to
mechanical biological treatment (MBT).

Principle of operation
The waste input is sorted and shredded mainly to leave a more homogeneous combustible
material, which does not contain wet putrescible materials or heavy inert materials (stones,
glass, scrap metals, etc.). Other operations and equipment used are, for example, sieving,
separators, crushers, screening and picking.

Solid fuel preparation technologies vary considerably depending on the source and type of
waste, and on the user specifications of the customer/combustion installation.

It is very important to bear in mind that waste is a heterogeneous mixture of materials,

especially municipal solid wastes. Therefore, by processing the waste with a specific
preparation technology when producing the fuel, the producer makes the fuel more
homogeneous.

Feed and output streams

Feedstock
MSW, ‘commercial’ waste, and construction and demolition waste are the most common
sources.

Table 3.15 shows the typical calorific values of different types of waste.

Table 3.15: Typical calorific values of different types of waste

Calorific value
Type of waste
(MJ/kg)
Monostreams 15–25
Mixed industrial/commercial waste 10–25
Municipal solid waste 6–11
Mixed waste 10–20
Batches of wood 14–18
Sewage sludge 3–10
Source: DE comment # 21 in [ 21, WT TWG 2016 ]

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Waste plastic
The demonstration of energy recovery from specific waste plastic streams in full-scale tests has
been going on over a sufficiently long time period to prove the repeatable and stable operating
conditions; to document the effect the waste plastics have on the operation; and also to indicate
what materials and emissions will arise. An overview of the APME (Association of Plastics
Manufacturers in Europe) TEC programme is sketched out in Table 3.16 below.

Table 3.16: The use of waste plastics from different industrial sectors as fuel
Electrical Building
Burning Energy Com-
Packaging Automotive and Agricultural and cons-
technology use mercial
electronics truction
District heat
Grate type and MPW NI SR NI NI Foams
Heat/power
Fluidised bed
Heat/power MPW, SR NI NI NI NI NI
(FB)
Pulverised coal Power MPW NI NI NI Films NI
Rotary kiln Cement MPW NI NI Foam NI NI
Industrial
Non-ferrous NI NI NI ESR NI NI
furnace
Circulating FB Pulp paper MPW Kerbside SR NI NI NI
NB: MPW = municipal plastic waste (sometimes needs to be shredded before use); SR = shredder residue; ESR =
shredder residue from white goods; NI = No information.
Source: [ 24, CEFIC 2002 ], [ 11, WT TWG 2003 ], [ 18, WT TWG 2004 ]

Solid waste fuel to substitute coal

The main differences between coal and solid waste fuels are the contents of sulphur, chlorine
and heavy metals. In many cases, for instance, if solid waste fuels with plastics are considered
and compared to coal, the chlorine of the recovered fuels is higher (typically 0.5–1.0 %) and the
sulphur is lower. Also, the heavy metals content will generally be in a similar range (ppm range)
or may even increase. Solid waste fuel is sold in different physical forms. Table 3.17 gives an
overview of the different physical forms of waste fuel.

Table 3.17: Overview of the different physical forms of the waste fuel (output)
Waste fuels Determining physical and chemical characteristics
Fluffy
Soft pellets Particle size, bulk density, moisture content, net calorific
Hard pellets value, ash content, chemical composition
Chips
Powder
Source:[ 17, Pretz et al. 2003 ], [ 19, WT TWG 2004 ]

Output
The process to derive fuel from solid wastes separates the calorific fraction and the non-calorific
fraction contained in the waste input. The non-calorific fraction that remains after this operation
may represent a high percentage of the waste input (e.g. MSW) treated.

The output types include:

 Solid fuel, e.g.:

o Solid recovered fuel (SRF), which is a solid fuel prepared from non-hazardous
waste to be used for energy recovery in incineration or co-incineration plants,
and which meets standardised classification and specification requirements
(EN 15359, drafted by the CEN TC 343).

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o Refuse-derived fuel (RDF); RDF differs from SRF in that it is not produced in
compliance with standardised classification and specification requirements.
RDF includes high calorific fractions, which are coarser fractions from waste
streams that contain materials with a high calorific value that have not been
processed as extensively as fractions for power plants running on secondary
fuels such as SRF.
o Solid biofuels; solid biofuels are divided into two categories, namely high
calorific biodegradable waste, such as wood, paper, textiles and wet putrescible
waste (which usually includes food), and garden and sludge wastes.
Terminology, definitions and descriptions are given in EN 16559:2014 - Solid
biofuels, drafted by the CEN TC 335.
The solid fuel can either be shredded fluff-like materials, or densified in pellets, cubes and
briquettes.

 Waste plastic that can substitute other solid fuels, such as coal, peat, wood, petroleum
coke. There are a number of developments currently being carried out in fuel substitution,
as well as some demonstration plants currently operating using solid waste plastic.
 Wood for reuse.
 Incombustible materials such as metals, stone and glass, which can be sent to material
recovery.

[ 110, Mech. subgroup 2014 ]

Typical compositions of combustible waste and mixed packaging are shown in Table 3.18 and
Table 3.19 below.

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Table 3.18: Typical composition of combustible waste (waste code 19-12-10 from Annex to COM
2000/532/EC) based on a large number of measurments in the plants applying CEN/
TC 343
of
80th 90th Data which
Parameter Unit Minimum Median Mean Maximum
percentile percentile count <
LOD
Calorific
kJ/kg 4 400 16 700 16 178 19 100 20 500 25 700 503 0
value
Water
% 1.5 8.8 14.0 27.9 33.4 41.3 503 0
content
Ash
% 6.6 13.8 14.4 17.4 19.4 46.7 486 0
content
Total
% 0.2 0.8 0.9 1.3 1.5 4.3 394 0
chlorine
Total
mg/kg 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.09 216 213
fluorine
Total
% 0.05 0.10 0.13 0.20 0.20 1.00 216 6
sulphur
Cadmium mg/kg 0.10 2.10 4.11 5.60 9.20 55.00 341 66
Thallium mg/kg 0.01 0.18 0.20 0.19 0.19 5.90 277 276
Mercury mg/kg 0.06 0.28 0.35 0.43 0.57 3.39 341 77
Antimony mg/kg 1.12 20.41 53.18 66.81 138.30 818.80 341 0
Arsenic mg/kg 0.31 0.48 1.00 1.46 2.02 7.33 341 197
Lead mg/kg 0.93 131.60 263.71 236.50 344.88 30 176.00 341 0
Chromium mg/kg 3.35 82.73 144.57 208.61 303.27 3 029.40 341 0
Cobalt mg/kg 0.47 4.23 5.92 6.32 9.10 127.68 341 2
Copper mg/kg 10 481 1 979 2 500 5 538 24 174 341 0
Manganese mg/kg 11.76 105.00 115.26 143.36 173.66 464.28 341 0
Nickel mg/kg 0.47 14.19 43.41 27.33 50.82 3 658.20 341 1
Vanadium mg/kg 1.02 5.19 6.42 7.63 9.08 134.95 340 0
Tin mg/kg 2.46 16.64 31.86 34.26 54.87 1 450.50 341 0
Beryllium mg/kg 0.06 0.09 0.11 0.10 0.18 0.63 226 202
Selenium mg/kg 0.04 0.46 0.45 0.47 0.48 1.29 226 225
Tellurium mg/kg 0.01 0.18 0.23 0.19 0.20 3.39 226 206
NB: All values are based on wet matter.
LOD = Limit of detection.
Source: DE comment # 22 in [ 21, WT TWG 2016 ]

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Table 3.19: Typical composition of mixed packaging (waste code 15-01-06 from Annex to COM
2000/532/EC) based on a large number of measurments in the plants applying CEN/
TC 343
80th 90th Data
Parameter Unit Minimum Median Mean Maximum
percentile percentile count
Calorific
kJ/kg 15 883 20 274 22 952 27 730 30 215 32 700 3
value
Water
% 3.30 4.80 4.80 5.70 6.00 6.30 2
content
Ash content % NA NA NA NA NA NA NA
Total
% 0.04 0.08 0.08 0.11 0.12 0.13 NI
chlorine
Total
mg/kg NI NI NI NI NI NI NI
fluorine
Total
% 0.06 0.10 0.10 0.12 .12 0.13 NI
sulphur
Cadmium mg/kg 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 2
Thallium mg/kg 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 2
Mercury mg/kg 0.10 0.14 0.14 0.17 0.18 0.19 2
Antimony mg/kg 0.29 1.48 1.48 2.19 2.43 2.67 2
Arsenic mg/kg 0.76 0.76 0.76 0.76 0.76 0.76 2
Lead mg/kg 0.95 5.71 5.71 8.57 9.52 10.47 2
Chromium mg/kg 4.76 6.19 6.19 7.04 7.33 7.62 2
Cobalt mg/kg 0.95 5.71 5.71 8.57 9.52 10.47 2
Copper mg/kg 3.81 8.09 8.09 10.66 11.52 12.38 2
Manganese mg/kg 4.76 6.19 6.19 7.04 7.33 7.62 2
Nickel mg/kg 1.90 1.90 1.90 1.90 1.90 1.90 2
Vanadium mg/kg 0.95 1.43 1.43 1.71 1.81 1.90 2
Tin mg/kg 0.95 2.38 2.38 3.24 3.52 3.81 2
Beryllium mg/kg 0.10 0.52 0.52 0.78 0.87 0.95 2
Selenium mg/kg 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 2
Tellurium mg/kg 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 2
NB: All values are based upon wet matter.
NA = Not applicable.
NI = No information.
Source: DE comment # 23 in [ 21, WT TWG 2016 ]

The user requirements often define the product quality and the waste fuel characterisation.
Power plants, cement and lime works, gasification plants, multifuel boilers, etc. have different
standards for the use of solid waste fuel dependent on their technology, waste gas treatment and
product specification.

The quality assurance of the preparation of waste to be used as fuel is driven by the need to
meet the specifications set by the receiving facility. This is related to the waste composition
characterisation (see Section 2.3.2.2), and to the output quality management system (see
Section 2.3.2.6). Mixing and blending (see Section 2.3.2.8) also plays an important role in this
issue.

Some practices include:

 delivering a report to the customer covering the main physical and chemical properties of
the waste fuel, in particular:
o origin and LoW number,
o net calorific value,
o ash content,
o water content,

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o volatile matter content,

o biomass content,
o chemical composition (especially C, H, O, N, S, P, Cl, F, Al, K, Na, heavy
metals);
 limiting the amount of relevant parameters for any waste that is to be used as fuel in any
co-incineration plant (e.g. chromium (VI), total chromium, lead, cadmium, mercury,
thallium, PCB, sulphur and the total halogen content for use in cement kilns).
[ 111, NZ Ministry for the Environment 2000 ], [ 9, UK EA 2001 ], [ 112, ENDS 2002 ], [ 11,
WT TWG 2003 ], [ 18, WT TWG 2004 ], [ 19, WT TWG 2004 ]

Process description
Depending on the source of the waste input and the requirements for the output, this waste is
shredded, separated, blended and pelletised.

Source selection may be the first action to take into account for monostreams. Preselection may
be incorporated into the collection system for mixed commercial wastes. The waste reception
area is the first important facility with regard to the quality assurance management system and
this is where the receiving inspection is carried out. All kinds of troublesome materials which
might cause operational or quality problems are removed at this early stage.

The process for deriving fuel from solid waste can be divided into several steps which are listed
below. However, this list only presents an overview of possible steps: each step is not
necessarily part of each process:

 reception area/bunker;
 pre-sorting/contaminants selection;
 feeding equipment - wheel loaders or cranes are usually applied for the feeding of the
process;
 size reduction - comminution can be achieved by hammer mills, shear shredders, single-
shaft shredders, rotary cutters, camshaft shredders and cascade mills;
 sorting (e.g. ferrous and non-ferrous metals separation, screening, air classification,
NIRS, picking); a general description of the sorting steps can be found in Section 2.3.2.9;
 compacting/pelletising can be carried out by flatbed presses, ring die presses, or disc
agglomerators (see also Section 5.3);
 storage/storage area/hopper;
 loading and transportation.

An example of a flowsheet for mechanical treatment of waste with calorific value with RDF
output is shown in Figure 3.32 below.

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Source: Plant #122 in [ 42, WT TWG 2014 ]

Figure 3.32: Flowsheet for mechanical treatment of waste with calorific value

After the final processing step, a solid waste fuel is obtained. In some cases, additional
processing steps may be required to design the solid waste fuel according to the consumers’
wishes. For example, further compacting or size reduction may be requested. Table 3.20 shows
the correlation between different fuel preparation processes and the end application for different
purposes.

Table 3.20: Additional processing steps required according to the waste's physical characteristics,
to deliver waste fuel to consumers’ specifications
Combustion process
Prepared fuel Gasification and
Circulated Pulverised coal
in form of Cement kiln pulverised coal
fluidised bed power plant
power plant
Shredding
Shredding (fluff), Pelletising, storage, Shredding (fluff),
Bales (fluff), covered
covered storage pulverisation covered storage
storage
Soft pellets/fluff Covered storage Covered storage Covered storage Covered storage
Covered storage, Covered storage,
Hard pellets Covered storage Covered storage
simple crushing pulverisation
Source:[ 17, Pretz et al. 2003 ], [ 18, WT TWG 2004 ]

Once the combustible material has been separated, it is then shredded and either sent to the
customer, or pelletised before it is sent for combustion (this usually occurs when the material is
burnt off site, as a densified fuel reduces transport costs).

Emissions to air from mechanical treatment of waste with calorific value are likely to be dust.
Emissions of odour and organic compounds may also occur when the waste input contains
organic matter (e.g. MSW).

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In some cases, the prevention/reduction of diffuse dust emissions from the waste input storage is
done by water spraying. The reduction of channelled dust emissions is mostly achieved by
means of a fabric filter.

Figure 3.33 below gives an example of a mechanical treatment of waste with calorific value
equipped with a fabric filter.

Source: Plant #443 [ 42, WT TWG 2014 ]

Figure 3.33: Mechanical treatment of waste with calorific value equipped with a bag/fabric filter

Users
The combustible material is typically incinerated in dedicated facilities or co-incinerated in
plants where a combustion process is carried out. The major fuel application is in
cement/limestone production and power generation. Depending on the end application, there are
different requirements for waste fuels.

This type of plant can be found in the Netherlands, Italy, Germany, Austria and Belgium, and
constitutes a basic template for some ‘integrated facilities’ planned in the UK. The blending of
large volumes of solid wastes is common practice in a number of EU countries (e.g. Belgium,
France, Germany, Denmark).

The plants from the data collection carrying out this type of treatment are: 024, 031, 032, 034,
035, 115, 116, 117, 122C, 133, 219, 269, 270, 273, 277, 278, 279, 280C, 312, 325C, 326C,
361_363, 425_426, 442C, 443C, 472, 487, 493, 574, 615, 627, 632, 633.

3.3.3 Current emission and consumption levels

[ 42, WT TWG 2014 ], [ 113, Umweltbundesamt (AT) 2015 ],

3.3.3.1 Emissions to air

Table 3.21 shows the different parameters measured at mechanical treatment plants of waste
with calorific value. This table should be read together with Table 3.22 which shows, for each
plant, the origin of the emissions and the associated abatement techniques.

The most commonly measured parameter is dust, which is treated mainly by means of a
bag/fabric filter system. Some plants equipped with activated carbon adsorption and/or a
biofilter also measure organic compounds (TOC, TVOC) and odour.

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Table 3.21: Emissions to air from mechanical treatment of waste with calorific value
Number of
measurements
Pollutant Type of Range (mg/Nm3 except during the 3-
Plants concerned
measured measurement for flow and odour) year reference
period (2010-
2012)
Continuous 35, 161, 280 10 000–125 000 NA
24, 32, 122, 269, 270, 277,
Flow
Periodic 279-1, 278, 326, 361, 1.8–190 000 Up to 6
(Nm3/h)
442, 615, 627, 632
Estimated 133 NI NA
Continuous
280, 426-426 0.4–0.6 NA
(1)
24, 31, 32, 35, 122, 270, 273,
Dust
Periodic 277, 279-1, 312, 326, 361, 0.09–8.8 (2) Up to 12
442, 615, 627, 632
Estimated 133 NI NA
Continuous 425-426 0.1–0.2 NA
HCl
Periodic 277, 278 0.3–1.3 Up to 4
TVOC Periodic 361 3.5 5
Continuous
280, 425-426 31.9–34.5 NA
TOC (1)
Periodic 277, 278, 361,615 3.5–29 Up to 5
Odour
Periodic 32, 35, 278 274–1020 Up to 8
(OUE/m3)
Cd Periodic 24 0.003 6
Continuous
280 0.004–0.005 NA
Hg (1)
Periodic 24, 361 0.004–0.008 Up to 6
As Periodic 24 0.004 6
Pb Periodic 24 0.07 6
Cr Periodic 24 0.006 6
Co Periodic 24 0.005 6
Ni Periodic 24 0.003 6
Zn Periodic 24 0.09 6
(1) Yearly average when specified.
(2) For this value of 8.8 mg/Nm3, nine of the twelve provided values are estimated values at 10 mg/Nm3. The average
of the three real measurements is 5.3 mg/Nm3.
NB: For periodic measurements, the values are the average over the three reference years.
NA = Not applicable.
NI = No information.

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Table 3.22: Mechanical treatment of waste with calorific value – Origin of emissions to air and
associated abatement techniques
Plant
Origin of emissions to air Abatement techniques
code
24 Mechanical process Bag/fabric filter system
31 Mechanical process Bag/fabric filter system
Mechanical process Activated carbon adsorption
32
Mechanical process Biofiltering
34 Mechanical process Bag/fabric filter system
Bag/fabric filter system
Activated carbon adsorption
35 Storage & Mechanical process
Exhaust air is used as combustion air for
incineration
No emissions to air from the mechanical
115 NA
process
116 Mechanical process Water spraying (dust)
117 NI NI
122 NI Bag/fabric filter system
Bag/fabric filter system
133 Mechanical process Cyclonic separation
Water spraying (dust)
219 No emissions to air High-pressure fog system
269 Storage & Mechanical process Bag/fabric filter system
Bag/fabric filter system
270 Storage & Mechanical process
Water spraying (dust)
Exhaust air is directed to a combustion
273 Storage & Mechanical process
plant
Activated carbon adsorption
277 Storage & Mechanical process
Bag/fabric filter system
Bag/fabric filter system
278 Storage & Mechanical process Biofiltering
Wet scrubbing
279-1 Mechanical process Bag/fabric filter system
Biofiltering
Activated carbon adsorption
280 Mechanical process
Cyclonic separation
Bag/fabric filter system
Water spraying (dust)
312 Mechanical process
Bag/fabric filter system
325 No emissions to air NA
326 Mechanical process Bag/fabric filter system
361 Mechanical process Bag/fabric filter system
Bag/fabric filter system
Activated carbon adsorption
425-426 Mechanical process
Thermal oxidation
Acid scrubber system
Mechanical process, output sorting,
442 Bag/fabric filter system
transport and storage steps
443 Mixed-waste shredder Bag/fabric filter system
472 NI NI
487 No channelled emissions to air NA
493 No emissions to air NA
574 No emissions to air NA
615 Storage & Mechanical process Bag/fabric filter system
Bag/fabric filter system
627 Storage & Mechanical process
Water spraying (dust)
632 Mechanical process Bag/fabric filter system
633 NI NI
NB: NI = No information.
NA = Not applicable.

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Figure 3.34 below shows the level of dust emissions to air from mechanical treatment of waste
with calorific value, as well as the abatement techniques used.

Figure 3.34: Dust emissions to air from mechanical treatment of waste with calorific value

Figure 3.35 below shows the level of emissions of organic compounds to air from mechanical
treatment of waste with calorific value, as well as the abatement techniques used.

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Figure 3.35: Emissions of organic compounds to air from mechanical treatment of waste with
calorific value

3.3.3.2 Emissions to water

Table 3.23 shows the different parameters measured at mechanical treatment plants of waste
with calorific value. This table should be read together with Table 3.24 which shows, for each
plant, the origin of the emissions, the associated abatement techniques, and the type of discharge
(direct or indirect discharge).

Out of 33 plants that participated in the data collection, 17 reported having no emissions to
water from the mechanical process. Among 11 plants that reported having emissions to water
(from the mechanical process and/or from storage or other common process steps), 10 reported
releasing to a sewer system (indirect discharge). One plant (Plant 31) reported discharging
directly to the environment and monitoring THC (reported average concentration: 0.24 mg/l).
Globally, the most commonly measured parameters are pH, TSS and COD.

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Table 3.23: Emissions to water from mechanical treatment of waste with calorific value
Number of
Range (mg/l measurements Number
Pollutant
Monitoring Plants concerned except for pH of measurements during
measured
and flow) the 3-year reference
period (2010-2012)
Flow
Estimated 278, 361 0.07–7 3
(m3/h)
Continuous 425-426 7.2–7.4 NA
pH
Grab sample 280, 361, 632 7.3–8.1 5–29
TSS Grab sample 280, 361, 632 19–58 6–30
BOD5 Grab sample 632 25 26
COD Grab sample 280, 361, 632 38.3–95.7 6–30
TOC Continuous 425-426 10–16 NA
THC Grab sample 31, 361 0.2–1.3 3–6
Total P Grab sample 361 2.9 6
Cd Grab sample 361 0.006 6
Hg Grab sample 361 0.0005 6
As Grab sample 361 0.01 6
Pb Grab sample 361 0.01 6
Cr Grab sample 361 0.005 6
Cu Grab sample 361 0.04 6
Mn Grab sample 361 0.1 6
Ni Grab sample 361 0.006 6
Zn Grab sample 361 0.1 6
NB: The values are the minimum and maximum reported average of the measurements over the three reference years.
Plant 487 is not shown in the table, because the reported concentration values for TSS, COD/TOC, total N, total P,
metals, etc. for emissions to water refer to values after common waste water treatment of waste waters arising from
all the activities performed at the site, including the landfill where the plant is located .

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Table 3.24: Mechanical treatment of waste with calorific value - Origin of emissions to water,
abatement techniques used, and type of discharge
Plant
Origin of emissions to water Techniques used Type of discharge
code
No emissions to water
24 The used water is recirculated NA
from the process
Direct discharge from
31 Storage and common steps Oil separator the on-site common
WWT facilities
No emissions to water
32 NA NA
from the process
No emissions to water
34 NA NA
from the process
35 NI NI NI
Indirect discharge
No technique specific to the
from the WT plant to
115 NI mechanical treatment of
an on-site common
waste with calorific value
WWTP
Indirect discharge
116 Storage and mechanical process No technique (urban/municipal
sewer system)
No emissions to water from the
Indirect discharge
process. Leachate from storage is
117 NA (urban/municipal
transported by truck
sewer system)
to a municipal WWTP
No emissions to water from the
122 NA NA
process
API oil-water
133 Mechanical process NI
separator system
No emissions to water
219 NA NA
from the process
No emissions to water
269 NA NA
from the process
270 NI NI NI
No emissions to water
273 NA NA
from the process
277 NI NI NI
Wet scrubbing Indirect discharge
278 No emissions to water (urban/municipal
from the process sewer system)
279 NI NI NI
Indirect discharge
280 Segregated drainage system Sedimentation (ponds) (urban/municipal
sewer system)
Indirect discharge
No emissions to water from the
312 NI (urban/municipal
process, only rainwater
sewer system)
No emissions to water
325 NA NA
from the process
No emissions to water
326 NA NA
from the process
Chemical oxidation
Chemical precipitation
Indirect discharge
Chemical reduction
361 Storage and mechanical process (urban/municipal
Coagulation
sewer system)
Decantation
Filtration
425-426 NI No treatment NI
No emissions to water
442 NA NA
from the process

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Indirect discharge
from the WT plant to
443 Storage Decantation
an on-site common
WWTP
472 NI NI NI
Activated sludge system -
All activities performed at the site Indirect discharge
SBR, chemical precipitation,
487 including the landfill where the plant (urban/municipal
infiltration of leachate in
is located sewer system)
waste cells
No emissions to water
493 NA NA
from the process
No emissions to water
574 NA NA
from the process
No emissions to water
615 NA NA
from the process
No emissions to water
627 NA NA
from the process
Indirect discharge
632 Road water, roof water NI (urban/municipal
sewer system)
633 NI NI NI
NB: NI = No information.
NA = Not applicable.

3.3.3.3 Water usage

Mechanical treatment of waste with calorific value is a dry process. Water may be used for
cleaning, and for wet scrubbing or water spraying (dust abatement). The annual amount of water
used, according to the data collection, ranges from 22 m3 to 16 400 m3 (of which 5000 m3/year
is recycled).

This corresponds to a specific water usage ranging from 2 litres to 800 litres per tonne of waste
treated.

3.3.3.4 Energy consumption

Electricity is the main energy source. Some plants also provided information on the use of
energy from fossil fuels. From the provided data, the range of energy consumption is from
around 700 MWh/year to 12 000 MWh/year, with an average of around 3 000 MWh/year.

The specific energy consumption varies strongly, from 11.7 kWh to 260 kWh per tonne of
waste treated, with an average of around 54 kWh/t.

The specific electricity consumption varies from 6.3 kWh/t to 152 kWh/t, with an average of
around 43 kWh/t.

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3.3.4 Techniques to consider in the determination of BAT

3.3.4.1 Techniques for the prevention or reduction of emissions to air

3.3.4.1.1 Reduction of dust emissions

Description
Fabric filter.

Technical description
See Section 2.3.4.4 and the CWW BREF [ 45, COM 2016 ]

Achieved environmental benefits

Reduction of dust emissions to air.

Environmental performance and operational data

Table 3.25 below presents the environmental performance of plants carrying out mechanical
treatment of waste with calorific value and equipped with a bag/fabric filter system, in terms of
dust emissions to air.

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Table 3.25: Environmental performance of plants carrying out mechanical treatment of waste with calorific value and equipped with a bag/fabric filter system (dust
emissions to air)
Air flow
Number of
(Nm3/h) Dust emission concentration (mg/Nm3)
measurements
Average
Plant Capacity Origin of during the 3-
over the Waste input Output type
code (t/day) emissions to air year reference
three
Minimum Average Maximum period (2010-
reference
2012)
years
Ferrous metal
Non-ferrous metal
Shredder light fraction,
24 300 Mechanical process 68 000 1 1 1 6 Mixed plastics
Shredder heavy fraction
Fluff
Residues from sorting
SRF
Mixed municipal waste, Residues from shredding
31 450 Mechanical process NI 0.5 0.5 0.5 1
plastics, wood, etc. Ferrous metal
Non-ferrous metal
Household waste, RDF
Storage &
35 1200 NI 0.5 0.6 0.8 6 industrial waste, bulk Ferrous metal
Mechanical process
waste Non-ferrous metal
Ferrous metal
SRF
Construction and Wood
122 400 NI 19 000 1 1 1 2
demolition wastes Non-ferrous metal
Residues from sorting
Fine fraction
SRF
Storage & Bulky waste, mixed
270 320 50 000 2 2 2 1 Residues from sorting
Mechanical process plastics, sorting residues
Ferrous metal
SRF
Storage & Mixed plastics, plastics, Residues from sorting
277 280 45 000 0.09 0.3 0.4 4
Mechanical process mixed packaging Ferrous metal
Non-ferrous metal
Waste pretreated in
sorting plant: high SRF
calorific fractions from Ferrous metal
279 250 Mechanical process 36 000 0.4 0.4 0.4 1
MSW and bulky waste, Non-ferrous metal
wastes directly Residues from sorting
delivered to the plant

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Municipal wastes RDF

1 (household waste and Ferrous metal
280 800 Mechanical process NI 0.6 0.6 ( ) 0.6 NA
similar commercial Non-ferrous metal
wastes) Immobilised solid waste
Wood
Hazardous and non-
312 320 Mechanical process NI 0.1 0.1 0.1 3 Ferrous metal
hazardous wood waste
Other
Wastes from
mechanical treatment of
waste (e.g. sorting,
RDF
326 120 Mechanical process 1.7 0.06 0.1 0.14 3 crushing, compacting,
Residues from sorting
palletising),
construction and
demolition wastes
Mixed waste containing
1120 Mechanical process 32 000 0.1 0.4 1 9 plastic, rubber, wood,
etc.
Other (waste with calorific
361 Mechanical
Mixed waste containing value)
process, output
1120 190 000 0.1 0.7 2.4 9 plastic, rubber, wood,
sorting, transport
etc.
and storage steps
High calorific waste
from mechanical
Storage &
615 400 45 000 1.2 1.2 1.2 1 treatment, mixed SRF
Mechanical process
plastics from packaging
sorting
Wood
627 450 Mechanical process 16 000 0.3 0.5 0.8 3 Waste wood Non-ferrous metal
Ferrous metal
Mixed municipal waste, RDF
sorting residues of Ferrous metal
632 300 Mechanical process 45 000 1.9 1.9 1.9 3 selective collection, Paper
sorting residues of paper Wood
activity Residues from sorting
(1) Continuous measurement. Yearly average.
NB: NA = Not applicable.

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Cross-media effects
See the CWW BREF [ 45, COM 2016 ].

Technical considerations relevant to applicability

See the CWW BREF [ 45, COM 2016 ].

Economics
See the CWW BREF [ 45, COM 2016 ].

Driving force for implementation

Environmental legislation.

Example plants
See Table 3.25.

Reference literature
[ 45, COM 2016 ]

3.3.4.1.2 Reduction of organic compounds emissions

Description
Collection of VOC emissions from the process, the storage and the loading/unloading activities
and abatement by:

 biofiltration (see Section 2.3.4.7);

 thermal oxidation (see Section 2.3.4.6);
 wet scrubber (see Section 2.3.4.10);
 activated carbon adsorption (see Section 2.3.4.9).

Technical description
See the sections related to the individual abatement techniques.

Achieved environmental benefits

Reduction of emissions to air of organic compounds.

Environmental performance and operational data

See Table 3.26.

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Table 3.26: Environmental performance of mechanical treatment of waste with calorific value
(emissions of organic compounds to air)

Maximum air

prevent/reduc
concentration

concentration

concentration
sources/Units

techniques to

e emissions
Parameter
Plant code

Maximum
Minimum
Pollutant/

(mg/Nm3)

(mg/Nm3)

(mg/Nm3)
Emission

Average

(Nm3/h)

Main
flow
Activated carbon
Treatment
277 TVOC 10.8 13.3 16.3 45 000 adsorption, Bag/fabric filter
and storage
system
Treatment Bag/fabric filter system,
278 TVOC 18 24.5 31 58 000
and storage Biofiltering, Wet scrubbing
Bag/fabric filter system,
Shredding, Activated carbon
425_42
granulating, TOC 11.5 11.5 11.5 11 650 adsorption, Thermal
6
mixing oxidation, Acid scrubber
system

Cross-media effects
See the sections related to the individual abatement techniques.

Technical considerations relevant to applicability

See the sections related to the individual abatement techniques.

Economics
See the sections related to the individual abatement techniques.

Driving force for implementation

Legislation on air pollution.

Example plants
See Table 3.26.

Reference literature
[ 45, COM 2016 ], [ 42, WT TWG 2014 ]

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4 BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT OF WASTE

[ 114, Greenpeace 2001 ], [ 115, DETR and DTI 2001 ], [ 116, ETSU 1998 ], [ 32, Inertec;
dechets, F. and Sita 2002 ], [ 8, LaGrega et al. 1994 ], [ 94, Vrancken et al. 2001 ], [ 9, UK EA
2001 ], [ 10, Babtie Group Ltd 2002 ], [ 90, Hogg et al. 2002 ], [ 117, Petts, J. and Eduljee, G.
1994 ], [ 86, VDI and Dechema 2002 ], [ 11, WT TWG 2003 ], [ 118, Hogg, D. 2001 ], [ 91,
UBA Germany 2003 ], [ 119, Lanfranchi, B. 2003 ], [ 18, WT TWG 2004 ], [ 21, WT TWG
2016 ]

4.1 General overview

Biological treatments use living microorganisms to decompose organic waste into either water,
CO2 and simple inorganics or into simpler organics such as aldehydes and acids. In the case of
composting, organic substances are transformed into humidified mineral-organic complexes.
There are several biological treatments used for the treatment of waste; however, not all are
included in the scope of this document.

Table 4.1, together with information included in the scope section, clarifies which treatments are
included in this document.

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Table 4.1: Biological treatments of waste

Biological
Brief description Included in this document?
treatment
Biological decomposition of the organic
content of wastes. Applied to solid waste,
See Section 4.2.
waste waters, bioremediation and to sludge
Aerobic treatment and soil contaminated with oil. Composting
Only ex situ bioremediation of
(including consists of building piles of waste (windrows)
contaminated soil is covered
composting) to encourage the aerobic biodegradation of
in this document
organic solids, producing a humic substance
(see Section 5.6)
valuable as a soil conditioner or a growing
media constituent.
Decomposition of the organic content of
wastes in closed vessels in the absence of
oxygen and production of digestate valuable as
Anaerobic an organic fertiliser or soil improver. It is See Section. 4.3
treatment (or based on biocenosis using mainly two forms of Only ex situ bioremediation of
anaerobic digestion bacteria: acid-forming and methane-forming. contaminated soil is covered
- AD) Applied to solid-liquid wastes, highly (see Section 5.6)
contaminated waste waters bioremediation and
in the production of biogas to be used as a
fuel.
Treatment of mixed solid waste combining
Mechanical
mechanical treatment (e.g. shredding) with
biological treatment See Section 4.4
biological treatment such as aerobic or
(MBT)
anaerobic treatment.
A typical biodrying reactor includes a series of
discrete, enclosed containers coupled with an
aeration system or a large biodrying hall where
Biodrying See Section 4.2.1
batches of waste are progressively moved
through the hall by a mechanical load crane
(wandering heap).
Decomposition of organic wastes in water by
exposing them to biological growth. Water is
recycled and aerated to facilitate biological Included as a waste water
Activated sludge
action and a sludge is generated. Two treatment (see Section 2.3.6)
commonly applied systems: suspended growth
systems and attached growth systems.
Large lagoons containing high concentrations
of microorganisms. The lagoon is aerated to Included as a waste water
Aerated lagoons
encourage bacterial growth and treatment (see Section 2.3.6)
decomposition of waste.

This chapter does not address biological treatments of water-based liquid waste which are dealt
with in Section 2.3.6.2.5 and Section 5.7.

As the three processes addressed in this chapter (aerobic treatment, anaerobic treatment and
MBT) have many commonalities and in order to avoid repetition, the structure of Chapter 4
is slightly different to that of Chapter 3 and Chapter 5: the techniques to consider in the
determination of BAT are not presented in each subsection dedicated to one of the three
processes mentioned before but at the very end of the chapter.

Generally, biological treatment is successful only when the waste is not harmful to the
biocenosis, within the relatively narrow pH range of pH 4–8, and with a C:N:P ratio of around
100:3–5:1. There are several other important conditions like oxygen content, trace elements,
temperature and mixing. Biological treatment is, if well prepared, able to be adapted to a great
variety of organic materials or substances which can be found in wastes or contaminated
ground.

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The specific emissions from biological treatments depend on:

1. the volatile components present in the feedstock and being produced during the biological
decomposition process;
2. the amount and type of waste being treated (including potential contaminants contained in
the waste); and
3. the type of treatment.

A common characteristic of biological treatments of wastes is that heavy metals and other non-
biodegradable or volatile components on the one hand accumulate as a result of the
mineralisation of the organic matter and on the other hand are subjected to dilution by mixing,
and dissolution in the aqueous phase, and therefore become part of the body of the
microorganisms. In general, heavy metal compounds are not selectively separated from the
waste and not selectively concentrated in a target output material.

Volatile chemical constituents are the most likely to result in fugitive emissions to air, together
with ammonia. Municipal wastes are more likely to lead to the presence of metals in the effluent
or sludge.
Therefore waste separation has an important bearing on the feedstock quality. There are two
main alternatives for waste separation:
 Source separation (not covered under the scope of this document) – this is actively
encouraged in a number of Member States. It includes separation of the putrescible organic
fraction (bio-waste). It is generally accepted that source separation provides the best quality
feedstock for both AD and composting, offering both a maximum organic content and
minimum contamination with heavy metals, glass and plastics. After digestion of this
source-separated waste in a reliable process, the end result will be the formation of a
quality digestate and a high volume of biogas.
 Centralised separation – this is the only route for obtaining a digestible fraction from
residual waste. The techniques involved include mechanical processing, optical processing
and hand-picking. The digestible fraction obtained tends to be more contaminated than
source-separated bio-waste, with inevitable consequences for the digestate’s ultimate
utilisation (there is some evidence that, where pulping is used as a pre-process sorting
phase, liquid separation can lead to the removal of some of the more hazardous elements).
There is also the risk of larger, non-separated components of the waste being carried over
and causing physical damage to treatment plants further downstream (by abrasion,
blockages or tangling).

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4.2 Aerobic treatment (including composting)

4.2.1 Applied processes and techniques

Purpose
To convert biodegradable waste into compost that is safe for humans, animals and plants, and
that is recyclable mainly as a fertiliser, soil improver or, in a lower proportion, recovered as a
fuel. Aerobic treatment can also be used for biological stabilisation of waste prior to landfilling.

Exothermic biochemical decomposition helps to sanitise compost, killing off seeds, spores and
pathogenic microorganisms.

Principle of operation
Aerobic biodegradation of waste is the natural biological degradation process in which bacteria
that thrive in oxygen-rich environments break down and digest the waste into carbon dioxide
(CO2), water (H2O), nitrates and sulphates.

For decomposition to take place in the shortest possible time, input materials must be a mixture
of easily degradable, wet organic substances and structure-improving organic matter. Structure-
improving materials are needed to create structure with adequate air-filled porosity and a high
number of pores in the pile when air conductivity is low [ 120, Bidlingmaier et al. 1998 ].
Moisture content is important to maintain microorganism activity; low moisture content can
lead to microorganisms becoming dormant. If the moisture content becomes too high the
porosity of materials is reduced and anaerobic conditions can flourish within the composting
material. An optimum moisture content in the range of 40–65 % has been reported [ 121, US
Composting Council 2017 ], [ 122, BSI & AfOR & WRAP 2011 ], [ 123, Diaz et al. 2007 ],
The minimum moisture content is 30–45 % (wet basis).

C:N ratios between 20:1 and 35:1 and a C:S ratio of 100:1 are considered favourable to supply
microorganisms with nutrients.[ 21, WT TWG 2016 ]. Bulk density is an indicator of the quality
of the input material's structure.

Feed and output stream

Separately collected bio-waste is the main feedstock entering aerobic treatment plants.

Operating materials used in composting plants are: water, sulphuric acid, sulphurous acid,
lubricants and oils, and gas oil. Water is also used as an additive (process water).

As an example, Table 4.2 below shows the average composition of the feedstock entering
German composting plants in 2009, depending on the plant capacities.

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Table 4.2: Average input to German composting plants by size

Proportion of input
Type of waste Plant size Plant size
10–30 kt/year > 30 kt/year
Separately collected organic waste 52 % 68 %
Green waste (garden and park waste) 37 % 26 %
Commercial catering waste 0% 0%
Waste from the food industry 1% 1%
Animal by-products 0% 0%
Auxiliary agents and additives 2% 0%
Sewage sludge 6% 2%
Renewable raw materials or their
0% 1%
residues
Production waste 1% 0%
Other 0% 2%
Source: [ 124, UBA Germany 2013 ]

The output of the plants is mainly compost (fresh or mature), but also fuel.

Process description
A basic design for composting plants involves four main steps: reception, preparation,
composting, and finalisation.

 Reception: weighing and monitoring the waste input

The characteristics and quantity of the waste input are recorded in the reception area or by
the supplier by means of above-ground or flush-mounted floor scales, or by flow-rate
meters. Acceptance checks consist of visual inspections or also, e.g. in the event of missing
information about the received waste or possible contamination posing a risk to the
treatment process, of reference samples analysis.
The design of the reception area (e.g. way of discharging the feedstock, encapsulation of the
reception area) depends on the type of substrate, on air pollution control, and on hygiene
requirements. Flat or recessed bunkers and tanks provide a buffer.

 Preparation
o Manual sorting.
If necessary, unwanted large non-biodegradable materials are removed by hand.
o Shredding.
The purpose of shredding is to better prepare the organic waste input for
biological treatment: breaking open packaging, homogenising the feedstock,
etc. Shredders are fed by wheel loader, crane and other conveying systems, or
by means of belt and auger conveyors. Depending on the feedstock, the
shredding can take place either before or after the sorting step.
o Automatic sorting and homogenising.
Drum screens are frequently used to classify and homogenise material. When
necessary, metals, plastic, and other non-biodegradable materials are removed,
by means of magnetic and eddy current separators and air classifiers
respectively.
 Composting
o Intensive decomposition.
Intensive decomposition occurs during the first two to three weeks of the
process, when the degradation curve is very steep. Most of the emissions are
linked to this phase: aerobic degradation releases carbon dioxide, water,
ammonia and heat. The temperature of the rotting material climbs to up 70 °C
in the pile, giving rise to a greater release of odorous compounds like volatile

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Chapter 4

fatty acids, ammonia and other nitrogen-containing compounds, ketones,

aromatics, and inorganic and organic sulphur compounds [ 125, Williams et al.
1993 ]
This stage is commonly referred to as the sanitisation phase. It is followed by a
less intense, maturation stage, where breakdown continues, but with different
types of organism proliferating, and temperatures gradually reducing.
Water content, aeration and temperature are the key composting process control
parameters.
o Aeration
Oxygen availability is crucial to maintain aerobic degradation and for
preventing the formation of anaerobic zones releasing methane. Furthermore,
the aeration system simultaneously removes heat and moisture from the
windrow. This prevents the windrow from overheating, but also dries out the
material. By operating the oxygen supply with aerators, the process can be
accelerated. Active aeration can be done by blowing or by suction through
slatted floors. Although blowing generally leads to a quicker decomposition, it
blows the exhaust air to the surroundings and/or into the composting hall.
Suction eases the emissions collection, the protection against corrosion in the
hall, and, except in the case of tunnel composting where workers do not enter,
facilitates maintenance of the required working conditions.
o Maturation.
Depending on the process, the feedstock, and the expected output quality, a
maturation step may be needed. This step lasts from six to twelve weeks.
Maturation generally takes place in table or triangular windrows.
Undecomposed materials remaining after the intensive decomposition release
humic substances during the maturation phase.
 Finalisation
When required, the compost is sent to a final treatment. This step includes size
classification and removal of any remaining impurities (e.g. glass and plastics), by means
of drum screens and air classifiers.

Composting plants do not have a separate sanitation stage because self-heating within the
windrows ensures sanitation. Measures to prevent any possible cross-contamination of the
sanitised compost include: having strictly separate clean and dirty areas (this also applies to
the use of technology, e.g. wheel loaders with exchangeable buckets), systematic cleaning
of equipment such as loaders, buckets, turning machines, banning the addition of fresh
material after the main composting stage, and only irrigating windrows with percolation
water during thermophilic composting (above 55 °C).

Figure 4.1 below gives an example of an indoor aerobic treatment plant treating bio-waste.

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Source: [ 124, UBA Germany 2013 ]

Figure 4.1: Example of an indoor aerobic treatment plant treating bio-waste

Types of composting process

The key characteristics of the composting processes relate to the construction of the biological
stage in which decomposition is the most intense. A further distinction is to be made with
regards to how the composting plant and the windrow itself are built.

The second distinguishing feature relates to the way that the composting plant operates. Plants
can have active or passive ventilation systems, dynamic windrows (continuously turning, as in
composting drums), semi-dynamic windrows (rotting material is turned or mixed by machines)
and static windrows with forced aeration.

 Table windrows
Table windrows are oversized windrows, typically set up in the open air or throughout a hall.
Table windrows are turned regularly and may employ passive or active aeration.

 Triangular windrows
Triangular windrows are laid out in elongated lines in a hall, or in an enclosure covered by a
roof, or in the open air. Material is stacked and turned regularly. Triangular windrows are used
in all stages of composting and mostly employ passive aeration. They may also employ active
aeration for instance in the case of maturation after an intensive decomposition step carried out
indoors.

 Drum composting
A few plants start the biological treatment in a steel drum that rotates very slowly. The turning
motion homogenises the feedstock, improving the bioavailability and aeration of the mixture.
Integrated nozzles can also inject moisture when necessary. The residence time stands at one to

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seven days. Material then undergoes additional composting using other technologies. Just a few
plants use composting drums because of their high operating costs.

 Box, container and tunnel composting

These technologies perform intensive decomposition in an enclosed space with forced aeration
that captures all exhaust air. Fresh compost is typically produced once the intensive
decomposition stage ends. Material can then undergo maturation in a triangular or table
windrow or be returned to the bioreactor (tunnel, box or container) if additional processing is
desired. [ 126, Kern et al. 2010 ]

 Linear composting
This technology consists of open-air composting lines, separated by walls and each of them
being individually actively aerated. Special turning machinery turns the windrows line by line.
The composting process takes from two weeks (producing solely fresh compost) to twelve
weeks. Linear composting is used for both intensive decomposition and maturation.

 Windrows under a semipermeable membrane

Semipermeable membrane covers are a hybrid form of tunnel or in-vessel composting and
covered windrow composting. The semipermeable membrane cover, which is water-resistant
but also permeable to gas and steam, protects against waterlogging. The cover and the active
aeration it provides create composting conditions under which odours, VOCs and other
emissions are largely contained.

Potential emissions
Potential emissions from composting are:

 odorous emissions due to the degradation of organic primary substances;

 dust and bioaerosols during handling of the materials;
 further gaseous emissions (VOCs, NH3, N2O, CH4);
 noise caused by aeration and turning devices;
 material drifting during manipulation;
 liquids (e.g. process, condensate, run-off water).

Abatement techniques used to reduce emissions to air are open or enclosed biofilters and wet
scrubbers.

Users
The plants from the data collection that carry out aerobic treatment are: 021, 038, 062, 069, 073,
074, 104, 110, 114, 124, 125, 126, 128, 129, 260, 261, 262, 328, 331, 372, 406_407, 410_411,
412, 413, 414, 416, 417, 418, 419, 460, 511, 518, 520, 521, 525, 530, 531, 537, 542, 543, 544,
546, 547, 548, 572, 579, 580, 606, 608, 609, 621, 622, 623, 631, 634, 635.

Reference literature
[ 124, UBA Germany 2013 ], [ 49, Bio. subgroup 2014 ], [ 126, Kern et al. 2010 ], [ 127,
Umweltbundesamt (AT) 2015 ]

4.2.1.1 Innovative processes

Purpose
Recovery of biopolymers (hydrocolloids) from aerobic granular sludge from biological waste
water treatment.

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Principle of operation
Sludge granulation emerged in the last decade for a wide range of biological waste water
treatment processes. A significant fraction (20–30 %) of aerobic granular sludge produced in
these processes consists of extracellular biopolymers that have a strong gel-forming property
(e.g. alginate like exopolysaccharides).

Alginate-like exopolysaccharides (ALE) are extracted from aerobic granular sludge by

dissolving them in Na2CO3 at 80 °C for an hour, separating the solid residue, and from the
remaining liquor by precipitation, centrifugation, washing and dissolution in NaOH.

Development of a value chain based on sludge-derived hydrocolloids reduces residual waste and
costs for waste water treatment and recovers a valuable material.

Output streams
Application of these biopolymers, e.g. in the construction industry, may allow savings in cement
usage. New applications in paper making (as coating) and in nanocomposite materials, e.g. for
batteries and speciality fibres, are developing.

References
[ 128, Lin et al. 2010 ], [ 129, Lin et al. 2015 ]

4.2.2 Current emission and consumption levels

[ 42, WT TWG 2014 ]

This section presents the emission and consumption levels of plants performing aerobic
treatment only (outdoor and indoor). The plants carrying out both aerobic and anaerobic
treatments are covered in Section 4.3.2.

4.2.2.1 Emissions to air

4.2.2.1.1 Outdoor aerobic treatment

In open/outdoor aerobic treatment plants, emissions to air are diffuse emissions, inherently
providing little or no options for direct regular monitoring of channelled emission components.
This is confirmed by Table 4.3: only 10 out of 27 plants for which data have been collected
measure emissions to air. All plants measuring bioaerosols are located in the UK.

Table 4.3: Parameters measured in emissions to air at outdoor aerobic treatment plants
Type of
Parameter measured Plants concerned
measurement
Odour Periodic 110, 124, 125, 572
NH3 Periodic 410_411_2
525, 544, 546,
Bioaerosols Periodic
548, 622
Other: specific types of bioaerosols
Periodic 544, 546, 548
(e.g. Aspergillus fumigatus)

As there are no end-of-pipe abatement techniques, quality and operational process management
aiming at the minimisation of emissions to air, specifically in the case of odour, dust and
bioaerosols, as well as the selection of a suitable location for the outdoor composting plant are
of utmost importance.

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Regarding bioaerosols, there is currently no international consensus on the sampling method or

indicator species/substance that should be used as the preferred metric to assess the exposure to
bioaerosols emissions. As a consequence, there is also no consensus as to whether bioaerosols
monitoring can be used to effectively check that acceptable levels of additional bioaerosols
exposure are being achieved and that control measures are operating. Within the EU, only the
UK and Germany have so far implemented additional monitoring requirements related to
bioaerosols, for which national guidelines have been established. A recommended limit for
exposure to endotoxin (a bioaerosol component) exists in the Netherlands.

Table 4.4 and Table 4.5 show respectively the emissions of odour and bioaerosols at the plants
mentioned in Table 4.3.

Table 4.4: Odour emissions in outdoor aerobic treatment plants

Monitoring
Plant code Range Standard
frequency
Continuous measurements.
Measurements are
calculated as a plume from
110 NI a source. Not possible to NI
aggregate the values to one
single value. No emission
limit values.
3 100 OUE/m3 in 2010 (Screening
124 NI NI
flow: 1.58 m3/h/m2)
21 624 OUE/h/m2 in 2011 and
20 523 OUE/h/m2 in 2014 (values
corresponding to the first hours of the
process).
125 NI NI
After 10 days, 2 809 OUE/h/m2
without aeration and 3 161 OUE/h/m2
with aeration.
After 21 days, 1 407 OUE/h/m2.
The odour in nearby areas
is evaluated yearly by
odour panel testing with
three specialised members
572 NI who have passed the n- Once a year
butanol test according to
SFS-EN 13725 and
typically at least one non-
specialised member
NB: NI = No information.

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Table 4.5: Bioaerosols emissions in outdoor aerobic treatment plants

Plant Type of Monitoring
Range (cfu/m3) Standard
code bioaerosol frequency
525 NI NI NI Twice a year
Nearest
Upwind Downwind sensitive
receptor
Mesophilic
bacteria
(167 min 167–778 500–3 333 944–3 500
measurement) 3 times per
544
(1) year
Aspergillus
fumigatus
167 167–20 390 167–2 944
(167 min
measurement)
Gram negative
167–278 250–472 333–583
bacteria
AfOR
Downwind at Downwind
Upwind standard
180 m at 200 m
Protocol
Aspergillus
546 1 333 (2) 167 389 Once a year
fumigatus
Mesophilic
167 334 222
bacteria
Nearest
Upwind Downwind sensitive
receptor
250–
Mesophilic 2 889–
33 278 6 333–348 896
548 bacteria 77 709 Twice a year
(3)
Aspergillus
83–167 167–79 057 278–3 917
fumigatus
Gram negative
69–944 146–4 195 139–3 611
bacteria
622 NI NI NI NI
(1) High values contributed to by dust generated by delivery vehicles.
(2) High values upwind of site due to suspended dust particles generated by traffic on access road.
(3) Nearest sensitive receptor is a farm grain operation 25 m from the composting site hence upwind results can be
high.
NB: NI = No information.

4.2.2.1.2 Indoor aerobic treatment

Table 4.6 shows the different parameters measured at indoor aerobic treatment plants as well as
the type of measurement (periodic/continuous). This table should be read together with

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Table 4.7 which shows, for each plant, the origin of emissions to air, the associated abatement
techniques and the flow of the emissions to air.

The most commonly measured parameters are odour and NH3 which are measured by plants
equipped only with a biofilter, or a combination of a biofilter and a wet scrubber, or a
combination of a biofilter and an acid scrubber. Some plants use only wet scrubbers (e.g. Plant
126 for the ambient air of the composting halls) or cyclones (e.g. Plant 460 for the waste
reception hall). Finally, two plants (Plants 579 and 580) use semipermeable membranes as
abatement techniques. In these cases, no information has been reported about the measurement
of emissions to air.

Concerning the measurement of bioaerosols, seven plants reported such monitoring, but for one
of them (Plant 372) bioaerosols are measured inside the composting hall. It should be noted that
the six other plants are all located in the UK.

Table 4.6: Parameters measured in emissions to air at indoor aerobic treatment plants
Type of
Parameter measured Plants concerned
measurement
114, 126_1, 126_2, 126_3, 126_4, 126_5,
128, 261, 262, 372, 406_407_2, 414_1,
Odour Periodic
414_2, 416, 460_1, 518, 520, 537, 542,
608, 621, 634
062, 114, 126_1, 126_2, 126_3, 126_4,
NH3 Periodic 126_5, 328, 372, 406_407_2, 412_1,
413_1, 460_1, 621, 634
372*,
518 (total bacteria and Aspergillus
fumigatus), 520 (total bacteria and
Aspergillus fumigatus), 537 (Aspergillus
fumigatus), 542 (Mesophilic bacteria,
Bioaerosols Periodic
Aspergillus fumigatus and Gram negative
bacteria), 543 (Mesophilic bacteria,
aspergillus fumigatus and Gram negative
bacteria), 608 (Mesophilic bacteria and
Aspergillus fumigatus)
H 2S Periodic 328, 372, 460_1, 634
TOC Periodic 460_1
Dust Periodic 372*
SOX Periodic 406_407_1**
NOX Periodic 406_407_1**
CH4 Periodic 634
* Determined in biooxidation hall.
** Emission from biogas combustion.

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Table 4.7: Origin of emissions to air and associated abatement techniques at indoor aerobic
treatment plants
Average
Origin of emissions to Abatement
Plant code air flow
air techniques
(Nm3/h)
 Biofiltering
 Injection of
Mixer, sieving,
odour
windsifter, ballistic
neutralisers
62 separation, first 150 000
 Water spraying
biodegradation and
(dust)
post-treatment
 Fast-closing
curtains
Pre-shredder, mixer,  Acid scrubber
114 screening, first system 140 000
biodegradation  Biofiltering
 Acid scrubber
First biodegradation,
system
acid and alkaline
126_1 (composting boxes)  Alkaline 15 000
oxidative scrubber
system oxidative
scrubber system
First biodegradation,
126_2 (hall ambient air) Wet scrubbing 23 000
water scrubber 1
First biodegradation,
126_3 (hall ambient air) Wet scrubbing 29 000
water scrubber 2
First biodegradation,
126_4 (hall ambient air) Wet scrubbing 27 000
water scrubber 3
First biodegradation,
126_5 (hall ambient air) Wet scrubbing 33 000
water scrubber 4
128 NI NI NI
 Absolute filter
system
 Acid scrubber
system
 Activated
carbon
adsorption
 Alkaline
oxidative
scrubber system
 Bag/fabric filter
system
260 Whole plant - biofilter  Basic scrubber 50 000
system
 Biofiltering
 Bioscrubbing
 Biotrickling
 Catalytic
oxidation
 Cyclonic
separation
 Dry electrostatic
precipitation
(ESP)
 Flaring
261 Whole plant - biofilter Biofiltering 90 000
Biofiltering and wet
262 Biological process 55 000
scrubbing

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 Acid scrubber
Biological treatment of
328 system NI
bio-waste - biofilter
 Biofiltering
Reception, storage and
handling, segregation,
 Wet scrubbing
372 wheel loader mixer, 108 000
 Biofiltering
sorting step, aerobic
process
Anaerobic process - gas
406_407_1 NI NI
engine**
Aerobic process -
406_407_2 Biofiltering 125 000
biofilter
First biodegradation -
412_1 Biofiltering 80 000
biofilter
First biodegradation -
413_1 Biofiltering 150 000
biofilter
Aerobic process - filter
414_1 Biofiltering 28 833
1
Aerobic process - filter
414_2 Biofiltering 40 033
2
 Acid scrubber
system
 Biofiltering
First biodegradation and (with cooling of
416 224 000
final dry maturation process air to
ensure proper
operation of the
biofilters)
Reception area,
pretreatment, first  Acid scrubber
biodegradation, final system
maturation in tunnels  Biofiltering
460_1 95 751
and, in general,  Forced aeration
enclosed buildings -  Water spraying
acid scrubber and (dust)
biofilter
460_2 Cyclonic separation None NI
511 NI Biofiltering NI
First biodegradation and
518 Biofiltering NI
final dry maturation
First biodegradation and
520 Biofiltering NI
final dry maturation
Thermal profiling
started 2014, gas
530 Complete plant NI
and flow analysis
installed in 2012
537 Complete plant Biofiltering NI
542 Complete plant Biofiltering NI
543 NI Biofiltering NI
Semipermeable
579 Biological step NI
cover system
Semipermeable
580 NI NI
cover membranes
 Wet scrubbing
608 Biological step NI
 Biofiltering
609 NI Biofiltering NI
621 Complete plant Biofiltering 90 000
In-vessel composting
(IVC) and aerated pad
623 Biofiltering NI
(one biofilter for each
step)

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 Biofiltering
634 Aerobic process  Tower water 37 940
scrubber
** Emission from biogas combustion.
NB: NI = No information.

Table 4.8, Table 4.9 and Figure 4.2 show the odour, bioaerosols and NH3 concentrations,
respectively, in emissions to air.

Table 4.8: Odour emissions in indoor aerobic treatment plants

Number of
measurements
Conc. Min. Conc. Average Conc. Max. during the 3-
Plant code Standard
(OUE/Nm3) (OUE/Nm3) (OUE/Nm3) year reference
period
(2010-2012)
7.4 MOUE/h or 8.2 MOUE/h or
261 NI NI Every 3 years
72 OUE/m3 80 OUE/m3
621 76.09 139 206.36 NI 7
372 160.5 197 222 NI 3
262 191 304 416 NI 2
634 140 289 420 NI 10
518 847 882 917 NI 2
460_1 287 568 1024 EN 13727 6
542 1218 1819 2896 NI 6 in 2012
126_4 1360 2537 3600 NI 3
126_5 1360 2537 3600 NI 3
126_2 2100 2900 3700 NI 2
537 (1) 2289 NA 3770 NI 2
114 2600 3733 4800 NI 3
608 634 3357 5170 EN 13725 5
520 6318 6318 6318 NI 1
414_1 930 4290 7600 NI 3
126_3 1550 4233 8400 NI 3
126_1 4300 7433 10300 NI 3
414_2 1100 7267 14100 NI 3
Sampling and
olfactometry
185 MOUE/h, 1 405 MOUE/h, 6 950 MOUE/h,
EN 13725;
416 i.e. i.e. i.e. 15
gas
826 OUE/Nm3 6 282 OUE/Nm3 31 026 OUE/Nm3
characteristics
EN 15259
(1) The first figure is the CMB (compost management building) biofilter emission and the second is the IVC (in-
vessel composting). Each figure is the geometric mean of triplicate samples. Odour removal was 98.9 % in the
CMB biofilter and 96.2 % in the IVC biofilter.

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Table 4.9: Bioaerosols emissions in indoor aerobic treatment plants

Bioaerosol Bioaerosol Bioaerosol
Plant Type of Monitoring
conc. min. conc. average conc. max Standard
code bioaerosols frequency
(cfu/Nm3) (cfu/Nm3) (cfu/Nm3)
Total bacteria
count in
372 6 900 45 133.33333 120 000 NI Once per year
biooxidation
hall
Total bacteria 14 31.5 49 NI 2 in 2012
518
A. fumigatus 4 9 14 NI 2 in 2012
Total bacteria 99 649.5 1 200 NI 2 in 2012
520
A. fumigatus 60 106.5 153 NI 2 in 2012
AfOR
Aspergillus
167 167 167 Standardised 9 in 2013
fumigatus
protocol
AfOR
Mesophilic
542 167 630 1 333 Standardised 9 in 2013
bacteria
protocol
AfOR
Gram negative
83 306 417 Standardised 9 in 2013
bacteria
Protocol
AfOR
Aspergillus
167 167 167 Standardised 9 in 2013
fumigatus
protocol
AfOR
Mesophilic
543 167 389 1 500 Standardised 9 in 2013
bacteria
protocol
AfOR
Gram negative
83 306 417 Standardised 9 in 2013
bacteria
protocol
Method -
Mesophilic AfOR M17 26 times over
23 720 5 723
bacteria and 2009 3 years
protocol
Method -
Aspergillus AfOR M17 25 times over
608 10 379 2 945
fumigatus and 2009 3 years
protocol
Method -
Gram negative AfOR M17 16 times over
10 14.5 25
bacteria and 2009 2 years
protocol

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Figure 4.2: NH3 concentrations at indoor aerobic treatment plants

Table 4.10 shows the number of periodic measurements of NH3 concentration in emissions to
air.

Table 4.10: Number of periodic measurements of NH3 concentration in emissions to air

Number of NH3 measurements

Plant code during the 3-year reference
period (2010-2012)

62 30
114 3
126_1 3
126_2 3
126_3 3
126_4 3
126_5 3
328 36
372 3
406_407_2 3
412_1 33
413_1 33
460_1 3
621 7
634 4

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4.2.2.2 Emissions to water

4.2.2.2.1 Outdoor aerobic treatment

Composting can generate leachate as a result of high moisture levels in bio-waste and
putrescible waste, and from natural precipitation seeping through active or curing compost piles.
Waste water also consists of run-off water that has fallen on storage and/or treatment areas, and
of washing water that is used to clean plant/equipment and surfaces.

Run-off water from roofs or from areas that are not used for storing and treating waste are
considered ‘clean’ water and may be discharged directly to the environment or can be used to
keep the waste moist, for vehicle cleaning and hygiene.

Table 4.11 shows the measurements of emissions to water performed by outdoor composting
plants.

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Table 4.11: Parameters measured in emissions to water in outdoor aerobic treatment plants
Number of
measurement
Range (mg/l s during the
Parameter
Monitoring Plants concerned except for 3-year
measured
pH and flow) reference
period
(2010–2012)
021, 110, 410_411,
Continuous 2.7–26 NA
418, 521, 572
Flow (m3/h)
Grab sample 417 NI NI
Estimated 419 2 NI
Continuous 419 7 NA
24-hour flow-
proportional composite 418 7 NA
pH sample
Composite sample 110 8 NI
021, 104, 125, 417,
Grab sample 7.1–8.6 4–36
521, 572
24-hour flow-
proportional composite 418 4620 NA
sample
COD
Composite sample 110 361 NI
Grab sample 104, 417, 521, 572 175–948 1–12
Estimated 419 2167 NI
24-hour flow-
proportional composite 418 420 NA
sample
Total N
Composite sample 110 171 NI
Grab sample 104, 417, 521, 572 5.2–225 1–23
Estimated 419 217 NI
24-hour flow-
proportional composite 418 26 NA
Total P sample
Composite sample 110 1.7 NI
Grab sample 104, 417, 572 4.8–5.8 6–26

TSS Grab sample 104, 125, 521, 572 7.7–235 1–26

Composite sample 110 0.0031 NI

Pb
Grab sample 021, 104, 572 0.0033–0.075 6–26
Composite sample 110 0.010 NI
Cr
Grab sample 021, 104, 572 0.0002–0.024 6–26
Composite sample 110 32 NI
BOD5
Grab sample 104, 521 8–117 1–11
Composite sample 110 0.00008 NI
Cd
Grab sample 021, 572 0.0002–0.024 6–26
Composite sample 110 0.0001 NI
Hg 0.0001–
Grab sample 021, 572 6–26
0.0006
Composite sample 110 0.03 NI
Cu
Grab sample 021, 104, 572 0.01–0.09 6–26
Composite sample 110 0.04 NI
Ni
Grab sample 021, 104, 572 0.02–0.03 6–26
TOC Grab sample 021, 104 0.1–253.9 6–8
BOD7 Grab sample 572 77.3 26
Composite sample 110 120 NI
NH3-N
Grab sample 021 11.5 12
Zn Grab sample 021, 104, 572 0.02–0.16 6–26

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Co Grab sample 021 NI NI

Mn Grab sample 021 NI NI
Sum metals Grab sample 021 NI NI
THC Grab sample 021 1.6 12
Tl Grab sample 021 NI NI
Cd+Tl Grab sample 021 NI NI
Sb Grab sample 021 NI NI
As Grab sample 021 NI NI
Cr(VI) Grab sample 021 NI NI
V Grab sample 021 NI NI
Fe Grab sample 021 NI NI
Chlorine Grab sample 021 NI NI
Phenols Grab sample 021 NI NI
AOX Grab sample 021 0.22 8
NB: NA = Not applicable.
NI = No information.

These measurements should be analysed in correlation with the types of emissions to water of
each plant. Table 4.12 shows that not all plants release waste water and therefore measure
emissions to water. For these plants, waste water may be reused in the process, or tankered for
further treatment off site.

As far as plants with water release are concerned, the water is generally released to an
urban/municipal sewer system or to a waste water treatment plant on site. There is only one case
where the water is released directly to the environment, and three cases where waste water is
used for landspreading.

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Table 4.12: Origin of emissions to water and associated abatement techniques at outdoor
composting plants
Plant code Origin of emissions to water Point of discharge Abatement techniques
Indirect discharge
21 Biological process (urban/municipal sewer NI
system)
38 Biological process NI NI
69 NI NI NI
No emission to water:
potentially polluted rainwater
73 NA NA
is collected, stored in a buffer
tank and reused in the process
74 NI NI NI
Batch discharge of excess Indirect discharge
104 collected leachate from (urban/municipal sewer Sedimentation (ponds)
sedimentation basin system)
Run-off water collected from
Indirect discharge
all areas (storage of input
110 (urban/municipal sewer Nitrification/denitrification
materials, processing and
system)
storage of final products)
124 NI NI NI
Aeration (rotation speed
Run-off water collected from
depending on oxygen rate)
125 storage, common steps and Landspreading
and extraction (silt storage
biological process areas
and oil separator)
129 NI NI NI
262 NI NI NI
331 NI NI NI
Indirect discharge
First biodegradation
410_411_2 (urban/municipal sewer NI
Final dry maturation
system)
Indirect discharge
417 First biodegradation (urban/municipal sewer Buffer tanks
system)
Indirect discharge
418 First biodegradation (urban/municipal sewer Aeration buffer tanks
system)
Indirect discharge
419 First biodegradation (urban/municipal sewer Aeration buffer tanks
system)
Direct discharge from the
521 Reed bed output on-site common facility Reed bed systems
to the environment
525 No emissions to water NA NA
531 No emissions to water NA NA
All potentially contaminated
544 Landspreading NA
water is collected
All potentially contaminated
546 Landspreading NA
water is collected
All potentially contaminated
547 water is collected and tankered NI NA
away
All potentially contaminated
548 water is collected and tankered NI NA
away
572 Biological process, final dry Indirect discharge
maturation (leachate water (urban/municipal sewer NI
collected from the whole site) system)

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606 Indirect discharge (on-

site common facilities
mainly influenced by
Run-off water from whole site waste water streams NI
coming from activities
other than the aerobic
treatment plant)
622 Indirect discharge
Run-off water from whole site
(urban/municipal sewer NI
- tankering off site
system)
631 NI NI NI
635 NI NI NI
NB: NI = No information.
NA = Not applicable.

4.2.2.2.2 Indoor aerobic treatment

Table 4.13 shows the different parameters measured at indoor aerobic treatment plants as well
as the type of measurement (periodic/continuous). This table should be read together with Table
4.14 which shows, for each plant, the origin of emissions to water, the associated abatement
techniques and the flow of the emissions to water.

The most commonly measured parameters in emissions to water are TSS, pH, COD, Total N
and BOD5. There are four plants (Plants 372, 580, 609 and 634) which report releasing waste
water directly to the environment. All the other plants release waste water to an on-site waste
water treatment plant or to an off-site waste water treatment plant via the sewage system or via
intermediate tankering of waste water. Two plants (Plants 579 and 621) report not having
emissions to water.

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Table 4.13: Parameters measured in emissions to water at indoor aerobic treatment plants
Number of
measurements
Range (mg/l
Parameter during the 3-
Monitoring Plants concerned except for pH
measured year reference
and flow)
period (2010–
2012)
062, 114, 126_1, 0.055–
Continuous NA
372, 416 15 000 m3/h
Flow Composite sample 623 (1) 15 779 m3/year Per tank
Grab sample 412_1, 609 20–55 m3/h 1–36
Estimated 412_2, 413_2 700 m3/year NI
Composite sample 372, 623 (1) 6.2–8 3
pH 062, 114, 126_1,
Grab sample 5.9–8.8 3–23
412_1, 608
24-hour flow-
proportional composite 416 63 NA
sample
TSS
Composite sample 372, 623 (1) 899–1 255 3
062, 114, 126_1,
Grab sample 26–4 143 1–31
412_1, 608, 609
Composite sample 372, 623 (1) 3 180–20 382 3
COD 062, 114, 126_1,
Grab sample 300–20 983 1–23
412_1, 608
24-hour flow-
proportional composite 416 69 NA
Total N sample
Composite sample 372, 623 (1) 3–557 3
Grab sample 062, 114, 412_1, 609 0.3–2 915 1–29
Composite sample 372, 623 1 150–8 687 3
BOD5
Grab sample 062, 114, 126_1, 609 3.3–15 667 3–33
Continuous 260 NI NI
Total P Composite sample 372 37.8 3
Grab sample 062, 114, 126_1 3.4–105.7 1–6
Composite sample 372 NI NI
TOC
Grab sample 062, 126_1 223–1 290 2–5
Cl- Grab sample 126_1, 412_1 24–515 1–3
Sulphates Grab sample 126_1, 412_1 50–9 420 1–2
Grab sample 126_1 3 094 2
NH3-N
Estimated 260 NI NI
Cd Grab sample 126_1, 412_1 0.0005–0.001 1
Hg Grab sample 126_1, 412_1 0.0001 1
As Grab sample 126_1, 412_1 0.005–0.014 1–3
Pb Grab sample 126_1, 412_1 0.009–0.029 1–2
Cr Grab sample 126_1, 412_1 0.0045–0.009 1–2
Cu Grab sample 126_1, 412_1 0.03–0.19 1–2
Ni Grab sample 126_1, 412_1 0.009 1
Zn Grab sample 126_1, 412_1 0.218–0.228 1–2
EOX Grab sample 126_1, 412_1 0.13–0.9 1–2
F- Grab sample 126_1 0.17 2
TKN Grab sample 126_1 3820 3
Cr(VI) Grab sample 126_1 < 0.05 1
Mn Grab sample 126_1 0.243 2
Fe Grab sample 126_1 3.535 2
Phenols Grab sample 126_1 0.59 1
AOX Grab sample 126_1 3 2
PCB Grab sample 126_1 < 0.01 1
(1) Plant 623: measurements are made per tank.
NB: NA = Not applicable.
NI = No information.

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Table 4.14: Origin of emissions to water and associated abatement techniques at indoor aerobic
treatment plants
Origin of
Receiving
Plant code emissions to Point of discharge Abatement techniques
water body
water
 Mixer
 Oversized
bodies
separation -
screening
 Ferromagnetic Indirect discharge (on-
separation site common facilities
mainly influenced by
62  Sieving waste water streams River/Stream NI
 Windsifter coming from activities
other than the waste
 Ballistic treatment plant)
separation
 Sieving
 First
biodegradation
 Post-treatment
 Handling,
loading,
unloading
 Waste input
storage
 Pre-shredder
Indirect discharge Coastal
 Mixer
114 (urban/municipal sewer water NI
 Oversized system) (sea/ocean)
bodies
separation -
screening
 First
biodegradation
 Post-treatment
Indirect discharge (on-
site common facilities The waste water generated
Sludge and green
mainly influenced by by the plant is stored
waste composting
126_1 waste water streams NI before being used as a
process and air
coming from activities reagent for the hazardous
treatment
other than the waste waste stabilisation process
treatment plant)
No emissions to
128 NA NA NI
water
Indirect discharge
260 Whole plant (urban/municipal sewer NI NI
system)
Indirect discharge
261 NI (urban/municipal sewer NI NI
system)
328 NI NI NI NI

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 Reception
 Handling,
loading,
unloading
 Waste input
storage
 Unpacking
 Output storage
 Open air
 Segregation
and Discharge from the WT
372 compatibility plant to the environment Groundwater NI
procedure without treatment
 Wheel loader
mixing
 Squeezing
machine for
separating
plastics from
food waste
 Final dry
maturation
 First
biodegradation
406_407_2 NI NI NI NI
First
biodegradation - Indirect discharge
Precipitation
412_1 run-off water (urban/municipal sewer River/Stream
Flotation
from concrete system)
surface
First
biodegradation -
Indirect discharge
continuous flow
412_2 (urban/municipal sewer River/Stream NI
of condensed
system)
water to the sewer
system
Transitional
First waters (i.e.
biodegradation - Indirect discharge surface
413_1 Run of water (urban/municipal sewer water in the Precipitation
from concrete system) vicinity of
surface river
mouths)
413_2 NI NI NI NI
Indirect discharge NI
414_1 Aerobic process (urban/municipal sewer NI
system)
Indirect discharge (off- NI
416 Aerobic process site common waste water NI
treatment facilities)
Nitrification/denitrification
460_1 NI NI NI
Ultrafiltration
511 NI NI NI NI
Indirect discharge
518 NI (urban/municipal sewer River/Stream NI
system)
Indirect discharge
520 NI (urban/municipal sewer NI NI
system)
Indirect discharge
530 Complete plant (urban/municipal NI NI
sewer system)

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All potentially
contaminated
water is collected
537 NI NI NI
and tankered
away for
treatment
All potentially
contaminated is
542 collected and NI NI NI
tankered away for
treatment
543 NI NI NI NI
No emissions to
water: waste
579 water is used NA NA NA
throughout the
process
Surface water Direct discharge from
Combination of
from driving the on-site common
580 River/Stream ultrafiltration and reverse
areas and other waste water facilities to
osmosis
uncovered areas the environment
Indirect discharge
608 Biological step (urban/municipal sewer NI NI
system)
Direct discharge from
Waste treatment the on-site common
609 River/Stream NI
plant waste water facilities to
the environment
No emissions to Automated waste water
621 NA NA
water recirculation
Run-off from Off-site tankering to a
623 Indirect discharge River/Stream
tanks to tankers sewage treatment works
Direct discharge from
the on-site common
634 Aerobic process River/Stream NI
waste water facilities to
the environment
NB: NI = No information.
NA = Not applicable.

4.2.2.3 Water usage

The reported average water usage per tonne of waste treated is around 150 l, with a range of 10–
730 l/t for outdoor aerobic treatment and with a range of 0–500 l/t for indoor aerobic treatment.

It is difficult to draw any conclusions from these figures as in the case of outdoor treatment the
quantity of water used also depends on the meteorological conditions. Water may also be used
for water spraying to reduce dust emissions.

4.2.2.4 Energy consumption

From the reported data, the average energy consumption is around 64 kWh per tonne of waste
treated for outdoor aerobic treatment, with a range of 0–330 kWh/t, and around 69 kWh/t for
indoor aerobic treatment, with a range of 0.1–253 kWh/t.

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4.3 Anaerobic treatment (or anaerobic digestion (AD))

4.3.1 Applied processes and techniques

Purpose
The treatment of biodegradable waste by controlled anaerobic treatment (also called anaerobic
digestion (AD)) is used to transform the organic matter contained in the waste into biogas and
digestate.

Anaerobic digestion is also used in industry to handle wastes very high in COD, and as a
treatment process for sewage sludge after an aerobic waste water treatment.

The production of biogas from controlled anaerobic digestion is one of the principal advantages
of the process: it is a renewable energy source which can be used for the production of
electricity, heat and fuel (gaseous or liquefied).

Principle of operation
Anaerobic digestion involves the bacterial decomposition of biomass (biogenic organic
material) in the absence of free oxygen.

The conversion of biomass to biogas and digestate is a complex biochemical process. Four
phases can be distinguished as follows (see Figure 4.3 below):

1. In the first step, the hydrolysis, polymer components of the feedstock (e.g. carbohydrates,
proteins, fat) are disassembled into lower molecular organic compounds (inter alia amino
acids, sugar and fatty acids). The hydrolytic microorganisms involved release hydrolytic
enzymes, which decompose the material biochemically outside the microbial cells. During
hydrolysis some hydrogen is formed which can be directly used for methane formation.
2. The intermediates produced are degraded during acidogenesis (fermentation) by acidogenic
bacteria to volatile fatty acids (e.g. acetic acids, propionic and butyric acid) as well as to
carbon dioxide and hydrogen. Also, lactic acid and alcohols are produced in small quantities.
3. The intermediates are subsequently transformed during acetogenesis by acetogenic bacteria
to acetic acid, hydrogen and carbon dioxide.
4. In the last phase, the methanogenesis, methane and carbon dioxide are formed, by archaea.

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Source: Adapted from [ 130, Mwaniki et al. 2017 ]

Figure 4.3: Path of anaerobic digestion

In the process, carbon from incoming organics is mostly converted to methane and carbon
dioxide, and then released as biogas. The biogas can be combusted in boilers to produce heat or
in combined heat and power (CHP) units. It can also be upgraded to biomethane by removal of
the carbon dioxide content, and be injected into the natural gas grid or used as a fuel for
vehicles.

The proportion of methane to carbon dioxide varies with the waste stream and the temperature
of the system. The system needs to have a balanced feed to maximise methane production.
Installations usually target carbon-rich wastes that will make use of the available nitrogen.

Feed and output streams

Feed streams
A great variety of organic materials are suitable as feedstock, for instance:

 agricultural wastes;
 separately collected household bio-waste;
 garden and park waste;
 fat separator contents;
 food leftovers from kitchens, hotels and restaurants;
 expired food from retail markets;
 waste from the food industry;
 agricultural by-products like manure and other animal by-products;
 industrial slurries and sewage sludge from municipal waste water treatment.

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One of the main limits of AD is its inability to degrade lignin (a major component of wood).
This is in contrast with the process of aerobic treatment.

The characteristics of the feedstock have very important effects on the AD process and therefore
on the biogas yield and on the digestate quality. For instance, high metal concentrations in the
feedstock can be toxic to methanogenic bacteria, in the following order (of increasing severity):
iron < cadmium < zinc < chromium < lead < copper < nickel. The volatile solids content will
affect the extent to which the process needs to be monitored to avoid the damaging effect of
overloading.

Anaerobic processes may be used to directly treat liquid wastes, the biological sludge generated
by an earlier aerobic stage, organic solids and sludges. The inclusion of other feedstocks, such
as sewage sludge, alters the resulting digestate. However, it is important to note that the mixing
of household waste with these feedstocks can improve both the environmental and economic
aspects of the process and has already been adopted in a number of plants (particularly,
co-digestion with slurries and manure at small-scale farm-based plants).

Output

Biogas
Dry biogas has a typical composition of 50–70 % methane, 30–50 % carbon dioxide and 50–
4 000 ppm hydrogen sulphide alongside other traces of volatile elements. The biogas yield and
the proportion of methane to carbon dioxide will vary with the feedstock and with the type of
anaerobic digestion. [ 49, Bio. subgroup 2014 ]

Biogas generation can vary significantly, e.g. in one plant volumes ranged from 80 Nm3 to
120 Nm3 per tonne depending on the waste input. Biogas can be used to produce electricity (for
internal consumption and/or for export), burnt in boilers to produce hot water and steam for
industrial purposes, used as an alternative fuel in light and heavy-duty vehicles, or injected into
the natural gas grid.

End uses for biogas include burning in a simple boiler to generate heat, or use in an engine with
a generator to produce power. The most common biogas use is combined heat and power (CHP)
generation to produce both heat and power. Heat is most effectively used on site or locally
whereas power can be used on site or transferred to the main electricity grid.

Alternatively, biogas can be upgraded, which requires the removal of carbon dioxide and other
contaminant gases, in order to generate biomethane. The addition of propane to biomethane may
also be required in order to achieve the required gas calorific value (CV). Biomethane can be
injected into the natural gas distribution network, for conversion to heat or power at the point of
offtake, or used as a transport fuel in a similar way to LPG or CNG (CEN standard series 16723
has been developed recently addressing these two uses of biomethane). Whilst biogas upgrading
may be more efficient in terms of energy utilisation, it is also significantly more costly and
biogas upgrading options are not generally viewed as viable for a small-scale AD application.

Digestate
A clean biodegradable feedstock will increase the quality of the digestate, which – if complying
with national and European legislation and voluntary product specifications – can be used as an
organic fertiliser or soil improver in agriculture, either in a liquid form (about 5–15 % dry
matter) like manure, or in a semi-solid form (10–30 %) like peat, or it can be further upgraded
e.g. by composting, drying and/or pelletising in landscaping and horticulture as well as in
private gardens.

In Germany, Belgium, the Netherlands, Italy and other Member States (MS), digestates are
commonly post-composted if the feedstock is mainly based on household bio-waste. In the UK
and Sweden, source-separated bio-waste from households is mainly digested in liquid systems,
and even when separation into a liquid and a solid fraction occurs, the solid fraction is usually

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not post-composted. Liquid or separated solid digestate produced from industrial and
agricultural bio-waste is commonly not composted but used directly as fertiliser.

The nutrients previously contained in the feedstock remain in the digestate. Only carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen (as part of CO2) and, in marginal quantities, nitrogen and sulphur can leave
the process within the gas phase. Therefore, the feedstocks used directly determine the
composition of the generated digestate. The nutrient content is predominantly described by the
nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and organic carbon content.

The digestate processed from MSW or sewage sludge with an industrial feed may contain
metals. In the case of MSW, the digestate is usually dewatered. The content of heavy metals
may be leached out to soil or washed off into watercourses if the digestate is used as fertiliser,
as soil cover or landfilled. In the event that the content of heavy metals is too high to allow a
land application, the compost/sludge may be used for energy recovery or for daily covering at
landfills. In this respect, the Groundwater Directive may be applied.

Solid waste to be used as fuel

More information on this matter can be found in Section 3.3. The solid fuel prepared is a pre-
sorted mixture of paper and plastics. Washing of the digestion product yields two additional
streams: a residue and a wood-like fraction, with a residual calorific value that allows thermal
treatment. Table 4.15 gives an example of the composition of solid waste which may be used as
fuel.

Table 4.15: Composition of output used as fuel

Type of waste %
Organic waste 45
Others 31
Paper/cardboard 13
Plastics 9
Textile 2
Source:[ 94, Vrancken et al. 2001 ], [ 18, WT TWG 2004 ]

Other products/waste
Table 4.16 gives an overview of outputs from anaerobic treatment of biodegradable municipal
waste.

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Table 4.16: Overview of outputs from anaerobic treatment of biodegradable municipal waste
Specific production
Recovered product
(per tonne of waste treated)
4.0–4.5 kg N
Nutrient recovery 0.5–1 kg P
2.5–3 kg K
0.4–0.9 MJ electricity. In addition, CHP
Energy recovery plants may generate a similar quantity
of heat
Total solid residuals depending on waste 0.3–0.6 t
Quality products for recycling (recovery) Fibres (0.07–0.3t) (for composting)
Fluids (0.6 t)
Other residuals able to be reused with restrictions Inerts (0.05 t)
Sand (0.08 t)
Residuals for landfilling or other waste treatment Overflow sieving (0.02–0.1 t)
Metals (including ferrous metals) 0.043 t
Ferrous metals 0.032 t
NB: The separation and washing of the digested material yields fractions of inert materials, sand and a
fibrous fraction. The inert materials and the sand fraction can be used as a building material. Another output
corresponds to the fibrous fraction.
Source: [ 90, Hogg et al. 2002 ], [ 94, Vrancken et al. 2001 ]

Process description
The primary process variables are the methods of contacting the waste with the biomass
(microorganisms) and the moisture content of the waste (e.g. liquid, slurry or solid). Anaerobic
digestion generally involves the stages shown in Figure 4.4 below.

Source: adapted from [ 124, UBA Germany 2013 ]

Figure 4.4: Example of an anaerobic digestion plant

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Reception
The reception step is similar to the one described in Section 4.2.1 above.

Preparation
Material separation: In order to improve the digestion process, materials, such as plastics
(including biodegradable plastic bags), metals and oversized components, are removed from the
waste to be treated. Separation can be carried out under wet or dry conditions. Following this, a
further process of size reduction is used to create a more homogeneous material, which aids
anaerobic digestion and facilitates processing. The size reduction could be brought about by
screw-cutting, milling, drumming, pulping or shredding machines.

Pretreatment: Preliminary aerobic decomposition can be performed over a period of two to

four days in order to improve material breakdown and warm the substrate. This step takes place
directly in box fermenters, or in separate preliminary digestion units (e.g. composting tunnels
with forced aeration systems to reduce odour/bioaerosols emissions). The heated material
reduces the consumption of energy needed to heat the digester. Preliminary digestion breaks
down some biomass, which is then no longer available for anaerobic process stages. However, a
better digestion increases the gas yield. [ 124, UBA Germany 2013 ]
Thermal disintegration can be used as an interim step between mechanical processing and
substrate being fed into the digestate. Cell breakdown, which takes place with thermal input,
aims to improve the substrate’s degradability and may also increase the biogas yield. This
process is primarily chosen for substrate with high fibre and lignin levels that resists
degradation. Upstream sanitation stages also bring about thermal disintegration. Ultrasound
disintegration is another process in the same area of application. Only a very small number of
plants intentionally utilise cell breakdown processes.[ 124, UBA Germany 2013 ]

Digestion
There are a number of different operating conditions used in digestion processes. They are
usually distinguished on the basis of the operating temperature and on the percentage of dry
matter in the digester:

1. thermophilic plants operate at around 55 °C;

2. mesophilic plants operate at around 40 °C;
3. dry (or high-solid) systems when the digester contains 15–40 % dry matter; and
4. wet systems when the digester contains less than 15 % dry matter.

In principle, the higher the temperature, the faster the process. Nevertheless, the thermophilic
process may be harder to control and will need more energy to heat up the substrate but also to
compensate higher heat losses from the tanks.

The moisture content and degradability of feedstock are very important for the choice of
technology. For instance, kitchen waste and other putrescible wastes, which may be too wet and
lacking in structure for composting, can provide an excellent feedstock for anaerobic digestion.
Also, a thermophilic process may be necessary if the substrate has a high fat content or if
sanitation is requested.

In pretreatment, liquids are added to control the dry matter content. Viscosity control in the
digester is managed by the recycling of liquid digestate.

The most common existing anaerobic digestion technologies are listed in Table 4.17.

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Table 4.17: Anaerobic digestion technologies

Technology Description Input

The process can be

Solid bio-waste is mixed with process water or with
used for household,
liquid waste to provide a diluted feedstock for
industrial,
feeding into the digester. Liquid bio-waste can be
commercial and
Wet used directly. In other cases, wet AD plants feed
agricultural bio-
digestion solid waste directly (solid feeder with conveyor
waste as well as
screws) into the digester and the dry matter content
animal manure
is adjusted within the digester.
and energy crops.

The process can be

used for household,
industrial,
Dry The digestion vessel is semi-continuously fed with commercial and
continuous substrate containing 15–40 % dry matter. There are agricultural bio-
digestion vertical and horizontal digesters. waste and the
organic fraction of
mixed household
waste.

The process is
commonly used for
A batch is inoculated with digestate from another commingled kitchen
Dry batch reactor and left to digest without further mixing. and garden waste
digestion Leachate is recirculated to improve the contact with a considerable
between locally formed organic acids and methane- content from
forming bacteria. structural material.
Other applications
are solid manure
and energy crops.

Source: [ 8, LaGrega et al. 1994 ], [ 9, UK EA 2001 ], [ 10, Babtie Group Ltd 2002 ],
[ 90, Hogg et al. 2002 ], [ 131, Bio. Subgroup 2014 ]

Types of digesters
The main types of digesters are:
 vertical digesters with an agitator (typically used in wet digestion facilities);
 horizontal digesters with a slow transport agitator using plug-flow technology (used in
dry digestion facilities);
 vertical digesters without mixing using plug-flow technology (used in dry digestion
facilities);
 box or percolation digesters (used in dry batch digestion facilities).

The mixing systems used in the digesters can be as follows:

 mechanical by means of agitators;
 hydraulic, by means of pumps that recirculate the substrate;
 pneumatic, by recirculating biogas in the digester.

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[ 124, UBA Germany 2013 ]

Finalisation
Sanitation: The sanitation stage can be considered complete during the thermophilic digestion
process (e.g. in Germany). In other cases, a separate sanitation stage (e.g. 70 °C, one hour) may
be required. In addition, sanitation occurs when thermal disintegration is used as a pretreatment
prior to acidogenesis.
[ 124, UBA Germany 2013 ]

Maturation: A subsequent aerobic degradation step may be needed in order to lead organic
material to a full mineralisation.

Maturation is an aerobic stage (also named post-composting) that produces compost, reduces
water content, and prevents methane formation in solid digestate products. Boxes or tunnels
with forced aeration systems are preferably used for maturation. This phase lasts between two
and six weeks, depending upon the desired degree of maturation and sanitation.
[ 124, UBA Germany 2013 ]

Biogas treatment:
Biogas is dehumidified and cleaned to remove hydrogen sulphide before it is used as fuel (either
for external or internal use). Carbon dioxide may also be removed for upgrading to biomethane.
Water removal techniques include:
 cooling/condensation;
 adsorption of water on the surface of a drying agent;
 absorption of water in glycol or hygroscopic salts.

H2S removal techniques include:

 precipitation by addition of ferric ions, or FeCl2, or FeCl3, or FeSO4 in the digester; the
precipitate iron sulphide can then be removed with the digestate;
 precipitation inside the digester by controlled addition of oxygen;
 chemical adsorption by means of sodium hydroxide or iron oxide adsorption, or activated
carbon adsorption;
 biogas scrubbing;
 external (i.e. outside the digester) biological or chemical desulphurisation.

CO2 removal techniques include:

 pressure swing adsorption (PSA), i.e. adsorption by activated carbon or zeolite under
elevated pressure;
 water scrubbing;
 organic solvent scrubbing, e.g. with polyethylene glycol;
 chemical scrubbing, e.g. with amine solutions;
 membrane separation;
 cryogenic condensation.

Table 4.18 provides an indicative overview of the requirements for biogas treatment in relation
to the intended use.

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Table 4.18: Indicative overview of the requirements for biogas treatment in relation to the
intended use
CO2 removal
Application H 2S H2O removal
(upgrading)
Gas heater (boiler) < 1 000 ppm No No
Kitchen stove Yes No No
Moisture
Stationary engine (CHP) < 500 ppm No
removal
Vehicle fuel Yes Yes Yes
Natural gas grid Yes Yes Yes
Source: [ 132, UK EA 2013 ]

According to the data collection, all but one anaerobic digestion plant reported having a biogas
pretreatment step. The techniques mainly used are:

 activated carbon filtration;

 sulphide precipitation;
 water scrubbing.

The biogas is used for cogeneration (reciprocating engines, turbines) in 21 plants, in boilers in 4
plants, and 2 plants upgrade the biogas for use in vehicles.

Table 4.19 below summarises the applied techniques and the biogas utilisation in anaerobic
digestion plants.

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Table 4.19: Biogas pretreatment and utilisation

Plant
Biogas pretreatment Biogas utilisation
code
20 No information Cogeneration
71 Sulphide precipitation Cogeneration
Sulphide precipitation, water removal, Cogeneration
72
compression
111 Water scrubbing Heating
113 Water removal Cogeneration
Cogeneration
131 Sulphide precipitation, water removal
Power
Activated carbon filter, compression, water
132 Cogeneration
removal
251 Water removal Cogeneration
255 Activated carbon filter Cogeneration
Sulphide precipitation, activated carbon filters,
256 Cogeneration
compression, water removal
259 Activated carbon filter Power
265 Activated carbon filter Cogeneration
Water removal, sulphide precipitation, activated
268 Cogeneration
carbon filters
319 Water removal Cogeneration
339 Activated carbon filter Cogeneration
341 Water scrubbing Cogeneration
Water removal, compression, activated carbon
377 Cogeneration
filter
382 Water scrubbing Cogeneration
Cogeneration
459 Sulphide precipitation, water removal
Heating
484 CO2 removal Gas distribution for transport fuel
485 CO2 removal Gas distribution for transport fuel
526 Ferric dosing Cogeneration
528 Ferric dosing Cogeneration
529 Ferric dosing Cogeneration
534 Sulphide precipitation Power
Sulphide precipitation, activated carbon filter,
541 Power
compression
592 Compression Power
638 Compression Cogeneration

Anaerobic digestion is a common treatment for a wide range of biodegradable wastes

(feedstock) in all European Member States. The feedstock and the applied processes and
techniques can vary widely among Member States due to different legal requirements and local
situations. The recovery of energy and fertiliser from bio-waste, including sewage sludge and
the organic fraction of mixed household waste, has become very attractive due to European
legislation (Waste Framework Directive 2008/98/EC, Landfill Directive 1999/31/EC,
Renewable Energy Directive 2009/28/EC, Animal By-Product Regulation 1069/2009/EC, etc.)

The plants from the data collection that carry out anaerobic treatment are: 020, 071, 072, 097,
111, 113, 131, 132, 251, 255, 256, 259, 265, 268, 319, 339, 341, 349, 377, 382, 415, 459, 484,
485, 526, 528, 529, 534, 541, 592, 638.

Reference literature
[ 49, Bio. subgroup 2014 ], [ 124, UBA Germany 2013 ], [ 127, Umweltbundesamt (AT) 2015 ]
[ 132, UK EA 2013 ]

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4.3.1.1 Innovative processes

4.3.1.1.1 Conversion of organic waste to carboxylates, carboxylic acids or

polymers by fermentation with mixed cultures

Purpose
To convert the organic waste to short-chain carboxylates, carboxylic acids (e.g. lactic acid) or
polymers (e.g. polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA)).

Principle of operation
Feedstock of industrial, municipal or agricultural waste containing organic matter is converted
by hydrolysis and primary fermentation with pure or defined/undefined mixed cultures to short-
chain carboxylates (e.g. acetate, propionate, lactate, n-butyrate) serving as intermediate
feedstock for chemicals production. These processes proceed either in aerobic or anaerobic
conditions in order to optimise conversions. Via secondary fermentation reactions or chemical
post-processing, a range of chemicals like esters, alcohols and alkanes can be produced. These
products are alternative to the usual metanogenesis product – methane.

Recently a process route of anaerobic digestion, which leads to acids and polymers, instead of
biogas and digestate, has become favourable, with some attempts to upscale it to the industrial
level [ 207, Korkakaki et al. 2016]. The most common final products currently produced
through this route in the EU are high-value polyesters from the polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA)
family, with its most common representative polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB).

The process follows the same initial steps as the biogas/digestate route, hydrolysis and
acidogenesis, but then diverts from acetogenesis to production of polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA)
from volatile fatty acids by mixed microbial cultures of microorganisms. As the final step the
PHA produced intracellularly is extracted from the cells of microorganisms, by disrupting cells
and/or dissolving PHA into organic solvents and purifying it to the required level. The residual
organic waste, remaining after the extraction of PHA, can be sent to anaerobic digestion for
energy or nutrient recovery.

These upgrades of anaerobic waste treatments can reduce the amounts of waste to be disposed
of and also recover useful materials.

Output stream
The simplest and most common form of polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) occurring in the
fermentative production is poly-beta-hydroxybutyrate (poly-3-hydroxybutyrate (P3HB)), which
consists of several thousand up to half a million hydroxy fatty acid monomers.

The microbial PHA presents some unique features as a polymer, such as biodegradability, the
possibility to develop new properties, and low energy and raw material costs for the production
process. As products which are broadly usable in the industrial chemistry sector, PHA and
related biobased plastics have a higher value than compost and energy.

Users
Several pilot plants are reported to operate in different countries, including Italy, Sweden, the
Netherlands, Belgium and Portugal.

One demonstration plant is operating in Rovereto, Trento, Italy and produces PHA from a
particular fraction of municipal solid waste – diapers and sanitary pads and towels, generally
called absorbent hygiene products (AHP).

References
[ 133, Korkakaki et al. 2016 ], [ 134, López-Garzón et al. 2014 ], [ 135, Lee et al. 2014 ], [ 136,
Torrijos et al. 2014 ]

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4.3.1.1.2 Bioethanol production

Purpose
Bioethanol production using domestic and industrial bio-waste as a feedstock.

Principle of operation
The technology includes the following process steps:

 pretreatment of the bio-waste including shredding of the feed and separation of bio-waste
from food packaging materials;
 warming of the bio-waste with the addition of water and enzymes;
 fermentation;
 drying and separation of solid material;
 distillation up to 85 % ethanol.

This production unit can be built near to the sources of suitable fermentable feedstock to
minimise transportation costs. The process is self-sufficient with regard to energy. Combining
biogas production with the waste ethanol production enables high utilisation of the energy in the
waste raw material.

Output streams
The products of the process are bioethanol, organic soil conditioner, liquid fertiliser, renewable
heat and electricity. The process also produces treated waste water. Bioethanol is concentrated
to 99.7 % ethanol in another plant and used as a biological component in ethanol-containing
fuels (E5, E10 or E85) for motor vehicles.

Users
The technique is currently operating at one plant in Finland (Plant 113).

References
[ 137, Norden 2012 ]

4.3.1.1.3 Separation and recirculation of dry matter in AD plants

Purpose
Separation and recirculation of dry matter in AD plants.

Description of the process

The process is a physical separation technique for separation of particulate matter in liquid with
flotation. Gas in very fine micro bubbles (5–50 μm) is added to the liquid containing the
particles. The bubbles are formed in a special pump and a system of nozzles that release the
bubbles to the particle containing liquid. The micro bubbles stick to the particles bringing the
particles to the surface where they are collected. The nozzles are adjustable and self-cleaning.

The process takes place in anaerobic conditions and therefore the gas does not contain oxygen
but methane or a mix of methane and carbon dioxide only.

The process optimises and increases the biogas production as partially fermented matter is
recirculated into the biogas reactor again, which has a positive environmental impact.

Users
Pilot projects are being carried out at Danish commercial biogas plants.

References
[ 138, Danish EPA 2014 ]

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4.3.1.1.4 Pretreatment of biomass substrates to enhance anaerobic digestion

Purpose
A combination of pretreatments are used for biomass substrates to enhance production of biogas
in AD plants and remove nitrogen from nitrogen-rich biomasses.

Principle of operation
Recalcitrant biomass substrates with a low methane potential and high lignocellulose content
like:

 manure (deep litter, chicken litter);

 agricultural residues consisting of a high fraction of fibres (range 5–80 % dry matter);
 pre-digested and dewatered biomass before recirculation to the biogas reactor

are pretreated by a combination of mechanical (separation and ultrasound), thermal, chemical

(wet oxidation, stabilisation with lime, thermal stabilisation with steam in a pressure vessel) and
enzymatic pretreatments.

These pretreatments have a positive effect on the degradability of fibre-rich biomasses with
improvements in methane yields of 10 % to 45 %.

Furthermore, nitrogen can be removed from the treated biomass by releasing steam from the
pressure cooker and subsequent stripping of nitrogen from the steam. The total nitrogen content
in nitrogen-rich biomasses such as chicken litter can be reduced by more than 75 %, thereby
allowing for treatment of such biomasses without major inputs of water or dilution by other
biomasses.

Output streams
Biogas.

Users
The first full-scale biogas plant with pressure vessel pretreatment was commissioned during the
spring of 2014 in the UK and further plants are expected to be built in the near future.
Upgrading of the pilot scale to full scale of mechanical pretreatment followed by enzymatic
pretreatment is already in progress at a biogas plant in Spain.

References
[ 138, Danish EPA 2014 ], [ 139, Xergi 2017 ], [ 140, Uellendahl et al. 2013 ],

4.3.2 Current emission and consumption levels

4.3.2.1 Emissions to air

[ 42, WT TWG 2014 ]

The AD process itself is enclosed but emissions to air, including odour emissions, can occur for
example from:
 handling of waste input;
 transfer to and from the digester;
 open storage;
 separation, pretreatment and mixing of waste (e.g. with digestate);
 open reactors or tanks;
 digestate conditioning;
 biogas cleaning and conditioning;

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Chapter 4

 post-treatment.

The principal gaseous emission (methane) is a desired product of the AD process, which, used
as a renewable energy source, maximises profits and reduces greenhouse gas emissions.

However, fugitive emissions of biogas can arise from pressure relief valves, poorly sealed water
traps or condensate handling and from methane slip from storage of biogas. This can result in a
range of hazards, including the risk of fire or explosion, as well as toxicity from contaminant
gases such as H2S. H2S, nitrogen compounds and mercaptans present in biogas can be extremely
odorous as well. This may imply the need to consider various regulations, such as those
concerning the use of equipment and protective systems intended for use in potentially
explosive atmospheres (Directive 94/9/EC), which are not further described in this document.

Table 4.20 below summarises the parameters measured for emissions to air by AD plants, and
the corresponding emission levels (average of periodic measurements over the three reference
years). Two distinctions are made: first between plants performing only anaerobic digestion and
those also performing aerobic treatment, and second between emissions other than from biogas
combustion (receiving hall, sorting, mechanical pretreatment, etc.) and those from biogas
combustion equipment (engines, CHP plant). This table is to be read together with Table 4.21
which gives an indication of the abatement techniques applied and the origin of channelled
emissions to air.

Most of the measurements are related to emissions from biogas combustion (SOX, NOX, CO).
As the emissions from biogas combustion are not within the scope of the WT BREF, the
reported values are given only for information purposes.

The parameters most commonly monitored for emissions from biological steps of the process
(i.e. not considering the combustion of biogas) are NH3, NMVOC and odour.

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Table 4.20: Emissions to air from anaerobic digestion (AD)

Plants
Ranges (mg/Nm3 except for flow and odour)
concerned
Pollutant Type of AD only AD & aerobic
measured measurement AD AD & From From
From From
only aerobic biogas biogas
biotreatment biotreatment
combustion combustion
71,
255, 16 000–
Continuous 592 57 000 NI NI
256 53 000
(1)
72,
111,
131,
Flow 132, 251,
(Nm3/h) 484, 341,
25.8– 12 000–
Periodic 485, 377, 480–90 000 500–8900
48 600 99 500
528, 382,
529, 459
534,
541,
592
72, 255,
113, 341,
Dust Periodic 131, 349, NI 0.21–21 0.3 – 2.1 0.1–4.3
132, 377,
529 382
132,
528,
341,
529,
SOX Periodic 377, NA 0.7–436 NA 0.5–114
534,
459
541,
592
72,
113,
131,
341,
132,
377,
NOX Periodic 534, NA 60–822 NA 236–444
382,
541,
459
528,
529,
592
72,
131,
132, 341,
528, 377,
CO Periodic NA 0.7–1816 NA 39–655
529, 382,
534, 459
541,
592
341,
HCl Periodic NI 377, NA NA NA 0–3.3
382
341,
HF Periodic NI 377, NA NA NA 0–0.5
382
251,
485,
349,
528,
H 2S Periodic 377, NI 0.14–0.75 0.0007–1.15 NI
541,
382 (2),
592
459

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256,
111, 341,
339, 349,
NH3 Periodic 0.46–83 NA 0.3–265 NA
415, 377,
485 382 (2),
459
111,
131,
CH4 Periodic NI 0–895 0.004–681 NI NI
484,
485
131,
528,
529, 349,
TVOC Periodic NI 599–2900 0.4 NI
534, 382 (2)
541,
592
113
(3),
131,
132, 349,
NMVOC Periodic 528, 377, NI 0.6–93 NI 17 –134
529, 382
534,
541,
592
485 377,
TOC Periodic NI NI 0.2–16 654
(4) 459
20, 251,
111,
255,
113,
268,
339,
Odour 339,
Periodic 415, 0 –12 967 7190 (5) 85 –1500 NI
(OUE/m3) 349,
485,
377,
528,
382 (2),
592
459
(1) Flow not indicated.
(2) Emissions from the biofilters reported as diffuse emissions.
(3) Estimated value: 2 t/year based on material balance calculation.
(4) Values given in ppm.
(5) Odour emissions from biogas upgrading unit.
NB: For periodic measurements, the values are the average over the three reference years.
NI = No information.
NA = Not applicable.

The origin of channelled emissions to air and abatement techniques are given in Table 4.21
below. The applied techniques include mainly biofiltering and scrubber systems.

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Table 4.21: Anaerobic digestion - Abatement techniques and origin of channelled emissions to air
Techniques Type of
Type of anaerobic
Plant for Origin of channelled biological
process
code emissions emissions waste
(mesophilic/thermophilic)
to air treatment
AD & aerobic
20 NI Biological process Mesophilic
outdoor
Acid
scrubber Mechanical pretreatment
71 AD only Mesophilic
system - and AD
Biofiltering
After post-combustion
72 NA (Regenerative thermal AD only Mesophilic
oxidiser)
Complete plant AD & aerobic
97 Biofiltering NI
Biofilter outdoor
Basic
scrubber Exhaust air from process
111 AD only Mesophilic
system - and buildings
Biofiltering
AD and PCT
(hydrolysis,
evaporation,
113 NI CHP, solid fuel-fired boiler Mesophilic
distillation for
producing
bioethanol)
Biogas combustion
131 NA (Reciprocating engine) - AD only Mesophilic
Flare
Biogas combustion (CHP) -
132 NI Flare AD only Mesophilic
Biofilter
Acid
scrubber
system - Complete plant AD & aerobic
251 Thermophilic
Biofiltering Biofilter indoor
-
Flaring
Biofiltering
- Complete plant AD & aerobic
255 Thermophilic
Wet Biofilter indoor
scrubbing
AD & aerobic
256 Biofiltering Biological process Mesophilic
indoor

AD & aerobic
259 NI NI Thermophilic
indoor

265 Biofiltering Receiving hall and process AD only Mesophilic

Wet
In-house sector of plant - AD & aerobic
268 scrubbing - Thermophilic
digestate tanks - Biofilter indoor
Biofiltering

319 NI No air emission measured AD only Mesophilic

Common steps -
339 Biofiltering AD only Mesophilic
Homogeniser
Common steps - Rotary
screener - 2 Biofilters AD & aerobic
341 Biofiltering Thermophilic
Biogas combustion - CHP - indoor
Flare

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Anaerobic digestion
AD & aerobic
349 Biofiltering followed by digestate Mesophilic
indoor
composting
Acid Anaerobic digestion
scrubbing, followed by digestate
AD & aerobic
377 water composting 4 Biofilters Mesophilic
indoor
scrubbing - Biogas combustion - 2
Biofiltering CHPs
Biological process - 4
biofilters AD & aerobic
382 Biofiltering Thermophilic
Biogas combustion - 3 indoor
CHPs

415 Biofiltering Air capture at source AD only Mesophilic

Sulphide
removal at
digester-
Biogas combustion
Wet
(reciprocating engine)
scrubbing - AD & aerobic
459 Enclosed buildings - Waste Mesophilic
Biofiltering indoor
input storage - Sorting
- Forced
process steps
aeration -
Water
spraying
Biofiltering- Receiving hall, receiving
Activated and substrate buffer tank,
484 AD only Thermophilic
carbon sanitation tanks
adsorption Upgrading biogas unit
Bag/fabric
filter system
- Buffer tanks - Receiving
485 Biofiltering hall Enclosed buildings - AD only Thermophilic
- Activated Upgrading biogas unit
carbon
adsorption
Biofiltering
- Activated Common steps and
526 AD only Mesophilic
carbon biological process
adsorption
Biofiltering
-
Biological process
Flaring -
528 Biogas combustion - 2 AD only Mesophilic
Activated
CHPs
carbon
adsorption
Biofiltering Biological process
529 - Biogas combustion - 3 AD only Mesophilic
Flaring CHPs

534 NA Biogas combustion - CHP AD only Mesophilic

Biofiltering
541 - Biogas combustion - CHP AD only Mesophilic
Flaring
Biological process -
Biofilter stack
592 Biofiltering AD only Mesophilic
Biogas combustion - 2
CHPs - Flare

638 NI NI AD only Mesophilic

NB: NI = No information.
NA = Not applicable.

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4.3.2.2 Emissions to water and water usage

[ 42, WT TWG 2014 ]

4.3.2.2.1 Emissions to water

Although anaerobic systems can be operated in stages to reduce the overall COD in the effluent,
they are generally operated for efficient methane production, and the liquid effluent thus tends
to be more concentrated than the effluent from aerobic systems. During the AD process itself,
there is no excess water; however during storage, pre- and post-treatment and side activities
(like cleaning or condensation from biogas) this can be important. Run-off water can be
collected and used in the AD process or for composting plants.

The quantity of waste or excess water generated depends upon a number of factors (the extent of
biodegradation, the moisture content of input wastes and the extent to which the process water
is recirculated, the way in which digestate is used –in some cases it is directly applied to land as
slurry– and the degree to which steam is used to heat the biomass). Most processes seek to
extract excess water from the digestate prior to aerobic biodegradation of the remaining
biomass. Table 4.22 below summarises the measurements of emissions to water performed by
plants performing anaerobic digestion, and the corresponding levels of emissions. The
controlled parameters are mostly pH, TSS, COD, total N, and BOD5. Table 4.23 shows that
approximately a third of the plants that participated in the data collection did not report
emissions to water, and, when there are emissions, they are mainly sent to a sewer or to an off-
site waste water treatment plant.

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Table 4.22: Emissions to water from anaerobic digestion

Range (mg/l except for
Pollutant
Monitoring Plants concerned flow, pH and
measured
conductivity)
Flow Continuous 20, 71, 111, 255, 382 1.25–470
(m3/h) Estimated 341 1.3
Hourly average: 7–7.3
Continuous 111
Monthly average: 7.8–7.9
pH
Composite sample 382 7.95
Grab sample 20, 71, 113, 132, 341 7.1–7.2
24-hour flow-proportional Short-term average:
111
composite sample 300–1 200
TSS
Composite sample 382 1924
Grab sample 71, 113, 132, 341, 592 < 415
24-hour flow-proportional
111 Daily average: 70–370
composite sample
BOD5
Composite sample 341, 382 1.5–1538
Grab sample 20, 71, 132, 592 102–208
24-hour flow-proportional
111 Daily average: 620–2 900
composite sample
COD
Composite sample 341, 382 9–3 274
Grab sample 20, 71, 113, 132, 349 30–2 928
TOC Grab sample 132 NI
THC Composite sample 382 53
Cl- Composite sample 341, 382 10.5–537
F- Grab sample 341 0.009
Composite sample 382 0
S2-
Grab sample 341 0.095
Composite sample 382 1
SO32-
Grab sample 341 0.085
CN- Composite sample 382 0.2
Composite sample 382 12
Sulphates
Grab sample 71, 113, 341 12–321
24-hour flow-proportional
111 Daily average: 130–440
composite sample
Total N
Composite sample 382 616
Grab sample 20, 71, 113, 341, 592 5.7–432
NO2-/NO3- Grab sample 71, 341 0.25–116
24-hour flow-proportional
111 Daily average: 40–170
composite sample
NH3-N
Composite sample 382 578
Grab sample 71, 341 0.01–69
24-hour flow-proportional
111 Daily average: 10–14
composite sample
Total P
Composite sample 382 29.7
Grab sample 20, 71, 113, 341 0.3–35
Cd Composite sample 382 0
Hg Composite sample 382 0.01
Composite sample 382 0.004
As
Grab sample 341 < 0.00005
Composite sample 382 1.9
Pb
Grab sample 341 0.001
Composite sample 382 0.065
Cr
Grab sample 341 0.002
Cr(VI) Composite sample 382 0
Composite sample 382 0.3
Cu
Grab sample 341 0.002
Composite sample 382 1.03
Mn
Grab sample 341 0.04
Ni Composite sample 382 0.35

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Grab sample 341 0.004

V Grab sample 341 0.0002
Composite sample 382 1.4
Zn
Grab sample 341 0.001
Composite sample 382 20.7
Fe
Grab sample 341 0.07
Composite sample 382 2.6
Phenols
Grab sample 341 0.004
BTEX Composite sample 382 0
Surfactant Composite sample 382 2.9
Toxicity (1) Grab sample 341 0
(1) Reported toxicity: number of bodies built after 24 h – Standard: APAT CNR IRSA 7030 D Man 29 2003.
NB: When the measurement method is composite sample or grab sample, the values in the table are the average of the
measurements over the three reference years.
No emissions to water or no information: 71, 72, 97, 255, 256, 265, 268, 319, 339, 459, 526, 528, 529, 534, 592, 638
(see Table 4.23 below).
NI = No information.

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Table 4.23: Anaerobic digestion - Abatement techniques and origin of emissions to water
Plant Origin of emissions Dry/wet
Techniques used Points of discharge Type of plant
code to water digestion
Indirect discharge
Nitrification/denitrific AD & aerobic
20 Biological process (urban/municipal Wet digestion
ation outdoor
sewer system)
Aerobic sequence
batch reactor (SBR) - Indirect discharge
71 Biological process Vacuum evaporation - (off-site common Wet digestion AD only
Recycling in process WWT facilities)
(91 %)
72 Biological process Recycling in process No release NI AD only
AD & aerobic
97 Biological process Recycling in process No release NI
indoor
Indirect discharge
All processes, one Active sludge systems
111 (urban/municipal Wet digestion AD only
waste water piping - SBR
sewer system)
AD and PCT
PCT (hydrolysis,
(hydrolysis,
evaporation, Indirect discharge
evaporation,
113 distillation for Evaporation (off-site common Wet digestion
distillation for
producing WWT facilities)
producing
bioethanol)
bioethanol)
Indirect discharge
131 Rainwater NI (urban/municipal Wet digestion AD only
sewer system)
Direct discharge
from the on-site
132 Rainwater NI common WWT Wet digestion AD only
facilities to the
environment
Indirect discharge
AD & aerobic
251 All processes Decantation (urban/municipal Dry digestion
indoor
sewer system)
No release: all waste
water (cleaning
water, percolating AD & aerobic
255 Recycling in process No release Dry digestion
water and indoor
condensate) is
reused in the process
AD & aerobic
256 NI NI NI Dry digestion
indoor
Storage and common AD & aerobic
259 NA No release Dry digestion
steps indoor
265 NI NI NI Wet digestion AD only
Below IED
threshold
268 NI NI NI Dry digestion
AD & aerobic
indoor
319 No waste water NA No release Wet digestion AD only
339 NA NA No release Wet digestion AD only
Direct discharge
from the WT plant AD & aerobic
349 Biological process NA Dry digestion
to the environment indoor
without treatment
Direct discharge
Equalisation - Active from the on-site
Biological treatment AD & aerobic
341 sludge systems SBR - common WWT Wet digestion
of digestate indoor
Evaporation facilities to the
environment
Direct discharge
from the WT plant AD & aerobic
377 Biological process NA Dry digestion
to the environment indoor
without treatment

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All processes. Indirect discharge

Aerobic composting from the WT plant
AD & aerobic
382 and anaerobic phase NI to the on-site Wet digestion
indoor
have separate points common WWT
of release facilities
Indirect discharge to
Shredding process
415 Buffer tank an off-site WWT Wet digestion AD only
step
facility
Nitrification/denitrific No external points AD & aerobic
459 NI Wet digestion
ation - Ultrafiltration of release indoor
Incoming water is
mainly used for
Waste water
washing trucks/tanks
management: All
after unloading No process water is
incoming water,
manure and sent to the discharged from the
484 except the amount Wet digestion AD only
substrate tank. plant, only storm
used as sanitary
Condensate from the water
water, is reused in
biogas upgrading unit
the process
is sent to the digestion
tank.
Incoming water is
mainly used for
washing trucks/tanks
All incoming water,
after unloading No process water is
except the amount
manure and sent in the discharged from the
485 used as sanitary Wet digestion AD only
substrate tank. plant, only storm
water, is reused in
Condensate from the water
the process
biogas upgrading unit
is sent to the digestion
tank.
526 NI NA No release Wet digestion AD only
When it contains
ammonia, the
collected water is
used in the process,
otherwise it is
discharged into an
528 NA No release Wet digestion AD only
on-site water lagoon.
All the rainwater
harvested on site is
collected and
eventually used
within the process.
When it contains
ammonia, the
collected water is
529 NA NI Wet digestion AD only
used in the process,
otherwise it is
discharged off site
534 None NA No release Wet digestion AD only
All potentially
contaminated water
is collected and
541 NA No release Wet digestion AD only
recycled into the AD
process or sent off
site for treatment
Discharge consent
available but at the
Anaerobic biological
592 moment there are no No release Wet digestion AD only
waste water treatment
emissions to water
from site
638 NI NI NI Wet digestion AD only
NB: NI = No information.
NA = Not applicable.

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4.3.2.2.2 Water usage

The reported water usage at anaerobic treatment plants is up to around 200 000 m3/year. The
reported average water usage per tonne of waste treated is 563 l/t, with a range of 6.4–3 100 l/t.

The lowest specific water usage values were reported by plants with a dry digestion process (up
to 270 l/tonne of waste treated). Water is used mostly in the process, while the lowest amount is
used for cleaning and for air treatment. Some plants indicated using recycled water, e.g. from an
adjacent waste water treatment plant.

4.3.2.3 Energy consumption

[ 42, WT TWG 2014 ]

The energy sources which are used during the normal operation of anaerobic digestion are
electricity, which could be generated on site, and heat, which may be needed for possible drying
and/or heating processes and for heating the buildings. The reported average electricity use per
tonne of waste is around 45 kWhe, with a range of 2–150 kWh/t. This electricity could be
generated at the plant itself by the combustion of biogas in a biogas engine (efficiency: 35–
45 %) but mostly it will be taken from the grid.

The levels of energy consumption (all types of energy sources, i.e. including electricity, gas oil,
gas, biogas) are up to 970 kWh/tonne of waste treated.

Some plants reported that only a renewable energy source (biogas) is used in the anaerobic
digestion process, either for heating the digester, drying the digestate, or for generating the
required electricity (CHP).

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4.4 Mechanical biological treatment (MBT)

In this section, only specific techniques related to MBT are described. When necessary, cross
references are made to related mechanical and/or biological sections.

4.4.1 Applied processes and techniques

Purpose
Mechanical biological treatment (MBT) is usually designed to recover materials for one or more
purposes and to stabilise the organic fraction of the residual waste. The practical advantages of
MBT plants are:

 recovery of recyclable materials;

 reduction of the volumes of waste;
 reduction of the organic matter content of the waste which is sent to final disposal
(landfill or incineration).

Another purpose of MBT is to break down the material for further processing (e.g. preparation
of solid waste fuels). Biological digestion is intended to reduce the weight, and to render inert
any biologically active organic materials (typically called ‘stabilised residue’). Typical values
for the combined loss of water and biodegradable materials may be in the range of between
20 % and 35 %, mainly depending on the duration of treatment. Further reductions of the waste
volume sent to landfill may be achieved by mechanical separation of the output and can be even
higher than 60 %.

Principle of operation
MBT plants significantly reduce humidity by extracting, reducing, recovering and stabilising the
organic content in the waste. These treatments involve a mechanical separation of the waste,
biological treatment (anaerobic and/or aerobic treatment) of the organic fraction, and a further
mechanical separation if required.

The biological steps of the mechanical biological residual waste treatment process are for the
most part identical to those employed for the composting and anaerobic digestion of separately
collected organic waste. However, MBT has stringent requirements with regards to mechanical
treatment and some biological treatment machinery due to its broader input spectrum and more
heterogeneous feedstock. MBT also necessitates more mechanical effort to extract a significant
amount of material which does not endure biological treatment, for example the highly calorific
coarse fraction, and ferrous and non-ferrous metals. Where possible, the coarse fraction
undergoes additional processing and differentiation. Residual waste also normally tends to have
a much higher potential risk of spots of contamination and a significantly higher level of
contaminants than separately collected organic waste. [ 141, UBA Germany 2013 ]

Feed and output streams

In principle, many types of waste materials can be accepted at a MBT plant. The materials
broken down and digested in the biological stage include paper and board, green/kitchen
organics, and the organic content contained within nappies, packaging, textiles, some types of
sewage sludge, etc. Generally, only mixed, unsorted waste enters the plant. However, some
European legislation and alterations in the treatment processes exclude or restrict some types of
waste. Some examples are hazardous waste, waste for which a special treatment is obligatory
because of EC legislation (e.g. Regulation (EC) No 1069/2009 of the European Parliament and
of the Council of 21 October 2009 laying down health rules as regards animal by-products and
derived products not intended for human consumption and repealing Regulation (EC) No
1774/2002 (Animal by-products Regulation)), waste for which a biological treatment is not
appropriate and waste causing inhibition of biological activity.

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The moisture content of waste intake is extremely variable, but household wastes would be
expected to have a moisture content of at least 40–50 %.

The output from MBT plants is greatly reduced in weight and when adequately stabilised its
emissions to air (e.g. of odour and methane) compared with the untreated material could be
reduced by approximately 90–98 % when landfilled. These figures are variable and greatly
depend on how the reduction of emissions is calculated (e.g. gas generation and respiration
activity) and on the decomposition/stabilisation level of the output (determined by e.g. oxygen
demand, total organic carbon content (TOC), gas-formation potential). In some countries, the
output may be recovered or used as landfill cover if contamination is low enough, or it may be
landfilled. The quality of the output is generally not acceptable for widespread use because of
the contaminants related to both the inert content (glass, plastic, etc.) and also to the heavy
metals content arising from other wastes entering the stream (batteries, etc.). Other outputs are
combustible fractions and recyclable materials (e.g. metals, plastic). Table 4.24 below gives an
overview of the output from MBT processes, depending on the process configuration.

Table 4.24: Overview of output from different MBT process configurations

Process configuration Output

Recyclable materials (vary depending on

configuration but generally ferrous and non-ferrous
metals, plastics)
Aerobic biodrying
RDF or SRF
Inorganic fines and inerts
Recyclable materials (vary depending on
configuration but generally ferrous and non-ferrous
metals, plastics)
Plastics and other inorganic residues not suitable for
Aerobic biostabilisation biostabilisation and production of separated and
treated organic fraction
Separated and treated organic fraction or
biostabilised waste
Inorganic fines and inerts
Recyclable materials (vary depending on
configuration but generally ferrous and non-ferrous
metals, plastics)
Aerobic biostabilisation producing an RDF Inorganic material
Biostabilised waste suitable for RDF or landfill
Inorganic fines and inerts
Biogas
Digestate with possible use as a low calorific value
(CV) RDF additive or landfill restoration additive
Recyclable materials (vary depending on
Anaerobic Digestion configuration but generally ferrous and non-ferrous
metals, plastics)
Plastics and other inorganic residues not suitable for
anaerobic digestion
Inorganic fines and inerts
Source: [ 69, UK EA 2013 ]

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Figure 4.5 below shows a flow diagram for a typical MBT process.

Source: Adapted from [ 69, UK EA 2013 ]

Figure 4.5: Material flow diagram for a MBT process

Copper and zinc can be expected to be found in any organic fraction as they are plant
micronutrients. Other heavy metals will be associated with the feedstock that the organic
fraction is derived from. In general, metals will be retained in the solid fraction.

Process description
MBT plants are very flexible and can be built on a modular basis. For example, the mechanical
treatment may be carried out before or after the biological treatment.

Biological treatment

The biological treatments that are used in a MBT facility are either aerobic treatment (see
Section 4.2) or anaerobic digestion (see Section 4.3).

Mechanical treatment (see also Section 2.3.2.9 and Section 3.3)

The mechanical treatment phase involves segregating and conditioning the wastes. The
processes that may be involved are as follows:

 opening of waste bags (where necessary) (e.g. shredders);

 extraction of undesirable components that might obstruct the subsequent processing (e.g.
metal separators);
 optimisation of the particle size for subsequent processing (e.g. by sieves, or shredders);
 segregation of biodegradable materials in the underflows of primary screening, so that
they can be sent to the biological treatment process (e.g. by sieves);
 segregation of materials with a high calorific value, such as textiles, paper and plastics, in
the overflows of primary screening, so that they can be sent for use in the production of
fuel; also, segregation of those materials suitable for further material recovery (e.g. by air
separation);
 homogenisation of materials destined for biological treatment.

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Apart from these processes, the plant may include equipment for the recovery of metals and for
the extraction of mineral fractions.

Biodrying
A typical biodrying reactor will include a series of discrete, enclosed containers coupled with an
aeration system or a large biodrying hall where batches of waste are progressively moved
through the hall by a mechanical load crane (wandering heap). Each of the containers used will
require an aeration and emissions management system to achieve optimum drying conditions
and reduce the potential for emissions.

A typical configuration for a biodrying reactor is shown in Figure 4.6 below.

Source: [ 69, UK EA 2013 ]

Figure 4.6: Biodrying process schematic

Biodrying uses the heat released during the aerobic decomposition of the readily degradable
organic material to drive moisture out of the organic waste pile in combination with the
application of excess aeration to the waste mass. By removing the moisture inherent in the
waste, an RDF material can be produced.

Moisture loss can be controlled through the air flow rate, which should coincide with the
temperature profiles. The specific humidity of air (i.e. the amount of water in the gas phase) will
increase with the temperature. Evaporation of water from the organic waste pile will increase at
increased air flow rates, leading to a significant loss of energy in the form of heat from the
waste mass.

The process will also deplete the energy content of the wastes. The process of drying can also be
accelerated by introducing supplementary heat from gas or biogas burners or waste heat from
gas engine exhausts where AD units are a combined treatment option.

Treatment of gas and air offtake from process areas needs special consideration as the air flow is
acidic and usually hot.
[ 69, UK EA 2013 ]

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Autoclaving
Sterilisation of waste in an autoclave is used as a first phase of mixed municipal solid waste
treatment, before its mechanical separation. This process increases the efficiency of mechanical
sorting of waste. Thanks to dehydration, the organic biodegradable fraction can be completely
separated from non-organic fractions (secondary raw materials such as plastics, glass and
metals, as well as minerals, ceramics, etc.). It is followed by mechanical separation of waste, in
which different fractions are isolated.

The autoclaving process is carried out at a pressure of 2–5 bars and temperature of 120–150 ºC.
[ 21, WT TWG 2016 ]

The potential emissions from MBT processes are summarised in Figure 4.7 below.

Source: [ 69, UK EA 2013 ]

Figure 4.7: Potential emission sources from MBT processes

Users
Mechanical biological treatment is a tool for pretreating wastes for recovery, for preparing solid
wastes (typically municipal solid waste) to be used as fuels, or prior to landfilling. The plants

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from the data collection that apply MBT are: 017, 019, 037, 089, 127, 130, 239, 243, 244, 257,
266, 267, 337, 338, 350, 434, 452, 453, 454, 519, 566, 573, 594, 628.

Autoclaving has been reported at one plant in Poland, three in the UK and one in Spain.

Reference literature
[ 127, Umweltbundesamt (AT) 2015 ], [ 142, DEFRA 2013 ], [ 143, Bioelektra 2017 ], [ 144,
Aerothermal 2017 ], [ 144, Aerothermal 2017 ], [ 145, Orchid Environmental Ltd 2017 ], [ 146,
Eco Hispanica 2017 ], [ 147, EstechUSA 2017 ]

4.4.1.1 Innovative processes

4.4.1.1.1 Pretreatment to separate food waste from packaging

Purpose
Packed food waste is separated into reusable organic material suitable for biogas production and
rejects suitable for incineration.

Principle of operation
This pretreatment separates the organic material from the packaging, e.g. plastic, cardboard and
paper, foils or cans, by means of mechanical processing in a system of feed screws, beaters and
press tubes. The organic material is collected in the press tube by feed screws transporting the
organic material to a container. The rejects are pushed down by the feed screw and transported
to another container. The facility is installed with flush systems for automatic cleaning with a
minimum use of water. Coconut oil may be used as a conservation agent in the cleaning water.

Users
This pretreatment has been tested at Danish inter-municipal waste treatment companies on
different types of food waste packed in various packaging materials. The test included analyses
and quality monitoring of, for example, the purity and degree of efficiency of the facility.

References
[ 138, Danish EPA 2014 ]

4.4.1.1.2 Separation of biodegradable material by enzyme treatment

Purpose
Enzymes are used to liquefy biodegradable material in unsorted municipal solid waste (MSW)
and separate it from plastic items, plastic foils and metals, which can be recovered in either 2D
(plastic foils, plastic bags, etc.) or 3D waste fractions (bottles, containers, etc.).

Principle of operation
The process is continuous, fully automatic and operates at atmospheric pressure and at
temperatures around 50 °C. It is not necessary to sort the waste before it enters the process.
The process steps are the following:

 Liquefaction of household waste: enzymes are added into the waste stream in a specially
designed reactor. The biodegradable content of unsorted waste is liquefied and separated
from non-degradable solids to create a pumpable liquid bio-waste with high biomethane
potential.
 Ballistic separation: the treated waste is separated into three fractions – liquid bio-waste,
2D and 3D solid fractions.
 Washing of 3D fraction: the 3D fraction is transported to a washing drum, where surface
residues are washed off. Used wash water is recirculated.

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 First pressing of 2D fraction: after the ballistic separator, the 2D fraction is transported to
a press, where a liquid containing organic fibres and residues are separated from the 2D
fraction. The liquid is then mixed into the liquid bio-waste stream.
 Washing of 2D fraction: the 2D fraction is washed to improve storage stability and retain
as much biomaterial as possible. Used wash water is recirculated back to the pretreatment
step.
 Second pressing of 2D fraction: after washing, a second pressing takes place to increase
the dry matter content.
 When the liquid bio-waste exits the ballistic separator, it is mixed with the liquid bio-
waste from the first pressing of the 2D fraction. Further treatment depends on the
intended use of this bio-waste (for example biogas production).

Output streams
 Liquid bio-waste.
 Recyclable material (metal, inert/inactive material such as gravel, plastics).
 Solid fuel.

Users
 Demonstration plant at ARC – Amager Resource Center, Copenhagen, Denmark.
 Plant in Northwich, UK (to be commissioned in 2017).

References
[ 138, Danish EPA 2014 ], [ 148, Dong Energy 2017 ]

4.4.2 Current emission and consumption levels

[ 42, WT TWG 2014 ]

By contrast to composting plants treating green waste and separately collected bio-waste, the
material treated in MBT plants may exhibit a broad range of emissions as it may treat municipal
waste. MBT exhaust gas may contain fluorinated or chlorinated hydrocarbons, mercury, metals
and other compounds.

The MBT exhaust gas is partially produced during the mechanical treatment, but is mostly
related to the biological process in which heat is released. Depending on the process,
temperatures from 30 °C up to 90 °C may be reached. Thus a great part of the moisture
contained in the waste is driven out. Furthermore, the remains of solvents and of mineral oil
carbohydrates can be driven out. Under these boundary conditions, the MBT exhaust gas
contains at least the following material groups:

 water in the form of water-vapour-saturated process exhaust air which is not likely to be
below saturation level unless unsaturated hall air is added;
 degradation products of organic decomposition which are also known to result from
alcoholic fermentation, such as acetone, acetaldehyde, ethanol, methanol, butanol and
other short-chained compounds;
 solvents, especially benzene, toluene, xylene;
 odorous terpenes, mainly limonene and alpha- and beta-pinene;
 traces of mineral oil carbohydrates.

A mechanical biological treatment including separation and anaerobic digestion typically

consumes water, auxiliary materials and energy.

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4.4.2.1 Emissions to air

The emissions to air of pollutants and odorous substances of MBT plants are:
 waste-specific (type, composition, age);
 treatment-specific (aerobic degradation, anaerobic digestion);
 process-specific (type of aeration);
 dependent on operational management;
 influenced meteorologically (weather conditions) in the case of open reactors.

In addition to the release of odorous substances at delivery and during mechanical treatment, the
emissions of the plant mainly originate from the following sources:

 aerobic degradation;
 anaerobic digestion;
 exhaust air/exhaust gas treatment.

Table 4.25 shows the different parameters measured at mechanical biological treatment plants
as well as the type of measurement (periodic/continuous). This table should be read together
with Table 4.26 which shows, for each plant, the origin of emissions to air as well as the
associated abatement techniques.

The most commonly measured parameters are NH3, odour, dust, H2S and organic compounds
from plants equipped mainly with a scrubber system and a biofilter. Abatement of dust
emissions is sometimes carried out with a bag filter. Some plants are equipped with a biofilter
only. Four plants (243, 267, 279 and 628) are equipped with a regenerative thermal oxidation
system.

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Table 4.25: Parameters measured in emissions to air from MBT plants (excluding biogas
combustion)
Range (mg/Nm3 except
Parameter Type of
Plants concerned for flow, odour and air
measured measurement
O2 content)
017_1, 037, 239 (1), 243, 244 (1),
Continuous
257_1, 257_2, 266, 267, 573, 628 (1)
017_2, 017_3, 019, 127, 337_1,
Flow 720–134 000
337_2, 338, 350_1, 350_2, 350_3,
Periodic
452_1 (1), 452_2, 452_3, 452_4,
452_5, 452_6, 454, 566
239 (1), 243, 244 (1), 257_1, 257_2,
Continuous
266, 267, 628 (1)
017_3, 019, 037, 127, 279_1, 337_1,
Dust < 19
337_2, 350_1, 350_2, 350_3, 452_1
Periodic
(1), 452_2, 452_3, 452_4, 452_5,
452_6, 573
017_1, 017_2, 019, 037, 127, 239 (1),
Odour Periodic 243, 244 (1), 257_1, 257_2, 266, 267, 74–5550
338, 434_1, 434_2, 628 (1)
017_1, 019, 037, 127, 243, 337_1,
NH3 Periodic 338, 350_1, 350_2, 350_3, 415_1, 0.12–48 (2)
452_1 (1), 452_2, 452_3, 566, 573
239 (1), 243, 244 (1), 257_1, 257_2,
Continuous
266, 267, 628 (1)
3
TVOC ( ) 017_1, 017_2, 019, 037, 337_1, 3–21
Periodic 350_1, 350_2, 350_3, 452_1 (1),
452_2, 452_3, 452_4, 452_5,
127, 337_1, 350_1, 350_2, 350_3,
H2S Periodic 452_1 (1), 452_2, 452_3, 452_4, 0–4.25
452_5, 566, 573,
019, 415_2, 415_3, 452_4 (1), 452_5,
NOX Periodic 0.95–405
452_6, 566, 573
239 (3), 243, 244 (1), 257_1, 257_2,
Continuous 1.7–14.99
N2O 266, 628 (1)
Periodic 017_1, 037 7
452_1 (1), 452_2, 452_3, 452_4,
HCl Periodic 0.06–3.23
452_5
452_1 (1), 452_2, 452_3, 452_4,
HF Periodic 0–0.33
452_5
415_2, 415_3, 452_4 (1), 452_5,
SOX Periodic 5.5–15.20
452_6
CO Periodic 452_4 (1), 452_5, 452_6 3.9–94.97
Continuous 266
PCDD/PCDF 0–0.015 ng I-TEQ/Nm3
Periodic 239 (1), 243, 257_1, 257_2
CH4 Periodic 017_1, 037 5.79–22
Hg Periodic 573 0.00009
Bioaerosols Periodic 37 41.5 (cfu/Nm3)
(1) Plants where anaerobic digestion is carried out.
(2) Value for NH3 before treatment. The emission concentration is below 1 mg/Nm3 after treatment.
(3) TVOC is measured by 2 plants (349 and 350), and TOC by 11 plants (17, 19, 37, 239, 243, 244, 257, 267,
337, 452, 628). For TOC, the reported standard EN 12619 and corresponding measuring method (FID) allows
plants to measure the volatile fraction only.

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Table 4.26: Abatement techniques for emissions to air and origin of emissions at MBT plants

Plant code Origin of emissions to air Techniques used

Heat exchanger before biofilter
17_1 Biological process
Biofiltering
Mechanical process:
17_2 Biofiltering
Waste-receiving hall
17_3 Mechanical process: Loading hall Bag/fabric filter system

Biofiltering
19 Biological process
Acid scrubbing
Cooling
Bioscrubbing
37 Whole plant
Biofiltering
Wet scrubbing
89 No monitoring is performed No channelled emissions
Wet scrubbing
Mechanical and biological process Biofiltering
127
phases Activated carbon adsorption
Biofiltering
130 Biofilter Biofiltering
Acid scrubber system
239 (1) Aerobic process
Regenerative thermal oxidation

Wet scrubbing with sorbent injection

Mechanical biological treatment of
Bag/fabric filter system
243 mixed solid waste containing bio-waste
Biofiltering
one stack
Regenerative thermal oxidation

Biofiltering
Regenerative thermal oxidation
244 (1) Whole plant Wet scrubbing with sorbent injection
Bag/fabric filter system
Activated carbon adsorption

257_1 Biological process Regenerative thermal oxidation

257_2 Mechanical process Bag/fabric filter system

Biofiltering
Air humidifier conditioning the delivery
Air discharged from
266 air to the biological filter
the composting tunnels
Recirculation of air for tunnel
ventilation
Bag/fabric filter system
Wet scrubbing with sorbent injection
267 Mechanical and biological treatment
Biofiltering
Regenerative thermal oxidation

Biofiltering
337_1 Biodryer E1+E2
Wet scrubbing with sorbent injection
Preparation of SRF for incineration or
337_2 Bag/fabric filter system
co-incineration E3
Mechanical biological treatment (MBT)
338 of mixed solid waste Biofiltering
containing bio-waste
350_1 Mechanical separation activity E1 Biofiltering
350_2 Waste stabilisation E3 Biofiltering

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350_3 Composting activity E4 Biofiltering

Biological treatment, mechanical
434_1 Cover membrane
treatment
Biological treatment, mechanical Forced aeration
434_2
treatment, Activated carbon adsorption
452_1 (1) Reception biofilter Biofiltering

452_2 Sorting-anaerobic process biofilter Biofiltering

452_3 Composting biofilter Biofiltering

452_4 Biogas motor 1 NI
452_5 Biogas motor 2 NI

452_6 Cauldron for heating digester NI

453 NI NI
454 Composting Biofiltering
519 Aerobic treatment NI
Acid scrubber system
566 Biological process
Biofiltering
Biofiltering
573 Biological process
Acid scrubber system
No points of channelled air emissions
594 No point source of emissions to air
from the facility
Regenerative thermal oxidation
628 (1) Whole plant
Bag/fabric filter system
(1) Plants where anaerobic digestion is carried out.
NB: NI = No information.

Figure 4.8 and Figure 4.9 below illustrate the emissions to air from MBT plants for dust and
organic compounds.

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Figure 4.8: Dust emissions to air from MBT plants

Figure 4.9: Emissions of organic compounds to air from MBT plants

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4.4.2.2 Emissions to water and water usage

4.4.2.2.1 Emissions to water

Table 4.27 below shows the different measured pollutants at MBT plants and the type of
measurement (continuous/periodic). It should be read together with Table 4.28 which
summarises the applied abatement techniques and type of discharge of emissions to water.

The most commonly measured parameters are pH, COD, BOD5, NH3-N, and some metals such
as Cd, Pb, Cr, Ni and Zn. Around half of the plants reported discharging indirectly to water.
Three plants reported discharging directly to the environment without treatment.

Table 4.27: Emissions to water from MBT plants

Number of
Range (mg/l
measurements
Parameter Type of except for flow,
Plants concerned during the 3-year
measured measurement temperature and
reference period
pH)
(2010–2012)
Continuous 243, 244, 257, 415, 434, 566, 628 0.4–10 NA
Flow (m3/h)
Grab sample 127 0.06–2.3 1–3
Temperature Continuous 244 37 NA
(°C) Grab sample 17, 243, 519 20–30 1–36
17, 19, 127, 243, 244, 257, 349,
pH Grab sample 6.9–8.6 1–36
350, 434
COD Grab sample 127, 244, 279, 350, 519 30–88 809 1–36
TOC Grab sample 17, 434 317–382 1
BOD5 Grab sample 127, 243, 244, 350, 519 2.75–36 347 1–36
Total N Grab sample 127, 244, 279, 350 171–8449 1–33
NH3-N Grab sample 17, 19, 350, 519 1–487 1–11
Total P Grab sample 127, 519, 566 45–638 1–3
TSS Grab sample 127, 349, 350 16–1360 1–11
THC Grab sample 19 1.5 1
Cl- Grab sample 350, 519, 566 31.3–254 3–11
F- Grab sample 350, 566 0.8 11
S2- Grab sample 19, 244, 350, 519, 566 0.01–0.4 1–33
SO32- Grab sample 350, 566 0.1 8
CN- Grab sample 244, 350, 566 0.006–0.03 11–36
Sulphate Grab sample 350, 519, 566 31.2–633 3–11
Cd Grab sample 19, 243, 244, 257, 349, 350, 434 0.001–0.01 1–36
Hg Grab sample 19, 243, 244, 257, 350, 434_1 0.0001–0.0009 1–36
As Grab sample 243, 244, 257, 349, 350 0.009–0.05 1–36
19, 243, 244, 257, 279, 349, 350,
Pb Grab sample 0.004–0.07 1–36
434
Cr Grab sample 19, 243, 244, 257, 279, 349, 350_1 0.009–0.2 1–36
Cr(VI) Grab sample 244, 257, 350, 566 0.01–0.04 3–36
Co Grab sample 244, 566 0.02 36
19, 127, 243, 244, 257, 279, 349,
Cu Grab sample 0.01–0.1 1–36
350, 434, 566
Mn Grab sample 244, 350 0.09–0.13 11–36
Ni Grab sample 19, 243, 244, 257, 279, 349, 350 0.046–0.45 1–36
19, 127, 243, 244, 257, 279, 350,
Zn Grab sample 0.02–2.4 1–36
434
Fe Grab sample 350, 566 0.15 11
Chlorine Grab sample 519, 566 254 3
Phenols Grab sample 19-566 0.1 1
AOX Grab sample 19, 243, 244, 257, 350 0.03–0.36 1–36
BTEX Grab sample 19, 566 0.6 1
Toxicity Grab sample 257 0.01 3
NB:
1. The highest concentration values for COD, BOD5, Total N and TSS were reported by Plant 127 (leachate directed
to an on-site WWTP – see Table 4.28 below).
2. The figures provided by Plant 566 are the limit values set in the permit. They are not reported in this table.
3. Other parameters (e.g. NO2-N, NO3-N) have each been reported by only one plant. They are not reported in this
table.

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Table 4.28 below gives an overview of abatement techniques for emissions to water used in
MBT plants.

Table 4.28: Abatement techniques for emissions to water in MBT plants

Plant code Origin of emissions to water Type of discharge Techniques used
Biological process (air
management, waste water is Indirect discharge (off-site
17 NI
only released from heat common WWT facilities)
exchanger before biofilter)
Indirect discharge
19 Biological process NI
(urban/municipal sewer system)
No emissions to water (all
37 water is reused, emission only NA NA
evaporated via biofilter)
No emissions to water from
composting. Rainwater and
process water are collected
Indirect discharge (off-site
89 separately and reused in the NA
common WWT facilities)
process. Surpluses (a small
part) are transported to the
WWTP by road tanks.
Active sludge systems -
Indirect discharge to an on-site conventional
Leachate generated in excess
common WWT facility (the Biological nutrient removal
coming from composting
WWT facility is mainly (nitrification)
127 tunnels and waste water in
influenced by waste water Ultrafiltration
excess coming from treatment
streams coming from activities Absorption
of emissions to air
other than the WT plant) Treated water is stored in 3
storage basins and spread on land
Indirect discharge to an on-site
common WWT facility (the
WWT facility is mainly
130 Water from outdoor platform NA
influenced by waste water
streams coming from activities
other than the WT plant)
Drainage digestate Indirect discharge (off-site
239 NA
Excess water common WWT facilities)
Mechanical biological Indirect discharge
243 Nitrification/denitrification
treatment (urban/municipal sewer system)
Absorption
Indirect discharge
244 Complete plant Nitrification/denitrification
(urban/municipal sewer system)
Ultrafiltration
Biological process (biological Indirect discharge Nitrification/denitrification
257
drying (urban/municipal sewer system) Ultrafiltration
Discharge from the WT plant to Sieving
Final dry maturation of the
266 the environment without Buffer tanks
biological waste
treatment Evaporation
Usually waste-water-free
267 NA NA
operation
No points of emission to
337 water; all the leachate is sent NA NA
to an external WWTP
Leachate is sent to an external
338 NA Wet air oxidation
WWTP
Discharge from the WT plant to
350 Biological process S1 the environment without NI
treatment
Biological process, storage Indirect discharge
434 Buffer tanks
yards, transportation areas (urban/municipal sewer system)
452 No emission to water NA NA
453 No emission to water NA NA
The used water is collected in
454 a tank and is sent in an NI NI
external WWTP
Indirect discharge
519 NI NI
(urban/municipal sewer system)

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Waste water is routed after the

Indirect discharge
566 NI pretreatment to a sewer (around
(urban/municipal sewer system)
10 m3 per day)
Industrial waste water is
573 NI NI
transferred to the WWTP
594 No emission to water NA NA
Indirect discharge: the excess
628 All processes process water is treated in an NA
external WWTP
NB: NI = No information.
NA = Not applicable.

4.4.2.2.2 Water usage

MBT plants sometimes add water to the windrows, as moisture is lost during aerobic
biodegradation which could otherwise lead to a shortage of water and halt the aerobic
biodegradation process. This typically occurs during summer and winter months.

In some cases, there is no net water consumption in the process. In the drying process, water is
produced (350 litres –in vapour form– per tonne of waste treated). During aerobic
biodegradation, temperatures of 50–60 °C are reached. Thus, water lost from the feedstock
becomes water vapour (about 90 %) and is typically released to the air. However, in some cases,
some of this water is condensed. The treatment of this condensation water is quite complex. The
purified waste water (permeate) is used as process water in the cooling circuit. It is evaporated
in the cooling tower. Tap water is only used in the cooling tower as make-up water (10 litres per
tonne of waste).

The reported average water usage per tonne of waste treated is 132 l, with a range of 6–860 l/t.

Some plants reported using recycled water, e.g. from an adjacent waste water treatment plant.

4.4.2.3 Energy consumption

The reported average energy consumption per tonne of waste treated at mechanical biological
treatment plants, including for example fuel consumption for machines and wheel loaders,
ranges from 5 kW/t to around 100 kW/t, with an average of approximately 50 kW/t.

The reported average electricity consumption per tonne of waste treated ranges from 1 kWhe/t to
86 kWhe/t, with an average of around 37 kWhe/t.

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4.5 Techniques to consider in the determination of BAT

4.5.1 Techniques for all types of biological treatment

4.5.1.1 Selection of the waste input

Description
Selection of the waste input to ensure its suitability for the waste treatment, e.g. to enable an
appropriate nutrient balance, and to avoid toxic compounds (i.e. toxic in terms of reducing
biological activity) entering the biological systems. This is also in relation to the pre-acceptance,
acceptance and sorting procedures described in Section 2.3.2.

Technical description
A key technical factor for selecting the appropriate system is its capability to provide proper
contact between the organic constituents of the waste and the microbial population. This
capability primarily depends on the waste degradability under the respective aerobic
(composting) or anaerobic (anaerobic digestion) process conditions, the state of the waste and
its organic carbon concentration. An approximate schematic of the system offering the most
capability as a function of the last two variables is shown in Figure 4.10 below.

Source: [ 8, LaGrega et al. 1994 ]

Figure 4.10: Selection of an appropriate biological treatment system as a function of the organic
carbon concentration and form of the waste

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Important features, for consideration, of the selected biological system are the uniform
distribution of the nutrients and the moisture of the waste to be treated (homogeneity) as well as
the availability of the treatment selected.

Other issues to consider are as follows:

 Maximising the quality of the feedstock in line with the treatment. Both admissible waste
types and separation steps (see information on pre-acceptance, acceptance and sorting
techniques in Sections 2.3.2.1, 2.3.2.3 and 2.3.2.9) are important here. Techniques
include the following:
o Ensuring the right balance of the nutrient content (e.g. nitrogen vs carbon
content).
o Minimising the presence of toxic and unwanted materials (including heavy
metals, pathogens and inert materials).
o Recognising that any non-biodegradable components of waste which are fed
into an anaerobic digester or subjected to an aerobic treatment, and which will
not be affected by the process, simply take up unnecessary space. They could
also damage the process and the equipment. To maximise the benefit of using
the technique (both in environmental and economic terms) and to minimise the
cost, it is important to minimise the presence of these components in the
feedstock.
 When proved to be appropriate (see Section 2.3.2.8), increasing the nutrient level of the
feedstock by adding other wastes (e.g. sewage, organic industrial wastes, food processing
wastes and agricultural wastes) to the organic fraction of municipal solid waste, as well as
adding moisture.
 Using kitchen waste and other putrescible wastes, which may be too wet and lacking in
structure to be properly treated by aerobic treatment, can provide an excellent feedstock
for anaerobic digestion (AD). Anaerobic digestion is better suited to waste with a higher
moisture content and can proceed in waste with a moisture content of between 60 % and
99 %. Liquids are often added to the AD processes (either water or recycled effluent) to
maintain a high moisture content, however, the waste with lower moisture is directed to
dry AD instead of wet AD which allows water savings. Not mixing different types of
waste if not proved to be appropriate. This is related to Section 2.3.2.8.
 Continuous learning about the influence of the waste characteristics on the operational
settings such as aggregates, mass flow, volumes, biological degradation variables (e.g.
temperature, CO2) as well as measured (gaseous) emissions (e.g. use of continuously
acquired emission data (raw gas and/or clean gas), VOCs, methane, for the adjustment of
settings, i.e. automatic control of biological processes).
 A constant decomposition rate during the biogas process (AD) requires a uniform
substrate loading rate.

Achieved environmental benefits

The achieved environmental benefits of this technique include:
a. prevention of emissions, e.g. of nitrogen compounds;
b. improvement of the reuse/recycling rate by avoiding the presence of non-biological
active parts (e.g. glass, metals) in the feedstock.

Environmental performance and operational data

No information provided.

Cross-media effects
The addition of sewage sludge to the organic fraction of MSW may have adverse effects on the
biological treatment itself, the exhaust gas quality that is obtained during the biological
treatment and the quality of the output.

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Technical considerations relevant to applicability

Generally applicable to all treatments.

Economics
No information provided.

Driving force for implementation

Quality of the end product.

Example plants
No information provided.

Reference literature
[ 8, LaGrega et al. 1994 ], [ 18, WT TWG 2004 ], [ 9, UK EA 2001 ], [ 10, Babtie Group Ltd
2002 ], [ 90, Hogg et al. 2002 ], [ 18, WT TWG 2004 ], [ 19, WT TWG 2004 ], [ 51, WT TWG
2005 ], [ 21, WT TWG 2016 ]

4.5.1.2 Storage management of putrescible waste input

Description
Management and optimisation of the storage of putrescible waste input, in terms of duration,
location and size.

Technical description
 The storage area for putrescible, non-woody feedstock is designed to allow complete
emptying and cleaning including drainage (when needed at this stage) to allow
appropriate leachate and washing water collection, transfer and discharge into gullies via
a sump for use within the process, discharge into sewers where required, tankering to a
WWTP or other authorised waste treatment plant or use on land where this is allowed.
 Some input woody materials (bulky bush and tree cuttings) are stored in a dedicated area
for blending with other incoming bio-wastes and sludges. These are stored in such a way
as to mitigate fugitive emissions and fires.
 The level of protection measures is proportional to the risk of surface water and/or
groundwater pollution. All storage areas for putrescible, non-woody feedstock have an
impermeable surface with a sealed drainage system, to prevent any spillage entering the
storage systems or escaping off site. The design prevents the contamination of clean
surface water (see Section 2.3.11).
 Waste is stored under appropriate conditions in a designated area to manage putrefaction,
odour generation, the attraction of vermin and any other nuisance or objectionable
condition. This can be achieved by ensuring that waste is processed quickly and waste
storage time is minimised.
 Depending on the feedstock type (C:N ratio, degradability, etc.), the capacity for optimal
residence time for feedstock material stored prior to processing is an important factor in a
site's potential for odour generation. Untreated and improperly mixed material can
increase the generation of odours. The separate storage of different waste types may be
useful to create specified compost products (e.g. green waste compost, bio-waste
compost, bark compost, sludge compost).
 Storage of putrescible wastes is preferably carried out in an enclosed area. If not:
o freshly delivered grass and leaves are treated (‘treated’ can also mean mixed,
covered or made silage, etc.) within a maximum of 72 hours;
o other putrescible wastes (e.g. food waste, kitchen waste, waste from the food
industry) are treated (‘treated’ can also mean mixed, covered or made silage,
etc.) within a maximum of 24 hours.

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 When enclosed buildings are used, fast-acting doors are provided for access and egress
for delivery and other vehicles or other adequate measures are taken to minimise diffuse
emissions from offloading areas (e.g. air curtain). Buildings are sized so that offloading
can be carried out within the building with the doors shut. This can be helped by the
insertion of sensor-controlled rolling shutter gates or flap gates and by sufficient
dimensioning of the manoeuvring area in front of the hall. It needs to be recognised that
the discipline of the hall and vehicle fleet staff is at least equally important to actually
realise the short opening times. For an underground bunker, which the vehicles approach
backwards and then tip their load into, the installation of a curtain with the vehicle outline
behind the actual door may be a way to minimise air exchange during unloading as far as
possible.
 Where the waste storage area is required to be in an enclosed building, it includes a
building ventilation system and an emission abatement system that maintain the building
under negative air pressure in order to minimise fugitive odour and dust releases from the
building. Exhaust air is captured and can be reused to aerate the composting piles before
discharge and treatment.
 In the case of intermediate storage of source-separated green waste and food waste from
households (in countries where this is allowed outdoors), physical protection against wind
drifting of light fractions (contaminants such as plastics) is installed (fences, walls, fleece
coverage) or they are removed from the surface.

Achieved environmental benefits

The achieved environmental benefits of this technique include:
 minimisation of odour generation;
 prevention of uncontrolled release of waste water and leachate.

Environmental performance and operational data

Table 4.29 shows the type of storage for the input waste as well as the associated capacity for
the different types of biological treatments of waste.

Table 4.29: Biological treatment plants equipped with a closed hall, and associated storage
capacities
Number of plants equipped
with closed halls for waste
Type of biological treatment Range of storage capacity of
input storage
plant the closed halls (t)
(of those which participated in
the data collection)
Outdoor aerobic treatment plants 3 out of 27 198–1000
Indoor aerobic treatment plants 22 out of 28 50–2000
Anaerobic treatment plants 23 out of 29 50–1000
MBT plants 17 out of 27 200–2000

Cross-media effects
No information provided.

Technical considerations relevant to applicability

Adequate provision must be made for the acceptance of seasonal peak delivery volumes such as
those occurring during spring and autumn.

In the case of existing plants, offloading within the building with the doors shut may not be
possible due to design constraints.

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Economics
No information provided.

Driving force for implementation

Reduced local nuisance and therefore less complaints from the neighbourhood.

Example plants
In Plant 125, the oxygen concentration of input waste is controlled as well as the rotating speed
of the input waste mixer. This waste is permanently either mixed with a low rotative speed or
aerated with a higher speed when it is necessary to increase the oxygen rate.

In Plant 635, the air from the input waste shredding area is pumped out and injected under the
heaps which work as a biofilter. This reduces odour emission and improves the air supply to the
compost heaps (instead of periodically turning the heaps). The heaps are covered by a
semipermeable membrane.

Reference literature
[ 149, Clausen et al. 2002 ], [ 150, Kühner 2001 ], [ 18, WT TWG 2004 ], [ 49, Bio. subgroup
2014 ], [ 42, WT TWG 2014 ], [ 83, UK EA 2013 ]

4.5.1.3 Odour management plan

More information can be found in Section 2.3.5.1.

Description
An ‘odour management plan’ identifies the appropriate measures to mitigate odours at the site,
including:
 operational measures;
 management of complaints;
 monitoring of odour emissions.

Technical description
Operational measures
The odour management plan identifies operational measures to mitigate odours. These
operational measures are described in Sections 4.5.2.1 and 4.5.3.1.

Complaints
In addition, as part of the odour management plan, the ‘complaints management’ in the case of
single odour emission events includes the following elements that are duly recorded:

 name, address and telephone number of the complainant;

 date and time of the complaint;
 subject of the complaint;
 operations carried out at the time of the complaint;
 weather conditions (e.g. temperature, wind direction, rainfall);
 operational measures taken in response to the complaint;
 communication with the complainant: an immediate reply is given to the complainant.

The odour management plan also includes operational measures such as monitoring of odour
emissions.

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Monitoring of odour emissions

The odour management plan identifies the circumstances (i.e. when an odour nuisance can be
expected and/or has been substantiated) that would require monitoring of odour emissions and,
if relevant, the frequency and location of the measurements as well as the measurement method.

Achieved environmental benefits

The achieved environmental benefits of this technique include:
 reduction of odour emissions;
 reduction of number of complaints from the neighbourhood.

Environmental performance and operational data

Table 4.30 shows the odour emissions measured at biological treatment plants.

Table 4.30: Ranges of measured odour emissions at biological treatment plants

Ranges of odour emissions
Type of biological treatment
measured (OUE/m3)
Aerobic outdoor (see Figure 4.4) 303–5 916
Aerobic indoor (see Figure 4.7) 139–7 433
Anaerobic (see Table 4.20) 29–12 967
MBT (see Table 4.25) 74–5 550

Cross-media effects
No information provided.

Technical considerations relevant to applicability

The odour management plan is restricted to cases where an odour nuisance can be expected
and/or has been substantiated.

Economics
No information provided.

Driving force for implementation

Reduced number of complaints from the neighbourhood.

Example plants
A good number of facilities across Europe currently employ technologies that help in the
running of aerobic biodegradation activities, even in more crowded areas, provided the design
and management of the plant consider odour problems with the proper care.

Reference literature
[ 49, Bio. subgroup 2014 ], [ 42, WT TWG 2014 ]

4.5.1.4 Reduction of channelled emissions of dust, odour, organic

compounds, H2S and NH3

Collection of emissions of dust, organic compounds and odorous compounds, including H2S and
NH3, and abatement by:

 biofiltration (see Section 2.3.4.7);

 thermal oxidation (see Section 2.3.4.6);
 wet scrubber (see Section 2.3.4.10); water, acid or alkaline scrubbers are used in
combination with a biofilter, thermal oxidation or adsorption on activated carbon;

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 activated carbon adsorption (see Section 2.3.4.9);

 fabric filter (see Section 2.3.4.4); the fabric filter is used in the case of mechanical
biological treatment.

Abatement of dust and organic compounds is relevant for MBT only.

Technical description
See the sections related to the individual abatement techniques and the CWW BREF [ 45, COM
2016 ].

Achieved environmental benefits

The achieved environmental benefits of this technique include:
 reduction of odour emissions;
 reduction of H2S emissions;
 reduction of NH3 emissions;
 reduction of organic compound emissions;
 reduction of dust emissions.

Cross-media effects
See the CWW BREF [ 45, COM 2016 ].

Environmental performance and operational data

A pretreatment of the waste gas before the biofilter (e.g. with a water or acid scrubber, see
Section 2.3.4.10) may be needed in the case of a high NH3 content (e.g. 5–40 mg/Nm3) in order
to control the media pH and to limit the formation of N2O in the biofilter.

Some other odorous compounds (e.g. mercaptans, H2S) can cause acidification of the biofilter
media and necessitate the use of a water or alkaline scrubber (see Section 2.3.4.10) for
pretreatment of the waste gas before the biofilter.

Table 4.31 and Table 4.32 below show the environmental performance of reference plants
performing biological treatments in terms of NH3 and odour emissions.

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Table 4.31: Environmental performance of plants performing biological treatments in term of

NH3 emissions to air

Number of measurements
Main techniques to
Type of treatment

prevent/reduce

during the 3-year

concentration

concentration

concentration

measurement

reference period
Plant code

Maximum
Minimum

(mg/Nm3)

(mg/Nm3)

(mg/Nm3)

emissions

(2010-2012)
Average

Type of
Heat exchange
before
017_1 MBT 0.3 0.3 0.3 Periodic 36
biofilter,
Biofiltering
Biofiltering,
019 MBT 1.0 4.6 11.0 Acid scrubber Periodic 3
system
Cooling,
Bioscrubbing,
037 MBT 1.0 1.0 1.0 Biofiltering, Periodic 2
Water
scrubbing
Biofiltering,
Injection of
odour
neutralisers,
062 Aerobic 0.00 9.49 24.00 Water Periodic 30
spraying
(dust), Fast-
closing
curtains
Acid
114 Aerobic 10.00 10.00 10.00 scrubbing, Periodic 3
Biofiltering
Acid scrubber
system,
Biofiltering,
127 MBT 17.0 17.0 17.0 Activated Periodic 1
carbon
adsorption,
Biofiltering
Acid scrubber
system,
Bag/fabric
filter system,
243 MBT 2.2 2.2 2.2 Periodic 2
Biofiltering,
Regenerative
thermal
oxidation
Acid
5 ppm 5 ppm 5 ppm
328 Aerobic scrubbing, Periodic 36
(3.5 mg/m3) (3.5 mg/m3) (3.5 mg/m3)
Biofiltering
Biofiltering,
Wet scrubbing
337_1 MBT 0.5 0.5 0.5 Periodic 1
with sorbent
injection
338 MBT 0.3 0.3 0.3 Biofiltering Periodic 3
339 AD < 0.26 < 0.46 < 0.5 Biofiltering Periodic 6
341_1 AD 0.6 2.7 4.7 Biofiltering Periodic 12
341_3 AD 0.0 0.6 1.8 Biofiltering Periodic 11
349_1 AD 0.3 1.0 2.5 Biofiltering Periodic 3

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349_2 AD 0.3 0.4 0.6 Biofiltering Periodic 3

350_1 MBT 0.6 0.8 1.5 Biofiltering Periodic 6
350_2 MBT 0.6 1.0 2.5 Biofiltering Periodic 6
350_3 MBT 0.6 0.7 0.9 Biofiltering Periodic 6
Water
372 Aerobic 0.50 1.07 2.20 scrubbing, Periodic 3
Biofiltering
Acid
scrubbing,
377_1 AD 0.3 0.9 1.5 Water Periodic 2
scrubbing,
Biofiltering
Acid
scrubbing,
377_2 AD 0.3 0.5 0.7 Water Periodic 2
scrubbing,
Biofiltering
Acid
scrubbing,
377_3 AD 0.3 0.6 0.8 Water Periodic 2
scrubbing,
Biofiltering
Acid
scrubbing,
377_4 AD 0.3 0.3 0.3 Water Periodic 2
scrubbing,
Biofiltering
382_4 AD 0.1 0.2 0.2 Biofilter Periodic 3
382_5 AD 2.6 5.2 6.7 Biofilter Periodic 3
382_6 AD 0.1 0.4 0.5 Biofilter Periodic 3
382_7 AD 0.3 0.5 0.7 Biofilter Periodic 3
382_8 AD 0.1 0.6 1.2 Biofilter Periodic 3
382_9 AD 0.1 0.3 0.5 Biofilter Periodic 3
406_407_2 Aerobic 5.00 5.00 5.00 Biofiltering Periodic 3
410_411_2 Aerobic 5.00 5.00 5.00 Biofiltering Periodic 3
412_1 Aerobic 0.00 0.06 1.00 Biofiltering Periodic 33
413_1 Aerobic 0.00 0.00 0.00 Biofiltering Periodic 33
415_1 AD 1.8 1.8 1.8 Biofiltering Periodic 1
452_1 MBT 0.1 0.1 0.2 Biofiltering Periodic 3
452_2 MBT 0.2 0.2 0.2 Biofiltering Periodic 3
452_3 MBT 0.5 0.6 0.7 Biofiltering Periodic 6
Water
scrubbing,
Biofiltering,
Forced
459_2 AD 0.2 0.6 1.1 Periodic 4
aeration,
Water
spraying
(dust)
Acid
scrubbing,
Biofiltering,
Forced
460_1 Aerobic 1.00 1.27 1.70 Periodic 3
aeration,
Water
spraying
(dust)

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Combined
chemical and
biological
filter K2
followed by
the active
carbon filters
K4a and K4b
in series,
Separated
485_1 AD 3.5 3.5 3.5 Periodic 1
ventilation/air
flow, Outlet
point at 25 m
above ground
for dilution,
Bag/fabric
filter system,
Activated
carbon
adsorption
Acid scrubber
566 MBT 2.2 2.2 2.2 system, Periodic 1
Biofiltering
Biofiltering,
573 MBT 7.6 8.0 8.4 Acid scrubber Periodic 2
system
621 Aerobic 0.73 1.60 3.30 Biofiltering Periodic 7
Biofiltering,
634 Aerobic 0.11 0.47 1.10 Water Periodic 10
scrubbing

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Table 4.32: Environmental performance of plants performing biological treatments in term of

odour emissions to air

to prevent/reduce

during the 3-year

Main techniques

reference period
measurements
concentration

concentration

concentration

measurement

(2010-2012)
(OUE/Nm3)

(OUE/Nm3)

(OUE/Nm3)

Number of
Plant code

Maximum
Minimum
treatment

emissions
Average
Type of

Type of
Heat exchange
017_1 MBT 70 183 310 before biofilter, Periodic 3
Biofiltering
017_2 MBT 74 74 74 Biofiltering Periodic 1
Biofiltering, Acid
019 MBT 120 287 380 Periodic 3
scrubber system
Cooling,
Bioscrubbing,
037 MBT 136 302 427 Periodic 3
Biofiltering, Water
scrubbing
Acid scrubber
239 MBT 107 231 427 system, Regenerative Periodic 3
thermal oxidation
Acid scrubber
system, Bag/fabric
filter system,
243 MBT 61 153 223 Periodic 3
Biofiltering,
Regenerative thermal
oxidation
Biofiltering,
Regenerative thermal
oxidation, Wet
scrubbing with
244 MBT 215 291 391 Periodic 3
sorbent injection,
Bag/fabric filter
system, Activated
carbon adsorption
251 AD 38 107 240 Biofilter Periodic 6
Biofiltering, Water
255 AD 149 149 149 Periodic 1
scrubbing
Regenerative thermal
oxidation after
257_1 MBT 160 280 381 Periodic 9
passing through heat
exchanger
Bag/fabric filter
257_2 MBT 143 276 479 Periodic 9
system
Biofiltering, Wet
262 Aerobic 191 304 416 Periodic 2
scrubbing
Bag/fabric filter
system, Acid
scrubber system,
267 MBT 390 413 450 Periodic 3
Biofiltering,
Regenerative thermal
oxidation

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Water scrubbing,
268 AD 110 165 200 Periodic 4
Biofiltering
338 MBT 60 81 95 Biofiltering Periodic 3
339 AD 122 185 253 Biofiltering Periodic 3
349_1 AD 75 100 115 Biofiltering Periodic 3
349_2 AD 65 85 100 Biofiltering Periodic 3
Water scrubbing,
372 Aerobic 161 197 222 Periodic 3
Biofiltering
Acid scrubbing,
377_1 AD 160 220 270 Water scrubbing, Periodic 3
Biofiltering
Acid scrubbing,
377_2 AD 140 193 270 Water scrubbing, Periodic 3
Biofiltering
Acid scrubbing,
377_3 AD 150 193 220 Water scrubbing, Periodic 3
Biofiltering
Acid scrubbing,
377_4 AD 140 170 200 Water scrubbing, Periodic 3
Biofiltering
Forced aeration,
434_2 MBT 981 1010 1069 Activated carbon Periodic 3
adsorption
Acid scrubbing,
Biofiltering, Forced
460_1 Aerobic 287 568 1024 Periodic 6
aeration, Water
spraying (dust)
Redundant filter
solution and separate
air flow, Outlet point
485_2 AD 40 40 40 at 25 m above Periodic 1
ground for dilution,
Activated carbon
adsorption
485_3 AD 21 30 38 Biofiltering Periodic 2
518 Aerobic 847 882 917 Biofiltering Periodic 2
Biofiltering,
528_1 AD 0 0 0 Activated carbon Periodic 4
adsorption
621 Aerobic 76 139 206 Biofiltering Periodic 7
Regenerative thermal
628 MBT 200 307 400 oxidation, Bag/fabric Periodic 9
filter system
Biofiltering, Water
634 Aerobic 140 289 420 Periodic 10
scrubbing

Technical considerations relevant to applicability

These end-of-pipe abatement techniques are generally applicable in biological processes where
emissions to air are channelled. See also the CWW BREF [ 45, COM 2016 ]

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Economics
See the CWW BREF [ 45, COM 2016 ].

Driving force for implementation

 Environmental legislation.
 Odour complaints.

Example plants
See Table 4.31 and Table 4.32.

Reference literature
[ 151, Jacobs et al. 2007 ], [ 49, Bio. subgroup 2014 ], [ 42, WT TWG 2014 ], [ 21, WT TWG
2016 ]

4.5.1.5 Reduction of waste water generation and water usage

Description
This technique includes:
 recirculating process waters (e.g. from dewatering of liquid digestate in the case of
anaerobic treatment) or using alternative sources of water as much as possible, e.g.
condensed water, rinsing water, run-off water, within the process to minimise water
emissions;
 efficient balancing of water to minimise the production of leachates;
 segregation of leachate seeping from compost piles and windrows, surface water arising
from roads and uncontaminated run-off water from buildings;
 on-site treatment of waste water before discharge when water cannot be completely
recirculated to the process or applied on land (if allowed), and depending on the receiving
body.

See also Section 2.3.7.

Technical description
Dirty waters
Leachate typically has a high content of organic substances, which has the potential to cause
eutrophication in surface water, groundwater and flora and can cause soil contamination. It also
has a high potential for generating odour.

The site is designed to have sufficient capacity for collection and storage of dirty run-off,
leachate and washing water (dirty waters) from any impermeable paved areas of the site.
Storage areas and lagoons are constructed according to available construction design standards.
Underground tanks are checked at regular intervals for integrity. A highly permeable drainage
layer, such as wood chips, is introduced in the windrow construction to allow leachate drainage
and airflow into the windrows.

To comply with local, national and European water quality standards, dirty waters are
minimised and collected. Then they are either reused within the composting process, disposed
of properly for treatment in a waste water treatment plant, treated at another authorised waste
treatment plant (e.g. AD plant) or applied to land when allowed by the relevant competent
authority.

Once collected, dirty waters may be reused in the beginning of the composting process for
wetting fresh feedstock materials in the facility’s mixing procedure, when moisture assessment
warrants the adjustment, or later in the composting process if allowed by the regulatory regime

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and provided the dirty waters do not contain a significant amount of contaminants that may
compromise the quality of the compost produced.
Treatment of the leachate on site by approved means prior to discharge may also be
implemented (e.g. in the form of reed beds, aerated lagoons or on-site waste water treatment
plants).
Leachate can also be generated during the outdoor curing process. All curing pads are graded so
that leachate can be collected with the use of a catchment system to intercept and direct the
liquid to a catch basin and underground storage tank or a storage lagoon.

Clean surface water

Clean surface waters are collected and stored separately from dirty water or leachate, to reduce
the volume of dirty water to be treated.

Proper surface water design management will be important to protect nearby watercourses. The
entire site is graded and bunded or kerbed to facilitate the collection and drainage of surface
water to catch basins that direct this water to a storage lagoon or tank for reuse in the
composting process.

Surface water can be managed or used effectively on site in the following ways:

 sprayed on working surfaces on the site for dust control;

 moisture control at the start of and during the active composting phase and curing stages;
 uncontaminated surface water can also be stored in settling ponds to let the sediment
settle at the bottom of the pond before being discharged to local watercourses; and
 it can also be treated in constructed wetlands to reduce the pollution potential before
discharge to local watercourses.

Further considerations
 The appropriate dimensioning of the intermediate waste water tank(s) takes into account
the site size and rainfall in order to hold dirty waters from all paved areas where compost
or raw material is stored or treated in open, unroofed areas.
 The impermeable area covers the following areas of the composting plant:
o the tipping and intermediate feedstock storage area for all input materials with
the possible exception of woody materials (tree and bush cuttings), straw, or
similar biologically inactive, carbon-rich, dry feedstock (if allowed by the
regulatory regime) or finished compost;
o the storage area for non-woody materials (food and kitchen waste, sludge, food
processing waste, all materials with high water content and a high
fermentability potential);
o the preprocessing area where feedstocks are mixed, with the exception of the
area where woody materials (tree and bush cuttings) only are shredded;
o the active decomposition area, irrespective of whether it is roofed or not;
o the maturation area, irrespective of whether it is roofed or not; and
o the storage area for matured compost with any possible exception to be
approved by the competent authority and taking into account at least:
 local precipitation;
 ground and surface water protection;
 coverage by a water-repellent fleece or roof.
 In the case of areas of heavy rainfall or high precipitation, covering small triangular
windrows with geo-textiles or composting under a roofed structure reduces the formation
and the organic contamination of waste water and helps improve run-off management.
 All storage and treatment areas allow for the controlled drainage of all liquids to avoid
waterlogging at the windrow or feedstock base. This is achieved by constructing the

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composting pad on a slope to avoid water stagnating. The minimum slope of the site is
determined by the windrow height, the annual precipitation, the existence of roofing, the
method of aeration and the presence of drainage/aeration tubes.
Water usage
Quality management measures aimed at reducing the quantity of water used and to manage dirty
waters are:

 including in the initial composting mixture feedstocks that provide a good structure and
water-holding capacity (e.g. shredded wood, bark, straw, oversize screenings, sawdust,
leaves and compost at an appropriate rate);
 adjusting the initial moisture content of the feedstock to adapt it as much as possible the
considering its water-holding capacity;
 assessing the need for water addition and ensuring the correct addition of water as the
composting process progresses and the total water-holding capacity decreases.

Achieved environmental benefits

The achieved environmental benefits of this technique include:
 prevention of the contamination of groundwater or surface water;
 reduction of water usage and leachate production;
 reduction of waste water to be treated before release.

Environmental performance and operational data

For examples of plants using recycling water, see Table 4.33.
The reported recycled water to water used ratio (as an average over the three reference years)
ranges from 20 % to 100 %. The recycled water is used as washing water, as well as process
water. The source of recycled water is mainly rainwater, and also leachate and waste water after
treatment.

As for the environmental performance in terms of emissions to water, see Section 2.3.6.1.1.

Cross-media effects
Reuse of leachate water may generate odorous emissions and reintroduce pathogens into
sanitised compost.

Moreover, recycling of waste water may result in an increase in the concentration of

toxic/inhibiting compounds which may have negative effects on the biological treatment. Also,
making these water sources available induces costs (e.g. water treatment).

Technical considerations relevant to applicability

A specific collection system for clean surface waters, as well as grading of the site, may be
applicable for new sites only. Segregation of water streams may be constrained on existing
plants by the layout of the water circuits.

The degree of water recycling is limited by the water balance of the plant and the potential
contents of impurities (heavy metals, salts, pathogens, odorous compounds, etc.) or the
characteristics of the water streams (e.g. nutrient content).

The waste water treatment to be carried out depends principally on the type of discharge to the
environment, whether it is direct or indirect, and in the case of indirect discharge whether the
receiving WWTP is designed to treat the waste water (for example, if the latter contains metals).

Economics
Reduction of water expenses.

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Driving force for implementation

Legislation on water pollution.

Example plants
The data collection shows that 21 plants use recycled water (see Table 4.33).

Table 4.33: Examples of plants using recycled water

Type of Ratio of water

Plant
biological used coming from Comment
code
treatment recycling (%)

Rainwater from roofs is used for washing of

Anaerobic 097 100
machinery

Used for mixing the bio-waste for the fermentation

Anaerobic 255 70
unit
Anaerobic 377 50 NI
Based on material balance calculation, cleaning and
Anaerobic 113 26
dilution water

This refers to the water directly recycled and the part

Anaerobic 382 61
after the waste water treatment plant

This refers to rainwater, treated waste water and

Anaerobic 459 78
waste water from wet pretreatment (pulpers).

Rainwater is harvested and used in the AD process

Anaerobic 541 100
and also for biofilter irrigation

The use of rainwater in the composting process is

Indoor aerobic 062 78 maximised and further reduces the waste water sent
to WWT

Indoor aerobic 518 58 Harvesting rainwater

Indoor aerobic 520 23 Harvesting rainwater
Indoor aerobic 621 100 Estimated value of recycled rainfall water

Air emission abatement. Scrubber. Rainwater +

Indoor aerobic 460 78 treated waste water for cleaning and plant
washdowns, scrubbers, other processes

MBT 349 47 NI
MBT 415 51 NI
Outdoor aerobic 069 100 Rainwater/leachate
Outdoor aerobic 073 100 Run-off and leachate
Recycled water/leachate is primarily used to prevent
Outdoor aerobic 104 100
dust nuisances

Water collected in the plant (leachate + rainwater)

Outdoor aerobic 124 98
used in the process
Outdoor aerobic 417 100 NI
Outdoor aerobic 418 100 NI
Outdoor aerobic 419 50 NI
NB: NI = No information.

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Reference literature
[ 152, Sauer et al. 2013 ], [ 49, Bio. subgroup 2014 ], [ 42, WT TWG 2014 ], [ 21, WT TWG
2016 ]

4.5.2 Techniques for aerobic treatment

4.5.2.1 Monitoring of aerobic process to improve the environmental

performance

Description
Monitoring and/or control of key waste and process parameters to improve overall
environmental performance include:
 control of waste input characteristics (e.g. C:N ratio, particle size);
 control of temperature and moisture content at different points in the windrow;
 aeration of the windrow (e.g. via the windrow turning frequency, O2 and/or CO2
concentration in the windrow, temperature of air streams in the case of forced aeration);
 windrow porosity, height and width.

Technical description
Waste input characteristics
Proper preparation of waste improves the efficiency of the biological process, has an effect on
the output quality and contributes to the reduction of odours. It includes the following:

 Identification of odorous waste at the site as quickly as possible upon delivery.

 In the case of combined indoor (intensive decomposition step) and outdoor (maturation)
composting, ensuring that the sanitisation stage is complete and the biomass is
sufficiently stable in enclosed buildings, so as to ensure that only odourless materials are
present in the open curing stage.
 Optimal particle size which can be achieved by shredding the feedstocks, in order to
create the ideal habitat for composting microbes and to enhance biodegradation.
 Avoiding an early refining step to reduce the particle size too far, which would hinder the
diffusion of air through the material that still has to complete its biochemical
transformation (a smaller particle size could cause the bio-waste to lose its structure and
make anaerobic decomposition more likely).
 Mixing input materials in order to achieve an optimal C:N ratio in the batch. With a low
C:N ratio, the NH3 emissions increase as the composting temperature increases. A C:N
ratio of > 20 minimises NH3 formation. However, as the ratio increases (to above 35) the
rate of composting will slow down, as N will be rate-limiting.
 Assessment of the accepted load to identify the processing requirements and any potential
problems. Any moist or wet loads accepted are routinely blended with other woody or dry
inputs or oversize compost material (compost screenings) upon discharge to reduce the
possibility of anaerobic conditions developing and causing an odour release.
 Addition of mature compost may be beneficial in order to facilitate the efficient formation
of humic substances (humification) and the incorporation of volatile carbon and nitrogen
compounds into more complex compounds.
 Composting process additives (e.g. mineral-based or bio-based inoculants or activators)
may be added at this stage of the process or at later stages to enhance the process, or
ensure the necessary diversity of bacteria species to guarantee consistency in plant
operation. They are only applied if they are intended to confer a benefit to the composting
process or reduce emissions, without any significant adverse effects on compost
characteristics.
 Preventing the formation of stagnating leachate (e.g. ensuring proper slopes to paved
surfaces).

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 Avoiding the external stockpiling of coarse rejects from pre-process screening steps, as
these would also contain a certain percentage of fermentable materials.
 Using surfactant reagents.

Moisture content
The ideal moisture content at the start of the composting process is below 60–65 %
(mass/mass), and between 30 % and 65 % (mass/mass) during the process. The following
information is recorded:
 moisture assessment (the assessment for indoor composting may need to be carried out
before and during transfer activities);
 watering date;
 origin of water used (e.g. well water, roof water, leachate water from intensive
decomposition and tipping area, leachate water from maturation and compost storage
area).

Moisture is controlled during the entire composting process. This can be done by means of
visual control combined with one of the following methods:
 A ‘squeeze or fist test’, which is the most commonly used by operators. It entails grasping
and clenching the sample in a gloved hand for approximately 10 seconds, then opening
and assessing the moisture content using Table 4.34 below. This is a subjective test but is
regarded as reliable when carried out by an experienced operator.
 A moisture monitoring device with read-out or connectivity to a data capture system.
 A more accurate oven drying method, which is followed by calculating the change of
mass having weighed the sample before and after ‘drying and cooling of the sample’.

Since results from the squeeze test and moisture probe techniques are less accurate, when
possible these can be verified at regular stated intervals by comparison with quantitative results
(% mass/mass) obtained using the oven drying method.

Table 4.34: Moisture assessment index

Sample moisture
Index Interpretation
behaviour
1 Water seeps out Too wet
More than one
2 Too wet
droplet appears
3 One droplet appears OK
Compost particles remain
4 packed together and no OK
droplets appear
Compost particles fall
5 away from each other Too dry

Aeration of the windrow

Aeration monitoring aims at ensuring that aerobic conditions are maintained. Furthermore, a
high temperature for prolonged periods of time after thermal sanitisation leads to the formation
of odorous substances and ammonia. The following parameters are recorded:

 Turning frequency (e.g. for open windrow composting), or oxygen and/or CO2.
 In the case of indoor composting systems, the air supply can also be controlled by
monitoring the temperature of the process air, via temperature sensors within the inlet-
and/or exhaust-air pipes of forced aerated systems. The air flow rate will be regulated on
the basis of the temperature values measured.

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Table 4.35 below summarises measures to prevent oxygen deficiency and water surplus during
composting.

Table 4.35: Measures to prevent oxygen deficiency during composting

Reduce water input:

 Choose dry feedstock with a high water retention capacity.
 Add input materials with high C:N (chopped/shredded wood, bark,
sawdust, dry compost, etc.).
 In the event of heavy rainfalls: Cover open triangular windrows with
Measures against a geo-textile (drains off 80–90 % of rainwater).
water surplus
 Shape windrow to shed water.
Increase water release:
 Ensure initial ‘mix’ of materials is balanced and that porosity is
maximised.
 Uncover the windrows on days with high evaporation potential.
 Mix additional bulking agents if required (shredded bush cuttings).
 Increase bulking agents especially in the bottom of the heap, if
required. Create a basic layer with structure-forming shredded wood.
Measures to  Use oversize elements when required to ‘open’ the feedstock texture.
improve structure
 Porosity is a key factor in the generation of odours. The density of
the material can be optimised from the beginning by effective
blending and mixing of feedstocks. This will enable adequate air
flow throughout the pile.
 Set up loose, well-structured windrows for the initial intensive
degradation phase.
 The optimum height of a pile/windrow is generally considered to be
between 1.5 and 3 metres and depends on:
o decomposition age (the more mature, the higher the piles
Windrow structure can be);
o structural stability of the whole mixture;
o installation of a forced aeration system (alternating
positive [blowing] and negative [sucking]).
 Through mechanical agitation (turning), new accessible surfaces are
created and air exchange rates are increased.
Source: Adapted from ] [ 153, Bidlingmaier et al. 1997 ], [ 83, UK EA 2013 ]

Table 4.36 gives an indication of the advantages and disadvantages of positive and negative
aeration.

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Table 4.36: Advantages/disadvantages of overpressure and suction systems

Advantages Disadvantages
 Mixing of heap air and hall air
 Intake of air saturated with water
vapour into the hall
 Limited accessibility of the hall
 Lower risk of wetting and
 Significant corrosion of the
compaction of the aeration
floor constructive elements and machines
Overpressure
with increased abrasion and
(positive aeration  Control of air flow and
maintenance costs
system) natural heat emission
 It is not possible to determine the
 Limited constraints for the
process parameters of the exhaust air
construction of the aeration
 Biological degradation can only be
floor
controlled through indirect
measurements and experience
 Separate treatment and purification of
heap and hall exhaust air is not possible
 Only minor pollution of the
hall air with heap air
 Limited corrosion of the
constructive elements and
machines
 More constraints for the construction of
Suction (negative  Hall is accessible during heap
the aeration floor
aeration system) aeration
 Higher risk of wetting
 Possible to determine the
process parameters in the
heap exhaust air
 Separate collection and
treatment of heap air possible

An aeration floor with slatted plates and a basement cellar allows a uniform aeration of the
complete moving/turning space.

Aeration is adapted to the biodegradation activity of the material by segmentation of the

biological degradation area into separately controllable aeration fields, and by regulating the air
quantity per aeration field depending on the temperature and oxygen content, by frequency-
controlled ventilators or by alternating the cyclic operation.

An even flow through the biodegraded material in tunnel system floors is ensured by using
embedded punched pipes and relatively high pressures.

Natural aeration in open windrow systems is based on the principle of natural convection and,
during the preliminary decomposition stages, mechanical agitation can cause short-term
increased odour emissions. Therefore in open windrow systems, the site-specific conditions are
considered together with the feedstock properties and daily process management operations.

Specific operational measures to reduce odour emissions from open windrow composting
systems are:

 the immediate and efficient processing of delivered waste material with a high potential
for formation of odorous substances (e.g. food waste, fresh grass cuttings);
 mixing with well shredded and structured woody garden and park waste (maintaining
sufficient storage/supply of bulking agents to address the C:N ratio and porosity);
 regular turning to avoid anaerobic zones forming in windrows;
 limiting the size of the windrows;
 keeping the facility clean (regular cleaning of surfaces, equipment and all traffic routes
etc.);

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 turning the windrows only when there is an advantageous wind direction relative to the
potentially affected neighbourhood where possible.

Temperature
Apart from its effects on the output quality, temperature control is useful to ensure an optimal
abatement system efficiency (e.g. biofilter, bioscrubber). Furthermore, high temperatures for
prolonged periods of time after thermal hygienisation may lead to an increase in the formation
of odorous substances and ammonia. Temperature monitoring can also be used for controlling
aeration.

An optimal temperature for the process is between 55 ºC and 70 ºC.

More sophisticated compost management software enabling integrated monitoring of oxygen,

moisture, temperature, and carbon dioxide is also available for process control purposes and can
assist the operator to understand more accurately the conditions actually occurring within the
compost mass.

More specifically, the technique includes the following:

a. the temperature is monitored at an appropriate frequency during the intensive composting

phase (for thermal hygienisation);
b. the temperature is recorded at representative points intermittently or continuously, as
defined in the operator’s quality management system, usually at least once per working day
during the entire hygienisation period;
c. in order to reduce the formation of odorous substances and ammonia, it is recommended to
avoid very high temperatures for prolonged periods of time after thermal hygienisation.

Achieved environmental benefits

 Reduced emissions of ammonia, VOCs and odour.
 Reduced number of complaints from the neighbourhood.

Environmental performance and operational data

See Section 4.5.1.3 for information on odour emissions.

Cross-media effects
The negative pressure works 'against gravity' – the energy consumption is much higher as in the
case of positive pressure.

Technical considerations relevant to applicability

Moisture content
It is normally challenging to monitor moisture during the composting process inside an enclosed
building or vessel, due to health and safety issues. Regular measurement of the moisture content
in the material inside closed systems is technically not feasible. Moisture can be assessed before
loading the material into the enclosed composting reactor and amended and adjusted when it
comes out of the indoor composting stage. An optimal moisture content can be maintained
inside the enclosed composting unit based on the operator’s experience. In addition, the water
balance can be determined if the initial moisture content is analysed and the water loss is
estimated by calculating the air flow rate and the water content of the exhaust air.

Note that in some cases – e.g. winter months, typically characterised by high C:N feedstocks – it
may be difficult for the operator to get hold of feedstocks with the desired C:N ratio.

Economics
The construction investment costs of an aeration floor with slatted plates and a basement cellar
are 40–50 % higher than those of other available systems (e.g. aeration tubes or channels in the
bottom of the hall).

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Driving force for implementation

 Reduced number of complaints from the neighbourhood.
 Improvement in product quality.

Example plants
Plants 544, 546, 547, 548 and 622.

Reference literature
[ 91, UBA Germany 2003 ], [ 49, Bio. subgroup 2014 ], [ 70, Amlinger et al. 2009 ], [ 151,
Jacobs et al. 2007 ], [ 152, Sauer et al. 2013 ], [ 75, Umweltbundesamt (AT) 2015 ], [ 42, WT
TWG 2014 ], [ 90, Hogg et al. 2002 ], [ 10, Babtie Group Ltd 2002 ], [ 33, Irish EPA 2003 ], [
91, UBA Germany 2003 ], [ 18, WT TWG 2004 ]

4.5.2.2 Techniques to limit diffuse dust, odour and bioaerosols emissions

Description
To identify site activities and meteorological conditions that could potentially generate dust,
odour and bioaerosols and to adapt the operations to those meteorological conditions.

Technical description
The following activities/events can generate dust and/or bioaerosols and odour:
 vehicle and equipment movement around the site;
 shredding of feedstock or bulking materials;
 formation and turning of compost piles/windrows and filling of vessels;
 forced aeration of outdoor windrows without covers;
 screening of finished compost;
 spraying of leachate when it is reused in the composting process, in particular when
sprinklers are used (resulting primarily in the generation of bioaerosols;
 strong wind.

Specific management measures to reduce dust, odour and bioaerosol emissions are listed below.
These control measures are covered by a facility’s diffuse emissions management plan (see
Section 2.3.5.3), unless evidence is provided that these measures are not feasible, effective or
useful in a specific situation.

 Covering of skips in transit to and from the site and in storage.

 Regular housekeeping (e.g. keeping the site, moving machines and loaders in order and
clean).
 Site surfaces such as roads and tracks are regularly dampened down and/or swept to
suppress dust and bioaerosols. Binders can be used to prolong dust suppression.
 The plant and machinery are well maintained to avoid generation of dust.
 Effective management of moisture, temperature and air supply of all material liable to
generate dust and bioaerosols.
 Maintenance of adequate moisture content throughout the composting process to avoid
the input feedstocks, composting materials and finished compost drying out and
potentially generating dust and bioaerosols when handled.
 Batch irrigation is undertaken when the parameters for moisture content fall below the
critical limits. Water is applied evenly.
 Weather conditions and wind direction are monitored and taken into account when
undertaking major process activities.

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 The formation or turning of windrows or piles as well as screening and shredding are not
undertaken in the case of adverse meteorological conditions (e.g. when the wind speed is
too low or too high or the wind blows in the direction of sensitive receptors.
 Windrows are orientated to take into account the direction of the prevailing wind. The
smallest possible area of composting mass is exposed to the prevailing winds to reduce
the dispersion of pollutants from the windrow surface.
 The windrows and piles are preferably located at the lowest elevation within the overall
site layout.
 Physical barriers such as earth banks or walls or a tree boundary can reduce dust and
bioaerosols emissions leaving a site. The use of enclosures for screens and hoppers can be
useful in reducing dust and bioaerosols dispersal.
 Composting, screening and shredding are carried out in an enclosed system such as a
building or vessel fitted with an emissions abatement system.

Achieved environmental benefits

Reduction of diffuse dust and bioaerosols emissions to air from composting activities.

Environmental performance and operational data

No information provided.

Cross-media effects
Dust control means higher water usage. A higher ventilation rate also means higher energy
consumption.

Technical considerations relevant to applicability

Generally applicable.

Economics
No information provided.

Driving force for implementation

 Environmental, health and safety legislation.
 Local conditions.

Example plants
Commonly used in the sector.

Reference literature
[ 49, Bio. subgroup 2014 ]

4.5.2.3 Semipermeable membrane covers with forced positive aeration

Description
Windrows or piles are covered with semipermeable membrane covers, which are a method of
treating emissions, such as odours, ammonia, VOCs, dust and bioaerosols from an active
composting heap.

Technical description
In contrast to the end-of-pipe techniques, these systems realise the emission abatement at the
source. The cover is formed by a textile laminate with the membrane being the middle layer as
the functional component. The emission retention is based on the combination of a liquid
condensate layer being generated on the inner surface of the cover, which acts as a kind of bio-
washer layer dissolving the majority of the gaseous substances, and the semipermeable
behaviour of the membrane.

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Following the force of gravity, droplets are formed and drip off thus maintaining a steady
exchange with unsaturated water which in turn ensures the odour retention capability.
Another important function of the semipermeable membrane cover as a system component is to
provide for optimum moisture management during the abovementioned biological treatment
processes.

An installation with a semipermeable membrane cover is designed so that the cover is sealed
to the installation interfaces to facilitate a slight back pressure and to ensure the exhaust air's
passage through the membrane. The back pressure provides for a homogeneous air supply in
the heap formation to facilitate good biological treatment processes.

The water repellence as well as the air and moisture transmission characteristics of the laminate
in combination with a sensor-controlled process (temperature and/or oxygen) avoid waterlogging
or the excessively rapid drying out of the input material.

Encapsulation with semipermeable membrane covers and laminates can be realised by

different designs according to the siting of a plant. The following list describes a
representative design spectrum:

1. Designs requiring devices to move a cover:

a. heap version with cover sealed to the ground;
b. side wall version with cover sealed to the side wall as well as to the push wall.
2. Structural designs with semipermeable membrane laminates mounted to a moveable frame
construction:
a. butterfly version (pitched roof with two hinged halves which can be opened)
with a common wall;
b. lifting roof version with a common wall.
3. Combined designs:
a. closed flexible encapsulation connected to a negatively aerated building (feeding
tunnel).

The structural design versions 2 and 3 are constructed in such a way that the cover/roof can be
lifted to provide access for loading vehicles.

The design versions 1a and 1b require winding devices for the covering, as well as for the
uncovering of a heap. Those devices can, for example, take the form of mobile winders in the
case of 1a or a mounted version, e.g. to the push wall, in the case of version 1b.

All versions are designed so that the connections between the cover laminate and the
installation, like the interfaces between the ground (1a) or side wall and push wall (1b) or the
common wall (2) and the cover, are sealed to avoid bypass streams.

Heap versions (1a) can be sealed to the ground by loading the framing edge strip of a cover
made from an impermeable material with weights or in the case of side wall versions (1b)
utilising flexible ropes threaded through an eyelet pattern in the edge strip which fix and thus
seal the cover edge to the top of the side wall.

For the other designs (2 and 3), the connection can, for example, be designed:

 so that moveable components, like roofs or front doors, are equipped with appropriate
means like rubber lips or profiles to provide the necessary sealability when the
installation is closed;
 through a fixation of the cover to a wall while the cover itself is tailored to form a buffer
to compensate for the elevated height difference when lifted.

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Achieved environmental benefits

 Low energy consumption: 1.5–4 kWh/t of input material (depending on the design and
type of aerobic biological treatment).
 Emission reduction without further exchange of media (no depletion) like in the case of
biofilters.
 No inherent odours generated by the semipermeable membrane cover.
 Lowest carbon dioxide equivalent compared to other technologies for composting
operations.

Environmental performance and operational data

The capacity range in which encapsulation with semipermeable membrane covers has been
realised ranges from 2 000 t/y up to 620 000 t/y. Roughly 200 sites have installed these covers
over the course of the last 20 years in the EU.

Table 4.37 describes the emission abatement performance for the mentioned pollutants,
exemplarily utilising the Cover Efficiency which is a relative comparison of the atmosphere
above and underneath the cover:

 based on two actual measurements above and underneath the cover;

 in the case of ammonia and VOC, a relative comparison of one actual measurement above
the cover with a so-called Baseline Factor which is described as a standardised emission
from an open, non-aerated composting windrow.

Table 4.37: Emission abatement as Cover Efficiency and vs Baseline Factor of semipermeable
membrane covers
Emission type Cover Efficiency vs Baseline Factor
1, 2, 3
Odour 90–97 % ( ) Not applicable
1,3
Bioaerosols 99.99 % ( ) Not applicable
99.99 % (4)
Dust/particulate matter (4) Not applicable
(undetectable)
5,6
Ammonia No information 80 % ( )
7 7
VOCs 90–95 % ( ) 90–98 % ( )
Source:
(1)[ 150, Kühner 2001 ]
(2)[ 154, Kuhner 2000 ]
(3) Input: Bio-waste; measurements carried out with the same product as ( 6).
(4) PM 2.5 Particle Filtration efficiency according to 'VDI 3926, Part 2 Testing of Filter Media for
Cleanable Filters under Operational Conditions from December 1994'. This test was carried out on
GORE® L3650 which is a Dry Filtration Media with an ePTFE membrane with a much wider porous
structure. This is only for indication purposes. The performance of the GORE® ePTFE membrane of
GORE® Heap Cover is supposedly much better due to the tighter pore structure and the fact that a dry
filtration test represents a worst case scenario. The trapping effect of the aqueous condensate film for fine
particles cannot be considered with this test.
(5)[ 155, Schmidt et al. 2009 ]
(6) Input: BioSolids/Sewage Sludge; measurements carried out with GORE® Heap Cover with
semipermeable GORE® ePTFE membrane.
(7) Measurements with different input materials in the framework of a project to prove GORE® Heap
Cover as BACT (Best Available Control Technology) according to SJVAPCD (San Joaquin Valley Air
Pollution Control District; CA) Rule 4565 and Rule 4566 and SCAQMD (Southern California Air
Quality Management District; CA) Rule 1133.

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The performance of encapsulation with semipermeable membrane covers, in the design version
1b, achieved odour control similar to or better than conventional tunnel composting systems
with a biofilter and subsequent maturation for a site with an annual capacity of 60 000 tonnes of
mixed waste input of 70 % bio-waste and 30 % green waste. [ 156, Bruyn 2011 ]

Semipermeable membranes do not control emissions when the membrane is not covering the
waste, for example during waste loading, any turning operations and waste removal. Also, if a
complete seal is not maintained so that air flow is directed through the membrane, there will be
releases of odorous compounds.

Cross-media effects
None identified.

Technical considerations relevant to applicability

Generally applicable to aerobic treatment.

Economics
Designs for encapsulation with semipermeable membrane covers usually have lower capital and
operational costs compared to building designs. Capital costs might increase with the grade of
structural components (with design version 1a as the lowest to 3 as the highest); however,
structural design versions might simplify the operational practice.

With regards to the emission abatement performance, no depletion of any media occurs since no
chemical or biochemical processes with involvement of the cover materials take place. The
focus here is on conserving the integrity of the cover laminate which consists of the membrane
plus the back and front fabric. This is secured through good practice as well as utilising the
appropriate handling devices for designs which require the cover to move for the opening and
closing of the encapsulated reactor (1a and 1b). In the designs in which the laminate is mounted
to a frame the risk of damage is, due to the nature of the design, unlikely. For example,
experience with semipermeable membrane covers shows, when applying best practice, average
service life times of around five to seven years. [ 157, Peche et al. 2014 ]

Driving force for implementation

 Simple and robust technology.
 Significantly lower capital costs compared to conventional building technologies.
 Low maintenance and operational costs.
 No end-of-pipe technology necessary except for the design version 3a. However, this
version allows a significantly smaller end-of-pipe treatment design due to the fact that
only air from the connected feeding tunnel requires treatment. The process air from the
biological treatment is handled by 'encapsulation with semipermeable membrane cover'.

Example plants
Plants 579, 580 and 635.

Reference literature
[ 150, Kühner 2001 ], [ 155, Schmidt et al. 2009 ], [ 156, Bruyn 2011 ],
[ 157, Peche et al. 2014 ], [ 158, Bio. Subgroup 2015 ], [ 42, WT TWG 2014 ]

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4.5.3 Techniques for anaerobic treatment

4.5.3.1 Anaerobic process and waste monitoring

Description
Process and waste monitoring system, manual and/or instrumental, to:

 ensure a stable digester operation;

 minimise operational difficulties, such as foaming, which may lead to odour emissions;
 provide sufficient early warning of system failures which may lead to loss of containment
and explosion (e.g. blockage of pressure relief valves thereby causing tank pressurisation
and consequential failure).

Technical description
Process and waste monitoring and control is the main preventative action on reducing emissions
to air as well as producing a stable digestate. Depending on the feedstock, the anaerobic
digestion system adopted and the use of digestate, the key factors of the digestion process to be
monitored in order to better control and optimise the process or to shorten the time of recovery
after a problem has occurred, include:

 pH and alkalinity of the digester feed;

 digester operating temperature;
 hydraulic loading rate;
 concentration of volatile fatty acids (VFA) and ammonia within the digester and
digestate;
 biogas quantity and composition (e.g. H2S) and pressure;
 liquid and foam levels in the digester.

The monitoring system is designed so that the required sampling of digester feed, substrate
within the digester, digestate and biogas at key points in the process, and periodic digester
capacity testing are possible. At large-scale AD facilities, provision for on-site laboratory
facilities performing sample analysis may be considered.

Some additional techniques for anaerobic digestion may include the following:
a. Storing insufficiently stabilised liquid digestate in closed storage with gas collection or
exhaust air treatment to minimise methane and ammonia emissions (see Section 2.3.5.3).
b. Avoiding emissions from uncontrolled anaerobic processes during post-composting by an
adequate aeration step (see Section 4.5.2.1). Implementing a leak detection and repair
(LDAR) programme, e.g. with an IR camera, identifying significant fugitive emissions to
air. Undertaking maintenance activities for fixing any detected leaks of methane, e.g.
replacing a valve (see Section 2.3.5.4).

Achieved environmental benefits

The achieved environmental benefits of this technique include:
 improvement of the process efficiency;
 prevention of odorous emissions.

Environmental performance and operational data

In all circumstances, it is necessary to control and monitor relevant parameters in the feedstock,
digester and digestate at regular intervals in order to ensure the good operation of the plant.
Monitoring includes logging, checking and acting upon the data at frequent intervals, influenced
by the rate of change in the process.

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An increase in biogas production relating to the amount of feed is typically correlated with an
increased stability of the produced digestate due to it having been better digested
microbiologically if the feedstock is unchanged. Also, there is a correlation between hygienic
status and biogas production because a higher amount of methane-forming microorganisms
displace pathogenic bacteria. These are indirect effects on the quality of the digestate.

Cross-media effects
None identified.

Technical considerations relevant to applicability

Generally applicable.

Economics
The higher the organic load the higher the gas potential. However, the longer the retention time
the less material can be processed. If there is a gate fee for the waste, this will impact on the
economy of the plant. All parameters need to be optimised in conjunction with each other.

Driving force for implementation

 Environmental legislation.
 Improvement of biogas quality and production.
 Improvement of digestate quality.

Example plants
Commonly used in the sector.

Reference literature
[ 49, Bio. subgroup 2014 ], [ 42, WT TWG 2014 ], [ 132, UK EA 2013 ]

4.5.4 Techniques for MBT

Given that MBT is a combination of mechanical and biological treatments, techniques described
in 3.3, 4.5.1, 4.5.2, and 4.5.3 are also partially or fully relevant for MBT, depending on the
subprocesses involved (for instance, aerobic or anaerobic).

4.5.4.1 Measures to reduce emissions to air

Description
Integrated air flow management and air treatment strategy based on the inventory of air streams,
which considers the following principles:
a. limitation of diffuse emissions to air;
b. segregation of the waste gas streams;
c. recirculation of waste gas in the biological process.

The waste gas is dedusted before reuse, e.g. by means of a bag filter, and treated before release
by an appropriate combination of a bag filter, biofilter, scrubber, activated carbon adsorption
system, and/or regenerative thermal oxidiser.

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Technical description
Limitation of diffuse emissions
 Unloading areas in enclosed buildings with negative air pressure and equipped with air
locks, as well as use of feed bunkers and receiving bunkers or other equipment for
delivery, transport and storage of the input substances.
 Encapsulation or air suction (focal point suction) measures for sources of diffuse
emissions such as mechanical treatment of waste or physical separation of waste, e.g.
crushing, classing, sorting, mixing, homogenising, dewatering, drying, pelletising or
pressing. Use of closed containers for the removal of dust-emitting goods.
 Use of encapsulated or housed systems for the conveyance and treatment of anaerobic
digestion residues. The exhaust air from these systems is collected (hall and source
suction), so it can be reused within the process or treated.
Segregation of the waste gas streams
 Splitting of the total waste gas stream into waste gas streams with a high pollutant load
and waste gas streams with low pollutant content.

Recirculation of waste gas

 Minimisation of the exhaust gas through multiple use/cascade use.
 Reuse of the exhaust waste gas (especially that with low pollutant content) as far as
possible. The waste gas recirculation increases the concentration of carbon compounds in
it, which makes thermal oxidation a feasible alternative for a biofilter. For instance, the
exhausted gas from the delivery area, such as low bunkers and underground bunkers, with
or without mechanical treatment of the delivered wastes, or the recycling of the waste
gases with low pollutant content and suitable temperature are used as the air supply
(process air) for biological degradation.

Abatement techniques
 Treatment of partial flows with a suitable combination of bag filters, biofilters, wet
scrubbers, activated carbon adsorption systems, and RTO (see the CWW BREF
[ 45, COM 2016 ] for additional information on each of these techniques).
 Controlling the emissions to air of organic compounds, dust and ammonia.

Achieved environmental benefits

Reduction of emissions to air.

Environmental performance and operational data

Table 4.38 and Table 4.39 below show the environmental performance of MBT plants in terms
of emissions of dust and organic compounds to air.

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Table 4.38: Environmental performance of MBT plants in terms of dust emissions to air

Main techniques to

during the 3-year

reference period
prevent/reduce

measurements
concentration

concentration

concentration

measurement

(2010-2012)
Number of
Plant code

Maximum
Minimum

(mg/Nm3)

(mg/Nm3)

(mg/Nm3)

emissions
Average

Type of
017_3 0.5 0.5 0.5 Bag/fabric filter system Periodic 1
019 0.5 0.5 0.5 Biofiltering, Acid scrubber system Periodic 3
Cooling, Bioscrubbing,
037 <1 <1 <1 Periodic 3
Biofiltering, Water scrubbing
Acid scrubber system, Biofiltering,
127 0.15 0.15 0.15 Activated carbon adsorption, Periodic 1
Biofiltering
Acid scrubber system, Bag/fabric
243 NA 0.90 NA filter system, Biofiltering, Continuous NA
Regenerative thermal oxidation
Biofiltering, Regenerative thermal
oxidation, Wet scrubbing with
244 0.8 0.3 0.3 sorbent injection, Bag/fabric filter Continuous NA
system, activated carbon
adsorption
ST: 0.9 ST: 0.9
ST: 0.4
257_2 LT: LT: Bag/fabric filter system Continuous NA
LT: 0.8
1.2 1.3
Biofiltering, Air humidifier
conditioning the delivery air to the
266 <1 <1 <1 Continuous NA
biofilter, Air recirculation for
tunnel ventilation
Bag/fabric filter system, Acid
267 NA 0.31 NA scrubber system, Biofiltering, Continuous NA
Regenerative thermal oxidation
Biofiltering, Wet scrubbing with
337_1 0.1 0.1 0.1 Periodic 1
sorbent injection
337_2 0.2 0.2 0.2 Bag/fabric filter system Periodic 1
350_1 0.3 0.70 1.3 Biofiltering Periodic 6
350_2 0.33 0.97 3 Biofiltering Periodic 6
350_3 0.6 1.10 2.5 Biofiltering Periodic 6
452_2 5.47 5.84 6.58 Biofiltering Periodic 3
573 0.21 0.56 0.91 Biofiltering, Acid scrubber system Periodic 2
Regenerative thermal oxidation,
628 NA 1.73 NA Continuous NA
Bag/fabric filter system
NB:
ST = Short-term average (for continuous measurement).
LT = Long-term average (for continuous measurement).
NA = Not applicable.

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Table 4.39: Environmental performance of MBT plants in terms of emissions of organic

compounds to air

Main techniques to

during the 3-year

reference period
prevent/reduce

measurements
concentration

concentration

concentration

measurement

(2010-2012)
Number of
Parameter
Plant code

Maximum
Minimum
Pollutant/

(mg/Nm3)

(mg/Nm3)

(mg/Nm3)

emissions
Average

Type of
Heat exchange
017_1 TVOC 5 13 20 before biofilter, Periodic 3
Biofiltering
017_2 TVOC 16 16 16 Biofiltering Periodic 1
Biofiltering, Acid
019 TOC 13 21 31 Periodic 3
scrubber system
Cooling,
Bioscrubbing,
037 TVOC 3.7 6.8 11 Periodic 3
Biofiltering, Water
scrubbing
Acid scrubber
system,
239 TOC 0.91 11.96 41.94 Continuous NA
Regenerative
thermal oxidation
Acid scrubber
system, Bag/fabric
filter system,
243 TOC 2.3 13.06 15.9 Continuous NA
Biofiltering,
Regenerative
thermal oxidation
Biofiltering,
Regenerative
thermal oxidation,
Wet scrubbing with
244 TOC 5.2 5.2 5.2 Continuous NA
sorbent injection,
Bag/fabric filter
system, activated
carbon adsorption
Regenerative
ST: ST: thermal oxidation
ST: 6.2
257_1 TOC 10.76 10.76 after passing Continuous NA
LT: 5.4
LT: 6.2 LT: 6.3 through head
exchanger
ST: ST:
ST: 8.5 9.89 9.89 Bag/fabric filter
257_2 TOC Continuous NA
LT: 6.8 LT: LT: system
10.4 10.5
Biofiltering, Air
humidifier
conditioning the
266 TOC 7.2 9.35 9.4 delivery air to the Continuous NA
biofilter, Air
recirculation for
tunnel ventilation

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Bag/fabric filter
system, Acid
scrubber system,
267 TOC 7.3 10.4 10.4 Continuous NA
Biofiltering,
Regenerative
thermal oxidation
Biofiltering Wet
337_1 TVOC 16.35 16.35 16.35 scrubbing with Periodic 1
sorbent injection
350_1 TVOC 0.36 0.79 1.5 Biofiltering Periodic 6
350_2 TVOC 0.36 1.15 5 Biofiltering Periodic 6
350_3 TVOC 0.36 0.38 0.4 Biofiltering Periodic 6
452_1 TOC 9.59 10.65 12.31 Biofiltering Periodic 3
452_2 TOC 15.74 16.24 16.62 Biofiltering Periodic 3
452_3 TVOC 0.77 14.19 27.8 Biofiltering Periodic 6
Regenerative
thermal oxidation,
628 TOC 4.5 5.5 5.5 Continuous NA
Bag/fabric filter
system
NB:
NA = Not applicable.
ST = Short-term average (for continuous measurement).
LT = Long-term average (for continuous measurement).

Cross-media effects
When the recirculating waste gas stream is very humid, the treatment of the exhaust gas may
cause problems. In such cases, it is necessary to condense water vapour, which implies air
cooling through heat exchangers and the treatment of condensate water.

Technical considerations relevant to applicability

The exhaust gas management and required air circuits configuration (layout) affect both the
construction and the process engineering of the facility. Indeed, the following factors play key
roles in any exhaust gas management strategy:
 minimisation of hall volume;
 segmentation of the operation units;
 close-to-source measures for the active and passive minimisation of emissions.

For existing plants, the configuration of air circuits may pose some applicability constraints for
these techniques. For applicability constraints related to the abatement techniques (i.e. fabric
filter, regenerative thermal oxidiser, biofilter, scrubber and activated carbon adsorption), see the
CWW BREF [ 45, COM 2016 ].

Economics
For abatement techniques (i.e. fabric filter, regenerative thermal oxidiser, biofilter, scrubber and
activated carbon adsorption), see the CWW BREF [ 45, COM 2016 ].

Driving force for implementation

Regulations on air pollution.

Example plants
The following plants reuse waste gas streams from waste sorting and preparation and/or from
mechanical treatment processes, after dedusting with bag filters, in the biological process: 17,

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19, 37, 239, 267. Figure 4.11 gives an example of a possible configuration of an exhaust air/
waste gas collection system.

Source:[ 49, Bio. subgroup 2014 ]

Figure 4.11: Configuration of the exhaust air collection system at Plant 37

Reference literature
[ 114, Greenpeace 2001 ], [ 94, Vrancken et al. 2001 ], [ 9, UK EA 2001 ], [ 10, Babtie Group
Ltd 2002 ], [ 90, Hogg et al. 2002 ], [ 118, Hogg, D. 2001 ], [ 33, Irish EPA 2003 ], [ 91, UBA
Germany 2003 ], [ 18, WT TWG 2004 ], [ 51, WT TWG 2005 ], [ 49, Bio. subgroup 2014 ], [
42, WT TWG 2014 ]

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5 PHYSICO-CHEMICAL TREATMENT OF WASTE

5.1 Physico-chemical treatment of solid and/or pasty waste

[ 89, Eklund et al. 1997 ], [ 32, Inertec; dechets, F. and Sita 2002 ], [ 8, LaGrega et al. 1994 ], [
9, UK EA 2001 ], [ 10, Babtie Group Ltd 2002 ], [ 11, WT TWG 2003 ], [ 12, UNEP 2000 ], [
159, Greenpeace 1998 ], [ 13, Schmidt et al. 2002 ], [ 160, Perseo, P. 2003 ], [ 15, Iswa 2003 ], [
161, Straetmans, B. 2003 ], [ 162, Galambos et al. 2003 ], [ 18, WT TWG 2004 ], [ 19, WT
TWG 2004 ], [ 35, VROM 2004 ], [ 36, UBA Germany 2004 ]

5.1.1 Overview

This section details the physico-chemical treatment of solid and/or pasty waste. Two main
processes for physico-chemical treatment of solid and/or pasty waste are described:
immobilisation of solid and/or pasty waste (Section 5.1.2.1), which includes stabilisation and
solidification, and physico-chemical treatment of solid and/or pasty waste before backfilling
(Section 5.1.2.2). Industrial sludge can also be treated by thermal desorption, which is described
in Section 5.6.1.1. Techniques for the abatement of emissions are covered in Sections 2.3.4 and
2.3.6. Common activities carried out in these plants (e.g. storage, handling) are covered in
Section 2.1.

The main goal in the physico-chemical treatment of solid and/or pasty waste is to minimise the
long-term release by leaching out primarily heavy metals and poorly biodegradable compounds.
The available treatment options act to prolong the leaching time period by releasing, for
example, heavy metals at lower and more environmentally acceptable concentrations over an
extended period of time.

In principle, all treatment options can be applied to solid and/or pasty waste. However, the
characteristics of the treated material and the effectiveness of a treatment technology can vary
greatly depending on the specific properties of the original waste input and on the type of
cleaning system applied.

In the case of physico-chemical treatment of solid and/or pasty waste before backfilling (see
Section 5.1.2.2), the goal is also the adaptation of the structural and physical characteristics of
the waste input in accordance with local conditions for long-term storage in the mine.

5.1.2 Applied processes and techniques

5.1.2.1 Immobilisation of solid and/or pasty waste

Purpose
Immobilisation aims at minimising the rate of contaminant migration to the environment and/or
reducing the level of toxicity of contaminants, in order to alter or improve the characteristics of
the waste so that it can be disposed of. The objective encompasses both a reduction in the waste
toxicity and mobility as well as an improvement in the engineering properties of the stabilised
material.

Immobilisation changes the chemical composition by some chemical reactions but does not
reduce the content of any contaminant in the waste input. Organic wastes are typically not
immobilised by stabilisation/solidification, but are adsorbed by the solid matter.

See also the information given in Section 2.3.2.8 on compatibility for mixing or blending waste.

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Principle of operation
Immobilisation relies on the properties of the reagent to produce an immobilised output, even
when this output does not have a solid form.

Stabilisation and solidification may occur in the immobilisation process:

 Stabilisation (see Section 5.1.2.1.1) changes the chemical state of the constituent of the
waste input. With complete stabilisation, a hazardous waste can be transformed into a
non-hazardous waste by means of specific chemical reactions that:
o destroy organic hazardous contents;
o convert inorganic hazardous substances into non-hazardous compounds (for
instance, the reduction of chromium (VI) into chromium (III) or the oxidation
of cyanide).
 Solidification (see Section 5.1.2.1.2) changes the physical properties of the waste input by
using additives. Partial stabilisation or solidification processes do not change the
hazardous nature of wastes, and the classification of waste with regards to pollutant
parameters is therefore not modified.

These processes retain substance(s) adsorbed to, or trapped within, a solid matrix. Attention
must be paid to process control and to potential subsequent mixing of the output with other
waste types in order to limit the risk of release of immobilised substances after treatment.

Feed and output stream

Waste input
Some solid and/or pasty wastes treated by physico-chemical treatments are listed below:

 slag or bottom ash from combustion processes (excluded from the scope of this BREF);
 fly ash and flue-gas treatment residues;
 industrial sludge; sludge from chemical industry may contain sulphates and organic salts;
 mineral residues from chemical processing;
 high arsenic content residues from the chemical, metallurgical or ore industries;
 contaminated dredge material;
 contaminated soil (see Section 5.6).

Although a large range of waste can be treated (solids, many chemical pollutants, ashes, pasty
wastes, etc.), immobilisation is most likely to be effective in the treatment of inorganic wastes
where solubility is already low. Waste containing chromates and amphoteric metals such as lead
and zinc, and waste with some soluble salts content, may need pretreatment before the
immobilisation process. Some wastes not suitable for immobilisation include the following:

 flammable and highly flammable wastes (e.g. low-flashpoint solvents);

 wastes containing volatile substances;
 oxidising agents;
 odorous wastes;
 waste containing highly soluble organic waste and with a high COD content;
 waste containing molybdenum;
 waste containing soluble inorganic salts;
 solid cyanides;
 chelating agents;
 water-reactive wastes.

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Some substances such as sulphates, halides, nitrates, heavy metals, oils, greases and aromatic
hydrocarbons can affect the setting times and durability of the treated material. Where the
output material needs to fulfil an engineering standard, for example monolith for landfill, the
immobilisation is modelled to check that the input materials do not affect the output.
Some of the wastes mentioned above may be treated by some specific reagents. For example,
cement and lime reagents are compatible with oxidising agents.

The following measures enhance the performance of the immobilisation processes (e.g.
reduction of permeability, reduction of specific surface area, chemical buffering of the output):

 Guaranteeing that solid phase neutralisation reactions have been carried out to the
completion of the reaction.
 Using hydraulic binders complemented by specific chemical reagents, especially for:
o mercury fixation as HgS and Hg3(SO4)O2;
o precipitation of metals(e.g. Zn, Pb, Cu, Cr, Cd) as insoluble metallic hydroxides
and by solidification;
o reduction of hexavalent chromium in basic conditions (e.g. by FeSO4), followed
by precipitation and solidification;
o fixation of organic compounds from sludge containing sulphates and organic
salts, followed by precipitation of sulphates to ensure the structure durability;
o a high arsenic content, by oxidation of As (III), followed by stabilisation and
solidification.
 Considering the possibility of improving the final product quality by using additives (for
example, hydrophobic reactants).

The output from stabilisation/solidification is not considered to become stable for a long period
of time, during which certain substances may escape (e.g. by leaching). For example, the
probable increase in the pH and alkaline capacity of the mixture due to this treatment can lead to
an increase in the leaching properties for the amphoteric metals (e.g. lead, cadmium for pH
above 12.5), and for species sensitive to pH such as arsenic as well as some organic
components. It is therefore important to recognise that the pH required to immobilise one
substance can increase the solubility of another and to manage the solubility of all inorganic
substances, not only the ones that were problematic before the treatment.

Cement- or lime-based systems may take years to stabilise and decades/centuries or even longer
to achieve equilibrium with the local environment. Because of this, full stability may be
technically unrealistic.

Reagents/binders are used when possible to lower the treatment costs (fly ashes from power
stations, slag from steel mills, the residues of cement furnaces) and to limit the consumption of
raw materials. Operators are not always in a position (because of regulations, local availability,
interest in a specific waste, etc.) to use wastes as reagents, although it is of course generally
economically viable.

Process description
The process typically comprises storage of the reagents, a reaction vessel and in some cases the
addition of water. Figure 5.1 shows a representation of a typical immobilisation process.

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Source: [ 9, UK EA 2001 ]

Figure 5.1: Representation of an immobilisation process

Reaction vessels are suitably designed, and the process is performed within controlled reaction
vessels to ensure the correct waste to reagent ratio, as well as the correct mixing and residence
time.

Washing step
Several of the stabilisation methods have an initial washing step, where a major part of the
soluble salts and, to some extent, the metals are extracted before chemical binding of the
remaining metals (see also Section 5.6.3.2).

Waste containing chromates and amphoteric metals, such as lead and zinc, and waste with some
soluble salts content typically need pretreatment before being subjected to the immobilisation
process.

Pretreatment before immobilisation basically consists of the washing/leaching of salts with

water, and the physico-chemical pretreatment of metals (especially insolubilisation of the
amphoteric metals).

This pretreatment allows the treatment of fly ashes and salts arising from the dechlorination of
fumes in household waste incineration. It can also be applied to the flue-gas treatment residues
resulting from both the lime treatment of the fumes and from the bicarbonate of soda treatment.
In the latter case (sodium bicarbonate), it dissociates the soluble and insoluble solid
components, and reduces the amount of disposal in landfills by recycling the soluble salts in a
soda ash factory.

The outputs consist of a filter cake with a reduced toxicity and solubility, and salty water. This
pretreatment helps reduce the leachability of the output and therefore the risk of contamination
by the leaching out of soluble compounds. The process is more sophisticated than the simple
solidification one described below.

[ 161, Straetmans, B. 2003 ], [ 18, WT TWG 2004 ]

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Stabilisation and solidification are described in Sections 5.1.2.1.1 and 5.1.2.1.2 respectively.

Users
Immobilisation treatments (both stabilisation and solidification) are applied to, for example:
 treatments of waste from other treatment processes (e.g. ash from thermal treatments,
residues from end-of-pipe techniques);
 treatment of excavated contaminated soils.

The plants from the data collection that use this technique are: 015, 058, 176C, 181C, 187C,
221, 336, 340, 348, 399, 427, 475, 495_496, 551, 569, 618.

Reference literature
[ 32, Inertec; dechets, F. and Sita 2002 ], [ 163, Ecodeco 2002 ], [ 8, LaGrega et al. 1994 ],
[ 9, UK EA 2001 ], [ 161, Straetmans, B. 2003 ], [ 18, WT TWG 2004 ], [ 164, UBA Germany
2013 ], [ 93, Physico-Chem. Subgroup 2014 ]

5.1.2.1.1 Stabilisation

Purpose
Contaminants (e.g. heavy metals) are fully or partially bound by the addition of supporting
media, binders, or other modifiers.

Principle of operation
Stabilisation is accomplished by mixing the waste with a reagent (depending on the type of
waste and reaction planned, this can be, for example, clay particles; humic organic substances,
such as peat; activated carbon; oxidisers; reductors; precipitating reagents) to minimise the rate
of contamination migration from the waste, thereby reducing the toxicity of the waste and
improving the handling properties of the waste at the landfill. To achieve this, the process
includes a physico-chemical interaction between the reagent and waste, rather than just dilution.

These stabilisation methods make use of both the precipitation of metals in new minerals and
the binding of metals to minerals by sorption. The process includes some form of solubilisation
of the heavy metals in the material and subsequent precipitation in or sorption to new minerals.

The physical mechanisms used in stabilisation are: macro-encapsulation, micro-encapsulation,

absorption, adsorption, precipitation and detoxification. There is an extensive range of sorbents
and binders available for such purposes. Some of the most commonly used are: cement,
pozzolans (alumino-silicious material that reacts with lime and water), lime, soluble silicates,
organically modified clays or lime, thermosetting organic polymers, thermoplastic materials and
vitrification (in situ or in-plant).

In many cases, both types of reagents chemical reagents (as mentioned three paragraphs above)
and sorbents and binders (as mentioned in the above paragraph) are used simultaneously. In
some cases, the reagents are contained in the waste input and therefore added to the mixture
through the waste input itself.

Process description
Among other possibilities, stabilisation can be carried out by using phosphate or lime as the
stabilising agent. The descriptions below give examples of these processes.

Several of the stabilisation methods have an initial washing step, where a major part of the
soluble salts and, to some extent, the metals are extracted before chemical binding of the
remaining metals. These methods are finalised by dewatering the stabilised product, which will
then be ready for landfilling. Then, the washing of solid waste generates waste water that needs
some sort of treatment. However, depending on the local conditions, such generated waste water

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may be discharged into the environment or treated in the chemical industry to recover some
salts (e.g. sodium salts).

Phosphate stabilisation
[ 8, LaGrega et al. 1994 ], [ 15, Iswa 2003 ], [ 18, WT TWG 2004 ]
Phosphate stabilisation is a chemical stabilisation using phosphate as the stabilisation agent.
Depending on the characteristics of the waste input, other additives, such as lime, are used.
Reaction kinetics are fast and the material is considered fully treated without further curing.
Sometimes phosphate addition is used together with carbonation in order to bind some metals in
the waste input (e.g. lead).

The specific amounts of water and phosphate, as well as other additives, are likely to vary
according to the properties of the waste input. However, no quantification of this has been made
available.

The process retains salts in the output. Compared to other similar processes, relatively small
amounts of water are added along with the phosphate and no waste water is generated.

There are currently no suggestions for utilisation of the output.

Substantial leaching is possible after landfilling, particularly in the case of some heavy metals
due to increased solubility (e.g. cadmium). The release of salt and heavy metals in the landfill is
expected to be higher than with other treatments. Phosphate stabilisation may enhance the
phosphorus compound mobility of deposited waste. In one case, it has been shown that the total
phosphate availability increased from 2 mg/kg (before treatment) to 4 900 mg/kg (after
treatment).

The treatment process consists of:

 a mixing device (such as a pug mill) into which the waste input is fed at a controlled rate
and mixed with a proprietary form of soluble phosphate;
 a conveyor at the end of the mixer which removes the treated output.

Lime stabilisation
[ 164, UBA Germany 2013 ]
Liming is used to stabilise a wide range of sludge and waste types. This includes:
 neutralisation of acidic inorganic sludge;
 stabilisation and hygienisation of sewage sludge and biological waste.

Lime is composed of calcium (and magnesium in the case of dolomitic lime), which gives it
flocculation properties; the hydroxyl ions provide basicity. These properties are used for
inorganic and organic sludge treatment. Quicklime is hydrated in contact with water, reducing
the original water content in sludge, and promoting an exothermic reaction which has a
disinfectant action on the sludge and prevents odours.

Lime stabilisation brings the following benefits:

 Lime provides a high pH and as such neutralises acidity in industrial sludge.
 Calcium ions in lime promote sludge dewatering in filter presses or centrifuges
(flocculation property).
 Treatment of sludge with lime, combined with mechanical dewatering (press filter,
centrifuge, belt filter, etc.), can achieve 25 % to 45% dry solids and significantly reduce
the total volume of waste to be landfilled.
 The combined action of the high pH and the quicklime reaction heat controls odours
during sewage sludge and biological waste treatment.

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 The combined action of the high pH and the quicklime reaction heat sanitises (eliminates
growth of pathogens) sewage sludge and biological waste and enables their safe reuse in
agriculture.
 Due to lime’s high pH value, most metallic trace elements (Pb, Ni, Fe, Zn, Cr) are kept in
insoluble forms and immobilised in treated sludge and contaminated sediments.
 Calcium ions in lime react with clay minerals and organic matter (ion exchange) and
convert the matrix soil from plastic to friable. Further reactions with active silica or
alumina in soils (pozzolanic reaction) form new, long-term stable compounds. These
compounds encapsulate pollutants which cannot be immobilised by reactions with lime.
 The exothermic hydration reaction and chemical binding of water by quicklime promote
the dewatering and drying of various soils.

The output to waste input ratios vary widely, depending on the initial water content of the
treated sludge or waste and the absolute lime dosage. The lowest ratios are observed in
processes where the flocculation, dewatering and drying by reaction heat are carried out
simultaneously.

Two basic processes are used for lime application:

 Pre-liming, where lime is used preferably as milk of lime (liquid dispersion of Ca(OH) 2
particles in water), prior to further treatment steps. An example of a pre-liming system is
shown in Figure 5.2 below.

Source [ 164, UBA Germany 2013 ]

Figure 5.2: Example of pre-liming system in organic sludge treatment

 Post-liming, where lime is used preferably in some form of quicklime (having CaO as the
main constituent). An example of a post-liming system is shown in Figure 5.3 below.

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Source: [ 164, UBA Germany 2013 ]

Figure 5.3: Example of post-liming system in organic sludge treatment

In the case of sticky or pasty sludge, mixing/dispersion of lime with the sludge is a key element
for success, the difficulty consisting of integrating a powder into a pasty matter. One state-of-
the-art mixer is a ploughshare type, which allows good mixing without destroying the sludge
structure, although it can be difficult to operate. The other common piece of equipment is a
screw pump mixer, which achieves a well-dispersed mix but destroys the sludge structure.

Users
Currently, phosphate stabilisation finds extensive commercial use in the United States, Japan
and Taiwan at about 90 MSW incinerator facilities, treating over 2 million tonnes of bottom ash
and FGT residues per year. The output is generally accepted as suitable for landfilling in these
countries.

5.1.2.1.2 Solidification

Purpose
Solidification changes the physical properties of the waste input by using additives.

Cement solidification for example, based on mixing waste with cement, is a chemical process
that aims at developing bonds between the binder and the waste. Another technique, also in
large-scale use, involves the curing of fly ash waste, for example with aqueous neutral solution,
to give a granular output prior to landfill.

Principle of operation
Cement solidification reduces the contact between the water and the waste input, and to some
extent the formation of less soluble metal hydroxides or carbonates. Amphoteric metals can also
be treated. The solidified output is relatively easy to handle, and the risk of dust formation is
very low. The release of heavy metals from the products in the short term is typically relatively
low. The technique does, in some cases, facilitate utilisation of the output as backfilling or
construction material in the mining industry.

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Feed and output stream

Solidification with cement can be used on all types of FGT residues, and has also been used on
many other types of hazardous wastes.

The solidified output is landfilled in either surface-level or underground deposits. In some

countries, it may be utilised as a backfilling material in salt mines (see Section 5.1.2.2).

Most studies have focused on the possible short-term releases of contaminants from the output.
The long-term behaviour of the output is much less understood. It must be expected that the
leaching of lime over time will change the chemical properties of the output and also that
increased leaching may occur as the pH decreases. The time required for a complete release
from stabilised output can, however, be expected to be in the range of several hundred to a
thousand years. The high pH level of cement-based systems can result in a significant leaching
of amphoteric metals (lead and zinc).

Process description
Generally, wastes are mixed with Portland cement and additives to control the properties of the
cement, and enough water to ensure that hydration reactions will take place to bind the cement.
Both stabilisation and solidification processes take place. Cement-based solidification relies on
the use of equipment that is typically readily available. The mixing and handling associated with
the processes are well developed and the technique is robust with respect to variations in waste
input characteristics.

The wastes are thereby incorporated into the cement matrix. Typically, the waste input will react
with water and the cement to form, to some extent, metal hydroxides or carbonates which are
usually less soluble than the original metal compounds in the waste matrix.

Water permeability of 3.7×10-11 m/s can be achieved in the final product when cement is used as
an immobiliser. The ratio of waste to be treated to cement used is between 1:3 and 1:4,
depending on the type of waste.

The drawbacks of this method are that the leaching of soluble salts is not hampered and that this
can eventually result in the physical disintegration of the solidified product, thus allowing
further leaching. In this case, the entry of air may result in some carbonation, partially rectifying
the increase in porosity and loss of strength.

If the heavy metals are not recovered from the residues, which is potentially possible but a
costly and energy-intensive process, the contaminants will sooner or later be released.
The process leads to an increase in weight and a minor change in the volume of the waste.

Energy and water usage varies and is not quantified. The operation and control of equipment
used by the technique is considered relatively simple and comparable with standard practices in
the concrete industry.

Users
The process is relatively simple to use and the necessary technical knowledge is widely
available. The leaching characteristics of the solidified product can be improved considerably
compared to the untreated waste input. Stabilisation of FGT residues by cement solidification
has long been, and is still considered, acceptable by authorities in many countries worldwide.

It is probably the most commonly used method for the treatment of FGT residues and is widely
used in Europe and Japan.

Reference literature
[ 25, COWI A/S 2002 ], [ 15, Iswa 2003 ], [ 18, WT TWG 2004 ], [ 19, WT TWG 2004 ]

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5.1.2.2 Physico-chemical treatment of solid and/or pasty waste before

backfilling

Purpose
Physico-chemical treatment of waste prior to backfilling consists of adapting the structural and
physical characteristics of the waste input (mainly fly ashes) in accordance with local conditions
for long-term storage in the mine. If wastes cannot be used directly as backfilling material, they
are treated in dedicated physico-chemical treatment plants.

Principle of operation
The physico-chemical treatment includes the blending of wastes with liquid solutions and, if
necessary, additional binding agents. Some wastes are treated in a dry process using compacting
processes (e.g. vibration).

The process takes place mostly above ground; in special cases, the backfilling material is
generated underground.

Feed and output streams

The waste input is mainly flue-gas treatment residues from incineration or combustion plants
(fly ashes), and a small amount of fine-grained or pulverised waste.

The output is a material with adequate structural and physical characteristics for backfilling.

Process description
Figure 5.4 below presents an example of physico-chemical treatment of waste before
backfilling.

Source: [ 29, PCT Subgroup 2015 ]

Figure 5.4: Example of physico-chemical treatment before backfilling

The following operations are carried out before unloading the waste:

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 check of the accompanying documents for completeness and correctness;

 sampling of waste;
 comparison of the waste with the details of the declaration;
 extraction of retained samples.

The waste is then treated by means of one or a combination of the following process steps:

 Compaction, using gravity as well as vibration methods. Generally, this is done without
adding water. It can take place either above or below ground.
 Blending of different waste inputs and/or additives.
 Addition of liquids and/or binding agents. The physical properties of granulated wastes
(ashes, dusts and sludge) are used for the production of backfilling mixtures. By mixing
with liquids (e.g. brine and/or MgCl2 brine), the waste input is converted to a pumpable,
pasty, backfilling material mixture for example.

When liquids are added, the lower explosive limit (LEL) is continuously monitored during the
process. In this case, one or a combination of the following gases is monitored:

 hydrogen;
 propane;
 methane;
 carbon monoxide;
 acetylene;
 ethanol.

Specific procedures are put in place which define the measures to be applied when the LEL is
reached, such as:

 intensification of aeration and ventilation (e.g. opening of all gates in the hall and turning
up of all ventilation systems);
 interruption of physico-chemical treatment;
 disconnection of the system from the power supply.

Users
Plants for physico-chemical treatment of wastes as a pretreatment before backfilling in salt and
potash mines are found in Germany. [ 29, PCT Subgroup 2015 ]

The plants from the data collection that use this technique are: 222, 223, 224, 225, 226, 228,
229, 613, 614.

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5.1.3 Current emission and consumption levels

5.1.3.1 Overview

The emissions listed in Table 5.16 below can be expected to occur from most treatment plants.
The scale of the emission depends on the plant throughput and on the abatement systems
applied.

Table 5.1: Emissions from physico-chemical treatment of solids and pasty waste
Physico-chemical
Air Water Residues/Soil
activity
Ammonia and, if there is a high
Filtration/pressing organic content in the waste NI NI
streams, VOCs.

Emissions, e.g. dust, VOCs, via

roof vents. Emissions occur during
Immobilisation transfer from the mixing pit to
NI NI
mixing removal off site; and via access
doors during charging of the
reaction vessels (spillages/leaks).
Dust and VOCs, particularly if an
Sludge blending NI NI
exothermic reaction occurs.
Sludge
management (e.g. VOCs as fugitive emissions.
NI NI
pressing or sludge Gases from solutions.
storage)
There is potential for dust
Solidification NI NI
emissions from this operation.
Automated VOCs, dust, odour during the
NI NI
charging of waste transfer of wastes and reagent.
Emissions occur due to the
reaction of incompatible
Leakage through Leakage through badly
substances. Uncontrollable
Reaction vessel badly maintained or maintained or damaged
reactions due to incorrect dosing
damaged equipment equipment
of reactants or the formation of hot
spots through poor mixing.
Dust arises from the overfilling of
reagent silos.
Reagent silo Also, fugitive dust emissions from NI NI
silo connections and dust from
reagent stockpiles.
NB: NI = No information.
Source: [ 9, UK EA 2001 ], [ 10, Babtie Group Ltd 2002 ]

The main environmental concern related to the handling, utilisation and disposal of combustion
wastes is the potential emission of heavy metals, organic pollutants and salts. It should also be
noted that hydrogen gas generation from FGT residues in contact with water has been
documented and can potentially cause considerable problems. Its generation is dependent on
intermediate FGT residues storage and the type, design and operation of the landfill that may be
developed.

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5.1.3.2 Emissions to air

[ 42, WT TWG 2014 ]

Table 5.2 below presents the reported emissions to air from the physico-chemical treatment of
solid and/or pasty waste. It should be read together with Table 5.3 which presents the reported
techniques to abate air emissions, origin of emissions to air, and exhaust air flow.

Table 5.2: Emissions to air from physico-chemical treatment of solid and/or pasty waste
Number of
Range measurements
Pollutant
Monitoring Plants concerned (mg/Nm3 except during the 3-year
measured
for odour) reference period
(2010-2012)
15, 221, 222, 223, 224, 225,
Dust Periodic 226, 228, 229, 399, 427, 475, 0.5–18 1–12
613, 614
SOX Periodic 427 532 9
NOX Periodic 427 5.7 9
H 2S Periodic 348 2.9 6
NH3 Periodic 15, 340, 348, 551 0.1–31 (1) 1–36
TVOC Periodic 495, 569 6–34(2) 6–36
Odour
Periodic 340 74 2
(OUE)
Cd Periodic 221, 399 0.0004–0.01 2–9
Hg Periodic 399, 427 0.003–0.01 3–9
Sb Periodic 399 0.01 9
As Periodic 399 0.01 9
Pb Periodic 221, 399 0.009–0.01 2–9
Cr Periodic 221, 399 0.003–0.01 2–9
Cu Periodic 221 0.002 2
Mn Periodic 221 0.004 2
Ni Periodic 399 0.01 9
Zn Periodic 399 0.5 9
PCDD/F Periodic 399 0.01 9
NB: For periodic measurements, the values are the average over the three reference years.
NA = Not applicable.
(1) Low end of the range from Plant 551; 36 measurements from mixing process step. High end of the range from
Plant 15; two measurements in 2014 at storage facility during waste input delivery.
(2) Values of plant 495 are expressed in ppm

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Table 5.3: Physico-chemical treatment of solid and/or pasty waste – Abatement techniques used
and origin of emissions to air
Air
Plant Techniques exhaust
Origin of emissions Waste input description
code used flow
(Nm3/h)
Venturi
scrubber
system Storage facility
FGT residues
Bag/fabric
Fly ash
15 filter system 14 000
Contaminated soil
Membrane
Sludge
separation
Immobilisation process
Wet
scrubbing
Immobilisation/solidification
plant is operated in FGT residues
Rotation
58 underpressure; dust and NH3 Sludge NI
scrubber
abatement from the extracted Filter cake
air
No channelled emission, but good practices, e.g.
for the venting devices of the silos (see below):
Stabilisation unit, silos and
hoppers, e.g. silo venting filters
Bag/fabric
which consist of a cylindrically
filter system
shaped dust collector for venting
of pneumatically filled silos Contaminated soil
176 NI
Water Fly ash
spraying Stabilisation unit/pond
(dust)
Biological treatment of
Activated
contaminated soil. The activated
carbon
carbon is changed for each new
adsorption
'biopile'
Bag/fabric Stabilisation unit/silos and
Contaminated soil
filter system hoppers
Fly ash
181 Activated NA
Biopile. Treatment of Sludge
carbon
contaminated soil FGT residues
adsorption
Absolute
Mixer process step NI
filter system Fly ash
187
Bag/fabric Sludge
Vent of the silos NA
filter system
Air Contaminated soil
Mixing and processing part
221 separator Fly ash 40
Filter Vent of the silo Brine
Bag/fabric Storage and material handling.
filter system Above-ground silo for bulk input 5 000
(first material
Flue-gas treatment residues (fly
dedusting
222 ash and other treatment
and Storage and material handling.
residues)
additional Underground silo for material to 5 800
security mixer
filter)

436 Waste Treatment

 Chapter 5

Bag/fabric
filter system
(first
Flue-gas treatment residues (fly
dedusting Storage and material handling.
223 ash and other treatment 3 600
and Silo for bulk input material
residues)
additional
security
filter)
Bag/fabric
filter system
(first
Flue-gas treatment residues (fly
dedusting Storage and material handling.
224 ash and other treatment 3 500
and Silo for bulk input material
residues)
additional
security
filter)
Bag/fabric
filter system
(first
Flue-gas treatment residues (fly
dedusting Storage and material handling.
225 ash and other treatment 4 200
and Silo for bulk input material
residues)
additional
security
filter)
Flue-gas treatment residues (fly
ash and other treatment
residues)
Bag/fabric Waste from power plants
filter system Waste from iron and steel
(first casting
dedusting Storage and material handling. Waste from casting non-ferrous
226 3 400
and Silo for bulk input material metals
additional Waste from cement production
security Waste from physico-chemical
filter) treatment
Waste from waste water
treatment
Waste from soil reclamation
Silo for bulk input material Flue-gas treatment residues (fly 2 000
Bag/fabric
Big bag input handling ash and other treatment 2 800
filter system
Material preparation residues)
(first 2 700
Mixing of suspension liquid Waste from power plants
dedusting
228 Waste from iron and steel
and
Material preparation industries
additional
Mixing of suspension liquid - Waste from glass industries 2 500
security
Degassing conveyor Waste from physico-chemical
filter)
treatment of waste
Bag/fabric
Flue-gas treatment residues (fly
filter system
ash and other treatment
(first
residues)
dedusting
229 Silo for bulk input material Mineral fraction from shredded 3 600
and
material, mixed waste,
additional
demolition waste)
security
Sludge with contamination
filter)
Street-cleaning residues
Waste from sewage cleaning
336 NI NI Screening material from WWT NI
Waste from desanding
Minerals (e.g. sand, stones)
Bag/fabric Fly ash
340 Insolubilisation 17 000
filter system Sludge

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Insolubilisation - air after wet

Wet
scrubbing is entirely directed to
scrubbing
biofilter
Biofiltering Insolubilisation
Acid Stabilisation and solidification
19 000
scrubber processes Offshore drilling waste
348 system Filter press Pasty waste from diverse 5 500
Cyclonic industries
separation Storage hall 60 000
Bag/fabric
filter system
Wet
scrubbing
Water Immobilisation process Fly ash
399 10 000
spraying Sludge
(dust)
Basic
scrubber
system
Acid
Fly ash
Water Liquid waste from galvanic
427 Neutralisation plant 3 500
scrubbing industry
Metal-hydroxide-containing
sludge
Immobilisation of organic waste Fly ash 13 300
Metal waste
Pollution abatement component
Wet
475 Sludge
scrubbing Immobilisation of other waste 300
Fly ash
Catalyst
Contaminated soil
Enclosed process and output
Biofiltering storage building (low-flow 480
biofilter system)
Enclosed process and output
Wet Pollution abatement component
495 storage building (high-velocity
scrubbing Acid
extraction system)
36 500
Activated Enclosed process and output
carbon storage building (high-velocity
adsorption extraction system)
FGT residues
551 NI Mixing step NI
Acid
Contaminated soil
Not
569_6 Biofiltering Immobilisation Fly ash
monitored
Mixed hazardous waste
Storage and material handling - Flue-gas treatment residues (fly
Big bag unloading ash and other treatment
Bag/fabric residues)
filter system Bulk material/Sludge
(first Waste from casting non-ferrous
dedusting metals
613 Storage and material handling - 6 400
and Waste from cement production
Mixing aggregate - Silo for bulk
additional Waste from physico-chemical
input material
security treatment
filter) Waste from waste water
treatment
Waste from soil reclamation

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Flue-gas treatment residues (fly

ash and other treatment
Bag/fabric
residues)
filter system
Waste from casting non-ferrous
(first
metals
dedusting Storage and material handling -
614 Waste from cement production 3 300
and Big bag handling
Waste from physico-chemical
additional
treatment
security
Waste from waste water
filter)
treatment
Waste from soil reclamation
Foundries metallurgical sludge
Undersize part from dusting of
raw iron and from secondary
metallurgy
No channelled emissions to air
618 NA Undersize waste from coke NA
(wet process)
transport
Waste from production of
isolating wool for building
industry
NB: NI = No information.
NA = Not applicable.

Dust
Of the 26 plants performing physico-chemical treatment of solid and/or pasty waste, 13 reported
dust concentration levels in emissions to air, some of them having more than one point of
release. The reported average dust concentration is around 3 mg/Nm3, with a range of 0.2–
18 mg/Nm3.

Figure 5.5 below presents the reported dust concentration in emissions to air from
immobilisation of solid and/or pasty waste.

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NB: NI = No information.

Figure 5.5: Dust in emissions to air from physico-chemical treatment of solid and/or pasty waste

Ammonia (NH3)
Of the 26 plants performing physico-chemical treatment of solid and/or pasty waste, 4 plants
reported NH3 concentration levels in emissions to air, some of them having more than one point
of release. The reported average NH3 concentration is around 5 mg/Nm3, with a range of <0.1–
31 mg/Nm3. NH3 emissions are mainly linked to the waste input to be treated (e.g. sludge). The
highest concentration value was reported by Plant 15 (emissions from storage facility) which
performed two measurements in 2014 (M1: 58 mg/Nm3 and M2: 4 mg/Nm3). During M1, waste
input material was delivered three times and wheel loaders entered the storage hall several
times. M2 was performed after adjustment of the scrubber, and during that time waste input
material was delivered once and the wheel loader entered the storage hall several times.

Figure 5.6 below presents the reported NH3 concentration in emissions to air from physico-
chemical treatment of solid and/or pasty waste.

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NB: NI = No information.

Figure 5.6: NH3 emissions to air from immobilisation of solid and/or pasty waste

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs)

Among the 26 plants performing physico-chemical treatment of solid and/or pasty waste, 3
plants reported VOC concentration levels in emissions to air, some of them having more than
one point of release. The average reported VOC concentrations were expressed in mg/Nm3 or
ppm of TOC or TVOC.

Table 5.4 below presents the reported VOC concentration levels in emissions to air from
physico-chemical treatment of solid and/or pasty waste.

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Table 5.4: Volatile organic compound emissions to air from physico-chemical treatment of solid
and/or pasty waste
Number of
Main measurements
Conc. Conc. Conc.
Plant Pollutant/ techniques to Type of during the 3-
Min. Average Max.
code Parameter prevent/reduce measurement year reference
(mg/Nm3) (mg/Nm3) (mg/Nm3)
emissions period (2010-
2012)
475_1 TOC 1.7 1.7 1.7 Wet scrubbing Periodic 3
475_2 TOC 2.7 2.7 2.8 Wet scrubbing Periodic 3
495_1 TVOC 191 ppm 490 ppm 744 ppm Biofiltering Periodic 36
Adsorption
495_2 TVOC 143 ppm 483 ppm 833 ppm Periodic 36
Wet scrubbing
569_6 TVOC 6.0 14.4 34.0 Biofiltering Periodic 6

5.1.3.3 Emissions to water and water usage

[ 42, WT TWG 2014 ]

Table 5.5 below presents the reported techniques for abatement of emissions to water, the origin
of emissions, and the type of discharge (direct/indirect discharge).

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Table 5.5: Physico-chemical treatment of solid and/or pasty waste – Origin of emissions to water,
abatement techniques used, and type of discharge
Plant Origin of emissions to
Techniques used Type of discharge
code water
15 No emissions to water NA NA
58 No emissions to water NA NA
176 No emissions to water NA NA
181 No emissions to water NA NA
187 No emissions to water NA NA
221 Whole process NI NI
222 No emissions to water NA NA
223 No emissions to water NA NA
224 No emissions to water NA NA
225 No emissions to water NA NA
226 No emissions to water NA NA
228 No emissions to water NA NA
229 No emissions to water NA NA
Indirect discharge
336 Mechanical NI
(urban/municipal sewer system)
340 No emissions to water NA NA
Process water (filter press,
Indirect discharge (off-site
348 scrubber) NI
common WWT facility)
Rainwater
399 No emissions to water NA NA
Chemical precipitation
Sedimentation Direct discharge (on-site common
427 Neutralisation process
Filtration WWT facility)
Adsorption
475 No emissions to water NA NA
495 No emissions to water NA NA
551 No emissions to water NA NA
569_6 See Section 5.7 See Section 5.7 See Section 5.7
613 No emissions to water NA NA
614 No emissions to water NA NA
618 No emissions to water NA NA
NB: NI = No information.
NA = Not applicable.

Of the 26 plants performing physico-chemical treatment of solid and/or pasty waste that
participated in the data collection, 20 plants (77 %) reported having no emissions to water from
the process.

Of the six plants that reported having emissions to water, one (Plant 427) reported discharging
to the environment via a common on-site WWT facility, two (Plants 336 and 348) discharge to a
sewer system or to an off-site WTTP, and three (Plants 221, 425, and 497) provided no
indication of the point of discharge.

The analysis of emissions to water is dealt with in Section 5.7.2.3.2.

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Water usage
The reported average water usage per tonne of waste treated is around 410 l/t, with a range of 6–
1 800 l/t. The high end of the range is achieved by plants with washing and/or cleaning steps,
which is the main use of water; in most cases, water is recycled in the process.

5.1.3.4 Energy consumption

[ 42, WT TWG 2014 ]

The main source of energy in physico-chemical treatment of solid and/or pasty waste is
electricity.

The reported average energy consumption is 30 kWh per tonne of waste treated, with a range of
3–112 kWh/t. This includes other energy sources, such as fossil fuel, e.g. for the wheel loader,
whose use was reported by eight plants, and represents an average of around 8 kWh/t.

5.1.4 Techniques to consider in the determination of BAT

In this section, only specific techniques to prevent and/or reduce consumption and emissions to
air and to water from the physico-chemical treatment of solid and/or pasty waste are described.

5.1.4.1 Monitoring of the waste input

Description
Monitoring the waste input, e.g. in terms of:
 content of organics, oxidising agents, metals (e.g. mercury), salts, odorous substances;
 hydrogen (H2) formation potential upon mixing of flue-gas treatment (FGT) residues, e.g.
fly ashes, with water.

Technical description
The monitoring of the waste input properties may include the following in particular:

 Measurement of the waste input organic content (TOC). (A TOC concentration < 6 % is
commonly adopted.) The potential effect of a high organic content in the waste input
includes:
o disturbance of the chemical reactions during the period of curing (pozzolanic and/or
hydraulic reaction);
o in the long term, biodegradation of organic compounds which involves destruction
of the concrete-like bulk waste and disturbance of the physico-chemical equilibrium
of the intraporous liquid phase of the concrete-like waste with a potential release of
heavy metals and salts.
 Measurement of the waste input mercury content. Mercury remains available in the waste
and can involve contamination in the long term. Even if the mercury is in a sulphide form,
the co-disposal with concrete-like waste will destroy sulphide mercury because of the
alkaline pH.
 Measurement of the waste input salt content. Certain salts cannot be immobilised, e.g.
chlorine salts, or can be immobilised to the level of the solubility product. For this type of
salt, the compliance test for leaching of granular waste materials typically alters the physical
form of the solidified material and therefore will overestimate the leaching of salts.
 Regular test for hydrogen (H2) generation when FGT residues containing carbonate are
mixed with water. Physico-chemical conditions when fly ashes or FGT residues are mixed
with water involve hydrolysis, e.g. of aluminium, which generates hydrogen emissions. This
reaction is catalysed in the presence of carbonate (which is the case, for example, for FGT
residues generated by dry flue-gas cleaning using sodium bicarbonate). This leads to a risk

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of explosion in closed or confined areas where the limit of explosivity can be easily
reached.[ 29, PCT Subgroup 2015 ]

Achieved environmental benefits

The achieved environmental benefits of this technique include:

 optimisation of the overall treatment efficiency by ensuring the compatibility of the waste
input to be treated with the applied process;
 prevention of uncontrolled emissions;
 prevention of incident/accident, and associated emissions.

Environmental performance and operational data

Table 5.6 below presents the implemented procedures in physico-chemical treatment of solid
and/or pasty waste, which aim to ensure the compatibility of the waste input and the treatment
process.

Table 5.6: Immobilisation of solid and/or pasty waste – Implemented procedures related to
ensure the compatibility of the waste input and the treatment process

Implemented procedure Plants concerned

15, 58, 176, 181, 187, 222, 223, 224, 225, 226,
Pre-acceptance/acceptance 228, 229, 340, 348, 399, 427, 475, 494, 495,
551. 569, 613, 614

Segregation and compatibility 348, 427, 494, 495, 569

15, 176, 181, 187, 222, 223, 224, 225, 226, 228,
Waste input characterisation
229, 348, 399, 427, 475, 495, 613, 614

176, 181, 187, 222, 223, 224, 225, 226, 228,

Waste tracking system
229, 427, 475, 494, 495, 551, 613, 614

176,181, 187, 222, 223, 224, 225, 226, 228,

Process and risk management
229, 340, 348, 427, 494, 495, 613, 614, 618

Cross-media effects
None identified.

Technical considerations relevant to applicability

Generally applicable.

Economics
No information provided.

Driving force for implementation

 Environmental legislation.
 Risk prevention.

Example plants
See Table 5.6.

Reference literature
[ 29, PCT Subgroup 2015 ], [ 42, WT TWG 2014 ], [ 21, WT TWG 2016 ]

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5.1.4.2 Techniques for the prevention or reduction of emissions to air

Description
Implementation of an appropriate combination of techniques such as:

 bag/fabric filter;
 wet scrubber;
 biofilter;
 adsorption.

Technical description
The technical descriptions of the techniques are given in Section 2.3.4.4 (bag/fabric filter),
Section 2.3.4.7 (biofilter), Section 2.3.4.9 (adsorption) and Section 2.3.4.10 (wet scrubber).

Achieved environmental benefits

The achieved environmental benefits of this technique include:

 reduction of dust emissions to air;

 reduction of ammonia (NH3) emissions to air;
 reduction of volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions to air.

Environmental performance and operational data

Information on the environmental performance of each technique can be found in the CWW
BREF [ 45, COM 2016 ].

Table 5.7, below presents the environmental performance of the physico-chemical treatment of
solid and/or pasty waste in terms of dust emissions to air.

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Table 5.7: Environmental performance of the physico-chemical treatment of solid and/or pasty
waste in terms of dust emissions to air
Number of
Main measurements
Conc. Conc.
Plant Conc. Min. techniques to Type of during the 3-
Average Max.
code (mg/Nm3) prevent/reduce measurement year reference
(mg/Nm3) (mg/Nm3)
emissions period
(2010-2012)
Venturi
scrubber system
015_1 0.6 2.1 5.0 Periodic 3
Bag/fabric filter
system
Membrane
015_2 0.6 1.8 4.1 separation Periodic 3
Wet scrubbing
221_2 3.3 3.4 3.4 NI Periodic 2
2 Bag/fabric
222_1 0.1 0.1 0.1 Periodic 3
filter systems
2 Bag/fabric
222_2 0.7 0.7 0.7 Periodic 3
filter systems
2 Bag/fabric
223_1 0.2 0.2 0.2 Periodic 3
filter systems
2 Bag/fabric
223_2 1.4 1.4 1.4 Periodic 1
filter systems
Bag/fabric filter
224 0.2 0.2 0.2 Periodic 1
system
Bag/fabric filter
225 0.2 0.2 0.2 Periodic 3
system
2 Bag/fabric
226_1 0.3 0.3 0.3 Periodic 1
filter systems
2 Bag/fabric
226_2 0.3 0.3 0.3 Periodic 1
filter systems
2 Bag/fabric
226_3 0.3 0.3 0.3 Periodic 1
filter systems
2 Bag/fabric
226_4 0.3 0.3 0.3 Periodic 1
filter systems
2 Bag/fabric
226_5 0.3 0.3 0.3 Periodic 1
filter systems
2 Bag/fabric
228_2 1.3 1.8 2.2 Periodic 2
filter systems
2 Bag/fabric
228_3 0.1 0.7 2.2 Periodic 2
filter systems
2 Bag/fabric
228_4 0.1 0.2 0.4 Periodic 2
filter systems
2 Bag/fabric
228_6 0.1 0.5 0.9 Periodic 2
filter systems
2 Bag/fabric
229_1 0.2 0.2 0.2 Periodic 1
filter systems
2 Bag/fabric
229_2 0.2 0.2 0.2 Periodic 1
filter systems
Bag/fabric filter
system
Wet scrubbing
399 0.5 0.5 0.5 Water spraying Periodic 9
(dust)
Basic scrubber
system
2 Bag/fabric
614_1 1.1 1.1 1.1 Periodic 1
filter systems
2 Bag/fabric
614_2 2.2 2.2 2.2 Periodic 2
filter systems
2 Bag/fabric
614_3 2.5 2.5 2.5 Periodic 2
filter systems

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Cross-media effects
See the CWW BREF [ 45, COM 2016 ].

Technical considerations relevant to applicability

See the CWW BREF [ 45, COM 2016 ].

Determining an appropriate combination of abatement techniques is generally applicable.

Economics
See the CWW BREF [ 45, COM 2016 ].

Driving force for implementation

Environmental legislation.

Example plants
See Table 5.7.

Reference literature
[ 42, WT TWG 2014 ], [ 45, COM 2016 ]

448 Waste Treatment

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5.2 Re-refining of waste oils

5.2.1 Applied processes and techniques

[ 1, Concawe 1996 ], [ 2, Monier, V. and Labouze, E. 2001 ], [ 165, Jacobs, A. and Dijkmans,
R. 2001 ], [ 166, Marshall et al. 1999 ], [ 10, Babtie Group Ltd 2002 ], [ 11, WT TWG 2003 ],
[ 167, Straetmans, B. 2003 ], [ 18, WT TWG 2004 ], [ 19, WT TWG 2004 ],

There are two main options for the treatment of waste oils:
 The recovery of waste oil to be used as a fuel or reductant. This includes treatments
such as thermal cracking and gasification, but also milder treatments of waste oils,
which are covered in Section 5.3.2.4.
 The treatment of waste oil to reconvert it into a material that can be reused or used as a
base oil to produce lubricants. In this document this is referred to as ‘re-refining’. This
section details the different treatments that are actually applied to waste oils for its
clean-up and re-refining.

This classification has been adopted for this document and it is not intended to attempt to define
any of the ‘R’ codes from EU waste legislation.

A lot of treatment processes exist today in Europe. The most significant ones are listed below in
Figure 5.7. This figure also gives an overview of how these treatments have been included in
this document.

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NB: (1) Especially hydraulic or cutting oil.

(2) Engine oils without chlorine + hydraulic oils without chlorine + hydraulic mineral oils + mineral
diathermic oils (according to the American Petroleum Institute classification).
(3) Treated oil still containing the heavy metals, halogen and sulphur contained in the original waste oil
(WO).
(4) Substitutes other secondary liquid fuel (SLF) or heavy fuel or coal or petroleum coke.
(5) As a furnace start-up fuel.
Source: [ 1, Concawe 1996 ], [ 11, WT TWG 2003 ], [ 18, WT TWG 2004 ]
Figure 5.7: Waste oil treatments and classification approach used in this document

Purpose
To reuse a waste oil or to convert it to base oil used to produce a lubricant. It requires cleaning
operations (i.e. laundering or reclamation) or re-refining in order to obtain a suitable output.

Principle of operation
The processes start with pretreatment and cleaning, which involve the removal of impurities,
defects and any leftover products from the waste oil's former use.

Reuse treatment usually involves only these two steps, but some substances may be added to the
cleaned waste oil subsequently, to attain the specifications of a virgin product.

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The re-refining process involves additional steps of fractionation and finishing, which use
similar techniques and unit operations to refineries and chemical (e.g. olefins) processing.

In terms of the practical layout, plants may use an amalgamation of unit operations. Not all
operations are applied in every plant. In practice, most plants only use a few of the processes
shown, and usually there are two or more parallel streams from each process.

Process description
The main steps of laundering in oil recovery (reuse) plants are shown in Figure 5.8.

NB: The diagram indicates common treatment elements. Some of these are alternatives and not all occur in a single
plant. Brown lines correspond to waste or sludges and blue lines to waste water.
Source: [ 10, Babtie Group Ltd 2002 ]
Figure 5.8: Generic flow diagram of pretreatment steps of waste oil treatment processes

Re-refining treatments may differ depending on the technology used for one or several of the
following operations:

 pretreatment;
 cleaning;

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 fractionation; and
 finishing.
Each of these unit operations are briefly described below.

Pretreatment of waste oil

Water and sediments are removed from the waste oil by a simple physical/mechanical treatment.
Settling is used in some cases to remove water and sludge from waste oil and in the effluent
treatment systems for removing oil and solids from the effluent. Generally, settling takes place
using the gravity effect in settling tanks, clarifiers or plate separators, but centrifuges or
distillation can also be used.

This pretreatment process is not compared with the other oil treatment systems because it does
not yield an end product, nor does it achieve the final aim of the treatment.

Cleaning of waste oil

Cleaning includes deasphalting and the removal of asphaltic residues: heavy metals, polymers,
additives, and other degradation compounds.

This is mostly done by distillation, solvent extraction and addition of acids.

Acid cleaning consists of additives, polymers, and oxidation and degradation products being
removed by contact with sulphuric acid or precipitated as sulphates (e.g. metals). Clarified oil
can also be mixed with clay to remove by absorption any polar and undesirable compounds still
present.

Fractionation of waste oil

This involves the separation of the base oils using their different boiling temperatures, to
produce two or three cuts (distillation fractions).
Vacuum distillation units can range in complexity from a simple splitting column to a full
fractional distillation column, as used in mineral oil refineries.

Finishing of waste oil

This is mainly the final cleaning of the different cuts (distillation fractions) to achieve specific
product specifications (e.g. improve colour, smell, thermal and oxidation stability, viscosity).
Finishing may also include the removal of PAHs in the case of severe hydrofinishing (high
temperature and high pressure) or solvent extraction (low temperature and low pressure).

Table 5.8 below shows different finishing techniques.

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Table 5.8: Finishing techniques used for the treatment of waste oils

Technique Principle of operation Comments

Alkali treatment KOH or NaOH is used Colour properties are enhanced

This is a tertiary treatment, to remove The new goals, set by the

the black colour from the oil (caused implementation of upcoming
by the carbon breakdown from the specifications for passenger car
Bleaching earth additives), so it can visually be motor oils, cannot be achieved. In
compared with virgin base oil. particular, the colour of the
produced oils is darker than
required.
This is a process similar to the
acid/clay process but acid is not used. Generally, clay polishing does not
Bentonite is the clay typically used. produce the high-quality base oils
Clay polishing
The clay is then separated from the oil of solvent extraction or
using a filter press. hydrotreatment.

Chlorine and sulphur are removed

from the waste oil fraction at a high
The quality of the distillates is
temperature under a hydrogen
very high and the petroleum
atmosphere and in contact with a
fractions are immediately
catalyst, being converted into HCl
marketable.
Hydrotreatment (1) and H2S. Phosphorus, lead and zinc
Hydrogen is needed for the process.
are also removed in this process.
Hydrogen sulphide is formed,
PAHs can be removed by severe
which can later be reduced to
hydrofinishing (high temperature and
sulphur.
with hydrogen under high pressure).

The feed into the extraction must be

a good quality base oil with all
heavy metals, etc. removed and
already fractionated into wanted
PAHs are removed from the base oils
cuts. The products are a high-quality
by extracting them into the solvent.
Solvent cleaning base oil, the used solvent which is
The solvent extraction also improves
regenerated, and a small stream of
the colour and viscosity index.
base oil (around 3 % of the total
base oil stream) with a high PAH
concentration, which is used as a
fuel product.
(1) The hydrotreatment process can be found in the Refinery BREF.
Source: [ 2, Monier, V. and Labouze, E. 2001 ], [ 11, WT TWG 2003 ], [ 168, UBA Germany 2003 ]

Table 5.9 summarises the different technologies/processes used for the recovery of waste oil.

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Table 5.9: Waste oil re-refining technologies/processes

Process description Usual plant
Process technology Feed and output streams Yield
Pretreatment Cleaning Fractionation Finishing capacity
Feed: Transformer oils, Adsorption
industrial lubricants (e.g. Heating
Laundering hydraulic and cutting). Filtration NA NA NA NI NI
Output: clean industrial lubricant Vacuum
returned to users. dewatering
Feed: Industrial oils (especially
hydraulic oils). Centrifugation
Reclamation NA NA NA NI NI
Output: clean industrial and/or filtering
lubricant returned to users.
Output presents poor Clay treatment
characteristics in terms of By contact with a large
Pre-flash unit
viscosity and volatility. It can quantity of adsorption
Clay processing Atmospheric NA NA NI NI
only be employed in the clay
vacuum stripping
formulation of a limited type of
industrial lubricant.
Acid or clay treatment Distillation Neutralisation and
Removal of waste oil The cleaned oil is then filtration
contaminants (e.g. distilled to recover two The lubricating oil cuts,
heavy metals, or three cuts, plus an along with the gas oil,
Atmospheric or additives, polymers, overhead gas oil are neutralised with
Acid/clay + distillation Feed: pretreated waste oils vacuum flash oxidation and calcium hydroxide and 50 % NI
stripping degradation filtered
compounds) by acid
treatment (typically
sulphuric acid) or clay
treatment
Distillation and
Output: Adequate process
chemical treatment or Chemical treatment is
selection can lead to the removal Vacuum distillation
solvent extraction: carried out in a blocked
of virtually all PAHs, for The 1st stage
series of vacuum operation, followed by a
instance by utilising solvent removes the water, Vacuum distillation
cyclone evaporators distillation/stripper to
extraction. Some processes of naphtha and light The 3rd and 4th stages separate the different
followed by a correct volatility and 65–70 % on a dry
this type do not generate end. lubricating oil cuts from the residue (in which 25 kt/year
chemical treatment of the flashpoint. basis
residues because they transform The 2nd stage all the metals, additives and degradation
the lubricating oil cuts Alternatively, a solvent
the residues into products (e.g. removes the gas oil, products are concentrated)
obtained extraction stage can be
production of a fertiliser by spindle oil or light
supplied to remove the
reutilisation of the reaction fuel oil.
[ 1, Concawe 1996 ], PAHs
waters).
[ 11, WT TWG 2003 ]

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Does not result in polluted clay

Distillation and as a waste product.
Solvent extraction 65–70 % on a dry
solvent extraction Only 98 % of the solvent is NA Vacuum distillation 60 kt/year
basis
(Vaxon process) regenerated after extraction of
the base oil.
The recovered base oils have a 79 % on a dry basis 25–30 kt/year
good quality. or
The process does not produce 72–74 % base oils and
solid waste. The chemical 21–22 % asphalts on a
treatment of the resulting oil dry basis
fraction with a mixture of Atmospheric and
chemicals converts the vacuum distillation
Solvent extraction and
organically bound chlorine into The extracted oil is
distillation (Sener- Extraction with
NaCl. After further distillation, firstly distilled in an
Interline process) propane
all end products have a low Chemical atmospheric distillation
Liquid propane extracts
chlorine content (less than pretreatment with column to separate light No finishing step is
[ 1, Concawe 1996 ], the base oils and rejects
10 ppm). The chemical reactor reagents and hydrocarbons and some required
[ 165, Jacobs, A. and water, asphalt, additives,
removes contaminants and catalysts propane. The remaining
Dijkmans, R. 2001 ] and other insoluble
virtually all chlorine down to oil is fractionated in a
[ 11, WT TWG 2003 ], contaminants
less than 5 ppm. vacuum distillation
[ 18, WT TWG 2004 ]
Emissions to air can be reduced column to recover
by directing the vent streams and lubricant base oils.
gas phase of the distillation units
to a thermal oxidiser where
pollutants are oxidised at 850 ºC
for a residence time of two
seconds.
The ‘bottoms’ produced are Extraction with propane and fractionation in Hydrofinishing with a 74 % on a dry basis 80 kt/year
suitable as bitumen. This process vacuum column NiMo catalyst for the IFP process
yields more marketable materials Asphalt is separated by extracting the Clay or (97 % dewatering
than re-refining by chemical recoverable fractions of the used oil with liquid hydrotreatment: defueling, 80 %
treatment or by hydrogenation. propane. after the subsequent deasphalting), 95 %
Propane deasphalting This is the reason why this Two versions exist: distillation steps, the hydrofinishing
and hydrofinishing process sometimes under certain 1) Single stage: downstream of the PDA chlorine content of the (medium pressure)
Pre-flash
operating conditions may be extraction unit, the clarified oil is separated distillates is lowered by 80 % on a dry basis
In a distillation
[ 2, Monier, V. and seen as a re-refining process from the propane and fed to the treatment with metallic for the Snamprogetti.
column
Labouze, E. 2001 ], because a high percentage of hydrotreatment. Finally, fractionation in a sodium 5 % fuel, 9 % gas oil
[ 11, WT TWG 2003 ] base oils are produced. vacuum column produces the desired and 6 % residue.
lubricating oil cuts.
More or less expensive 2) Two-stage: the clarified oil from the
according to the number of first PDA unit is distilled and fractionated in a
stages for the PDA. vacuum column. The bottom fraction, still
Significant amount of residues to containing impurities, is fed to a second PDA

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be disposed of. unit; the resulting asphaltic fraction is recycled

back to the first PDA unit. The oil fractions
from the side cuts of the vacuum column, along
with the heavy cut clarified in the second PDA
stage, are hydrogenated separately in the
hydrotreatment. The two-stage process,
compared to the single stage, provides an
extended life for the hydrotreating catalyst, but
has higher investment and operating costs.
Motor and industrial waste oils, Distillation Alkali treatment NI NI
all types of synthetic lubricants Throughout the process, pretreatment forms part of the same process,
except PAG water-soluble, since the first phase produces dewatering throughout the whole
Distillation and alkali silicon oils and some type of distillation with all oil types used
treatment (Vaxon - esters. Base oils and asphaltic
C.F.T. – Cator) residue are the main products.
Impurities and sediments remain
in the final solid waste, which has
an asphaltic nature.
Pre-flash and TFE (2nd) Distillation (4th) 25–160 kt/year
chemical treatment Performed at very high The lubricating oil
(1st) temperatures and fraction is separated
Heavy metals, polymers,
Water, light ends vacuums. into different oil cuts in
additives and other degradation
Thin film evaporators and fuel traces The thin film a vacuum column
products are removed as an
(TFE) and different contained in the evaporator consists of
asphaltic residue.
finishing processes *: used oil are a vertical cylindrical
TFE installations without further One of the following
physical separation removed. surface enclosed in a
treatment produce a dark (3rd) With a): 72 % on a
process (distillation) Atmospheric heating jacket and an
coloured oil, which is suitable for a) Hydrotreatment dry basis
under high vacuum vacuum stripping + internal rotor which
a diesel extender but not as a base b) Clay treatments With b): 54–73 %
conditions chemical treatment distributes a thin layer
oil suitable for blending into c) Solvent extraction With c): 50–67 %
[ 1, Concawe 1996 ], (optional) to of oil on the heated
lubricants. Experience reported so d) Solvent extraction + With d): 91 %
[ 166, Marshall et al. minimise the wall, by means of
far suggests odour problems may hydrotreatment
1999 ], [ 168, UBA corrosion and rotating blades. By the
occur.
Germany 2003 ], fouling of action of the rotor
Liquid waste effluents consist of
[ 18, WT TWG 2004 ] downstream (electrically driven), a
process water from ejector sets
equipment. high turbulence and
and oily water.
back mixing occur in
the thin layer of the oil
film
Thermal deasphalting Input: waste oil Pre-flash Settling + TDA a) 40-100
process (TDA) Output: Atmospheric Deasphalting by settling. Residue removal is kt/year
a) Clay With a): 74 %
[ 166, Marshall et al. - base oil (API Group II) vacuum stripping + achieved by flashing at the bottom of the b) 100-180
- gas oil
b) Hydrotreatment With b): 77 %
1999 ], [ 4, Viscolube chemical treatment. distillation column, which performs the kt/year
2002 ], [ 11, WT - asphalt The later treatment fractionation of the different lubricating oil cuts.

456 Waste Treatment

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TWG 2003 ], [ 168, is used to minimise

UBA Germany 2003 ], the corrosion and
[ 18, WT TWG 2004 ] fouling of
downstream
equipment and to
facilitate the
subsequent
deasphalting step.
Mixer unit & feed Product recovery and Catalytic >70 % on a dry basis 80 kt/year per
flash separator (1st) Catalytic finishing (3rd) hydrotreatment: (varies with feed unit (nominal
Intimate mixing of hydroprocessing / After depressurisation,  reduces or removes quality and process feed capacity)
hot hydrogen gas catalyst section (2nd) whereby the surplus the remaining metals conditions)
Input: waste oil.
with the feed to In the multi-stage, hydrogen is scrubbed and metalloids of the
Output:
Direct contact 480 °C and 80 bar high-pressure system, to remove the waste oil;
- base oil (API Group II+) (high
hydrogenation process
viscosity index, low sulphur
pressure results in the gaseous chlorides and  reduces the
(DCH) the separation of hydrocarbon materials sulphides generated in Conradson carbon
content S: typically < 10 ppm,
the high-value are initially separated the hydrogenation (measurement of the
low evaporation loss);
lubricating oil from the residual stages, the hydrogen is tendency of a
- desulphurised diesel (S:
[ 1, Concawe 1996 ], molecules in a impurities and metal used as a recycle gas. hydrocarbon to form
< 10 ppm);
[ 2, Monier, V. and high-pressure / compounds (guard The purified liquid coke);
- naphtha;
Labouze, E. 2001 ],
- heavy fuel oil.
high-temperature reactor), and then lube boiling range  reduces the organic
[ 4, Viscolube 2002 ] environment, which processed for fractions are passed acids and
[ 166, Marshall et al. avoids coking and desulphurisation. through different compounds
Process characteristics: - the
1999 ], fouling. The further process steps containing chloride,
process operates continuously
[ 9, UK EA 2001 ], [ inorganic Using patented and are routed to the sulphur and
(no batch-wise production; no
11, WT TWG 2003 ], molecules, metals hydrogenation vacuum column. nitrogen;
intermediate storage tanks
[ 18, WT TWG 2004 ],
necessary); - the process runs
and heavy asphaltic catalysts, a deep Therein the purified  restores the colour,
[ 164, UBA Germany components saturation of olefins hydrocarbon mixture UV and thermal
without a dewatering step; -
2013 ], [ 169, (bottoms) are and aromatics is is separated into properties;
hydrogen is injected at the
Puralube GmbH 2016 separated before achieved (conversion naphtha, gas oil and up  reduces PAHs when
beginning: therefore all products
] entering the reactor), which are to 5 lubricant operating under high
(except heavy fuel) are
catalytic section then hydrofinished at basestocks (API Gr. pressure and at high
desulphurised including
and are desirable adequately high II+). Since all the used temperatures;
premium diesel (S: typically 10
for use as paving- temperatures and oil undergoes catalytic  allows a viscosity
ppm); - hydrogen-rich gas is
grade asphalts. pressures. These hydrotreatment, the index equal to or
recycled; - 'zero' waste
processes involve diesel produced in this better than the
production: the process works
intense process has very low original feed.
without generating any
desulphurisation and sulphur (less than
additional waste (only spent
elimination of other 10 ppm).
catalysts, waste water).
heteroatoms of all base
oil fractions. A
specially developed
composition of

Waste Treatment 457

Chapter 5

different types of
catalysts is used to
maintain qualities.
Pre-flash Tubular reactor Fractionation Neutralisation
Dewatering. Feed The breakdown of the The lubricating oil Neutralisation with
Feed: Waste oil and caustic soda. with the addition of undesired fraction is separated acid and clay treatment
Output: the base oil produced is caustic soda and organometallic, into different oil cuts
of good quality (Group II) with bleaching earth. sulphur, nitrogen and in the linear tubular
good yields: same quality and halogen compounds reactor
Caustic soda and
characteristics as virgin oils, takes place. An
bleaching earth
Group I base oil with low advanced control of
treatment (ENTRA)
sulphur and phosphorus, low temperature and NI NI
aromatic content, high viscosity retention time in a
[ 1, Concawe 1996 ],
index and oxidation stability. linear tubular reactor
[ 18, WT TWG 2004 ]
minimises the
Only 25 % of clay and acid is breakdown of those
used compared to the usual organic molecules
clay/acid amount. which are still viable as
lubricating oil
components.
The oil produced represents a a) Pre-flash in a TFE Aromatic extraction Hydrofinishing
good quality of re-refined base distillation column unit
oil. b) Atmospheric of the refinery to
This technology improves the vacuum stripping remove PAHs and
Integration in the base quality of the re-refined oil, other undesirable
oil production of a when compared with existing re- compounds
refinery refining plants using pre-flash,
65–70 % NI
[ 1, Concawe 1996 ], deasphalting and clay finishing.
[ 166, Marshall et al. Moreover, the oil quality is
1999 ], claimed to be even higher in
some respects compared to the
conventional mineral oil
produced on the same production
run.
Filtered used oil is Lube oil fractions are Hydrotreatment: The Hydrotreated oils are 78–82% on a dry 35-40 kt/year
preheated and then recovered with recovered lube oil fractionated under basis
Output: Base oils achieving API
TFE/PDA/Hydrofinish mixed with high-vacuum flash distillate from the vacuum to separate out
Group I requirements.
ing (LPC process) additives for distillation, combined high-vacuum gas oil fraction formed
[GEIR comment #79 fouling reduction. with thin film distillation unit and the during the
The resulting residue from the
in [ 21, WT TWG Water and light evaporator (TFE) bright-stock from the hydrofinishing and
extraction unit is used as asphalt
2016 ] components technology. The PDA are separately split the lube oil into
extender.
(gasoline, solvents, combination offers a finished by contact the desired base oil
glycols, light lower working with hydrogen over a cuts.

458 Waste Treatment

 Chapter 5

hydrocarbons) are temperature and a catalyst to remove the

separated by lower residence time to contained impurities
preheating and flash counter the fouling (chlorine, oxygen,
vaporisation. tendencies of the waste nitrogen and sulphur
Remaining gas oil oil. The heavier compounds, PAHs and
is stripped out components remaining metals),
under vacuum. (impurities, metals, improve colour and
heavy polymers, thermal stability and
carbon and additives) meet high
are separated out from specifications of base
the evaporator bottom oils. During this
as a heavy asphaltic processing, no solvents
residue. or chemical treating
agents other than
The residue from the hydrogen are
high vacuum employed. The major
distillation is then part of hydrogen used
treated in the propane is recycled after make-
deasphalting unit up with fresh
(PDA), where bright- hydrogen.
stock is recovered.
Propane is stripped off
from the fractions and
recycled into the
process.
Input: waste oil Preflash via vacuum Gravimetric decanting High vacuum High pressure catalytic 65-70% on dry basis 100 kt/year
Output: stripping and and centrifugation. distillation by Thermal hydrotreatment through
TDA/Hydrofinishing - base oil (API Group II) chemical caustic Deasphalting (TDA). 2 steps: demetallisation,
[ 42, WT TWG 2014 ] - gas oil treatment. hydrosaturation and
- asphalt hydrodesulphurisation
reactions.
* 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th represents the sequence of the operations being carried out within the process. When no such numbers are present, the sequence is the most common one, i.e. pretreatment,
cleaning, fractionation and finishing.
NB: NI = No information.
Source: [ 1, Concawe 1996 ], [ 2, Monier, V. and Labouze, E. 2001 ], [ 168, UBA Germany 2003 ], [ 18, WT TWG 2004 ]

Waste Treatment 459

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Feed and output streams

Waste oils
Oils have many uses, e.g. they are used as a fuel, as lubricants, as a heat transfer medium, as
cutting fluids, and as hydraulic fluids. Each has its own specification, usually based upon the
hydrocarbons occurring within a specific boiling point range from the distillation of crude oil.
Oils that need to be stable at high temperatures will not include large quantities of low boiling
point hydrocarbons whereas oils used as fuel are more likely to include these lower boiling
point hydrocarbon mixtures.

Before marketing, most base oils produced in mineral oil refineries are blended with a variety of
additives to give them the required properties. Typical additive packages comprise between
5 % and 25 % of the base oil. However, probably at least half of the additive package is base oil
used as solvent. Lubricating oils contain large numbers of additives, but the actual formulae are
in most cases trade secrets. Data on the components and additives in new oils are given in the
Safety Data Sheet which accompanies fresh products as supplied; however, precise details of the
formulations are company property. Hydraulic oils contain very few additives.

Some general classes of additives have been identified and are shown in Table 5.10 below. The
information is not specific, but suggests that a number of metal additives, some chlorinated
organic compounds, aromatic hydrocarbons, phenolic compounds and different kinds of
polymers are used.

Table 5.10: Types of additives used in lubricants

Additive Compounds used
Anti-corrosion Zinc dithiophosphates, metal phenolates, fatty acids and amines
Anti-foam Silicone polymers, organic copolymers
Zinc dithiophosphates, hindered phenols, aromatic amines, sulphurised
Antioxidant
phenols
Zinc dithiophosphates, acid phosphates, organic sulphur and chlorine
Anti-wear
compounds, sulphurised fats, sulphides and disulphides
Organometallic compounds of sodium, calcium and magnesium phenolates,
Detergent
phosphonates and sulphonates
Dispersant Alkylsuccinimides, alkylsuccinic esters
Friction modifier Organic fatty acids, lard oil, phosphorus
Organic complexes containing nitrogen and sulphur amines, sulphides and
Metal deactivator
phosphites
Pour-point
Alkylated naphthalene and phenolic polymers, polymethacrylates
depressant
Seal swell agent Organic phosphates, aromatic hydrocarbons
Viscosity modifier Polymers of olefins, methacrylates, dienes or alkylated styrenes
Source: [ 170, DETR 2001 ]

Additives need to be retained in the oil over its whole useful life. This means that even if the
individual substance would be expected to be driven off at normal engine operating
temperatures, there must be another additive incorporated that binds it within the oil
formulation.
This requirement to keep additives in circulation, and to keep breakdown products in circulation
to increase the longevity of the oil, creates one of the discussion points for emissions of waste
oil. Although a number of components are solid at ambient temperatures and could be expected
to settle out of the oil and into the sludge layer, dispersants in the oil will tend to keep them
within the oil layer. Larger solids are taken out of the engines by the oil filters.

460 Waste Treatment

 Chapter 5

During use, the composition of the oil will change markedly, due to the breakdown of the
additives, the formation of additional products of combustion and unburnt fuels, the addition of
metals from wear and tear on the engine and from the breakdown of the base oil itself.
Large treatment sites recognise that there will be a range of species in waste oil and thus screen
the incoming waste for flashpoint, metal and chlorine levels, whereas smaller sites will typically
just accept the oil waste. There is a distinct shortage of analytical data for incoming wastes,
although the screening activities of a few sites show that industry anticipates high metal levels
and contamination by flammable solvents, giving a measurable flashpoint.

Used oils collected by high-volume users can be more tightly controlled and may hence be more
consistent in composition. Table 5.11 shows examples of the containers and forms in which the
waste oils are delivered to the oil treatment plants.

Table 5.11: Types of containers in which waste oils are delivered to the oil treatment plants
Type of waste Comment
containing waste oils
No specific analysis has been found but these are known to contain waste
Oil filters (and similar
engine oils plus the residues of larger solids formed in the engine and that
waste containing waste
have been trapped in the filter. In addition, there are the plastic and metals
oils)
of the filter. Metals tend to be sent for recycling.
205-litre steel drums Waste oil and steel
25-litre drums Waste oil and plastics
Used engine oil is the main waste stream processed at permitted waste
Bulk used engine oil
management sites. Most of the emissions will be due to this material.
Source: [ 10, Babtie Group Ltd 2002 ]

There are no comprehensive analyses available of the waste oils entering oil treatment plants.
Instead the next couple of tables (Table 5.12 and Table 5.13) give an indication of the chemical
components that typically exist in the different types of waste oils. It is not expected that in
reality all waste oils will be covered by the lower or top ends of the ranges given in these two
tables.

Waste Treatment 461

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Table 5.12: Indicative list of components present in used oils

Waste oil Concentration range
components (ppm unless otherwise Origin/comments
stated)
Al 4–1 112 Bearing wear or engine wear
Alkyl benzenes 900 Petroleum base oils
Aromatic For used motor oil, these arise from the lubricant base oil
14–30 w/w-%
compounds
N-alkanes are about 0.4 % waste oil, but the distribution is
slanted towards the longer molecules that are less likely to
evaporate:
Aliphatic tetralin 0.0012 %
65.4 w/w-%
compounds dodecane 0.014 %
tridecane 0.014 %
octadecane 0.07 %
nonadecane 0.2 %
Antifreeze NI NI
As < 0.5–67 NI
Ash content 0.4–0.64 (1) NI
Ba 50–690 Detergent additives, additive package
A composite analysis shows a high level of short-chain
BTEX 300–700 hydrocarbons (benzene (0.096–0.1 %), xylenes (0.3–0.34 %),
toluene (0.22–0.25 %)), with boiling points below 150 °C.
Ca 900–3 000 Detergent additives
Cd 0.4–22 NI
Chlorine in used oils arises from:
- contamination (either accidental or deliberate) with
chlorinated solvents and transformer oils, both of which are
Cl now more closely controlled;
184–1 500 (2)
- lubricating oil additives;
- the lead scavengers added to leaded gasoline.
- cold-flow additives.
dichlorodifluoromethane
trichlorotrifluoroethane
trichloroethanes
37 trichloroethylene
6300 perchloroethylene
Chlorinated 18–2800 Used oils can have a significant, but variable, chlorine
hydrocarbons 18–2600 content, including organochlorines such as PCB,
3–1300 dichlorodifluoromethane, trichlorotrifluoroethane, 1,1,1-
trichloroethane, trichloroethylene, tetrachloroethylene. They
may be formed chemically during the use of contaminated
oil.
Cr 2–89 Engine wear
Cu < 11–250 Bearing wear
Absorbed gas, gasoline and diesel fuel. A variety of ‘thermal
Engine blowback 8–10 w/w-% breakdown products’ are also included in the composition of
waste oil.
Fe 100–500 Engine wear
Halides Up to 500 NI
Heavy They arise from polymerisation and from the incomplete
hydrocarbons combustion of the fuel
Hg 0.05– < 11 NI
A certain amount of unburnt fuel (gasoline or diesel)
Light
5–10 w/w-% dissolves in the oil and also arises from the breakdown of the
hydrocarbons
oil

462 Waste Treatment

 Chapter 5

Major components are aliphatic and naphthenic

hydrocarbons and/or olefin polymers (e.g. polybutenes and
poly-alpha-olefins in some lube base oils). Smaller amounts
Lubricant base oil Up to 95 w/w-%
of aromatic and polyaromatic hydrocarbons are also present.
The heavy metal content is less than 500 ppm. Phenols may
be present at a few ppm.
Metals such as Al, These originate from the lube oil additives, engine wear and
As, Ba, B, Ca, Cd, foreign sources. They appear in waste oils as additives within
Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, lubricating oil, from wear and tear on engines and with
Hg, K, Mg, Mn, Up to 10 000 combined machining oils. Additives (particularly the metals) typically
Na, Ni, P, Pb, Sb, remain in the oil after use.
Si, Sr, Ti, V, Zn
Mg 100–500 Detergent additives
Ni 10 Engine wear
Naphthalenes 9.7–470–2 300 (4) From base oils
Nitrogen From the addition of nitrogen compounds
NI
compounds
Used oil often becomes contaminated by all kinds of
Non-lubricant-
materials, usually because of bad collection/segregation.
related NI
Materials that may appear are brake fluid and antifreeze,
compounds
vegetable oils, cigarette packets, solvents, etc.
P 6–1 000 Antioxidant/anti-wear additives
The aromatics also include a huge range of PAHs in
30.3–204– < 1 000 (3) concentrations of up to 700 ppm for an individual species.
Sum of 26 individual They appear from base oils and from incomplete
PAHs PAHs represented 0.17 % combustion. Examples are benz(a)anthracene (0.87–30 ppm),
of the oil or 1.2 % of the benzo(a)pyrene (0.36–62 ppm), pyrene (1.67–33 ppm),
aromatic fraction naphthalene (47 ppm), biphenyl (6.4 ppm) and also
chlorinated polyaromatics.
Under the Waste Oil Directive, the maximum content of
PCB <0.5–11– < 50 PCB allowed in used oils to be treated for disposal is
50 ppm. It occurs due to contamination with transformer oils.
8–1 200 Leaded gasoline/bearing wear
Pb Up to 14 000 when
leaded gasoline is used
S 0.1–2.8 w/w-% From base oil and combustion products.
Soot and sediment from the combustion chamber, free metals
and dirt. Sediment formation is aggravated by the mixing of
Sediments 0.5–2 w/w-%
used oils from several manufacturers’ additive packages, and
collection sources.
Si 50–100 Additives/water
Sn Trace amounts Bearing wear
Tl 0.1 NI
V 300 From base oil
Water 5–10 w/w-% (4) Combustion
Zn 6–4080 Antioxidant/anti-wear additives
(1) Both parameter limits are average values.
(2) Up to 8 452 ppm in collected used oil due to contamination with chlorinated solvents and sea salt from ship slops.
(3) When three numbers appear in a range, the middle number corresponds to the average.
(4) Up to 30 %.
NB: Additions of figures cannot be made to fit perfectly because they correspond to different sets of data.
NI = No information.
Source: [ 171, Langenkamp H. 1997 ], [ 1, Concawe 1996 ], [ 172, Silver Springs Oil Recovery Inc. 2000 ], [ 111,
NZ Ministry for the Environment 2000 ], [ 173, Woodward-Clyde 2000 ], [ 10, Babtie Group Ltd 2002 ], [ 7, UK, H.
1995 ],

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Used industrial oils

A variety of oils are used in industry including soluble oils and some halogenated oils, although
these are becoming less common. Oil is used as hydraulic oil, as lubrication, as a heat transfer
medium, as an electrical medium and as a cutting fluid.

Many of these industrial oils undergo intensive in-house recycling to extend their useful life,
and the majority of any metal contaminants associated with grinding operations are removed by
in-house systems and recovered. In the absence of other data, the following assumptions have
been made:

 These oils are used in open systems. Their formulations do not include very low boiling
point/volatile hydrocarbons because of the fire risk and health risks during use and the need
to retain the product characteristics during use. They are agitated during use, and take away
excess heat from machining surfaces, thus in operation they are heated above the ambient
temperature. Therefore, VOC emissions during waste treatment are typically very small.
 The metal content will vary considerably from source to source. The main metals worked
with will be copper, zinc, nickel and chromium.

Table 5.13: Indicative list of components present in industrial waste oils

Waste oil
Concentration Reason
component
50 % of
concentration in Cadmium is currently being phased out from the manufacture
Cadmium
lubricating oil or of lubricating oil
0.000155 %
100 % of
concentration in
Chromium Common: typically used at the same level as in engine oil
lubricating oil or
0.0028 %
100 % of
concentration in
Copper Common: typically used at the same level as in engine oil
lubricating oil or
0.025 %
Lead 0 No particular reason to machine this
No data at all, naphthalene is in all oils, but one would expect
the formulation to have the lowest amount possible (taken
Naphthalene 0.0042 % from fuel oil no6 content) because it would be a solid at room
temperature and does not seem to add anything chemically
useful to the formulation
Nickel 0.0028 % No data for lubricating oils
PCB NI Found in transformer coolant oils
Xylenes 0.22 % NI
50 % of
concentration in Common machining component, but zinc appears to be a major
Zinc
lubricating oil or additive in lubricating oils
0.029 %
NI = No information
Source: [ 10, Babtie Group Ltd 2002 ], [ 11, WT TWG 2003 ]

Electrical oils are specialist oils which undergo a laundering process, so very little waste arises
from them. The main concern with these oils is the risk of PCB contamination. Typically waste
treatment facilities do analyse for PCBs.

Oily water from interceptors

Most waste from interceptors comes from car parks and vehicle service areas. It is therefore
reasonable to assume that it is similar in content to used engine oil but that it will contain

464 Waste Treatment

 Chapter 5

additional silt, possibly vehicle tyre wear particles, fuel combustion products and road-making
tars. Spilt fuel will also be collected at the interceptor, but any materials that are capable of
evaporating to the air at ambient temperatures will have done so before the interceptor waste is
collected.

A proportion of oil interceptors arises from manufacturing sites and collected industrial waste
oils. These will have far lower concentrations of combustion products, but might have higher
metal concentrations, depending on the industrial application.

Re-refined waste oil

The quality of the base oil obtained is dependent upon the level of treatment applied. For
example, severe processing involving hydrotreatment will be required in order to significantly
remove PAHs.

Used oils vary according to the origin and type of oil collected. These variations are reflected in
the base oil products from acid/clay treatment plants, in terms of their density, viscosity,
viscosity index, sulphur level, etc. Less variation occurs in these parameters in the base oil
products from vacuum distillation/hydrotreating units, with the exception of the sulphur content.
Re-refined base oils from different processes and production plants vary greatly in their
characteristics.

Some re-refining technologies allow the production of premium quality base oils: i.e. at least
Group I according to the API base oils classification; and, when resorting to a severe
hydrotreatment or solvent finishing, Group II base oils (e.g. topping purpose). The base stocks
produced by the European re-refining industry today belong to Group I. Group I base stocks are
solvent-refined mineral oils. They contain the most saturates and sulphur and have the lowest
viscosity indexes. They define the bottom tier of lubricant performance. Group I stocks are the
least expensive to produce. They currently account for about 75 % of all base stocks,
comprising the bulk of the ‘conventional’ base stocks.

Almost all waste oil re-refining plants test for chlorine content and water content, and usually
for PCBs. The final recovered oil is analysed because it has to satisfy specifications from the
end user, but not all oil treatment plants blend a final product for sale or carry out such analyses.
Table 5.14 shows an example of an analysis of the product made in an oil recovery plant, where
several degrees of hydrotreatment are carried out on three different types of base oil (spindle,
light and heavy lube oil).

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Table 5.14: Effect of hydrotreatment on the pollutants of the feed after deasphalting
Spindl Low High Light Low High Heavy Low High
Type of feed e lube severity severity lube oil severity severity lube oil severity severity
*1 #2 *3 #4 *5 #6
oil
Density 15/4 0.8678 0.8606 0.8526 0.8767 0.8699 0.8604 0.8868 0.8786 0.8676
Viscosity at 40 °C
26.91 23.8 21.19 56.52 49.85 38.18 117.2 97.86 70.08
(cSt)
Viscosity at 100 °C
4.76 4.5 4.2 7.78 7.32 6.37 12.24 11 9.1
(cSt)
Viscosity index 93 103 100 102 107 117 94 97 105
Colour 6.5 L 0.5 L 0.5 7.5 L1 L 0.5 >8 L2 L 0.5
Asphaltenes (w/w-
0.0105 - - 0.0092 - - < 0.01 - -
%)
Carbon Conradson
0.63 < 0.1 < 0.1 0.12 < 0.1 < 0.1 0.33 < 0.1 < 0.1
(w/w-%)
Nitrogen (ppm) 280 49 <1 312 57 <1 307 137 <1
Sulphur (ppm) 0.412 0.1025 0.0005 0.526 0.163 0.0008 0.7285 0.2735 0.0021
Measurement of refractive index, density and molecular weight (n-d-M method) (w/w-%)
Aromatic carbon 12.11 10.72 8.72 11.63 10.25 8.48 11.94 10.22 8.18
Paraffinic carbon 71.20 72.06 72.76 72.66 73.42 75.09 72.68 73.75 75.57
Naphthenic carbon 16.70 17.22 18.52 15.70 16.32 16.43 15.38 16.03 16.25
Gas chromatography analysis in ppm
Anthracene <1 <1 < 0.5 <1 <1 < 0.5 <1 <1 < 0.5
Benzo(a)anthracene 37 <1 < 0.5 4 <1 < 0.5 3 <1 < 0.5
Benzo(k)fluoranthene 5 <1 < 0.5 2 <1 < 0.5 <1 <1 < 0.5
Benzo(b)fluoranthene 25 <1 < 0.5 11 <1 < 0.5 4 <1 < 0.5
Benzo(ghi)perilene 16 <1 < 0.5 40 4.7 < 0.5 12 2.30 < 0.5
Benzo(a)pyrene 16 <1 < 0.5 11 <1 < 0.5 4 <1 < 0.5
Chrisene 3 <1 < 0.5 2 <1 < 0.5 - <1 < 0.5
Dibenz-ah-
<1 <1 < 0.5 2 <1 < 0.5 <1 <1 < 0.5
anthracene
Fluoranthene 24 <1 < 0.5 2 <1 < 0.5 <1 <1 < 0.5
Indeno(123-
10 <1 < 0.5 27 <1 < 0.5 6 <1 < 0.5
cd)pyrene
Phenanthrene 2 8.7 < 0.5 <1 1 < 0.5 <1 1.30 < 0.5
Pyrene 34 5.8 < 0.5 <1 <1 < 0.5 2 <1 < 0.5
PNA IP 346 (w/w-
2.8 1 0.2 1.3 0.6 - 1 0.6 0.2
%)
* Low severity in the hydrotreatment of the light fraction: Temperature of first catalyst: 300 C. Temperature of second
catalyst: 280 C. H2 partial pressure: 105 bar.
# High severity in the hydrotreatment of the light fraction: Temperature of first catalyst: 340 C. Temperature of second
catalyst: 340 C. H2 partial pressure: 105 bar.
Total LHSV (h-1): 1:0.507; 2:0.5; 3:0.507; 4:0.292; 5:0.481; 6:0.295.
Source: [ 21, WT TWG 2016 ]

Base oil produced is more dependent on the technology used to treat the waste oil than on the
differences of the waste oil collected. Some examples of this are shown in Table 5.15.

466 Waste Treatment

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Table 5.15: Product issues related to different waste oil re-refining technologies/processes
Process (deasphalting, Main products
demetallisation + finishing) (values correspond to kg/tonne of WO unless otherwise stated)
Low-quality re-refined base oil: 621

Sulphuric acid + clay treatment PAH content of the base oils produced can be comparatively high (4–
17 times higher than virgin base oils)
Gas oil: 70
High-quality re-refined base oil (Group II): 520
Caustic soda and bleaching
Light ends: 170
earth treatment (ENTRA)
Diesel: 170
In modern vacuum distillation equipment designed for processing
Vacuum distillation
used oils, the metal content of the distillate may be less than 1 ppm

The base oils produced by clay treatment or by chemical treatment

Vacuum distillation + chemical
have a metal content of < 1 ppm. This process may not reduce the
treatment or clay treatment
PAH content of the oil by as much as hydrotreatment.
Thin film evaporator (TFE) + Medium-quality re-refined base oil: 530–650
clay treatment Gas oil: 150
High-quality re-refined base oil: 630
TFE + hydrofinishing
Gas oil: 100
High-quality re-refined base oil: 600
TFE + solvent extraction
Gas oil: 120–150
High-quality re-refined base oil
TFE + solvent extraction +  lubricant Group II: 370
hydrofinishing  lubricant Group I: 300
Gas oil: 85
TDA (thermal deasphalting) + Medium-quality re-refined base oil: 500–600
clay treatment Gas oil: 60–80
High-quality re-refined base oil: 670
TDA + hydrofinishing (high Gas oil (desulphurised): 70
pressure) Desulphurised Vacuum gas oil:70
Bitumen: 120
High-re-refined base oil: 660–700
PDA (propane deasphalting) +
Gas oil: 43–55
hydrofinishing
This process yields more marketable products than regeneration by
(medium pressure)
a chemical treatment
Distillation and alkali treatment
NI
(Vaxon – Cator)

Vacuum distillation + chemical

As much as by hydrotreatment or solvent extraction
treatment or clay treatment

Base oil (Group II): 650–700

Light ends: 30
DCH (direct contact
hydrogenation)
Gas oil (desulphurised): 80
Heavy fuel oil: 150
Base oil: 540 kg
Fuel oil: 6 105 MJ
Vacuum distillation + chemical
Bitumen fluxant: 48 kg
treatment
Other fuels: 3 720 MJ
Fuel saving
NB: NI= No information
Source: [ 172, Silver Springs Oil Recovery Inc. 2000 ], [ 2, Monier, V. and Labouze, E. 2001 ],
[ 165, Jacobs, A. and Dijkmans, R. 2001 ], [ 166, Marshall et al. 1999 ], [ 10, Babtie Group Ltd 2002 ],
[ 11, WT TWG 2003 ], [ 168, UBA Germany 2003 ], [ 174, UBA Germany 2012 ]

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Users
The plants from the data collection that use this process are: 092, 160C, 235, 570, 605, 610,
619, 620, 624.

5.2.2 Current emission and consumption levels

5.2.2.1 Emissions from the re-refining of waste oils

[ 42, WT TWG 2014 ]

In order to evaluate emissions from the re-refining of waste oils, several issues need to be
considered:

 waste lubricating oils contain shorter chain organics than new lubricating oils and therefore
VOCs are likely to be relevant;
 sulphur and chlorine are known ‘problem’ compounds found in waste oils;
 aromatic compounds are more polar in general than aliphatic molecules and are therefore
more likely to be present in the aqueous phase.

The oil processing sector has a narrow range of operations and is the most likely to respond to a
generic method of calculating emissions if the oil constituents can be identified. The following
tables detail the different pollutants and media where they can be found. Table 5.16 has been
constructed to focus on the pollutants (whereas Table 5.17 focuses on the activities that may
lead to pollution.

Ancillary emissions typically occur from the on-site generation of heat for the distillation
process (combustion products such as NOX, SOX and CO).

Table 5.16 reflects how the components of the waste oil contribute to the emissions to air,
sewers and products. As can be seen, most of the contaminants remain in the recovered oil. The
main exception to this is VOCs, where there is a possibility of their transfer to air, with the
amount depending on the type of oil and whether the oil is heated during treatment.

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Table 5.16: Matrix for allocating input species to air, oil and water streams for hot and cold
processes
Hot processing Cold processing
(with distillation) (without distillation)
Air Products Water Air Products Water
Benzene 0.6 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.7 0.1
Toluene 0.3 0.7 0 0.1 0.9 0
Xylenes 0.1 0.8 0.1 - 0.9 0.1
Naphthalene - 1 - - 1 -
Biphenyl - 1 - - 1 -
Benz(a)anthracene - 1 - - 1 -
Benzo(a)pyrene - 1 - - 1 -
Heptane 0.2 0.8 - - 1 -
Octane 0.1 0.9 - - 1 -
Nonane - 1 - - 1 -
Decane - 1 - - 1 -
Undecane - 1 - - 1 -
Arsenic - 1 - - 1 -
Cadmium - 1 - - 1 -
Chromium - 1 - - 1 -
Copper - 1 - - 1 -
Lead - 1 - - 1 -
Nickel - 1 - - 1 -
Zinc - 1 - - 1 -
NB: Figures correspond to the share distribution of substances in output streams. For example, for
each kg of benzene entering the hot processing, 0.6 kg ends up as an emission to air, 0.3 kg goes
into the oil and 0.1 kg into the waste water. 1 means that all the input goes to that output.
Source: [ 10, Babtie Group Ltd 2002 ]

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Table 5.17: Principal emission sources at oil recycling premises

Channelled emissions
Activity/Plant unit
To air To water To disposal
Filter shredding Oil mist NI NI
Magnetic separation Oil mist NI NI
Drum emptying/shredding Oil mist NI NI
Tanker unloading Tank venting NI NI
Coarse straining Oil mist NI NI
Tank venting.
Very few tank vents are
linked. Tank vents will
discharge the ‘air’ that
the tank contains when
it is displaced during Settled water
Bulk storage Settled sludge
tank filling. This (via treatment)
emission is unlikely to
carry significant
pollution unless the tank
contents have been
heated or agitated.
Settled water
Cold oil settling Tank venting Settled sludge
(via treatment)
Settled water
Hot oil settling Tank venting Settled sludge
(via treatment)
Vibrating sieve Mist and vapour NI Sludge
Used elements and
Enclosed filters NI NI
sludge
Bauxite towers NI NI Spent bauxite
Vacuum dehydration Vapour (via scrubbers) NI NI
Product blending Tank venting NI NI
Pumped sludge
Tank venting NI NI
storage/decanting
Cold effluent settling Tank venting NI NI
Hot effluent settling Tank venting NI NI
Biological effluent treatment Aeration air NI NI
Filter press NI NI Filter cake
Plate separator NI Effluent Settled sludges
Mechanically handled
sludge/solids storage and NI NI Mixed solid wastes
loading
Waste oil-fired boiler Stack emissions NI NI
As it usually comes
from paved surfaces
where it has already
been exposed to air, it
will probably have
Old interceptor waste NI NI
already emitted all that
it is capable of emitting
to air at this stage unless
it is heated during
treatment
NB: Many sites have an accidental spillage of oils to the site base during unloading, or during the storage
or transfer of materials on site. The site base is usually designed to retain liquid spills and to return these
to the plant, but there will be some evaporation into the air.
NI = No information.
Source: [ 10, Babtie Group Ltd 2002 ], [ 18, WT TWG 2004 ]

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Table 5.18 gives the environmental performance criteria of different treatment systems arising
from an industry survey. Each figure represents the absolute value that is assigned to that
treatment system, concerning a specific criterion and estimating the performance of the system
relative to the other systems for said criterion.

Table 5.18: Evaluation of the environmental performance of several reuse and re-refining
processes
Environmental criteria
Products of
Process incomplete Reuse of Reuse of
S compounds Metals
combustion + materials energy
VOCs
Laundering. Closed loop
1 1 3 1 5
recycling (reuse)
Chemical re-refining without
2 2 3 1 5
distillation
Re-refining with distillation 1 1 1 1 5
Blending into vacuum residue
5 3 4 5 1
of a refinery
NB: S compounds: the final destination of the sulphur content originating from the waste oil.
Metals: the final destination of the metals originating from the waste oil.
Products of incomplete combustion + VOCs: the emission of VOCs or products of incomplete combustion
(CO, PAHs, soot, dioxins, furans, etc.) originating from the waste oil.
Values: 1 = best performance, 5 = worst – on a relative scale.
Source: [ 165, Jacobs, A. and Dijkmans, R. 2001 ]

5.2.2.1.1 Emissions to air

The emissions to air are partially controlled at some sites, but uncontrolled at others. VOC
emissions are known to occur. Although the lubricating system is a semi-closed system, it is not
gastight, therefore it would be expected that the volatile gases would have boiled off and left the
system at normal operating temperatures.

Most plants recognise the odour problems from the re-refining of waste oils. The control of
odour from such plants requires a high level of management control and attention. Odours are
typically generated during storage, e.g. odour problems can arise by leaving hatches open at the
top of each settlement tank and oil storage tank, or in open vibrating sieves.
Table 5.19 and Table 5.20 below show respectively – for the nine plants that participated in the
data collection – the parameters monitored in emissions to air and the origin of emissions
together with the abatement techniques used.

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Table 5.19: Parameters monitored in emissions to air at plants performing re-refining of waste oil
Emissions
Pollutant measured Type of measurement Plants concerned range
(mg/Nm3)
610_1, 610_2, 619_1,
620_2, 620_3, 620_4,
Continuous 107–201
620_5, 620_6, 620_7,
620_8, 620_9*
NOX
160C, 605_2, 605_3,
619_2, 620_2, 620_3,
Periodic 47–229
620_4, 620_5, 620_6,
620_7, 620_8, 620_9*
Continuous 610_1, 610_2, 619_1 23–942
SOX
Periodic 160C, 605_2, 605_3 0–1 265
610_1, 610_2, 619_1,
620_2, 620_3, 620_4,
Continuous 2–40
620_5, 620_6, 620_7,
620_8, 620_9*
CO
160C, 605_2, 605_3,
620_2, 620_3, 620_4,
Periodic 0.8–567
620_5, 620_6, 620_7,
620_8, 620_9*
Continuous 610_1, 610_2, 619_1 0.6–7.5
Dust
Periodic 605_2, 605_3 0
Continuous 620_1 0
HCl
Periodic 160C, 624 0.6–16.1
PAHs Periodic 160C, 619_4, 619_5 0.0009–0.005
HF Periodic 160C, 624 0.06–1.99
H 2S Continuous 610_1, 610_2 0.9 – 1.4
CH4 Periodic 160C, 619_1 1–1.5
NMVOC Periodic 160C, 619_1 3.1–7.3
NMVOC with risk phase Periodic 160C 0.09
PCDD/F Periodic 160C, 619_1 0.002–0.027
Mineral oil Periodic 619_4, 619_5, 0.1
TVOC Periodic 160C, 3.1–19
TOC Continuous 620_1 0.75
VOC Periodic 619_6 40
Odour Periodic 160C 2.2 OUE/m3
Hg Periodic 160C 0.0435
Sb+As+Pb+Cr+Co+Cu+
Periodic 160C 1.051
Mn+Ni+V
Cd Periodic 160C 0.0001
As Periodic 160C 0.001
Pb Periodic 160C 0.001
Tl Periodic 160C 0.0001
* The monitoring regime of Plant 620 changed during the reference period.
NB: 619_3 is not mentioned because it did not provide a measurement but a stoichiometric calculation of the
composition of the gas burnt in the flare.

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Table 5.20: Origin of emissions to air and associated abatement techniques

Plant Abatement Pollutant Average air flow

Origin of emissions to air
code techniques monitored (m3/h)

Activated carbon
Regulatory
adsorption installed
requirements for
in case of fallout of
The emission point is the SO2, NOX,
the hot oil heater,
common stack for combustion particles
which serves as the
air from the hot oil heater, the < 10 µm,
092 incinerator for the NI
steam generator and outlet mercaptans and
uncondensed
from the carbon filter. Only H2S but no
vapours. Only
one release measurements
operating 10–30
done in the
hours per year
reference years
(OTNOC).
Air flow
NOX
CO
Air temperature
Air O2 content
SOX
HCl
PAHs
HF
H2S
CH4
VOC treatment (upstream and
NMVOC
160C downstream storage, process, Thermal oxidation 7393
NMVOC with
loading station)
risk phrase
PCDD/PCDF
TVOC
TOC
Odour
Cd
Tl
Hg
As
Pb
Sum of metals
Monitoring
according to 17.
Wet scrubbing with BImSchV and 1.
sorbent injection, BImSchV (waste
235 NI NI
Dry scrubbing with incineration and
sorbent injection combustion
plants) but no
details given
Alkaline oxidative
570 Distillation scrubber system, NI NI
Thermal oxidation
Re-refining and other Condensation, Basic
605_1 preparations for reuse of waste scrubber system, Wet Not monitored NI
oils - Flare scrubbing, Flaring
NOX
Re-refining and other CO
preparations for reuse of waste Air temperature
605_2 Low-NOX burner NI
oils - Diathermic Oil Heater Air O2 content
(Natural-gas-fired heater) SOX
Dust
NOX
Re-refining and other
CO
preparations for reuse of waste
605_3 Low-NOX burner Air O2 content NI
oils - Boilers (Natural-gas-
SOX
fired heater)
Dust

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Air flow
NOX
CO
Air temperature
610_1 Whole process - Heater stack NI 14617
Air O2 content
SOX
Dust
H2S
Air flow
NOX
CO
Air temperature
610_2 Whole process - Heater stack Low-NOX burners 13460
Air O2 content
SOX
Dust
H2S
610_3 Whole process - Flare Low-NOX burners Not monitored NI
Air flow
NOX
CO
Air temperature
Air O2 content
Hot oil furnace (burns natural SOX
619_1 NI 20032
gas and refinery off-gas) Dust
CH4
NMVOC
NMVOC with
risk phrase
PCDD/PCDF
Air flow
NOX
619_2 Stream reformer furnace NI 950
Air temperature
Air O2 content
Every six months
the flow and the
composition of
the inlet gas to
the flare plants is
analytically
determined.
Every six months
619_3 Flare NI 25
the SO2 output
from the flare is
also
stoichiometrically
calculated on the
basis of the
content of S in
the inlet gas.
Air flow
Activated carbon Air temperature
619_4 Laboratory hoods E101 2872
adsorption PAHs
Other
Air flow
Activated carbon Air temperature
619_5 Laboratory hoods E102 2854
adsorption PAHs
Other
Air flow
Activated carbon
619_6 Oil storage tanks Air temperature 1624
adsorption
Other

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Thermal oxidation,
Air flow
Venturi scrubber
Air temperature
system, Wet
620_1 Off-gas burner Air O2 content 16185
scrubbing, Dry
HCl
electrostatic
TOC
precipitation (ESP)
Air flow
620_2 Boiler 'Babcock 3000' NI NOX 2736
CO
Air flow
620_3 Hydrofinishing furnace NI NOX 3212
CO
Air flow
Steam reforming furnace for
620_4 NI NOX 3212
hydrogen production
CO
Air flow
Furnace of TDA distillation
620_5 NI NOX 18080
column
CO
Air flow
Biological treatment plant air Activated carbon
620_6 NOX 3212
capture adsorption
CO
Air flow
Breathing air from used oil Activated carbon
620_7 NOX 3212
tanks adsorption
CO
Air flow
Natural-gas-fired boilers for
620_8 NI NOX 6370
steam production
CO
Air flow
Natural-gas-fired boilers for
620_9 NI NOX 2508
steam production
CO
Air flow
Alkaline oxidative Air temperature
624 Vacuum distillation scrubber system, Air O2 content 5712
Thermal oxidation HCl
HF

NB: NI = No information.

As can be seen, a significant part of the emissions to air is generated by combustion of fuel or
process off-gases, in order to produce heat or steam for the process.

As for the emissions from the distillation process itself, they are in most cases treated by a
combination of scrubbing followed by thermal oxidation or incineration. The emissions of
organic compounds from the re-refining of waste oils are summarised in Figure 2.16.

5.2.2.1.2 Emissions to water

The emissions to water are generally well documented. This is due to regulations and enforced
limitations regarding discharges to foul sewers or disposal by alternative routes. The quantities
of effluent discharged are thus usually well known.

Discharges are typically sampled regularly, providing monitoring data to allow the calculation
of emissions. Sites handling large volumes of water that have a constant discharge to the
sewerage system are usually sampled daily; those where the water volume is small tend to be
tested on a batch basis prior to each discharge. Table 5.21 and Table 5.22 below show
respectively – for the nine plants that participated in the data collection – the pollutants
monitored in emissions to water and the origin of emissions together with the abatement
techniques used. Only one plant (620_1) discharges water directly to the environment.

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Table 5.21: Pollutants monitored in emissions to water at plants re-refining waste oil
Number of
Range (mg/l measurements
Parameter except for during the 3-
Monitoring Plants concerned
measured pH, toxicity year reference
and flow) period (2010–
2012)
092, 160C, 235,
0.8–
Flow (m3/h) Continuous 605_1, 610_1, 619_1, NA
66.6 m3/h
620_1
Continuous 619_1 112 NA
24-hour flow-
proportional 610_1 120 NA
COD composite sample
Composite sample 092 10 514 7
160C, 235, 605_1,
Grab sample 33–17 075 6–36
620_1
Continuous 619_1 34 NA
TSS Composite sample 092 4.6 7
Grab sample 160C, 605_1, 620_1 3.3–15.3 6–36
Composite sample 092 8.6 7
pH 160C, 235, 605_1,
Grab sample 6.8–7.9 6–36
620_1
24-hour flow-
proportional 610_1 17 NA
Total N composite sample
Composite sample 092 154 6
Grab sample 160C, 235, 620_1 0.04–30 4–33
Composite sample 092 6 764 7
BOD5
Grab sample 235, 605_1 9–469 36
24-hour flow-
proportional 610_1 0.43 NA
composite sample
Total P
Composite sample 092 0.17 7
160C, 235, 605_1,
Grab sample 0.8–5.5 6–36
620_1
24-hour flow-
proportional 610_1 0.05 NA
Zn composite sample
Composite sample 092 0.015 4
Grab sample 235, 605_1, 620_1 0.03–0.2 1–36
Continuous 619_1 1 NA
THC
Grab sample 160C, 605_1, 620_1 0.2–23.3 6–36
24-hour flow-
proportional 610_1 15 300 NA
Sulphates composite sample
Composite sample 092 0.6 5
Grab sample 235, 620_1 493–2 317 6–36
Composite sample 092 0.00003 5
Cd
Grab sample 235, 605_1, 620_1 0.0024–0.1 1–36
Composite sample 092 0.001 4
Pb
Grab sample 235, 605_1, 620_1 0.01–0.08 1–36
Composite sample 092 0.002 4
Cr
Grab sample 235, 605_1, 620_1 0.02–0.1 1–36
Composite sample 092 0.01 4
Cu
Grab sample 235, 605_1, 620_1 0.01–0.1 1–36
Ni Composite sample 092 0.003 4

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Grab sample 235, 605_1, 620_1 0.04–0.1 1–36

Composite sample 092 109 4
NH3-N
Grab sample 605_1, 620_1 5–17 6–36
Continuous 610_1 0.0017 NA
Hg Composite sample 092 < 0.0002 4
Grab sample 605_1 < 0.01 1
Phenols Grab sample 160C, 605_1, 620_1 0.04–38.17 6–36
F- Grab sample 160C, 235 1–8.3 12–36
Composite sample 092 0.001 4
As
Grab sample 605_1 < 0.01 1
Cr(VI) Grab sample 605_1, 620_1 0.01–0.019 1–6
Fe Grab sample 235, 620_1 0.12–0.19 6–36
Composite sample 092 < 0.5 4
Chlorine
Grab sample 620_1 0.034 6
24-hour flow-
proportional 610_1 0.067 NA
AOX composite sample
Grab sample 160C 4.42 12
TOC Grab sample 235 57 36
HOI Grab sample 235 0.54 36
V Grab sample 235 0.021 36
Cl- Grab sample 620_1 158 2
NO2-/NO3- Grab sample 620_1 7.9 6
Mn Grab sample 620_1 0.1 6
Toxicity Grab sample 620_1 0 % mortality 6
BTEX Grab sample 620_1 0.007 6
Sum metals Grab sample 160C 3.7 12
Co Composite sample 092 < 0.001 4
NB: NA = Not applicable.
NI = No information.

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Table 5.22: Origin of emissions to water and associated abatement techniques

Emission Abatement Origin of emissions Receiving Flow

Type of discharge
point techniques to water body (m3/h)

Processes: distillation
and solvent extraction
(distilled water from
waste oil and process
Pretreatment Waste water stream
water from vacuum
with an pretreated before Coastal
092 generation by steam 0.75
evaporation discharge by truck to water
jet system as well as
unit municipal WWT
process water from
stripping of base oil
for final solvent
removal).
Transitional
Discharge from the WT
waters (i.e.
plant, as well as from
Re-refining and other surface
on-site waste water
160C None preparations for reuse water in the 0.9
pretreatment facilities,
of waste oils vicinity of
to an off-site common
river
WWT facility
mouths)
Steam
stripping,
Skimming,
Discharge from the WT
Flotation,
plant, as well as from Artificial
Active sludge
on-site waste water water body
235 systems – All processes 11.6
pretreatment facilities, (e.g.
conventional,
to an off-site common reservoir)
Nitrification/
WWT facility
Denitrificatio
n, Press
filtering
570 NI NI NI NI NI
Equalisation,
Sedimentatio Discharge from the WT
n (ponds), plant and its auxiliary
API oil-water systems, as well as
Re-refining and other
separator from on-site waste
605_1 preparations for reuse NI 6.5
system, water pretreatment
of waste oils
Membrane facilities, to a
bioreaction, urban/municipal sewer
Ultrafiltration system
, Dewatering
Chemical
oxidation,
Discharge from the WT
Active sludge
plant, as well as from Artificial
systems –
on-site waste water water body
610_1 conventional, Whole process 11.9
pretreatment facilities, (e.g.
Ozonation,
to an off-site common reservoir)
Nitrification/
WWT facility
Denitrificatio
n

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Pretreatment
with
evaporation
unit and sour
water
stripping,
Active sludge
systems –
conventional, Discharge from the WT
API oil-water plant, as well as from Artificial
separator on-site waste water water body
619_1 Whole process 43.66
system, pretreatment facilities, (e.g.
Chemical to an off-site common reservoir)
oxidation, WWT facility
Decantation,
Equalisation,
Flotation,
Skimming,
Powdered
activated
carbon
treatment
Pretreatment
with sour
Discharge from the on-
water
site common WWT
stripping,
facilities to the
Equalisation,
environment (when the
Skimming, River/
620_1 Whole process design/operation of the 66.64
Active sludge Stream
WWT facility is mainly
systems –
influenced by waste
conventional,
water streams coming
Filtration,
from the WT plant)
Sand
filtration

624 NA No water emissions NA NA NA

NB: NI = No information.
NA = Not applicable.

5.2.2.1.3 Solid residues

Sludges are typically tested for metal content, oil content and moisture content. This is carried
out less frequently than the testing of the aqueous waste sent to sewage systems.
Table 5.23 shows the types of residues generated by waste oil re-refining.

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Table 5.23: Types of waste generated in re-refining processes of waste oil

Residue parameters
Type of
HC and S
residues Metals Moisture Other
TOC compounds
Some toxic
Sludges metals may be X X X
contained
Tank bottom
X
sludges
Solid
particulates X X PAHs and PCBs
from filters
Interceptor Phosphates, PAHs, non-
X Low X
waste lubricant-related solids
Cleaned oil
X
filters
NB: X means the pollutant is present in the residue considered.
Source:[ 6, UK Department of the Environment 1991 ], [ 10, Babtie Group Ltd 2002 ], [ 96, WT TWG 2003 ]

5.2.2.2 Consumption in the re-refining of waste oils

Other than transportation, the main utility needed for process operation in terms of
environmental impact is related to the generation of steam for heating waste oil.

Figure 5.9 depicts a block diagram showing a comparison of the inputs, outputs and process
steps of different re-refining processes.

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NB: a) TDA/HF; b) TDA/PDA/HF; c) TFE/clay treatment; d) TFE/solvent; e) Hylube.

HF = Hydrofinishing. % represents the amount that enters that stream based on 100 % used oil entering the system.
Source: [ 4, Viscolube 2002 ], [ 11, WT TWG 2003 ], [ 18, WT TWG 2004 ], [ 169, Puralube GmbH 2016 ]

Figure 5.9: Inputs and outputs of re-refining processes

Table 5.24 shows the consumption of the TDA process system and the consumption of a of
TDA process system combined with a PDA process.

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Table 5.24: Consumption values of the traditional TDA system and the high-recovery system of
TDA combined with a PDA process

Traditional TDA/HF system

Consumption and utilities PF TDA HF PDA Total Unit
Electrical consumption 1.5 12 20 NA 33.5 kWh
MP steam 285 322 70 NA 677 kg
Cooling water (make-up) (1) 1.1 5 0.3 NA 6.4 tonne
Fuel (absorbed heat) NA 670 711 NA 1380 MJ
Hydrogen NA NA 2.1 NA 2.1 kg
Catalysts NA NA 0.2+0.05 (2) NA 0.2+0.05 (2) tonne
Propane make-up NA NA NA NA NA kg
High-recovery TDA/HF/PDA system
Consumption and utilities PF TDA HF PDA Total Unit
Electrical consumption 1.5 12 20 13 46.5 kWh
MP steam 285 322 70 135 812 kg
Cooling water (make-up) (1) 1.1 5 0.3 4 10.4 tonne
Fuel (absorbed heat) NA 670 711 920 2300 MJ
Hydrogen NA NA 2.1 NA NA kg
Catalysts NA NA 0.2+0.05 (2) NA 0.2+0.05 (2) tonne
Propane make-up NA NA NA 0.8 0.8 kg
(1) Based on 10 % evaporation losses.
(2) Demetallisation catalyst + refining catalyst.
NB: Consumption based upon 100 kt/yr waste oil capacity, considering 10 % water content. All the parameters
are expressed in unit/tonne of waste oil.
NA = Not applicable
HF: Hydrofinishing; PDA: Propane deasphalting; TDA: Thermal deasphalting; PF: Pre-flash; MP: Medium
pressure.
Source: [ 96, WT TWG 2003 ], [ 18, WT TWG 2004 ]

The specific water consumption is reported to be in the range of 100–34 850 litres per tonne of
waste oil treated, with an average of around 7 700 l/t. The highest figures provided for water
usage relate to cooling water.

The specific energy consumption is reported to be in the range of 500–2 050 kWh/tonne of
waste oil treated with an average of around 1 300 kWh/t. A large amount of the energy demand
in the re-refining of waste oil is heat, which is provided by the combustion of fossil fuels (e.g.
natural gas), or by steam imported from other sources.

5.2.3 Techniques to consider in the determination of BAT

This section covers the techniques to be considered in the determination of BAT for the
re-refining of waste oil.

5.2.3.1 Selection of waste oils to be re-refined

Description
Set up procedures for ensuring knowledge (information on waste properties/composition) and
the selection of waste oils to be re-refined that include the monitoring of the content of
chlorinated compounds (e.g. chlorinated solvents or PCBs) in the waste oils.

Technical description
Pre-acceptance, acceptance and sorting procedures allow verification that the incoming waste
oils are suitable for recycling, such as the following:

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 (Black) engine oils, which have homogeneous characteristics and are sought by re-
refining plants.
 Black industrial oils are potentially suitable for regeneration but, due to the content of
additives and other substances, are not typically preferred by re-refining plants.
 Light industrial oils, which are relatively clean. They can either be re-refined on site or
can be reused for other purposes. Their market is very specific and independent from the
classical supply routes of recycling.

Achieved environmental benefits

Information on the feedstock quality and appropriate selection procedures can lead to:
 improving the environmental performance;
 avoiding operational and environmental problems when chlorinated compounds (e.g.
solvents or PCBs) are prevented from entering the re-refining process.

Environmental performance and operational data

The term waste oil is limited here to waste mineral oil lubricants and allied products.
Approximately 50–60 % of the oils originally placed on the market are collectible. Of this
amount, some 80 % of dry collected oils are deemed recoverable for re-refining purposes but
more so for use as a fuel. Many synthetic or natural oils are also recoverable but require
specialised recovery techniques.

Experts consider that the following waste oils can be recycled more than once:
 engine, gear and lubricating oils without chlorine;
 hydraulic oils without chlorine;
 insulating and heat transmission oils without chlorine;
 bilge oils;
 non-chlorinated mineral diathermic oils;
 engine oils with chlorine – although only under certain conditions (i.e. limitation of
chlorine or PCB content);
 hydraulic oils with PCB – although only under certain conditions (i.e. limitation of
chlorine or PCB content);
 hydraulic oils with chlorine – although only under certain conditions (i.e. limitation of
chlorine or PCB content).

Cross-media effects
None.

Technical considerations relevant to applicability

Generally applicable.

Economics
No information provided.

Driving force for implementation

Quality of end product.

Example plants
No information provided

Reference literature
[ 2, Monier, V. and Labouze, E. 2001 ], [ 11, WT TWG 2003 ], [ 18, WT TWG 2004 ], [ 51,
WT TWG 2005 ],

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5.2.3.2 Reduction of water usage and emissions to water in waste oil re-
refining plants

Description
Water is reused and waste water is pretreated before discharge to a waste water treatment plant.

Technical description
Some techniques include the following:
 Ensuring that any effluent water (e.g. water distilled from the used oil, process water
including the caustic scrubber blowdown) is treated before direct discharge.
 Pretreating waste water prior to the waste water treatment plant to reduce the COD
concentration in waste water to be treated in the WWTP. The pretreatment of waste water
consists of a suitable combination of techniques such as:
o evaporation (see Section 2.3.6.2.4.7);
o steam stripping (see Section 2.3.6.2.4.5).
 Reusing the cleaned waste water as cooling water after applying a suitable waste water
treatment.

Achieved environmental benefits

 Reduction of emissions to water.
 Reduction of water usage.

Environmental performance and operational data

See Section 2.3.6.1.1 for the environmental performance of the reference plants in terms of
emissions to water.

Plant 605 reports the use of a membrane bioreactor (MBR) since 2012. The main environmental
and operational benefits of MBR application are as follows:

 High removal efficiency of organic matter and nutrients (COD < 500 mg/l, NH3-N
< 10 mg/l, phenols < 1 mg/l, hydrocarbons < 6 mg/l, PO4-P < 6 mg/l).
 No solids discharge in the final effluent.
 Low sludge production.
 Flexibility in hydraulic and organic loading.
 Reduced chemical consumption.
 Smaller environmental impact. The biological process can operate at a much higher
concentration of mixed liquor suspended soil (MLSS). This dramatically reduces the
requirements for the volumes of the vessels (tanks).
 The membranes can be easily cleaned in situ.
 The membranes can be easily removed for inspection/replacement.
 Cross-flow membranes can be retrofitted. Existing MBR systems can be extended by
adding further modules.
 The MBR system does not require significant operational attention. Process control is
reduced to monitoring effluent quality and MLSS concentration, adjustments of the
caustic soda feed rate and scheduling membrane recovery cleaning.

Cross-media effects
WWTPs typically generate ammonia and VOC emissions to air.

See Section 2.3.6 for more details.

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Technical considerations related to applicability

See Section 2.3.6 for more details.

Reusing waste water as cooling water is not applicable when waste water contains mercaptan
leftovers because mercaptans limit the possible safe use of recycled waste water. Removing
mercaptans sufficiently to reuse as cooling water is not seen as a viable option.

Cooling water quality depends on the type of equipment to be cooled, but generally there are
specifications for conductivity, hardness, chloride, pH and COD. Corrosion and deposition
reduce equipment efficiency and increase the energy use of the cooling towers.

Driving force for implementation

Local environmental quality standards for emissions to the municipal sewer system.

Economics
Table 5.25 gives an example of the costs related to the use of a membrane bioreactor (MBR)
(Plant 605).

Table 5.25: Economics of a membrane bioreactor

Capital costs EUR 500 000
Operational costs
Pumping EUR 27 000 per year
Aeration/mixing EUR 40 000 per year
Membrane maintenance costs
Chemical consumption for membrane cleaning EUR 1 200 per year
Membrane module (1) EUR 4 000
(1) Lifetime is estimated at 4–6 years.

See Section 2.3.6 for more details.

Example plants
Plants using pretreatment are Plants 92, 235, 619 and 620.

Reference literature
[ 4, Viscolube 2002 ], [ 7, UK, H. 1995 ], [ 10, Babtie Group Ltd 2002 ], [ 11, WT TWG 2003 ],
[ 168, UBA Germany 2003 ], [ 18, WT TWG 2004 ], [ 19, WT TWG 2004 ], [ 42, WT TWG
2014 ]

5.2.3.3 Reduction of waste generated by waste oil re-refining installations

Description
Techniques to recover residues generated by the re-refining of waste oils.

Technical description
Techniques include:
 using residues from distillation for energy recovery;
 using residues from vacuum distillation, solvent extraction or thin film evaporators for
material recovery, e.g. in asphalt products.

Achieved environmental benefits

Reduction of the amount of treatment residues generated sent to disposal.

Environmental performance and operational data

No information provided.

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Cross-media effects
Incineration of residues generates emissions to air.

Technical considerations related to applicability

No information provided.

Driving force for implementation

 Reduction of waste generation.
 Reduction of costs associated with waste disposal.

Example plants
Typically used in waste oil regeneration facilities.
Energy recovery: 92, 160, 235, 619.
Material recovery: 92, 610, 619, 620.

Reference literature
[ 10, Babtie Group Ltd 2002 ], [ 18, WT TWG 2004 ]

5.2.3.4 Reduction of VOC emissions from waste oil re-refining plants

Description
Collection and abatement of emissions of organic compounds to air.

Technical description
Collection of VOC emissions from the process, the storage and the loading/unloading activities
and abatement by:
 thermal oxidation (see Section 2.3.4.6); this includes when the waste gas is sent to a
process furnace or a boiler;
 wet scrubbing (see Section 2.3.4.10);
 activated carbon adsorption (see Section 2.3.4.9).

Achieved environmental benefits

Reduction of emissions to air of organic compounds.

Environmental performance and operational data

Table 5.26 summarises the environmental performance of the plants from the reference list in
terms of emissions of organic compounds to air.

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Table 5.26: Environmental performance of plants carrying out re-refining of waste oil in terms of
emissions of organic compounds to air

measurements during
Type of measurement
Maximum load (g/h)

the 3-year reference

Main techniques to

period (2010-2012)
prevent/reduce
concentration

concentration

concentration

Number of
Parameter
Plant code

Maximum
Minimum
Pollutant/

(mg/Nm3)

(mg/Nm3)

(mg/Nm3)

emissions
Average
TVOC:
TVOC
1.10 3.10 5.10 40.2 Thermal Perio
160C NMVO 2
1.20 3.10 5.00 NMVOC: oxidation dic
C
39.4
Periodi
Periodic: Periodic:
c: 3
7.3 15
619_ NMVO 2- Thermal Perio
2-yearly 2-yearly 300 18
1 C yearly oxidation dic
average: average:
average
9.5 12.5
: 3.5
VOC Activated
619_ Perio
class I 37 40 44 75 carbon 9
6 dic
to V adsorption
Thermal
oxidation
(Boiler)
Venturi
scrubber
620_ system Conti
TOC 0.23 0.75 1.56 25 NA
1 (=Wet nuous
scrubbing)
Dry
electrostatic
precipitation
(ESP)

Cross-media effects
See the CWW BREF [ 45, COM 2016 ].

Technical considerations related to applicability

See the CWW BREF [ 45, COM 2016 ].

Driving force for implementation

 Legislation on air pollution.
 The steam produced allows energy savings.

Economics
See the CWW BREF [ 45, COM 2016 ].

In the case of Plant 620, the environmental treatment unit (see description below) had a payback
of seven years, which is shorter than other abatement techniques without energy recovery.

Example plants
Plant 620 has a treatment unit combining several abatement techniques (thermal oxidation, wet
scrubbing and electrostatic precipitation). All the off-gases produced from the process are fed

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into a burner where a temperature of about 1 000 °C is reached. An aqueous urea solution is fed
into the end of the combustion chamber in order to greatly reduce the NOX content. The gas
obtained from the combustion with oxygen is then cooled using a boiler from which steam is
recovered and sent into the plant steam network. In order to respect the emission level of SO 2,
the gas stream is sent into a scrubbing column where NaOH is used to reduce the SO 2 to below
the legal limit. This stream is finally sent into an ESP where the dust is reduced.

Reference literature
[ 45, COM 2016 ], [ 42, WT TWG 2014 ]

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5.3 Physico-chemical treatment of waste with calorific value

5.3.1 Overview

[ 1, Concawe 1996 ], [ 2, Monier, V. and Labouze, E. 2001 ], [ 175, Krajenbrink et al. 1999 ], [
165, Jacobs, A. and Dijkmans, R. 2001 ], [ 166, Marshall et al. 1999 ], [ 176, Langenkamp, H.
and Nieman, H. 2001 ], [ 5, Militon et al. 1998 ], [ 85, Scori 2002 ], [ 163, Ecodeco 2002 ], [ 9,
UK EA 2001 ], [ 10, Babtie Group Ltd 2002 ], [ 24, CEFIC 2002 ], [ 90, Hogg et al. 2002 ],
[ 177, COM 2017 ], [ 86, VDI and Dechema 2002 ], [ 11, WT TWG 2003 ], [ 118, Hogg, D.
2001 ], [ 14, Eucopro 2003 ], [ 17, Pretz et al. 2003 ], [ 18, WT TWG 2004 ], [ 19, WT TWG
2004 ]

This section covers those treatments and processes which are mainly applied to obtain a
material, prepared from waste, to be used as fuel or to change its physico-chemical properties to
allow a better recovery of its calorific value.

Although the output waste of the processes described in this section is mainly used as fuel, it is
not the aim of this document to define the specifications of the output.

Some treatments may produce some outputs that may be used for purposes other than fuel.
These processes are very similar and only depend on the physical properties of the input waste
and the physical properties that the output waste needs to have to be able to be burnt in a
combustion chamber. The actual combustion of the waste is not discussed in this document as it
is covered in the individual sectorial BREFs (e.g. waste incineration, cement, lime and
magnesium oxide, large combustion plants, iron and steel).

Waste which has some calorific value is currently used as a fuel in certain combustion
processes, e.g. waste incineration, in cement or lime kilns, large combustion plants. Some of the
sectors using waste as a fuel are directly linked to the production of that waste. This implies that
some wastes, produced in stable processes (therefore of a certain consistency), may not need
any further preparation for their onward use in that sector and therefore they are often delivered
directly to the plant where they will be used (e.g. used oils, used solvents). In these cases, no
treatment is carried out on the waste, so consequently this activity is not included in the scope of
this document (these waste streams are represented in Figure Figure 5.10 by brown arrows). The
types of waste streams that are technically suitable for use in co-incineration plants is an issue
that will be tackled in individual sectorial BREFs. This document considers and analyses the
environmental issues involved in handling and transforming different types of waste into a
material suitable to be used as fuel in different processes as represented by the blue arrows in
Figure 5.10.

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NB: This figure does not intend to show all the possibilities that may appear. Some options are not shown in the
figure to improve its readability.
Figure 5.10: Some current possibilities for the use of waste as a fuel in different sectors

To cite a few instances, the use of waste oil as a substitution fuel without any treatment is one
option that is used across Europe, varying in popularity depending on local economic and
legislative circumstances. Most national regulations allow the burning of waste oil in cement
kilns. Waste oils are accepted under special conditions as cement kiln fuel in France, Germany,
Italy, Spain and the UK, but seem to be banned for that use in the Netherlands, for instance. In
other countries they are simply not used.

The preparation of different types of waste fuel needs to consider the technical characteristics of
the combustion plant/process using it (e.g. cement plant, lime plant, power plant (hard coal,
lignite), specialised waste fuel combustion). These combustion processes have different
technical characteristics.

Some factors affecting the extent to which the waste treatment operations depend on the waste
fuel application are:

 type of waste used to prepare the waste fuel;

 techniques used for waste fuel storage;
 kind of furnace feeding (bulk material, blow feeding);
 fuel mix used in the combustion process;
 type of combustion process, grate firing, pyrolysis or fluidised bed specification of the
process using the waste fuel in terms of composition: e.g. chlorine content for waste used
in cement production.

The types of waste from which solid waste fuel can be prepared typically fall into one of the
following categories:

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 MSW (mainly household waste);

 mixed commercial bulky household waste and other waste;
 dry monostreams or homogeneous selected waste streams;
 filter cakes, sludges and other wet wastes.

The treatment changes the physico-chemical characteristics of the waste fuel prepared. For
example, comminution can be carried out up to the required grain size of the solid waste fuel.
Another example is that the cleaning may separate the rubbish content and foreign impurities by
mechanical processing and comminution. That means that the fuel yield is less than 100% of the
waste quantity because of the water, ash and other impurities.

Waste input
Table 5.27 shows some examples of the types of waste used for the production of solid and
liquid waste fuel.

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Table 5.27: Examples of the types of waste used for the preparation of solid and liquid waste fuels
Type of waste
fuel to be Type of waste Examples
prepared
High-viscosity solvents, oil sludges, distillation
residues, sludges from the treatment of industrial
Pasty wastes sludges (mechanical industry, chemical industry,
(mainly from hazardous waste) pharmaceutical industry, etc.), paint and varnish
sludges, ink sludges, polyol, glues, resins, grease
and fats, other pasty wastes
Powder wastes Carbon black, toner powder, paints, spent
(mainly from hazardous waste) catalysts, tensides, other powders
Polluted polymers, impregnated sawdust, sludges
from waste water treatment, resins, paints, glues,
Solid wastes
spent activated carbon, polluted soils, hydrocarbon
(mainly from
sludges, polluted absorbents, organic residues from
hazardous waste)
the chemical and pharmaceutical industries, spent
plastic packaging, waste woods, other solid wastes
Solid waste fuel Liquid wastes which are not
suitable for preparation of liquid
Liquids with risk of polymerising
waste fuel
(mainly from hazardous waste)
Household and commercial solid wastes,
packaging wastes, wood, paper, cardboard,
cardboard boxes if not suitable for recycling (02,
03, 15, 17, 19, 20),
textiles, fibres (04, 15, 19, 20),
plastics (02, 07, 08, 12, 15, 16, 17, 19, 20),
Non-hazardous solid waste
other materials (08, 09, 15, 16, 19),
high calorific fractions from mixed collected
wastes (17, 19, 20),
construction and demolition waste,
source-separated fractions from MSW,
monostreams of commercial and industrial waste
Solvents, xylenes, toluenes, white spirit, acetone,
Liquid waste fuel cleaning and degreasing solvents, petroleum
Organic liquid waste fuel
by blending residues, distillation residues, off-specification
organic liquid products, non-lubricating oils
Used solvents, pasty organic wastes (ink sludges,
paint sludges, adhesive wastes, etc.), oil residues,
Liquid waste fuel pulverulent wastes such as paint powder, filter
Organic liquid waste fuel
by fluidification cakes, residues from organic chemical synthesis,
oil and fat, spent ion exchange resins, distillation
residues, wastes from cosmetic industries
Oil emulsions from mechanical and metallurgical
industries, wastes and sludges containing oil from
petroleum refining, from the collection and storage
of oil products, wastes from oil distillation and
Liquid waste fuel
Organic liquid waste fuel regeneration, production failures, pasty wastes
by emulsions
such as grease, ink and adhesive wastes,
pulverulent waste such as paint powder, washing
powder wastes, used bases such as sodium, used
oils
NB: Numbers within brackets correspond to LoW codes.
Source: [ 176, Langenkamp, H. and Nieman, H. 2001 ], [ 85, Scori 2002 ], [ 14, Eucopro 2003 ], [ 17, Pretz et al.
2003 ], [ 18, WT TWG 2004 ]

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Table 5.28: Typical calorific values of different types of waste

Calorific value
Type of waste
(MJ/kg)
Hazardous waste 21.0–41.9
Hazardous solid waste 8-16
Non-hazardous industrial waste 12.6–16.8
Municipal waste 7.5–10.5
Plastic 21.0–41.9
Wood 11-16
Tyres 25.1–31.4
Sludges 5-25
Animal food 17
Source:[ 176, Langenkamp, H. and Nieman, H. 2001 ], [ 18, WT
TWG 2004 ], [ 21, WT TWG 2016 ]

Output waste
The calorific value of the waste to be used as fuel see Table 5.28 and the other important fuel
properties that determine whether a specific fuel can be applied in a combustion plant arise from
its chemical composition and physical properties. In order to be used as a fuel, the output needs
to meet the requirements of the subsequent users.

5.3.2 Applied processes and techniques

5.3.2.1 Preparation of solid output mainly from solid waste

5.3.2.1.1 Drying the solid waste

Purpose
Drying the solid waste increases the calorific value of the solid waste and, in some cases,
achieves satisfactory sorting results. It allows also the long-term storage of some waste which
can be easily transferred and treated in a later stage including the utilisation of this resource by
different industries, mainly the bio-based industry.

Principle of operation
Dewatering and drying of the input waste.

Feed and output streams

See Section 5.3.1.

Process description
Depending on the water content and the physical characteristics of the wastes, a first step of
dewatering can be applied. It may consist of one of the following operations:

a. Mechanical dewatering. After filtration and sand extraction, liquid/pasty sludge is pumped
to, and homogenised in, a metallic tank equipped with blending devices (such as impellers
in a shaft and a pumping system which blends the top and the bottom of the tank by
continuous recirculation). Homogenisation of the different phases (liquid/pasty) of the waste
before separation is an important step for the good running of the next operation. After
homogenisation, a specific polymer, adapted to the physico-chemical characteristics of the
sludge, can be added in order to optimise the separation of different components of the
waste. The mixture is then fed into a two-phase centrifuge separator by a variable flow rate
pump. Under the action of the centrifugal force the sludges are separated into two phases:
dry sludge which is stored before loading, and waste water stored in tanks before external
treatment.
b. Thermal drying. In convection (direct or adiabatic) dryers, there is direct contact between
the heating medium and the product to be dried. The moisture from the fuel is removed by

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the heating medium. In conduction dryers, there is no direct contact between the heating
medium and the product. Heat transfer takes place through heating surfaces. Moisture is
removed by the carrier gas, which is approximately 10 % of the quantity used in convective
processes. Therefore, conduction dryers may be preferred for dusty or odorous wastes.
c. Biological degradation/air drying. According to the applied process, the degradation is more
or less distinct; sometimes the focus is on the drying. Depending on the applied system,
incidental process water arising during the biological degradation will have to be cleaned
before being released to the watercourse. To maintain the biological activity, the system is
fed with air. The exhaust air is collected and cleaned.

Biological drying is more applicable to non-hazardous waste.

Users
No information provided.

Reference literature
[ 177, COM 2017 ], [ 11, WT TWG 2003 ], [ 14, Eucopro 2003 ], [ 17, Pretz et al. 2003 ],
[ 18, WT TWG 2004 ], [ 19, WT TWG 2004 ]

5.3.2.1.2 Pelletising and agglomeration

Purpose
To increase the density of the products.

Principle of operation
Agglomeration of input waste.

Feed and output streams

See Section 5.3.1.

Process description
Disc agglomerators consist of metal housing with one or more discs inside. The inner side of the
reactor is filled with material discontinuously. The discs, which have superstructures to stir the
material, start to rotate converting the frictional energy into frictional heat. The material is
homogenised by stirring and then begins to melt with the rising frictional heat. At the moment
that the material begins to plasticise, the energy consumption rises and can provide the signal to
empty the reactor. After the process, the material is cooled down.
Due to the fact that such systems rely on the melting of some waste components, it can only be
applied when those components are available (e.g. plastics).

Users
No information provided.

Reference literature
[ 17, Pretz et al. 2003 ], [ 18, WT TWG 2004 ]

5.3.2.2 Preparation of solid output mainly from solid and pasty waste by
mechanical treatment and impregnation

Purpose
The goal of this preparation is to make a tailor-made, homogeneous and free-flowing output,
which can be used in combustion processes and which may also make it easier for it to be
traded.

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Principle of operation
A mechanical preparation of solid output, with additional impregnation of waste with a
support/absorbent (e.g. sawdust, crushed paper or cardboard, textile flock tires).

Feed and output streams

The types of wastes used are pasty, powder and solid waste, mainly hazardous. Some examples
are as follows:

 pasty wastes: distillation residues, sludge from the treatment of industrial waste water,
oily sludge, paint and varnish sludge, ink sludge, polyols, glues, resins, grease and fats;
 powder wastes: carbon black, paints, spent catalysts, tensides and washing powders;
 solid wastes: plastics or polymers, resins, paints, glues, hydrocarbon sludges, organic
residues from the chemical and pharmaceutical industries, spent plastic packaging.

The main output is hazardous solid waste fuel. Other outputs can be waste metals from empty
drums and metal parts from IBCs, and other used packages.

Process description
An example of the process layout for the production of solid waste fuel is presented in Figure 5.11.
The design of the layout, as well as the selected installation, is chosen according to the type of
waste, the availability of the waste, and the end specification of the waste fuel.

Source: [ 178, EUCOPRO 2014 ]

Figure 5.11: Example of the production of solid fuel from liquid or pasty hazardous waste

The main processes and production steps can be the following:

 Feeding of the waste from the storage to the production units.

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 Formulation and pre-homogenisation of the incoming wastes based on physical and

chemical characteristics. This step is critical for ensuring the compliance of the waste fuel
with the final user's specifications.
 Shredding and/or sieving steps for packaged waste before introduction into the
impregnation unit.
 Impregnation step: the pre-homogenised waste is brought into contact and mixed with the
impregnation support/absorbent. This step may occur in a dedicated process unit, or
materials can be fed directly or through a hopper to stabilise, regulate and control the
quantity of waste introduced into the impregnation unit.
 Scrap metal extraction by magnetic separators or Foucault (eddy) current systems to
remove non-ferrous metals.
 Classification by rotary (drum) or vibrating sieves. Oversize fractions can be reprocessed
in the process or treated in a dedicated shredder or sent to external hazardous waste
treatment units.
 Storage of waste fuel before loading.
 Dispatch of the waste fuel. Loading of the trucks (or potentially trains or ships) is carried
out by cranes, conveyor belts, by direct discharge from storage or from intermediate bins.

Process alternative for empty hazardous packaged (mainly plastic and metal) waste: after
several shredding steps, the resulting residues can be mixed with the solid waste fuel coming
from the rotor sieving step, or treated separately. Shredding empty packaged waste is also a
process to obtain solid waste fuel based only on this type of residues.

Users
Incineration and co-incineration plants (e.g. cement kilns).

5.3.2.3 Preparation of liquid output

In this section, treatments carried out to prepare liquid fuels from liquid or semi-liquid materials
are covered. The liquid waste fuel produced has properties enabling it to become fluid and move
when a difference of pressure or gravity is applied. Some of the materials produced may be very
viscous and can be very difficult and expensive to pump; however, they still maintain fluid
properties. The output of these treatments is referred to in this section as ‘liquid waste fuel’,
regardless of whether the fuel is semi-liquid or liquid. Those processes that start from liquid or
semi-liquid waste and end up as a solid waste fuel are included in Section 5.3.2.2.

Typically, the materials prepared by these types of treatments are hazardous wastes. Several
combined mechanical and physico-chemical processes can be used to prepare hazardous liquid
waste fuels:

 physical processes involving the combination of homogenisation, phase separation and

mixing/blending steps;
 fluidification processes;
 emulsification processes.

5.3.2.3.1 Preparation of liquid waste fuels by homogenisation, phase separation

and blending/mixing of wastes

Purpose
The aim of this operation is to prepare a homogeneous and stable waste fuel from compatible
hazardous liquid/pasty wastes. This process is also applicable to packed wastes with multiple
phases (liquid, pasty or solid), allowing the optimisation of the recovery of their energy content
and recycling of the inorganic material.

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Principle of operation
These operations may involve the grouping of small quantities and/or pretreatment activities
such as phase separation or settling. Blending and homogenisation are the main operations.

Feed and output streams

The wastes treated by these processes are mainly liquid and pasty hazardous waste. Some
examples are:

 liquid and semi-liquid waste with organic content: spent solvents, oils, oil sludges,
emulsions, distillation residues, tank bottom sludges, oil emulsions from mechanical and
metallurgical industries, wastes and sludges containing oil from petroleum refining and
from the collection and storage of oil materials, waste from oil distillation and
regeneration from production failure;
 pasty wastes such as grease, ink and adhesive wastes;
 pulverulent wastes such as paint powder, washing powder wastes, etc.

The main output is hazardous liquid waste fuel. Other outputs can be the solid waste residues
(e.g. tank bottom sludges), waste metals from empty drums and metal parts from IBCs, and
other used packages.

Process description
An example of the process layout for the preparation of liquid fuel from waste is presented in
Figure 5.12 below.

Source: [ 178, EUCOPRO 2014 ]

Figure 5.12: Example of the process layout for the preparation of organic liquid waste fuel
The main processes and production steps are as follows:

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 Liquid wastes in bulk. After filtration and/or settling, liquids are sent by pump to metallic
tanks equipped with a blending device in order to homogenise the waste. This consists of a
pumping system which blends the top and the bottom of the tank by continuous circulation.
 Packed wastes (drums, etc.). Packaging is emptied with techniques adapted to its physico-
chemical characteristics. Pasty phases are sent to a further waste liquid fuel process, such as
fluidification (see Section 5.3.2.3.2)

A stirring propeller or a recirculation system is used in order to keep the wastes homogeneous.
Before loading, the liquid is filtered. The loading of the trucks is carried out with all the security
systems necessary.

Users
Incineration and co-incineration plants (e.g. cement kilns).

5.3.2.3.2 Preparation of liquid output by fluidification of wastes

Purpose
The aim of this operation is to blend and homogenise compatible wastes from several producers
and/or sources by fluidification.

Principle of operation
Fluidification is a process where liquid, pasty and solid wastes are homogenised.

Feed and output streams

Typical inputs are hazardous waste such as oil residues, used solvents, residues from organic
chemical synthesis, oil and grease, pasty organic wastes (ink sludge, paint sludge, etc.), spent
ion exchange resins, distillation residues, waste from the cosmetic industry, etc.

The main output is hazardous liquid waste fuel. Other outputs can be organic solid refuse from
shredding, waste metals from empty drums and metal parts from IBCs, and other used packages.

Process description
Figure 5.13 gives an example of the fluidification process.

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Source: [ 178, EUCOPRO 2014 ]

Figure 5.13: Example of the process layout for the production of liquid waste fuel by fluidification

The main processes and production steps are as follows.

Preparation and/or formulation steps, mainly for pasty waste.

This step consists of producing a premix with adequate physical characteristics acceptable for
the fluidification process, and with the purpose of obtaining a waste fuel with the required
characteristics (e.g. LHV, water content, viscosity).

Drums that contain pasty waste can be emptied, or crushed (shredding) under inert atmosphere
(e.g. nitrogen) followed by screening separation. Pasty wastes are sieved before entering the
fluidification process.

Fluidification process
This is composed of the following steps:

Dissolution
This step involves dissolving and emulsifying the pasty parts into a solvent phase, to obtain a
homogeneous material.

The dissolution of solid organic compounds in a liquid phase composed of solvents is carried
out by special mixers, rotary screens and buffer tanks, in an inert atmosphere when required.
The mixers must respond to the constraints of the sticky material containing strong and
voluminous solids in suspension. They pulverise the solids between rotor and stator and blend
them into the liquid phase. Next, the liquid mixture is admitted inside a rotary screen, which
extracts the pieces of plastic lining fragmented by the shredding in the previous step. A buffer
tank collects the material at the end of this step.

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Grinding and screening

This step consists of finely grinding and removing any bigger solid particles remaining in
suspension in the liquid phase. The stability and the quality of combustion of the waste fuel
depend directly on both its homogeneity and the size of the solids in suspension.

Grinding requires high-velocity technologies protected by magnetic separators and mechanical

filters. The equipment must be flexible enough in order to accept fluctuations in viscosity,
density and the nature of the solids in suspension.

Control
The liquid waste fuel is controlled at this step. Some parameters such as pH and viscosity can be
controlled continuously in the process. If the quality does not meet the specifications (e.g.
viscosity), the waste fuel is reprocessed before being transferred to the storage unit.

The storage facility is generally composed of vertical cylindro-conical tanks with blending
equipment, which are inerted and equipped with a VOC abatement device.
Dispatching to the customer is carried out by a truck loading station. This loading station is fed
by the storage unit mentioned above.

Users
Incineration and co-incineration plants (e.g. cement kilns).

5.3.2.3.3 Preparation of emulsions from liquid/semi-liquid waste

Purpose
The aim is to produce a homogeneous and stable waste fuel from liquid and semi-liquid waste.

Principle of operation
This process is based on the control of blending by means of the addition of selected chemicals
or tensides.

Feed and output streams

The waste inputs are typically hazardous wastes, such as oils and emulsions from the
mechanical and metallurgical industries, wastes and sludges containing oil from petroleum
refining, from the collection and storage of oil products, wastes from oil distillation and
regeneration, production failure, grease, ink and adhesive wastes, paint powder, washing
powder wastes, used bases such as sodium, used oils, settling sludges, etc.

The main output is hazardous liquid waste fuel. Other outputs can be waste metals from empty
drums and metal parts from IBCs and other used packages.

Process description
Processes are similar in design and layout to those used for the pasty raw meal preparation for
clinker production in cement kilns. Figure 5.14 gives an example of the emulsification process.

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Source: [ 178, EUCOPRO 2014 ]

Figure 5.14: Example of the process layout out for the preparation of emulsions

The main processes and production steps are as follows:

 Reception and storage

 Feeding of the waste from the storage to the production units

Before introduction into the production process, wastes are deconditioned with equipment
adapted to their physical characteristics:
o Pasty wastes are first put in special pits for a pre-homogenisation step. Then,
they are transferred to a hopper in order to be introduced into the production
process by a screw conveyor or a concrete pump.
o Pulverulent wastes, such as paint and washing powder, are received in big bags.
They are put directly into the production process with equipment adapted to
capture dust emissions.
o Liquid wastes are handled by pump. Pumping technologies (centrifugal pump,
volumetric pump with out-rotor, etc.) must be able to accept a viscosity
fluctuation and the presence of particles in suspension.
 Production process
The production process, which is a batch process, is carried out by special mixers (called
‘delayers’), closed in order to prevent VOC emissions. The different components are introduced
into the mixer according to laboratory specifications. An agitator provides for stable emulsion
production. During this step, several parameters are monitored, such as viscosity, pH and
temperature. One of the purposes of this monitoring is to detect any polymerisation reactions, as
these could cause production problems. If necessary, tenside components are introduced at this
step of the process.
 Screening – Filtration with curved sieve

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Once the emulsion is achieved, it is circulated again with a centrifugal pump to the mixer and
through a curved screen providing particle retention.

 Sand extraction
When the mixer is emptied and before being sent to the storage facility, the material is pumped
to a concrete pit with a sedimentation area. The aim is to separate through density any mineral
solid particles (e.g. sand) which may be present in the material.

 Storage and dispatching

The material is transferred to the storage facility which is generally composed of concrete or
steel vertical cylindrical tanks with blending equipment such as:
o a submerged agitator;
o a low agitator with a scraper in order to avoid sedimentation;
o a pumping system which blends the top and the bottom of the tank with high
flow (around 250 m3/h) loop circulation.

The waste fuel quality is controlled in order to be sure that its characteristics comply with
customer specifications. In some specific cases, waste with a high calorific value may be added
if the calorific value is considered too low.

Dispatching to the co-processing factories is carried out by a truck loading station. A final
filtration (through a filter of 3 mm) is undertaken whilst loading.

Users
Incineration and co-incineration plants (e.g. cement kilns).

5.3.2.4 Treatments of waste oils other than re-refining

The calorific value of waste oils can be utilised. When used as a substitute fuel, principally for
coal, diesel and light fuel oil, waste oils have an economic value. A number of different burning
applications exist, distinguishable partly by the temperature at which they burn, and partly by
the control technology they use to reduce environmental effects. Before its use as fuel, several
cleaning or transformation treatments may be needed in order to achieve the requirements
requested for further use. These are summarised in Table 5.29.

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Table 5.29: Treatments applied to waste oils before their use as fuel
Changes that occur in the Examples of industrial
Type of treatment Fuel use
waste oils after treatment sector use
No treatment. Used Waste incinerators,
directly in a Cement kilns,
Directly used as fuel in
combustion process No change On board ships (typically
kilns, furnaces, etc.
(not covered in this using marine oils),
document) Quarry stone industries
Cement kilns,
Waste fuel blend with fuel
Removal of water and Roadstone plants,
Mild reprocessing oil (replacement of fuel
sediments Large marine engines,
oil)
Pulverised power plants
Severe reprocessing
(chemical, physical Waste fuel blend with fuel
Demetallised heavy fuel Marine diesel oil or fuel,
or thermal processes) oil (replacement of fuel
oil (or heavy distillate) Fuel for heating plants
(process described in oil)
Section 5.2)
Gas oil (also called heating
oil, diesel oil, furnace oil,
etc.),
Demetallised and cracked
Thermal cracking Distillate gas oil Demetallised heavy fuel oil,
material
Marine gas oil,
Re-refined light base oil not
used as fuel
Hydrogenation
Reduction of sulphur and Diesel oil or fuel
(process described in Blend with fuel oil
PAH contents Fuel for heating plants
Section 5.2)
Chemical production of
Gasification (not
Converted to synthetic gas methanol,
covered in this Fuel gas
(H2 + CO) Large combustion plants
document)
(e.g. gas turbines)
Source: [ 1, Concawe 1996 ], [ 2, Monier, V. and Labouze, E. 2001 ], [ 11, WT TWG 2003 ], [ 18, WT TWG 2004 ]

Feed and output streams

Waste oils
Used oils may have a significant, but variable, chlorine content, including organochlorines. The
fate of these chlorine compounds will vary, not only with the treatment route, but also with the
form in which the chlorine is present. It is therefore difficult to make any general comments on
the effects of chlorine other than that in the combustion routes there is a risk of dioxin formation
and that in the reprocessing options there are risks of corrosion problems, acid gas emissions
and contamination of the output streams.

Waste lubricating oils (when regeneration as described in Section 5.2 is not economically and
technologically possible) and oils recovered from interceptors, are sold for use as fuel. Because
these oils can create carbon deposits when burnt, they tend to be used in applications where this
is of no concern. The main users are the roadstone industry and coal-fired power stations, which
use it for flame stabilisation and power boosts.

Waste fuel oils

Waste fuel oils arise from a variety of situations such as tank drainage from vehicle or ship fuel
tanks, when a boiler fuel store is drained, when the plant converts to natural gas, or when tanks
are cleaned/washed or are removed during site clearances. These oils are generally not
contaminated although they may have deteriorated with age and sometimes carry the ‘tank
bottom dirt’ settled from many years of filling. In most plants, comparatively little of this type
of material is accepted and it will be reasonable to consider it comparable to fuel oils ‘as sold’.

Gasification is specially designed to process heavy fuels, as well as a wide range of hydrocarbon
wastes. This process is not described in this document.

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Fuel oils range in specification but, in general, they are used rather than sent for treatment and
so the quantities will be small. They typically have a lower boiling point than lubricating oils,
contain more of the lower chain hydrocarbons and have a higher risk of VOC emissions during
treatment. However, the content of the metals is typically low (although vanadium and nickel
have been found in fuel oils). PAHs are typically stable and non-volatile. Unused fuel oils have
a lower boiling point range than lubricating oils. Comparisons between the compositions of fuel
oils and lubricants are shown in Table 5.30 below.

Table 5.30: Typical composition of fuel oils and lube oils

Boiling Important compounds
Normal carbon chain
point range
length
(ºC)
N alkanes, cycloalkanes, low concentrations
Middle distillate, C6 to
Kerosene 150–300 of monoaromatics, low concentrations of
C16
BTEX and PAHs
Very low BTEX, toluene 0.06 %,
ethylbenzene 0.034 %, xylenes 0.23 %, high
concentrations of N-alkanes, C8 0.1 %, C20
Middle distillate, C8 to
Fuel oil (No 2) 200–325 0.35 %), lower concentrations of branched
C21
alkanes, cycloalkanes monoaromatics,
naphthalenes (0.22 %) and PAHs, nickel
0.00005 %
Middle distillate, C12 to
Fuel oil (No 4) 325–500 Very low BTEX, naphthalenes and PAHs
C34
Very low BTEX, low naphthalenes and
Fuel oil (No 6) Residual oil, C12 to C34 350–700 PAHs, high n-alkanes (C9 0.0034 %, C20
0.1 %) and cycloalkanes, nickel 0.0089 %
Low concentrations of BTEX, high
Heavy end distillate,
Lube oils 326–600 concentrations of branched alkanes and
C18 to C34
cycloalkanes
Source:[ 10, Babtie Group Ltd 2002 ], [ 21, WT TWG 2016 ]

Output
Waste oils have some valuable properties for their use as a fuel oil blendstock, e.g. they have a
lower sulphur content and viscosity in comparison to other heavy fuels. Blending into fuel oil at
the refinery could be a viable option for oils when it can be shown that the contaminant levels
are within acceptable limits for the fuel oil specifications and legislative requirements.

Waste oil is used as a fuel in a number of power stations in the UK, in IED plants permitted for
burning hazardous waste.

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5.3.2.4.1 Mild and severe reprocessing of waste oils

Purpose
Mild reprocessing is cleaning the waste oils to improve the physical properties so that they can
be used as a fuel by a wider variety of end users. Severe reprocessing is an additional step,
where a physical separation of light ends occurs by means of a vacuum distillation process.
Additional information on the latter can be found in Section 5.2.

Principle of operation
The treatments can involve the settling of solids and water, chemical demineralisation,
centrifugation and membrane filtration.

Feed and output streams

Waste oils in general. A simple cleaning process is applied to waste oil destined for asphalt
drying or for fuel blending before further use.

Process description
Figure 5.15 below shows an example of mild reprocessing of waste oil.

Source: [ 9, UK EA 2001 ]

Figure 5.15: Example of mild reprocessing of waste oil

Settling
Water and sediments are settled in a tank after mixing the used oil with a demulsifier. Settling is
facilitated by heating the tank up to 70/80 °C. If necessary, the clear oil is decanted and passed
through a series of filters. The waste water and sediments are treated. A simple cleaning process
to remove water and sediments (although typically this does not deal with the heavy metals,
halogens and sulphur) is carried out before the further use of the waste oil as a replacement for
fuel oil.

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Chemical demineralisation
This process is used to clean metallic contaminants and additives. The chemical process relies
on the precipitation of salts such as phosphates, oxalates and sulphates. The waste fuel is
suitable for burning as ‘black oil’ and produces less air pollutants because of its pretreatment.
Water is usually removed by demulsification and heating. The precipitate is removed by settling
and filtration.

Centrifugation
Liquid phases are separated in a centrifugal separator, using the principle of difference of
densities.

Membrane filtration
This involves using a fine membrane to separate fuel derived from waste oil, a concentrated
waste oil, and waste water.

Membrane filtration leads to a significant additional cost. Typically, the cost of the plant
required, including that for the protection of the membrane step, is expensive compared to the
added value of the product.

Users
Waste oil has been a substitute for fuel for several years. It provides a lowering of operational
costs and a useful disposal route for waste used oil. Its use as a fuel is carried out according to
legal requirements. Table 5.31 summarises some of the uses of waste oil after mild
reprocessing.

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Table 5.31: Examples of use of mild and severe reprocessed waste oil (WO) as fuel
Sector where Countries where it
Comments
treated WO is used is used
Common in Belgium
Waste fuel derived from waste oils is burnt to dry hard and the UK.
Roadstone plants or stone for the manufacture of road surfacing materials. However, in Italy
asphalt mixing plants The stones are dried and then sized, after which they some environmental
are mixed with bitumen and filler. authorities do not
permit this use.
Waste fuel derived from waste oils is burnt to dry
Dry limestone limestone. Some acid contaminants are likely to be No information
captured by the solid material.
Waste fuel derived from waste oils may be blended
into fuel oil. In this case, the maximum amount of
processed used oil which may be blended with other
Blending into fuel oil heavy streams is limited by specifications on the ash No information
content (generally about 0.1 % maximum) and sulphur
content and may be subject to meeting a viscosity
range specification.
Waste fuel derived from waste oils is utilised in
pulverised coal power stations, mainly as a furnace
Power stations start-up fuel, but it is also sometimes used as an No information
addition to the main fuel where heat input is restricted.
See the LCP BREF [ 42, EIPPCB 2003 ].
Typically this involves used marine oils. The waste oils
originating from shipping and from land sources are
mixed in order to obtain better treatment and separation
parameters. The oil is used as a finished waste fuel or
as cutterstock, which means that different streams are
blended in order to meet a viscosity range
specification. The combined fuel oil is sold as bunker There are some
On board ships
fuel. For the removal of the water, the waste oil is examples in Spain
decanted. If necessary, demixing can be improved by
adding emulsion breakers and/or raising the
temperature. The oil is then filtered and centrifuged.
The resulting oil goes to a storage tank and is sampled.
Some cleaned waste oils are currently used in marine
motors for electricity production.
Source: [ 9, UK EA 2001 ], [ 11, WT TWG 2003 ]

5.3.2.4.2 Thermal cracking

Purpose and principle of operation

Thermal cracking uses heat to break down long chain hydrocarbon molecules (e.g. the ones
found in waste oils) into shorter ones thus generating lighter liquid fuels. In this way, larger
molecules of more viscous and less valuable hydrocarbons are converted to less viscous and
more valuable liquid fuels.

Feed and output streams

Thermal cracking can accept various types of hydrocarbon feedstock: waste oils, waste marine
fuels, deep frying oils and, depending on process design, waste oils returned in their original
(plastic) containers. The strategy of thermal cracking is to crack large viscous molecules into
more valuable shorter molecules ranging from demetallised heavy fuel oil to re-refined light
industrial lube oil, including gas oil products as well as other materials for other uses.
According to this, the thermal cracking can be configured to give the following set of output
streams (see Table 5.32).

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Table 5.32: Example of output streams under appropriate operating conditions

Plant
Output streams %
configuration
Off-gases 5
Naphtha 8
1
Demetallised heavy fuel oil or marine gas oil 77
Heavy residues 10
Off-gases 10
Naphtha 15
2 Gas oil (also called diesel fuel, heating oil, furnace oil) 65
Light lube oil Small fraction
Heavy residues 10
Off-gases 5
Naphtha 10
3 Gas oil 30
Re-refined light lube oil (1) 45
Heavy residues 10
(1) Sometimes this configuration is enclosed as a re-refining process because of the high percentage of
re-refined lube oil. Some cracked materials are used as flotation oil, mould-release oil or as
naphthalene absorbent in coke oven gas cleaning.
Source: [ 2, Monier, V. and Labouze, E. 2001 ], [ 11, WT TWG 2003 ], [ 18, WT TWG 2004 ]

If the configuration for gas oil production is desired, this is the most severe cracking mode and
thus heat input is maximised and the throughput is at the design capacity. If demetallised heavy
fuel oil or light lube oil is preferred as the primary output from the plant, the process operating
conditions can be changed to achieve this. For this reason, thermal cracking offers a big
opportunity to adapt to fluctuations in the market values of products.

Table 5.33 gives a summary of the components present in the outputs (products) from the
thermal cracking of waste oils.

Table 5.33: Components of the outputs from the thermal cracking of waste oils
Component Comments
If the cracked fuel is hydrotreated, chlorinated compounds are
removed. Heavy PCBs (boiling point higher than the waste oil) are
Chlorinated hydrocarbons destroyed during this process. Light PCBs are only partly destroyed
during this process. Organic chloride compounds may still remain in
the distillate.
A maximum specification for chlorine of 50 ppm was set by the national
Chlorine
authority.
The efficiency of the vacuum column enables the production of
Metals distillates with metal contents of less than 1 ppm. All metals present in
the used oil end up in the bottom of the cracking section.
The heavy PAHs are cracked, and are burnt with light naphtha. The
PAHs
lighter PAHs are added to the pool of light fuels.
The gasoline will have a sulphur content that depends on the sulphur
Sulphur
level in the used oil feed and the stabilisation method applied.
Source: [ 172, Silver Springs Oil Recovery Inc. 2000 ], [ 18, WT TWG 2004 ]

It is likely that, in order to meet EU requirements for the sulphur content in liquid fuels
(automotive and/or heating oil), the resulting cracked products will require either treatment for
sulphur reduction or will have to be blended away in lower sulphur products (thereby making
indirect use of someone else’s desulphurisation capability).

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Process description
The process operates at very high temperatures (thus evaporating all the water present). After
removal of the water, much of the heavy metal content is removed as sludge or via an acid
treatment prior to the cracking step. The pretreated waste oil is thermally cracked at 420 °C at
low pressure (without a catalyst). The subsequent distillation and stabilising steps yield a
marketable fuel (gas oil). Depending on the intensity of the cracking, the outputs may either be a
fuel oil, a fuel suitable for blending with diesel (diesel extender) or materials used as light lube
oil and for other uses. Several processes exist today, such as the following:

Super oil cracking (SOC) processes

 SOC1: dewatering is followed by thermal cracking, performed in fired heater coils with
soaking drums or heated kettles. This process is suitable for small plants, in the 6–15 kt/yr
range, but it has only a limited feed acceptance.
 SOC2: dewatering is followed by thermal cracking, performed in an indirectly fired rotary
kiln. This process is suitable for large capacities and can also process more refractory oils
than thermal cracking (such as synthetic oils) and higher carbon residues (bunker fuels,
etc.).

Great Northern Processing (GNP) processes

This thermal cracking of waste oils, utilising ‘refinery calibre’ systems and equipment, is a
relatively recent development. The process consists of a screening and dewatering stage;
followed by a thermal cracking stage; a separation or distillation stage, depending on the output
mix desired; and finally a purification and stabilisation stage. This technology is characterised
by large operational and output flexibility and adaptability to the changing market values of
materials. It can also be manipulated to maintain output quality even with wide feed variability.
As a matter of fact, the process' operating conditions (temperature, pressure, residence time,
etc.) can be varied to produce a primary output (be it heavy fuel oil, gas oil or base oil) that can
be maximised, whilst minimising the secondary output streams (consumed in the process for
calorific value or sold).

Thermally cracked gas oil is unstable if not further processed. It can discolour rapidly and
precipitate gums and tars. A stabilisation and purification operation supplementing the thermal
cracking can produce a gas oil which is not odorous, meets regulatory and consumer colour
criteria, minimises the formation of gums and tars during storage and which is not highly acidic.
For this, several methods are available:

 The RobysTM catalytic cracking and gas oil purification and stabilisation process.
 Several chemical stabilisation methods (clay absorption, solvent extraction).
 Hydrotreatment. Except for a stand-alone WO thermal cracking plant, this treatment might
not be feasible due to the very high capital costs and the requirement for hydrogen gas.

The typical yield for processes using thermal cracking is 71 %, this resulting from the partial
yields in the processes of 95 % dewatering, 90 % thermal cracking itself, 83 % distillation and
99.5 % purification/stabilisation.

Users
Thermal cracking is a common mineral oil refinery process that is well known and proven.

5.3.2.5 Treatment of vegetable waste oils for the production of biodiesel

Purpose
To produce biodiesel from vegetable waste oil.

Principle of operation
Involves cleaning of the waste oils.

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Process description
First the waste oils are filtrated and water is removed. The waste oil is then separated by
distillation to obtain the outputs.

Feed and output streams

The types of waste oils treated are collected in waste transfer facilities and from the restaurant
sector. The output is mainly biodiesel, which is used for transport and glycerine.

Users
At least two plants exist in the EU (in Spain and Austria) and one is planned in Portugal.

5.3.3 Current emission and consumption levels

[ 42, WT TWG 2014 ]

Table 5.34 summarises the information related to plants from the reference list performing
physico-chemical treatment of waste with calorific value. The treatment processes are described
in the sections mentioned in the table.

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Table 5.34: Plants from the reference list performing physico-chemical treatment of waste with
calorific value
Process
Waste input Waste input Process described
Plant Output
description physical state involved in
Section
Paint, ink, glue,
resin, oily sludge,
tar, grease, reaction
and distillation
residues, soap,
detergents, Shredding,
cosmetics, filtration Substitute Mixing,
earth and cakes, solid fuel, Formulation
078 petrochemicals, Solid and multiphase Mixed and pre- 5.3.2.2
packaging and plastics, homogenisation
contaminated Ferrous metal of the incoming
materials, waste
absorbents having
the status of waste
for the production
of solid fuel
(sawdust etc.)

Spent solvent, solid

79_80_ Liquid and Shredding, 5.3.2.2
or sludge Liquid and pasty
81_82 solid fuel Mixing 5.3.2.3
hazardous waste

Energetic waste
from numerous
Preparation of
industrial origins,
Aqueous hazardous waste
sludge from oil-
output, Liquid liquid fuel
water separators,
fuel, through physical
from storage tank
Dehydrated processes
and barrel cleaning,
sludge, Wood, including
cleaning water, Solid, liquid and
148C Ferrous metal, homogenisation, 5.3.2.3
washing liquids, pumpable
All waste phase separation
aqueous liquid
under and mixing/
waste from the
temporary blending
chemical industry,
storage processes
pasty, organic
activities
unreactive wastes
(used packaging,
etc.)
Liquid fuel,
Sludge with
High HC Density
hydrocarbons,
152C concentration, Low Liquid separation, 5.3.2.4.1
Residues from
HC concentration Distillation
waste water
treatment

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Used oils,
hydrocarbon
wastes, non- Preparation of
halogenated Other solid hazardous waste
solvents, paint, ink, fuel, Liquid liquid fuel
varnish sludge, fuel, Aqueous through
distillation output, Used physical
residues, grease, packages, processes
Liquid, pasty, solid,
172C water-based liquid Transit WEEE including 5.3.2.3
multiphase
waste from and waste out homogenisation
chemical, cosmetic of , phase
industries, WEEE, specification separation and
aerosols, used for the mixing/blendin
batteries, used processes g processes
packaging and
contaminated
materials
Used oils, mixed
hydrocarbon waste,
paint, ink, varnish
sludge, distillation
residues, grease;
Halogenated and Aqueous
non-halogenated, output, Liquid
used diluent fuel, Pasty
(toluene, xylene, waste not
Liquid, pasty, solid, Fluidification
174C etc.), used alcohols, adapted for 5.3.2.3
multiphase
cleaning water, fluidification,
aqueous washing Mixed
liquids, aqueous plastics,
liquid waste water Ferrous metal
cosmetic industries,
waste packaging,
contaminated
materials, mineral
organic solid waste
Waste solvents
from chemical and
pharmaceutical Mixing
332 Liquid Liquid fuel 5.3.2.3
manufacturing,
waste plastic
packaging and PPE
Used oils from
industrial facilities,
including process
oils, and used oils
from carshop
repairs and
Density
440 (1) maintenance, used Liquid Waste oil 5.3.2.4.1
separation
oils from industrial
facilities, including
process oils, and
used oils from
carshop repairs and
maintenance
Waste solvents
Liquid fuel,
with LCV
Ferrous metal,
> 3 000 kcal/kg,
Liquid and pasty Mixed Shredding,
450 Pasty waste, 5.3.2.3
plastics, mixing
Organic waste
Residues from
waters with LCV
shredding
< 3 000 kcal/kg

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Liquid fuel,
Sawdust
impregnated
Liquid waste,
with organic
industrial origin,
Liquid and compounds Shredding,
469 Pasty and solid 5.3.2.3
multiphase (paints, mixing
waste, industrial
hydrocarbons)
origin
, solvents and
an inert
fraction
Infectious clinical
waste (no
chemicals or
pharmaceuticals)
(EWC 18 01 03, 18
02 02 and 20 01
99), blood bags and
blood preserves,
offensive wastes
such as outer
dressings and RDF, Other
Solid, liquid and
507 protective clothing waste for Thermal screw 5.3.2.1
multiphase
(masks, gowns and disposal
gloves that are not
contaminated with
body fluids),
hygiene waste and
sanitary protection,
e.g. nappies and
incontinence pads,
sterilised
(‘autoclaved’)
laboratory waste
Infectious clinical
waste (no
chemicals or
pharmaceuticals)
(EWC 18 01 03, 18
02 02 and 20 01
99), blood bags and
blood preserves,
offensive wastes
such as outer
dressings and RDF, Other
Solid, liquid and
508 protective clothing waste for Thermal screw 5.3.2.1
multiphase
(masks, gowns and disposal
gloves that are not
contaminated with
body fluids),
hygiene waste and
sanitary protection,
e.g. nappies and
incontinence pads,
sterilised
(‘autoclaved’)
laboratory waste

Distillate Emulsion
Waste lubricants fuels, breaking, 5.3.2.3
514 Liquid
and fuels Lubricants, Vacuum 5.3.2.4.1
Residue distillation

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Regenerated
oil, Aqueous
output,
Residues from
Waste oil and waste water Emulsion
549 Pumpable 5.3.2.3
water emulsions treatment, breaking
Oily sludge
from oil-water
separation
process
Calorific waste Liquid fuel,
553 Pumpable Mixing 5.3.2.3
liquids and sludge Wood
Used oils,
hydrocarbon waste,
paint, ink, varnish
sludges, distillation
residues, grease, Liquid fuel, Hazardous
water-based liquid Other solid waste liquid
waste from Liquid, pasty fuel, Aqueous substitution fuel
FR_xxx 5.3.2.3.3
chemical and and solid output, process -
cosmetic industries, WEEE, Emulsion
used packaged and Aerosols technique
contaminated
materials, WEEE,
aerosols, used
batteries
(1) This plant carried out only activities of temporary storage in the reference years.

This section focuses on the emissions and consumption of the plants with similar processes for
the treatment of waste with calorific value, i.e. plants carrying out mixing of liquid wastes or
mixing of liquid wastes with solid wastes to obtain liquid and/or solid output (see Sections
5.3.2.2 and 5.3.2.3). This operation may be followed or preceded by a shredding step.

5.3.3.1 Emissions to air

Table 5.35 and Table 5.36 show, for the relevant plants on the reference list, the origin of
emissions to air, the associated abatement techniques and the pollutants monitored in emissions
to air. The VOCs are generally collected from different steps of the process, such as storage,
unloading and mixing, and channelled to a VOC destruction system (thermal oxidation) or a
VOC recovery system (activated carbon adsorption or cryogenic condensation).

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Table 5.35: Origin of emissions to air and abatement techniques of plants performing PCT of
waste with calorific value

Techniques for Origin of emissions to Average air flow

Plant
emissions to air air (Nm3/h)

Regenerative thermal
078 Whole plant 48 235
oxidation
Storage, loading and
Regenerative thermal
79_80_81_82 unloading, mixing and 35 000
oxidation
sieving operations
Activated carbon Fuel preparation and
148C 37 767
adsorption sludge dehydration
Channelled release
Regenerative thermal linked with hazardous
oxidation, solid fuel production
172C_1 45 488
Activated carbon and liquid fuel
adsorption production (mainly
composed of solvents)
Activated carbon Liquid fuel fabrication
172C_2 22 459
adsorption (emulsion technique)
All waste liquid fuel
Activated carbon processes including
174C 11 472
adsorption mixing steps and
loading
Wet scrubbing,
332 Activated carbon Blending and mixing Not monitored
adsorption

Cryogenic Storage, shredding and

450 61
condensation blending
Thermal oxidation
469 and Neutralisation All 17 308
with lime

Product storage tanks

514 Thermal oxidation and vacuum distillation NI
plant

Synthetic oil
absorption scrubber,
553 All vent stacks Not monitored
Activated carbon
adsorption
Delayer (emulsion
process), 9 004,

hazardous waste solid

Bag filter, Activated
FR_xxx fuel preparation, 21 266
carbon adsorption,
unloading and loading
and emulsion process and 4 460
storage

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Table 5.36: Pollutants monitored in emissions to air of plants performing PCT of waste with
calorific value
Type of Range
Pollutant measured Plants concerned
measurement (mg/Nm3)

078,
Dust 79_80_81_82,
Periodic 0.2–3
148C, 172C_1,
172C_2, 469
148C, 172C_1,
Continuous 5–24
172C_2
TVOC 79_80_81_82,
172C_2, 174C,
Periodic 3.3–117.1
332, 514, 553,
FR_xxx
Continuous 469 7.3–11.5
TOC
Periodic 450 36.7
078,
79_80_81_82,
NMVOC Periodic 3.8–113.3
148C, 172C_1,
172C_2, FR_xxx
79_80_81_82,
HCl Periodic 148C, 172C_1, 0.3–10.9
514

H 2S Periodic 514 0.04-1.8

078,
NOX Periodic 79_80_81_82, 0.4–230
148C, 172C_1,
514
078,
CO Periodic 79_80_81_82, 5.1–495
172C_1, 514

148C, 172C_1,
SOX Periodic 0.2–123
514

0.005–
Cd+Hg+Tl Periodic 148C, 172C_1
0.0052

As+Te+Se Periodic 172C_1 0.007

Sb+As+Pb+Cr+Co+
Periodic 148C 0.149
Cu+Mn+Ni+V

79_80_81_82,
PCDD/F Periodic 0.009-0.011
469
PAHs Periodic 514 0.002

Figure 5.16 shows the values measured in emissions to air for TVOC and NMVOC.

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Figure 5.16: TVOC and NMVOC measured in emissions to air of plants performing PCT of waste
with calorific value

5.3.3.2 Emissions to water and water usage

Table 5.37 shows, for the relevant plants on the reference list, the origin of emissions to water,
the associated abatement techniques and the pollutants monitored in emissions to water. As can
be seen, there are no emissions to water at four of the plants. Of the other five plants, two have
direct discharge of waste water to the environment but, in these cases, the released water is said
to be only run-off water or sanitary water.

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Table 5.37: Origin of emissions to water and associated abatement techniques at plants
performing PCT of waste with calorific value

Techniques for Origin of Average

Type of Receiving
Plant emissions to emissions to water flow
discharge body
water water (m3/h)
No water is used
in the process.
The only water
rejected is
sanitary water
and there is a
sewage system to
treat it. It is
linked to a
collecting
system. The
078 NA uncontaminated NA NA NA
water is treated in
a municipal
collection
system. The
contaminated
surface water
(water from
roads) is treated
by a sludge and
oil removal
system.
Discharge from
the on-site
common WWT
facilities to the
Unloading,
environment
storage, mixing,
(when the
Powdered physico-chemical
design/operation
79_80_81_82 activated carbon treatments, River/Stream 0.7
of the WWT
treatment loading and
facility is mainly
cleaning
influenced by
operations
waste water
streams coming
from the WT
plant)
First decantation
and oil separation,
then the water is Discharge from
stored in a the WT plant, as
Rainwater
dedicated basin well as from on-
collected from
(minimum: site waste water
148C the whole plant NI NI
650 m3) before pretreatment
(circulation area,
release by batch to facilities, to an
etc.).
an external off-site common
WWTP. Controls WWT facility
are done before
each batch.

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Discharge from
Concerns only
the on-site
the storm water
common WWT
Filtration, from roads and
facilities to the
Powdered parking areas.
environment
activated carbon The
(when the
treatment, contaminated
design/operation
172C Decantation, washing water River/Stream 7
of the WWT
Other and the rinsing
facility is mainly
(Intermediate water are
influenced by
storage before included in the
waste water
release) output waste sent
streams coming
to thermal
from the WT
treatment.
plant)

Discharge from
the on-site
common WWT
facilities to the
Concerns only environment
the unpolluted (when the
Decantation,
174C rainwater from design/operation NI NI
Buffer tanks
the plant and of the WWT
sanitary water facility is mainly
influenced by
waste water
streams coming
from WT plant)

332 NA No emission NA NA NA
Rain in process
areas and spills.
There is no point
of release of
WW. All WW is
recirculated into
450 NA NA NA NA
the process. Only
rainwater is
released in a
municipal sewer
after being
analysed.
469 NI NI NI NI NI

514 NI NI NI NI NI

There is no
553 NA emission to water NA NA NA
from the process.

FR_xxx NI NI NI NI NI

NB: NA = Not applicable.

NI = No information.

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Table 5.38 shows the parameters monitored in emissions to water at plants where water is
released.

Table 5.38: Pollutants monitored in emissions to water at plants performing PCT of waste with
calorific value
Number of
Ranges (mg/l
Pollutant Type of measurements during
Plants concerned except for
measured measurement the 3-year reference
pH)
period (2010–2012)
79_80_81_82,
Composite
pH 148C, 172C, 7–8 2–35
sample
174C
79_80_81_82,
Composite
TSS 148C, 172C, 4.5–14.3 3–35
sample
174C

Composite 148C, 172C,

BOD5 1.6–5.9 2–12
sample 174C

79_80_81_82,
Composite
COD 148C, 172C, 20.9–60 3–35
sample
174C

79_80_81_82,
Composite
THC 148C, 172C, 0.03–0.5 1–35
sample
174C
79_80_81_82,
Composite
CN- 148C, 172C, 0.005–0.05 1–12
sample
174C
79_80_81_82,
Composite
Pb 148C, 172C, 0.004–0.135 3–35
sample
174C
79_80_81_82,
Composite
Cr(VI) 148C, 172C, 0.003–0.032 1–35
sample
174C
79_80_81_82,
Composite
Phenol 148C, 172C, 0.002–0.023 2–34
sample
174C
Composite
F- 148C, 172C 0.3–0.5 3
sample
Composite
Cd 172C, 174C 0.002–0.056 3–35
sample
Composite 79_80_81_82,
Hg 0.001–0.167 3–6
sample 148C, 172C
Composite
As 148C, 172C 0.004–0.007 3
sample
Composite 79_80_81_82,
Cu 0.01–0.088 3–35
sample 148C, 174C
Composite 79_80_81_82,
Ni 0.01–0.109 3–35
sample 148C, 174C
Composite 79_80_81_82,
Zn 0.05–0.328 3–35
sample 148C, 174C
Composite
AOX 148C, 172C 0.0267–0.0285 2–3
sample
Composite
TKN 148C 3 3
sample
Composite 79_80_81_82,
Cr < 0.01 3–8
sample 148C

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Composite 79_80_81_82,
Mn 0.04-0.05 1–3
sample 148C
Composite
Sn 148C < 0.02 3
sample
Composite 79_80_81_82,
Total N 5.2-9.7 2–5
sample 172C
Composite 79_80_81_82,
Total P 0.2 3–6
sample 172C
Metals Composite
172C 0.18 3
Cr(VI), Pb, Hg sample
Composite
Fe 174C 0.66 35
sample
Zn+Cu+Ni+Al+Fe+Cr Composite NI
174C NI
VI+Cd+Pb+Sn sample
NB: NI = No information.
NA = Not applicable.

The average water usage is reported to be between 31 litres and 213 litres per tonne of waste
treated, with an average consumption of 96 l/t. It should be underlined that, at all five plants that
mention water usage, the water is not used for the process itself but for cleaning/rinsing or for
sanitary purposes. At three other plants, no water usage is reported.

5.3.3.3 Energy consumption

The average specific energy consumption reported is in the range of 6–225 kWh per tonne of
waste treated, with an average of about 56 kWh/t.

5.3.4 Techniques to consider in the determination of BAT

Techniques to consider for the physico-chemical treatment of waste with calorific value depend
on the processes used for the treatment (see Section 5.3.2).

5.3.4.1 Reduction of VOC emissions to air when preparing waste fuel from
liquid and semi-liquid waste

Description
Recovery or destruction of captured VOC emissions.

Technical description
As mentioned in Section 2.3.5.3, measures are taken to ensure the prevention of diffuse VOC
emissions and the capture of VOC emissions generated during loading/unloading, storage,
blending/mixing and shredding of waste.

Techniques include capturing and abating VOC emissions when removing the high solids
content from liquid waste where warm oil from the heating vessels is typically passed over open
filters to remove the solids. These are situated either in open yards or in buildings. VOCs are
emitted when warm oil passes through the filters to remove the solids. The filters used are
typically of the vibrating metal mesh type, more commonly used in relation to mineral
aggregates. The vapour from filtration is extracted via hoods over open filters. Centrifuges can
also be used for the purpose of separating any solids from oil with the advantage of minimal
emissions.

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These captured VOC emissions are channelled to a VOC treatment system, including for
example:

 adsorption (see Section 2.3.4.9);

 thermal oxidation (see Section 2.3.4.6);
 wet scrubbing (see Section 2.3.4.10);
 cryogenic condensation (see Section 2.3.4.8).

Achieved environmental benefits

Reduction of VOC emissions to air.

Environmental performance and operational data

VOC treatment techniques may be affected by the presence of water vapour or dust.
Consequently, they are often combined with some pretreatment or other abatement techniques.

Table 5.39 shows the environmental performance of plants equipped with one or more of the
following techniques: RTO, activated carbon, cryogenic condensation or wet scrubbing, in
terms of emissions of organic compounds to air.

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Table 5.39: Environmental performance of plants performing physico-chemical treatment of

waste with calorific value and equipped with RTO, activated carbon, cryogenic
condensation or wet scrubbing

to prevent/reduce

during the 3-year

Main techniques

reference period
Maximum load

measurements
concentration

concentration

concentration

measurement

(2010-2012)
Number of
Parameter
Plant code

Maximum
Minimum
Pollutant/

(mg/Nm3)

(mg/Nm3)

(mg/Nm3)

emissions
Average

Type of
(kg/h)
Regenerative
78 NMVOC 5.00 10.50 20.00 0.6 thermal Periodic 4
oxidation
Regenerative
79_80_81_82 TVOC 32.00 32.00 32.00 1.1 thermal Periodic 1
oxidation
Regenerative
79_80_81_82 NMVOC 6.00 21.36 31.81 1.1 thermal Periodic 3
oxidation
Activated
148C TVOC 0.00 5.00 41.00 1.3 carbon Continuous NI
adsorption
Activated
148C NMVOC 3.75 3.75 3.75 0.2 carbon Periodic 1
adsorption
Activated
172C_2a_AI TVOC 17.50 17.50 17.50 0.2 carbon Periodic 1
adsorption
Activated
172C_2a_AI NMVOC 16.10 16.10 16.10 0.2 carbon Periodic 1
adsorption
Activated One every
172C_2b TVOC 0.10 26.00 72.00 1.5 carbon Periodic two days
adsorption (~ 155/year)
Activated
174C TVOC 0.86 21.43 61.90 0.7 carbon Periodic 3
adsorption
Activated
174C_a_AI TVOC 87.50 87.50 87.50 0.9 carbon Periodic 1
adsorption
Wet
scrubbing,
332 TVOC 0.10 4.07 7.70 NI Activated Periodic 12
carbon
adsorption
Basic
scrubber
450 TOC 36.70 36.70 36.70 0.002 system, Periodic 1
Cryogenic
condensation
Thermal
514 TVOC 3.7 17 30.2 NI Periodic 2
oxidation

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Synthetic oil
absorption
scrubber,
553 TVOC 0.26 3.30 9.00 NI Periodic 6
Activated
carbon
adsorption
Bag filter
and
FRxxx_1a TVOC 97.00 97.00 97.00 1.2 activated Periodic 1
carbon
adsorption
Bag filter
and
FRxxx_1a NMVOC 97.00 97.00 97.00 1.2 activated Periodic 1
carbon
adsorption
Bag filter
and
FRxxx_2a NMVOC 11.00 11.00 11.00 0.3 activated Periodic 1
carbon
adsorption
Bag filter
and
FRxxx_2b TVOC 12.00 12.00 12.00 0.4 activated Periodic 1
carbon
adsorption
Activated
FRxxx_3a TVOC 56.00 56.00 56.00 0.4 carbon Periodic 1
adsorption
Activated
FRxxx_3a NMVOC 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.01 carbon Periodic 2
adsorption

Cross-media effects
See the CWW BREF [ 45, COM 2016 ].

Technical considerations related to applicability

See the CWW BREF [ 45, COM 2016 ].

Economics
See the CWW BREF [ 45, COM 2016 ].

Driving force for implementation

 Legislation on air pollution.
 Recovery of VOCs.

Example plants
See Table 5.38.

Reference
[ 9, UK EA 2001 ], [ 14, Eucopro 2003 ], [ 19, WT TWG 2004 ], [ 45, COM 2016 ], [ 42, WT
TWG 2014 ]

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5.4 Regeneration of spent solvents

[ 8, LaGrega et al. 1994 ], [ 179, Indaver 2002 ], [ 180, Cruz-Gomez, M. J. 2002 ], [ 181, UBA
Germany 2003 ], [ 18, WT TWG 2004 ], [ 35, VROM 2004 ], [ 36, UBA Germany 2004 ], [
164, UBA Germany 2013 ], [ 29, PCT Subgroup 2015 ]

5.4.1 Applied processes and techniques

Once the waste solvent is passed to a waste treatment plant, there are two main options for its
treatment:
 Utilisation of the calorific value by using it directly as a fuel or blended with other fuels.
The use of waste solvents as fuels is covered in Section 5.3.2.3.
 Treatment of the waste solvent to reconvert it to a material that can be reused as a solvent.
This treatment is referred to in this document as ‘regeneration’. This section details
different treatments that are currently applied to clean waste solvents to regenerate them
to produce solvents.

The solvents and organic acids can be treated to a degree such that they can be returned to the
production cycle as (secondary) raw materials to be reused.

Purpose
Waste solvent is regenerated for reuse.

Principle of operation
Solvent is separated from the contaminants which made it a waste.

Feed and output streams

Waste solvents may be generated in the following industrial sectors and products:

 paints, coatings and paint removers;

 inks;
 chemical and pharmaceutical industries;
 film production;
 production of synthetic fibres;
 rubber, plastic and resin solutions;
 solvents for degreasing;
 solvents for dry cleaning;
 for agricultural products;
 aerosol cans and dispensers;
 cosmetics;
 food industry.

The wastes that are considered solvents correspond mainly to EW codes 07, 08, 09 and 14. The
final code corresponds to a category especially devoted to organic solvents. There are four main
classes of solvent mixtures which make the solvent unusable in its present state and this
promotes its recovery. These are the following:

 Mixture with air. This usually occurs when the solvent has been used to dissolve a resin
or polymer which is laid down by evaporating the solvent. Recovery from air can pose
problems because the solvent may react on a carbon bed adsorber or be difficult to
recover from the steam used to desorb it.

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 Mixture with water. Whether this arises in the solvent-based process or in some part of
the recapture of the solvent, it is very common to find that the solvent may be
contaminated with water. Removal of water is a simple matter in many cases but in others
it is so difficult that restoration to a usable purity may prove to be uneconomic. It should
always be borne in mind that the water removed in the course of solvent recovery is likely
to have to be discharged as an effluent and its quality is therefore important.
 Mixture with a solute. A desired product is often removed by filtration from a reaction
mixture. The function of the solvent in this case is to selectively dissolve the impurities
(unreacted raw materials and the products of unwanted side reactions) in a low-viscosity
liquid phase, with a very low solvent power for the product. The choice of solvent is often
limited in such cases, but significant improvements in the solvent’s chemical stability can
sometimes be found by moving up or down a homologous series without sacrificing the
selectivity of the solvent system. A less sophisticated source of contamination by a solute
occurs in plant cleaning, where the solvent power for any contaminant is of primary
importance but where water miscibility, to allow cleaning and drying to take place in a
single operation, is also an important property.
 Mixtures with other solvents. A multi-stage process such as that typically found in the
fine chemical and pharmaceutical industries can involve the addition of reagent dissolved
in solvents and solvents that are essential to the yields or even to the very existence of the
desired reaction.

Solvent regeneration is common practice in many industries, with a wide range of solvents
currently being regenerated: halogenated solvents, non-halogenated solvents, hydrocarbons,
alcohols, glycols (anti-freeze), organic acids (acetic acid), cleaning agents, automotive brake
fluid and refrigerants. Table 5.40 shows the typical regenerated waste solvents.

Table 5.40: Typical regenerated waste solvents

Class Typical examples
Aldehydes Furfural
Cyclohexane, hexane, heptane white spirit hydrocarbons C9-C12 (flashpoint
Aliphatic hydrocarbons
> 62 °C), pentane, kerosene, iso-dodecane, iso-hexane
Amides Dimethylformamide
Amines Aniline, di-isopropyl amine, triethylamine
Aromatic heterocyclic
Pyridine
compounds
Aromatic hydrocarbons Benzene, toluene, xylene
Chlorofluorocarbons
R11, R12, R114, R134a, etc.
(CFCs)
Methyl formate, methyl acetate, ethyl acetate, butyl acetate, propyl acetate,
Esters/Inorganic salts iso-amyl acetate, potassium acetate, sodium acetate, iso-propyl acetate, n-
butyl acetate, mixed esters
Ethers Tetrahydrofuran, diethyl ether, diisopropyl ether
Monoethylene glycol (MEG), monopropylene glycol (MPG), diethylene
Glycols
glycol (DEG), dipropylene glycol (DPG), triethylene glycol (TEG)
Chloroform, dichloromethane (DCM), monochlorobenzene,
Halogenated solvents
perchloroethylene (PERC), trichlorethylene (Tri), chlorobenzene
Ketones Acetone, methyl ethyl ketone (MEK), methyl iso-butyl-ketone (MIBK)
Methanol, ethanol, butanol, propanol, iso-propanol, iso-butanol, tertiary-
Alcohols
butanol
Nitriles Acetonitrile
Organic acids Acetic acid
Organosulphur
Dimethyl sulfoxide
compounds
Solvent mixtures Miscellaneous and numerous varieties from trade wastes
Source: [ 29, PCT Subgroup 2015 ]

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A waste solvent can be considered regenerative if it meets several criteria, for example relating
to safety, the economic feasibility and activity of the producer, and the quality, capacity and
technical capability of the recovery unit. Waste solvents are subject to an initial laboratory
analysis and in some cases pilot/lab-scale distillation to determine their suitability for solvent
regeneration, the key processing parameters and the expected product yield. An integral part of
this assessment are the key process safety parameters of thermal stability and consideration of
the make-up and treatment/recovery/disposal route of any residual waste or waste water arising.
This pre-assessment takes place before the waste stream is accepted on site and involves
chemists and technical plant operators as well as commercial staff.

Output
Probably the most desirable product of solvent recovery is one that can be used instead of a
purchased new solvent in the place where it was used initially. This does not necessarily mean
that the recovered solvent meets the same specifications as the virgin material. The
specifications of the new solvent will usually have been drawn up by a committee formed of
representatives of both users and producers, who know what the potential impurities are in a
product made by an established process route.
The solvent recycling industry encompasses waste volumes, from 1 litre for laboratory solvents
to ship loads. Recycled product qualities vary from blended solvents for do-it-yourself stores to
monostream solvents (e.g. required for their pharmaceutical purity).

Solvents can be used and recycled again and again without a decline in quality. In the long term,
virgin solvent top-up volumes to run a process are typically less than 25 %. Considering an
overall recycling yield of 75 %, the spent solvent volume decreases over the successive
recycling operations.

Process description
The process includes distillation (batch, continuous or by use of steam, etc.) where high
recovery rates are readily achieved. It is ultimately the incoming waste solvent and the desired
recovered solvent output purity characteristics that dictate the technology to be deployed for
reuse, but more simple techniques including filtration, centrifuging or stripping may suffice for
certain reuses.

Distillation
Distillation is by far the most important industrial method of phase separation. Distillation
involves the partial evaporation of a liquid phase followed by condensation of the vapour. This
separates the starting mixture (the feed) into two fractions with different compositions, namely a
condensed vapour (the condensate or distillate) that is enriched with more volatile components
and a remaining liquid phase (the distilland) that is depleted of volatiles. Distillation processing
can be divided into subcategories according to:
 operating mode (continuous or batch);
 operating pressure (vacuum, atmospheric or pressurised);
 number of distillation stages (single or multi-stage);
 introduction of inert gases (for example steam, to aid separation);
 use of additional compounds to aid separation (azeotropic and extractive distillation).

Different types of distillation are described below:

 Thin film evaporation: a rotating wiper system distributes the crude product as a film on
the inner surface of a heated cylinder. The wiping system speeds up the evaporation
process by keeping the product film turbulent so that the heat transfer and mass transfer
are optimised. The lower boiling fraction of the raw material evaporates within a short
time out of the product film; the residence time of the product at the evaporator wall is
very short. The concentrate is continuously discharged out of the bottom part of the
evaporator.

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 Short path evaporation: a subset of thin film distillation technology, at which lower
working pressures and therefore lower boiling temperatures can be used. Different to the
traditional wiped film evaporator design, the condenser is located inside the short path
evaporator body. There is no vapour line between evaporator and condenser.
 Single stage flash distillation: a distillation (batch) without separation is a flash
distillation to remove solids and discolour the product.
 Multi-stage distillation: a distillation (batch or continuous) which is able to separate the
mixture into their individual components / pure solvents.
 Pressure swing distillation: a double distillation undertaken at different pressures that
results in a different composition being obtained at each distillation stage. This is due to
the fact that the composition of certain azeotropes is pressure-dependent which allows the
elimination of a single component (e.g. water) from the resulting product and the
purification of the main solvent.
 Azeotropic distillation: specific technique of adding another component or solvent to
generate a new, lower-boiling, azeotrope that is heterogeneous (e.g. producing two
immiscible liquid phases) with the subsequent purification of the main
component/solvent. This technique is required to separate materials of similar or even
identical boiling points via distillation techniques.
 Extractive distillation: it uses a separation solvent, which is generally non-volatile, has a
high boiling point and is miscible with the mixture, but does not form an azeotropic
mixture. The solvent interacts differently with the components of the mixture thereby
causing their relative volatilities to change. This enables the new three-part mixture to be
separated by normal distillation.

More complex separations

Only a limited number of separation problems may be solved by simple distillation processes
and this approach can be unsuitable for feeds containing components with similar boiling
temperatures. Higher efficiency can be achieved by increasing the contact surface area or by
contacting the liquid and vapour phases. Rectification columns provide intensive mass transfer
by the repeated countercurrent contact of the vapour and liquid streams in multiple stages.
Rectification columns are of the plate or packed design, and will vary in size depending on the
nature of the waste streams and the desired purity of the product. The internal structure provides
a large contact surface which is constantly regenerated. The mass transfer contact area is
maximised by ensuring that the column packing is fully wetted.

Heat is required at the bottom of a distillation column for evaporating the feed, and cooling
energy is needed for condensation at the top of the column.

Where simple distillation is insufficient to extract the desired solvent from the waste stream,
solvent extraction techniques (usually using a solvent of the opposite polarity) are then the most
important liquid-liquid separation processes used. Typical use of extraction techniques include:

 separation of components with similar boiling points (e.g. separating aromatics from
other hydrocarbons);
 separation of high boiling point substances from aqueous solution;
 separation of mixtures with high boiling points;
 separation of temperature-sensitive compounds;
 separation of azeotropic mixtures.

In order to extract a substance, an extraction aid must be added to form a second liquid phase
solution. Generally, the desired substance is then separated from the solvent aid by distillation
and the spent solvent is recycled.

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Pervaporation
A further technique employed in the European solvent regeneration sector is pervaporation (or
pervaporative separation). This is a processing method for the separation of mixtures of liquids
by partial vaporisation through a non-porous or porous membrane whereby a membrane acts as
a selective barrier between a liquid phase and a vapour phase. This technique entails a two-stage
process, the liquid’s permeation through the membrane and then its evaporation into the vapour
phase. Typically, the upstream side of the membrane is at ambient pressure and the downstream
side is under vacuum to allow the evaporation of the selective component after its permeation
through the membrane.

Other separation methods

Where the waste stream requires solid separation, the main solid-liquid separation techniques
are centrifuging, filtration, sedimentation/clarification and evaporation/drying. Certain
techniques such as thin film evaporation are used for waste solvents containing higher levels of
solid contamination.

Separation by adsorption can also be used to separate components, for example water
adsorption on a molecular sieve.

A typical process flow through a specialist solvent regeneration plant can be seen in Figure 5.17.

Source: [ 180, Cruz-Gomez, M. J. 2002 ]

Figure 5.17: Example flow diagram of a waste solvent regeneration installation

It is estimated that 41 plants across Europe carry out regeneration of waste solvent. [ 146, PCT
Subgroup 2015 ]

The plants from the data collection that use this technique are: 56, 168C, 169C, 170, 214, 394,
420, 447C, 476 and 554.

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5.4.2 Current emission and consumption levels

[ 42, WT TWG 2014 ]

Emissions
The most important concern in the solvent recovery sector is the volatile organic emissions,
which result from waste solvent reclamation.

Ancillary emissions typically occur from the on-site generation of heat for the distillation
process (combustion) and are not covered in this document. Likewise, acidic gaseous and
particulate emissions from solvent incineration are not covered here but may be covered by the
WI BREF. Incinerator stack emissions consist also of solid contaminants that are oxidised and
released as particulates, unburnt organics, and combustion stack gases.

Emission points include storage tank vents, condenser vents, incinerator stacks and fugitive
losses. VOC emissions from equipment leaks, open solvent sources (e.g. sludge draw-off and
the storage of material from distillation and initial treatment operations), solvent loading, and
solvent spills are fugitive.

Solvents may be accidentally spilt during handling, distillation or purification activities.

Materials that are spilt onto the ground may spread over an area, vaporise, and then result in
emissions to air, water or land. Emissions resulting from significant accidental situations such as
spills also need to be estimated.

Emissions to air may arise from a number of sources including non-condensable vapours from
distillation/fractionation operations, and breathing losses from storage tanks and local exhaust
ventilations (LEVs) located at material handling or drumming off points. Emission
concentrations would be expected to be high except from sources such as LEVs. Concentrations
and types of emitted compounds may vary significantly. The flow rates from continuous
fractionation columns operating under vacuum at steady conditions are generally very low (1–
10 m3/h). However, when added together, emission flows could be up to 500 m3/h. Where LEV
systems are connected to abatement equipment this can significantly increase flow rates and the
dilution of vent gases. To minimise the size of abatement equipment, there is a benefit in
keeping process and LEV vents separate.

Figure 5.18 shows an example of a waste solvent regeneration plant and typical sources of
emissions to air.

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Source: [ 180, Cruz-Gomez, M. J. 2002 ]

Figure 5.18: Example of a waste solvent regeneration scheme and emission points

Table 5.41 gives an overview of the processes used by plants from the reference list which carry
out regeneration of waste solvents.

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Table 5.41: Plants from the reference list performing regeneration of waste solvents
Capacity
of waste
Plant
Waste input description Process Waste output description treatment
code
activity
(t/day)
Used solvents from
Atmospheric Solvent for reuse, residues from
pharma, chemical and
and other distillation, water from waste
056 paint industries; virgin 50
kinds of solvent/cleaning or rainwater from
solvent to purify to higher
distillation production plant
quality

Clear recovered solvent without

Vacuum
any impurities, residues from the
Different types of organic distillation and
168C distillation column, contaminated 160
solvents fractional
packaging and unrecoverable spent
distillation
solvents
Atmospheric
distillation,
Waste from chemical and density Stabilised residues, regenerated
169C 80
paints industry separation and hazardous solvents
vacuum
distillation
Atmospheric
distillation,
azeotropic
distillation,
density
separation,
Purified water, regenerated solvent,
fractional
The main origin is oil residues, dry matter, residues from
170 distillation, 270
separation waste water treatment, mixed
simple
plastics
distillation,
adsorption,
vacuum
distillation,
solvent
extraction
Simple
distillation,
density
separation,
Regenerated solvents, solvent/
fractional
Used solvents from water mixtures for incineration,
214 distillation, 240
different industries distillation residue for incineration
vacuum
distillation,
azeotropic
distillation,
centrifugation
Fractional
distillation,
atmospheric Solvents (product, no waste code),
394 Solvents 100
distillation, residue after distillation, packaging
vacuum
distillation
Solvents (product, no waste code),
Vacuum 10
420 Organic solvents residue after distillation, packaging
distillation
(200-litre drums)

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Chemical wastes other Vacuum

447C Organic solvents principally 90
than acids or bases distillation
Organic waste from
chemical processes;
solvent mixture; waste
formulation, manufacture,
distribution and use of
paint and varnish; waste
formulation, manufacture,
distribution and use of
adhesives, sealants and
resins; liquid solutions
from chemical reactions;
Simple
ion exchange resins; waste
distillation,
476 formulation, manufacture, Distillation waste, other 20
vacuum
distribution and use of
distillation
printing inks; mixed
organic and inorganic
chemical product;
absorbents, filter materials,
wiping cloths and dirty
protective clothing; liquid
cleaning solutions; dirty
packaging; sludge and
other waste from processes
of filtration, distillation
and purification
Pure solvents are either returned to
the originator or sold to third-party
Fractional customers; waste process water
554 Organic solvents 120
distillation containing dissolved organic
materials, other output used as
support fuel or incinerated

Table 5.42 shows the emissions to air from these plants. It should be noted that in some cases
the air flow is very low or not even monitored.

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Table 5.42: Emissions to air from plants performing regeneration of waste solvents

Plant Techniques for Range of air flow

Origin of emissions to air
code emissions to air (Nm3/h)

Activated carbon
056_1 Recycling waste solvents: steam boiler adsorption 1404
Condensation
Activated carbon
056_2 Recycling waste solvents: hot oil boiler adsorption 643
Condensation
Activated carbon
Recycling waste solvents: release from adsorption
056_3 storage tanks / vacuum system / Condensation NI
distillation units Cryogenic
condensation

Applied to the whole plant, for the Condensation Wet

168C 20
channelled circuit scrubbing

Condensation Wet
169C Distillation 829
scrubbing
Condensation
Washing column
170 Regeneration of spent solvents Not monitored
Activated carbon
adsorption
Emissions to air are
collected by vacuum,
cleaned in a washer
214 Regeneration of spent solvents NI
and then incinerated
in the steam
generator
Activated carbon
Air from distillation unit and unloading adsorption Thermal
394 Not monitored
tanks afterburning Wet
scrubbing
Good Housekeeping,
420 Regeneration of spent solvents 797
management system

447C Waste treatment process NI 35

Regeneration of spent solvents fuel: steam Activated carbon

476 Not monitored
boiler adsorption

Acid scrubber system

554 NI Activated carbon Not monitored
adsorption
NB: NI = No information.

The parameters measured in emissions to air are given in Table 5.43 and Table 5.44. The latter
table concerning VOC emissions to air has to be interpreted with caution as the values of VOC
concentrations in emissions to air have to be associated to the flow rates of these emissions
which in some cases are very low. In some cases (Plants 56 and 170), only diffuse emissions are
monitored or, in other words, the emissions from the distillation unit are considered fugitive
emissions.

When measured, VOC emissions to air are mostly given in terms of non-methane VOCs
(NMVOC) and expressed as a concentration or as a load (Plants 168 and 420).

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Table 5.43: Parameters measured in emissions to air from plants performing regeneration of
waste solvents
Range (mg/Nm3
Parameter measured Type of measurement Plants concerned except for flow,
temperature and O2)
Continuous 168C 1–25 Nm3/h
Air flow 056_1, 056_2, 169C,
Periodic 35–1 404 Nm3/h
420, 447C
Continuous 168C, 447C 25–70 °C
Air temperature
Periodic 169C, 420, 476 6.9–175.6 °C

056_1, 056_2, 169C,

O2 Periodic 0–21 vol-%
420, 476

056_1, 056_2, 420,

SOX Periodic 0–1549
447C, 476

056_1, 056_2, 420,

CO Periodic 0–55
447C, 476
Continuous 168C
169C, 170, 420,
NMVOC Periodic
447C
Estimated 420
See
TVOC Periodic 169C, 554 Table 5.44
TOC Continuous 394
NMVOC with risk
Continuous 168C
phrase
056_1, 056_2,
Dust Periodic 1–5
056_3, 168C

056_1, 056_2, 420,

NOX Periodic 0–805
476
NH3 Periodic 554 0.3
CO2 Periodic 56_1, 56_2 5.3–7.9 vol-%
R40, R45, R61 Periodic 170 NI
NB: NI = No information.

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Table 5.44: VOC emissions from plants performing regeneration of waste solvents

Number of measurements Monitoring

Abatement Parameter Type of Average air flow
Plant Average value during the 3-year reference standard
technique measured measurement (Nm3/h)
period (2010-2012) used

Activated carbon
adsorption
No direct
56_3 Condensation NA NA NA Once a year NA
monitoring
Cryogenic
condensation
30 000 ppm (or 133
g/Nm3) Continuous,
NMVOC, Xn,
3 080 kg/year expressed in volume Continuous
R10, Xi
0.5 kg/h as yearly ppm
average
Condensation NF EN
168 20 2 tests of these substances
Wet scrubbing 13526 (1)
per year.
These tests are carried out by an
NMVOC CMR 0 Periodic
external company which is
authorised/licensed by the
authorities.
NF EN
3 12619 and
Condensation TVOC 4 437 mg C/Nm
169 Periodic 829 NI NF EN
Wet scrubbing
13526 (1)
NMVOC 3 695 mg C/Nm3 XP X 43 554
Condensation
Washing column
170 NMVOC < 110 mg/m3 Periodic Not monitored 12 times in 2011 NI
Activated carbon
adsorption
Air emissions are
collected by
vacuum, cleaned
Every 3 years, measurement of
214 in a washer and NI NI NI NI NI
boiler emissions
then incinerated
in the steam
generator

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Activated carbon
adsorption
FID
394 Thermal TOC < 20 mg/Nm3 Continuous Not monitored Continuous
measurement
afterburning Wet
scrubbing
Good
housekeeping NMVOC and 0.006 kg/h for NMVOC NEN-EN
420 Measured 797 1 time/year
Management equivalent C 5 mg C/m3 13526 (1)
system
UNE EN
447 NI NMVOC 24 973 mg/Nm3 Periodic 35 18 times (6 times/year)
13526 (1)
Measures
done with a
hand-held
Acid scrubber Annual check by external
2.9 mg/Nm3 (Class A PID VOC
system Activated contractor. Measurement #1 =
554 TVOC VOCs) and 14 mg/Nm3 Periodic Not monitored detector on a
carbon Class A VOCs. Measurement #2
(Class B VOCs) daily basis
adsorption = Class B VOCs.
and
controlled
once a year
(1) Superseded by EN 12619:2013.
NB: NA = Not applicable.
NI = No information.

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As for emissions to water, Table 5.45 and Table 5.46 give an overview of the origin of
emissions to water, the abatement techniques and the pollutants measured in emissions to water.

One plant mentions not having any water discharge. Of the other nine plants, five have direct
discharge of waste water which comes essentially from the cooling circuit of the installations or
from the blowdown of the steam circuit.

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Table 5.45: Emissions to water from plants performing regeneration of waste solvents
Water
Techniques flow (m3/h
Plant Origin of emissions Receiving
for emissions Type of discharge unless
code to water body
to water mentioned
otherwise)
Water from steam
circuit and water
from cooling circuit.
All other waste
Discharge from the
waters from Transitional
WT plant to the
cleaning tanks and waters (i.e.
environment without
installation, water surface
treatment for
56 fractions from None water in the 0.2
unpolluted water.
distillation and vicinity of
Contaminated waste
rainwater from river
water is treated in an
production zones are mouths)
external WWTP.
stored separately,
analysed and treated
in external industrial
waste water plants
Discharge from the
WT plant to the
Regeneration of environment without
spent solvents: treatment (all waste 4 200
168 None River/Stream
draining of the decant waters are m3/year
cooling towers destroyed by
incineration in a
furnace at 800 °C)
No release of
169 NA NA NA NA
process water
Active sludge
systems - Discharge from the
conventional, on-site common
Transitional
Coagulation, WWT facilities to the
waters (i.e.
Decantation, environment (when
surface
Flocculation, the design/operation
170 Whole plant water in the 50
Powdered of the WWT facility
vicinity of
activated is mainly influenced
river
carbon by waste water
mouths)
treatment, streams coming from
Aeration, Air the WT plant)
stripping
214 NI NI NI NI NI
Release of untreated
cooling water and
flush water steam
394 boiler. Discharge None NI NI NI
waste water not
related to this
process.
Transitional
waters (i.e.
Good Discharge from the
surface
Release of untreated housekeeping, WT plant to the
420 water in the 10
groundwater Management environment without
vicinity of
system treatment
river
mouths)

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Discharge from the

No WT plant and its
pretreatment. auxiliary systems, as
Water samples well as from on-site
Waste treatment
447 are sent to an waste water Groundwater 2.7
process
authorised pretreatment
laboratory for facilities, to an
analysis. urban/municipal
sewer system
Discharge from the
WT plant and its
auxiliary systems, as
well as from on-site
Not
476 NI NI waste water River/Stream
monitored
pretreatment
facilities, to an
urban/municipal
sewer system

Discharge to river of
low-grade aqueous Discharge from the
waste (from WT plant to the
554 None River/Stream 0.5
blowdown of boiler environment without
and bleed from treatment
cooling towers)

NB: NA = Not applicable.

NI = No information.

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Table 5.46: Parameters measured in emissions to water from plants performing regeneration of
waste solvents
Number of
Ranges
measurements
Pollutant Plants (mg/l except
Type of measurement during the 3-year
measured concerned for pH and
reference period
PCDD/F)
(2010-2012)
Composite sample 56, 554 5–37.9 3
TSS
Grab sample 168, 447, 476 3–14 4–9
24-hour flow-
proportional composite 170 100 NA
COD sample
Composite sample 56 152 1
Grab sample 168, 447, 476 38.8–73 3–10
24-hour flow-
proportional composite 170 35 NA
BOD5
sample
Composite sample 56, 554 19–36 1–3
Composite sample 554 7.9 3
pH
Grab sample 168, 447 7.4–7.5 3–10
Composite sample 554 0.1 3
TOC
Grab sample 168, 447 3–19 3–4
24-hour flow-
proportional composite 170 1 NA
Total P
sample
Grab sample 447, 476 0.6–1.1 4–10
24-hour flow-
proportional composite 170 0.4 NA
AOX
sample
Grab sample 168, 447 0.3–1.3 3–8
24-hour flow-
proportional composite 170 6 NA
TKN
sample
Grab sample 447 1.6 10
Composite sample 554 1.7 3
NH3-N
Grab sample 476 4.4 4
24-hour flow-
proportional composite 170 0 NA
Cd
sample
Composite sample 56 < 0.001 1
24-hour flow-
proportional composite 170 0 NA
Hg
sample
Composite sample 56 < 0.0002 1
24-hour flow-
proportional composite 170 0 NA
As
sample
Composite sample 56 < 0.01 1

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24-hour flow-
proportional composite 170 0 NA
Pb
sample
Composite sample 56 < 001 1
24-hour flow-
proportional composite 170 0 NA
Cr
sample
Composite sample 56 < 0.01 1
24-hour flow-
proportional composite 170 0.1 NA
Cu
sample
Composite sample 56 < 0.02 1
24-hour flow-
proportional composite 170 0 NA
Ni
sample
Composite sample 56 < 0.01 1
24-hour flow-
proportional composite 170 0.04 NA
Zn
sample
Composite sample 56 0.05 1
BTEX Grab sample 447 545.5 9
PCDD/F 23 ng I-
Grab sample 447 4
(Tetrahydrofuran) TEQ/l
TDS Grab sample 168 2.9 3
BOD7 Grab sample 168 NI NI
THC Grab sample 168 0.1 3
Cl- Grab sample 447 118.7 10
S2- Grab sample 447 0.2 4
Total N Composite sample 56 1.8 1
Soluble salts
Grab sample 476 1527 4
(S/cm)
NB: NI = No information. NA = Not applicable.

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The primary wastes from solvent regeneration activities are the distillation residues. The amount
of these residues is entirely dependent on the composition of the waste stream and can vary
from zero to significant percentages.

Depending on the nature of the waste streams and the chosen process, there are two main
approaches. The first is to keep the residues mobile as sludge/liquids that are capable of being
pumped and to ensure full containment of the residues within the process. This may be followed
by pumping or transporting the residues to ancillary waste treatment processes such as
production of secondary liquid fuel for subsequent energy recovery. The alternative approach is
to maximise the solvent recovered through the process and to load the residues, which are then
dry or nearly dry, into containers for subsequent disposal. (For some solvent regeneration
processes, the distillation residue itself is subject to a further separation to maximise the
extraction of valuable components.)

Both approaches have environmental advantages and disadvantages and the choice of a suitable
option is largely determined by the nature of each waste stream. Key process safety parameters
have to be closely controlled for these two processes; in the first case primarily relating to
chemical compatibility, and in the second case the stability of residues as they become
increasingly concentrated and dry. Ancillary waste streams consist of emptied containers,
personal protective equipment (PPE) and other solid wastes arising from the process.

During storage and handling, and in the distillation process, hydrocarbons are emitted to air.
The emission of hydrocarbons (CxHy) through the distillation process is estimated to be 0.5 kg/t
of waste solvent.

Some contaminated solvents contain water. After dewatering, the water fraction contains traces
of solvent. This water fraction ranges from a negligible amount to a maximum of 5 % to 10 %.
It is purified in a waste water treatment plant and discharged.

The amount of distillation bottom depends on the composition of the waste solvent. On average,
the amount is estimated to be 25 % of the processed amount.

[ 10, Babtie Group Ltd 2002 ], [ 18, WT TWG 2004 ], [ 29, PCT Subgroup 2015 ]

Energy consumption
The reported average energy consumption per tonne of waste treated is around 800 kWh/t, with
a range of 60–2 560 kWh/t. The main energy demand in distillation processes is for heat, which
is provided mostly by fossil fuel combustion and/or imported heat (steam).

Water usage
The reported average water usage per tonne of waste treated is around 1 200 l/t, with a range of
220–3 700 l/t. Water is used as cooling water and in steam boilers.

5.4.3 Techniques to consider in the determination of BAT

5.4.3.1 Recovery of raw material or energy from distillation residues

Description
Recovery of the solvent and/or energy from the distillation residue.

Technical description
Vacuum dryers and other drying techniques are used for distillation bottoms to evaporate the
residue from the distillation columns and recuperate the solvents.

Alternatively, energy is recovered from the distillation residues with calorific value.

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Achieved environmental benefits

This technique results in an increase in the percentage of solvent recovered. Resins and
pigments may also be regenerated and reused. At the same time they may reduce the odour and
VOC emissions that may be generated by the bottoms.

Environmental performance and operational data

A distillation bottom sludge may have a significant concentration of solvent, which, if the
material is in liquid form, may render it suitable for recovery.

Energy (heat and power) is necessary to run such systems. There are systems for the treatment
of up to 4 000 tonnes of distillation residues per year, from which it is possible to obtain
between 1 500 tonnes and 2 000 tonnes of solvents per year. The specific kneading energy is up
to 0.1 kWh/kg. The separation of heating and cooling zones facilitates efficient product
temperature control.

Cross-media effects
 Treatment or disposal of the solid residue that is generated.
 Abatement of VOC emissions to air.

Technical considerations relevant to applicability

This technique does not need much floor space and is easily applicable to existing plants. It is
applicable to distillation residues of painting solvents, polymers, elastomers, pharmaceutical
products and food products. However, the stability of residues may decrease as they become
increasingly concentrated and dry. Moreover, the recovery of solvents may be restricted when
the energy demand is excessive with regards to the quantity of solvent recovered.

Economics
The investment cost is EUR 1.2 million. Operating costs vary between EUR 100 and EUR 150
per tonne of residue treated.

Driving force for implementation

To improve the recovery of solvents and minimise waste.

Example plants
At least six plants use this system around the world. At least four are in the EU. Drying
techniques are in use in the UK for the distillation of bottom sludges.

Reference literature
[ 85, Scori 2002 ], [ 9, UK EA 2001 ], [ 96, WT TWG 2003 ], [ 18, WT TWG 2004 ]

5.4.3.2 Monitoring of diffuse and fugitive VOC emissions to air

Description
Diffuse and fugitive VOC emissions to air are monitored by measurement or calculation.

Technical description
Diffuse and fugitive VOC emissions may be monitored by one or a combination of these
methods:

 Measurement by sniffing or optical gas imaging in application of LDAR

(see Section 2.3.5.4).
 Solvent mass balance, considering the input solvent, the solvent output, the channelled
emissions to air, and the distillation residues. Useful indications can be found in Annex VII
to Directive 2010/75/EU.

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 Engineering calculation: Emissions estimation equations are available for the following
types of emissions found at a solvent recycling facility:
o material loading;
o surface evaporation;
o material storage; and
o spills.
Inputs for theoretical equations generally fall into the following categories:
(1) chemical/physical properties of the material involved, such as vapour pressure and
vapour molecular weight;
(2) operating data, such as the amount of material processed and operating hours; and
(3) physical characteristics and properties of the source, such as tank colour and diameter.
 Emissions factors: these are numbers that can be multiplied by known data such as
plant/process activity data or throughput data. Emissions factors are typically based on
the results of source tests performed at an individual facility or at one or more facilities
within the same or similar industries. Emissions factors may be used to calculate total
VOC emissions from solvent recycling facilities, as well as emissions from specific types
of equipment typically found at such a facility. These types of equipment include the
following:
o process equipment;
o distillation and purification systems;
o washing equipment; and
o process piping.

[ 43, COM 2018 ], [ 182, Dpt. Environment, AUS 1999 ],

Achieved environmental benefits

Control of diffuse and fugitive VOC emissions to air.

Environmental performance and operational data

Table 5.47 shows the monitoring of diffuse VOC emissions at plants performing regeneration of
waste solvents.

Table 5.47: Monitoring of diffuse VOC emissions at plants performing regeneration of waste
solvents
Plant Range Monitoring of diffuse emissions
Measurement once a year by external
56_3 674 kg/year company following Flemish regulation
VLAREM II 4.4.6.
Calculated
168 583–5958 kg/year
(through the solvent management plan)
Calculated
169 NI
(through the solvent management plan)
170 NI Calculation
214 NI NI
394 NA Not monitored
420 NA Not monitored
447 NA Not monitored
476 NA Not monitored
554 NA Not monitored
NB: NI = No information.
NA = Not applicable.

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Cross-media effects
None identified.

Technical considerations relevant to applicability

Generally applicable.

Economics
No information provided.

Driving force for implementation

 Legislation on air pollution.
 Identification of leaks and optimisation of the process.

Example plants
Plants 56, 168, 169 and 170.

Reference literature
[ 183, Leefmilieu et al. 2015 ], [ 98, Directive 2010/75/EU 2010 ], [ 43, COM 2018 ],
[ 42, WT TWG 2014 ]

5.4.3.3 Collection and abatement of VOC emissions to air

Description
Collection and abatement of VOC emissions with a combination of techniques.

Technical description
All captured emissions to air from tanks, gas exchange operations, distilling operations and
vacuum pumps' exhaust are collected in a single waste air stream ducted to the treatment
system. Collected was gas is treated by a combination of the following techniques:

 condensation (Section 2.3.4.8);

 cryogenic condensation (Section 2.3.4.8);
 activated carbon adsorption (Section 2.3.4.9);
 wet scrubbing (Section 2.3.4.10);
 thermal oxidation (Section 2.3.4.6).

Condensation and/or cryogenic condensation are also part of the process itself to condense the
distillation product, and adequate control of condenser parameters is essential to minimise VOC
emissions from the condenser vents. Condenser (cooling) failure results in an automatic process
shutdown.

In some cases, after the condensation step, the process off-gas with some remaining solvents is
burnt as a by-stream in the steam boiler supplying the plant. In the event that the steam boiler is
out of operation or the waste air volume exceeds the steam boiler's air demand this pretreated
process off-gas is fed to activated carbon beds and then released.

Achieved environmental benefits

Reduction and control of channelled VOC emissions.

In the case of process off-gas combustion in the steam boiler, the remaining solvents' calorific
value is used to support the recycling process by reducing natural gas consumption. Other
benefits include a reduced volume of purchased activated carbon and the reduced need for
recycling of activated carbon.

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Environmental performance and operational data

Table 5.48 shows the environmental performance of plants equipped with thermal oxidation,
activated carbon, condensation or wet scrubbing, in terms of emissions of organic compounds to
air.

Table 5.48: Environmental performance of plants performing regeneration of spent solvents and
equipped with thermal oxidation, activated carbon, condensation or wet scrubbing

during the 3-year reference

Number of measurements
prevent/reduce emissions
Maximum concentration
Minimum concentration

Average concentration

Maximum load (kg/h)

Type of measurement
Main techniques to

period (2010-2012)
Parameter
Plant code

Pollutant/

(mg/Nm3)

(mg/Nm3)

(mg/Nm3)

2011:
Condensation,
30000 Average
Wet scrubbing
2012: values:
with solvented
25000 2011: 1.2 Continu
168C_AI TVOC NI NI absorber NI
2013: 2012: 1 ous
followed by
14800 2013: 0.6
continuous
2015: 2015: 0.5
desorption
12000
2011:4100
2012: Average
5800 values:
2013: 2011: 4.7
Condensation,
169C_AI TVOC NI 3580 NI 2012: 1.9 Periodic 3
Wet scrubbing
2014: 2013: 2.7
1700 2014: 1.4
2015: 2015: 1.3
1500
Activated carbon
adsorption,
Thermal Continu
394 TOC 20.0 20.0 20.0 NI NA
afterburning ous
(boiler), Wet
scrubbing
Class
A Acid scrubber
VOCs 1.7 2.9 5 system, 3 for each
554 NI Periodic
Class 5.6 14 29 Activated carbon VOC class
B adsorption
VOCs

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As for combustion in a steam boiler, the base energy used in the steam boiler (99 %) is natural
gas. Solvents not condensed out of the waste off-gas are burnt and their energy becomes part of
the heat for distilling. The steam boiler's burner is adjusted to handle two energy streams
(natural gas and waste off-gas/air).

Cross-media effects
See the CWW BREF [ 45, COM 2016 ].

Technical considerations relevant to applicability

Activated carbon beds tend to self-ignite when loaded with ketones.
[ 174, UBA Germany 2012 ]

In the case of process off-gas combustion in the steam boiler or in the case of thermal oxidation,
halogenated solvent wastes are not acceptable in order to avoid generating and emitting PCBs
and/or PCDD/Fs. All incoming wastes are analysed to prevent halogenated solvents being burnt
in unwanted quantities. The tolerable content of halogenated solvents is < 1 w/w-%.

Economics
See the CWW BREF [ 45, COM 2016 ] for the end-of-pipe techniques.

Driving force for implementation

Legislation on air pollution.

Example plants
See Table 5.48.

Combustion of process off-gas in the steam boiler is carried out at Plants 214 and 394.

Reference literature
[ 174, UBA Germany 2012 ], [ 29, PCT Subgroup 2015 ], [ 42, WT TWG 2014 ], [ 45, COM
2016 ]

5.4.3.4 Reduction of waste water generation and of water usage from

vacuum generation

5.4.3.4.1 Water-free vacuum generation

Description
Water-free vacuum generation can be achieved by using mechanical pumping systems in a
closed circuit procedure, discharging only a small amount of water as blowdown, or by means
of dry running pumps. This discharge amounts to less than 5 % of that of the once-through
system. In some cases, water-free vacuum generation can be achieved by use of the product as a
barrier liquid in a mechanical vacuum pump, or by use of a gas stream out of the production
process.

Environmental performance and operational data

Prevention of water contamination in vacuum generation is an achieved environmental benefit
of water-free vacuum generation.

Cross-media effects
In selecting the proper process for water-free vacuum generation, account needs to be taken of
the potential problems, particularly with respect to corrosion, tendency to cake, explosion risk,
plant safety and operational reliability.

Technical considerations relevant to applicability

Whether water-free vacuum generation is possible has to be determined in each particular case.

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Appropriate limitations have to be considered, especially in the case of mechanical vacuum

pumps with a closed cycle, such as liquid ring pumps, rotary sliding vane pumps or diaphragm
vacuum pumps. Here, for example, vapours can decrease the lubricity of the oil.

Provided that gas condensation in the pump is prevented, e.g. by a high gas outlet temperature,
dry running pumps are an attractive option when solvents are to be recovered or when a high
vacuum is necessary. These pumps cannot be employed if the gas stream contains large amounts
of condensable (e.g. water vapour), dust-forming or coating material. The use of dry running
pumps is restricted when the gas stream contains corrosive substances and it is also usually
restricted to some temperature classes.

Economics
The capital costs of a dry running vacuum pump are much higher than those of a water ring
vacuum pump but on a long-term basis the total costs can be balanced because of the costs of
treating the liquid ring water.

As an example, at an OFC plant, three water ring pumps were replaced by two new dry running
vacuum pumps. The operating costs of the old and the new installation are shown in the OFC
BREF [ 218, COM 2006 ]. The investments in the new vacuum generation technique including
safety equipment and installation were EUR 89 500 net (DEM 175 000 in 1999). The payback
time is thus one year.

Driving force for implementation

Reduction of waste water loads and cost savings are the driving forces for implementation of
this technique.

Example plants
OFC plant [ 184, COM 2006 ].

Reference literature
[ 45, COM 2016 ], [ 184, COM 2006 ]

5.4.3.4.2 Liquid ring pumps with high boiling point liquids

Description
Liquid ring pumps with high boiling point liquids.

Technical description
Solvent recycling by distillation is most often carried out in vacuum conditions. A vacuum is
commonly generated by means of injectors operated with water or high-pressure steam as the
driving force or water-ring vacuum pumps. By operating these devices, water is polluted by
virtue of its use. Water-miscible solvents (such as ketones) and alcohols combined with non-
miscible components, such as hydrocarbons, make non-miscible ones partly miscible.
Therefore, hydrocarbons cannot be skimmed away from the water surface. Waste water polluted
with solvents and hydrocarbons is generated.

In this technique, a vacuum down to 20 mbar absolute is generated using liquid ring pumps with
high boiling point liquids. Solvent vapours generated by the distillation process under vacuum
are absorbed into that high boiling point liquid. This liquid is alternately cooled and heated in a
continuous process. When becoming hot, the condensed and soluble solvents are desorbed and
the liquid ring fluid is returned to the vacuum pump for the next reuse. Desorbed solvents are
condensed and recovered.

After several hundred hours of operation, the liquid ring fluid itself needs regeneration by
distillation.

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Achieved environmental benefits

 Limitation of waste water generation.
 No waste water treatment needed.
 No water usage.

Environmental performance and operational data

The formerly polluted waste water (about 20 m3/day, sometimes containing > 1 000 mg/l
hydrocarbons) disappears with the use of this technique.

Cross-media effects
No cross-media effects are believed to be likely.

Technical considerations relevant to applicability

Generally applicable.

Economics
No information provided.

Driving force for implementation

 Avoidance of generation of waste water.
 Improvement in yield of recycling process.

Example plants
ORM Bergold Chemie GmbH, Bochum and Langlau, Germany.

Reference literature
[ 174, UBA Germany 2012 ]

5.4.3.4.3 Closed cycle liquid ring vacuum pumps

Description
Liquid ring vacuum pumps can be designed for total recirculation of the sealing liquid. The
system normally includes a pump suction condenser with a condensate recovery tank and a
post-condenser for the condensation of residual gas. The construction materials are normally
CrNiMo stainless steel and all process side-related seals are made of PTFE.

Achieved environmental benefits

 Significantly less sealing liquid (e.g. water) becomes contaminated.
 A completely closed system with no contact between the cooling and the sealing liquid.
 Handled gases/vapours (e.g. solvents) are recovered.

Cross-media effects
No cross-media effects are believed to be likely.

Environmental performance and operational data

The recirculated sealing liquid should be considered for disposal after a certain time.

Technical considerations relevant to applicability

This technique is widely applicable.

The reuse of recovered solvents may be restricted in the manufacturing of active pharmaceutical
ingredients, but not applicable for the manufacturing of explosives due to safety concerns.

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Economics
No information provided.

Driving force for implementation

Economics and the reduction of waste water loads are the driving forces for the implementation
of this technique.

Example plants
OFC plant [ 184, COM 2006 ]

Reference literature
[ 45, COM 2016 ], [ 184, COM 2006 ]

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5.5 Regeneration/recovery of pollution abatement

components / FGT residues
This section includes information on the recovery of components from waste generated by
abatement techniques.

5.5.1 Applied processes and techniques

5.5.1.1 Regeneration of spent activated carbon

Purpose
To treat the spent activated carbon to produce a material with properties and qualities very
similar to the original activated carbon.

Principle of operation
Thermal treatments are the main processes used for regeneration. During the process, drying,
thermal desorption and heat treatment are carried out.

Feed and output streams

Activated carbon is commercially available in three forms: extruded, granular and powder.
Since powdered carbon is extremely difficult to regenerate, this activity is not carried out on
powdered carbon. Only the first two forms are therefore considered in this section.

Most industrial plants tend to send their spent carbon off site for regeneration by a large
centralised carbon manufacturer. Quantities of spent carbon from industrial sources (textiles,
refinery products, carpet mills, plastic industry, phenolic resins, herbicides, explosives,
detergents, solvents, dyes), whilst reasonably substantial, do not approach those obtained from
potable water purification. From discussions with various carbon regenerators, it appears that
water treatment provides the single largest source of spent carbon. Activated carbon adsorption
systems can be used for a wide variety of applications and can potentially contain a cocktail of
adsorbed pollutants. The contaminants found in spent activated carbons are typically:
 chlorine;
 organic compounds (reflected in the COD/BOD emission parameter), e.g. pesticides; bulk
organics imparting colour, taste and/or odour (i.e. humic acids); general organics such as
phenol;
 metals such as iron, aluminium, cadmium and mercury;
 inorganic elements such as calcium and phosphorus;
 dyes (cause of colour);
 detergents;
 explosives (only in material that comes from the manufacture of explosives).

Process description
Regeneration is normally carried out thermally and is typically composed of the following
operations.

Receipt, handling and dewatering

Spent activated carbon is normally received on site as a drained solid in tankers. Water is added
at the regeneration site in order to turn the carbon into slurry, which is fed to a tank where it is
dewatered and charged into a kiln to be regenerated.

Thermal regeneration
After separation from the water, the moist carbon is fed into the furnace for regeneration.
During thermal regeneration, drying, thermal desorption (i.e. removal of the organic substances)

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and high-temperature (650–1 000 °C) heat treatment in a slightly oxidising controlled
atmosphere are carried out.

The types of equipment generally used are multiple hearth furnaces, directly fired rotary kiln
furnaces and indirectly fired rotary kiln furnaces (where there is no contact between the kiln
content with the flue-gases generated by the burner). Fluidised bed furnaces and infrared
furnaces may also be used.

Multiple hearth furnaces have significant advantages over other types of furnace from the
standpoint of regeneration efficiency because the temperature of each hearth may be
independently controlled. The direction of the exit gases may be either co-current or
countercurrent to the flow of carbon. In some designs, the afterburner may be incorporated
within the furnace at the ‘zero’ hearth level. The multiple hearth furnace shows better mass
transfer and temperature control characteristics than the rotary kiln and has a carbon residence
time of typically one to two hours. Carbon losses may be up to 10 % by weight.

Directly fired rotary kilns may be operated with the carbon flowing either co-currently or
countercurrently to the flow of combustion air. In the countercurrent mode of operation, the exit
gases leaving the kiln are at a higher temperature than in the co-current mode, which allows the
potential for designing the afterburner to less stringent criteria while still destroying gaseous
contaminants.

Indirectly heated kilns offer the advantage of eliminating the mixing of burner flue-gases with
process gases.

Indirectly heated furnaces are normally constructed with a metal tube and are not likely to be
suitable for industrial applications due to corrosion problems which may appear during the
treatment of some industrial carbons.

Indirectly fired kilns are generally used for the treatment of industrial carbons where more
onerous temperature criteria apply to the afterburner.

Owing to the absence of exposed metal surfaces, rotary kilns are normally able to operate at
higher temperatures than multiple hearth furnaces. Carbon losses in rotary kilns may be in the
range of 5–15 % by weight. Careful attention is paid to the seals between the rotating kiln and
the end plates to prevent any leakage of gases and dust. Fugitive emissions from this area are
normally controlled by operating the kiln at a slightly negative pressure.

Infrared furnaces are relatively new in application and are predominantly found in the United
States. Their mode of firing is by infrared elements and indirect heating of the carbon. As a
result, they avoid the generation of a combustible gas, which can result in lower volumes of air
requiring treatment in the abatement chain. They are, however, limited to maximum waste
treatment capacities of around 1 000 tonnes per year.

Other treatments
Other treatments are available such as steam, chemical and biological regeneration. However,
they are only used for in situ regeneration on site and not at standalone waste treatment plants.
Steam regeneration is a non-destructive technique and is primarily used where the spent carbon
contains highly volatile compounds. The resulting steam/VOC vapours are condensed.
Chemical regeneration is a non-destructive technique that uses a variety of gaseous or liquid
desorbents. There are numerous regenerative materials available, many of them highly specific
to the individual application.

Users
The most common use of these techniques is in the thermal regeneration of activated carbon,
especially in facilities regenerating industrial or potable water/food-grade carbons. This is
because of the potential for carbons from a variety of sources to be contaminated with a range of

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organics. The other methods, such as steam regeneration, tend to be applied in specific areas and
are typically undertaken on site.

Reference literature
[ 67, UK Environment Agency 1996 ], [ 6, UK Department of the Environment 1991 ], [ 18,
WT TWG 2004 ]

5.5.1.2 Regeneration of ion exchange resins

[ 67, UK Environment Agency 1996 ], [ 6, UK Department of the Environment 1991 ], [ 18,

WT TWG 2004 ]

Purpose
To regenerate ion exchange resins for their reuse.

Principle of operation
Thermal regeneration which may be accomplished by using hot water or steam.

Feed and output streams

The feed corresponds to spent resin with the output of the process being regenerated resin.

A large proportion of resins sold worldwide are used in water treatment (i.e. water softening).
The remaining balance is divided between chemical processing, extractive metallurgy, and food
and pharmaceutical processing.

Operating ion exchange resins may concentrate toxic ions such as chromate and cyanide, or
heavy metals. Due to the predominance of water applications, they may also contain pesticides,
chlorine, phenols and inorganic elements such as calcium, sodium, manganese and phosphorus.

Conventional ion exchange resins are bead-shaped and behave like plastic ball bearings when
handled. They contain ion-active sites throughout their structure, have a uniform distribution of
activity, and can usually resist breakages resulting from handling or from osmotic shock (i.e. a
rapid change in solution environment). Most beads are sold in the 40 µm to 1.2 mm size range.

The releases from a process of this nature are small and confined mainly to emissions to water.
Some emissions resulting from different regeneration plants are shown in Table 5.49.

Table 5.49: Range of emissions found in different ion exchange regenerators

Air pollutants From Concentration (mg/Nm3)
HCl Filling of bulk storage <5
Water pollutants From Concentration (µg/l)
Effluent flow rate (1) NI 5–10 m3/h
Cd NI < 0.5–3 (2)
Hg NI 0.86 (2)
Organic Sn NI < 0.3–2.0 (2)
Solid waste From Concentration
Waste resins NI NA
Fines NI NA
When resin is combined with
Backwash filter activated carbon as a guard or a NA
backwash filter
(1) Steam regeneration can produce large quantities of contaminated aqueous effluent.
(2) Values that correspond to peak values.
NB: Reference conditions of waste gas: dry gas, 6 % O2.
NI = No information.
NA = Not applicable.
Source: [ 6, UK Department of the Environment 1991 ], [ 7, UK, H. 1995 ]

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Process description
Steam regeneration
Steam regeneration is only possible if the temperature limits of the resins are within those of the
available steam pressure. For example, styrene-based polymeric adsorbents are usually stable to
200 °C, whilst acrylic-based resins are only stable up to 150 °C. The adsorbed solvent and other
organic constituents can cause the resin matrix to swell and weaken. It is important, therefore,
that the removal of these constituents by steaming does not result in the disruption and break-up
of the resin matrix.

Hot water regeneration

Hot water regeneration is only possible for thermally stable resins.

Hot water regeneration increases the rate of resin regeneration. The use of hot water to
regenerate resins potentially provides reductions in effluent volume and requires less energy,
particularly where heat recovery is employed on the regenerated fluid.

The principal technique employed to control releases to water is a pH balancing system.

Chemical regeneration using regenerant solutions

Regenerant solution is applied to the exhaust resin to return it to its original ion exchange form
(weak-/strong-, anion-/cation-). Regenerant is a concentrated solution that is capable of
reversing the ion exchange equilibrium by the principle of mass action. The sort of regenerant
solution used depends on the type of ion exchange resin: acidic solutions (e.g. hydrochloric or
sulphuric acids and their salts) for cation- and alkaline/basic (e.g. caustic soda) for anion-ion
exchange resins. For a description of the treatment and effluent see Section 3.3.2.3.4.11 of the
CWW BREF. The regenerant effluent will need to be neutralised.

Users
Resin regeneration is not widely used but it may be applied to resins used for the desalination of
brackish water for a cleaner process water usage. It is not used for deionised water applications.

Reference literature
[ 6, UK Department of the Environment 1991 ], [ 7, UK, H. 1995 ]

5.5.1.3 Regeneration of waste catalysts

The recovery of the metals from catalysts (some precious metal recovery treatments are already
covered in the Non-Ferrous Metals Industries BREF) and the treatment of spent catalysts as raw
materials for other processes (e.g. the treatment of spent alumina-supported catalysts in the
cement industry which is covered in the Production of Cement, Lime and Magnesium Oxide
BREF) are not covered in this document. This document only includes ex situ regeneration of
waste catalysts. In situ regeneration is typically part of a production process where a catalyst is
used and thus is not covered by the scope of this document.

Purpose
Some waste catalysts and waste from abatement techniques are disposed of; however, some
catalysts used in abatement techniques (e.g. NOX abatement) are regenerated.

Principle of operation
Regeneration of precious, platinum and noble metal catalysts to remove coke deposits can
successfully restore the activity, selectivity and stability of the original fresh catalyst. Coke
deposits are removed by controlled combustion.

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Feed and output streams

Catalysts from the refineries and petrochemical industry such as those used in hydrotreating,
hydrocracking, reforming and isomerisation are typically regenerated. Noble metal catalysts are
also regenerated. The metals that are worth recovering for economic reasons are rhodium,
cadmium, platinum, iridium, Raney nickel and some petroleum catalysts with nickel-cobalt,
cobalt-molybdenum, and cobalt.

Spent catalysts
The spent catalysts that may be regenerated ex situ are as follows.

Metal catalysts
These include platinum-alumina reforming catalysts which can be regenerated by the removal of
carbonaceous deposits from the catalyst surface using a carefully controlled combustion
procedure, followed by platinum redispersion and rechloriding of the catalyst support.

Noble metal catalysts

These can be regenerated by removing the coke deposits to successfully restore the activity,
selectivity and stability of the original fresh catalyst. Coke deposits are removed by controlled
combustion.

Base metal catalysts

Hydroprocessing catalysts can be regenerated using different methods such as regenerative
oxidation treatment to remove coke (ex situ regeneration) or redispersion of the metals in the
case of poisoning by the sintering of metals.

Zeolites
These can be regenerated relatively easily by using methods such as heating to remove adsorbed
materials, ion exchanging with sodium to remove cations, or a pressure swing to remove
adsorbed gases. However, they are often regenerated in situ because the structure is often
damaged and, depending on the application, the pores can be contaminated with heavy metals or
other catalyst poisons.

Regenerated catalysts
Table 5.50 shows the carbon and sulphur levels, the surface area, and the average length of the
spent catalyst feed and the regenerated product from the belt-only and fine regeneration
techniques in one plant. The spent catalyst was analysed for its surface area after laboratory
regeneration.

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Table 5.50: Commercial regeneration of cobalt-molybdenum catalyst

Spent catalyst from top Belt-only Fine
Product quality
bed of second reactor regeneration regeneration
Carbon (w/w-%) 22 0.7 0.9
Sulphur (w/w-%) 7.5 0.9 0.8
Surface area (m2/g) 185 190 197
Average length (mm) 2.56 2.72 2.68
NB: The values above correspond to the regeneration of more than 580 tonnes of spent CoMo hydrotreating catalyst
from a customer’s distillate hydrotreater in 1997. The unit had two reactors with two catalyst beds per reactor. The
pre-operation analyses showed that the catalyst could be recovered from all four beds, but, as expected, the highest
quality catalyst was towards the back end of the unit.
Source: [ 81, VDI 2016 ]

Overall, the spent catalyst was heavily loaded with hydrocarbons (15 w/w-%) and coke (total
loss on ignition 30 %). The company started regenerating the highest quality catalyst from the
bottom bed of the second reactor and worked back towards the catalyst at the front of the unit.
The operation began prior to the fine regeneration plant, so initially the catalyst was being
stripped with inert gas in the belt-stripping unit.

The properties of both regenerated products compare favourably with those of the spent catalyst.
The surface areas of the regenerated samples are slightly higher than those from the laboratory
regeneration.

Process description
Ex situ thermal regeneration is performed in specially designed equipment as well as in standard
equipment, e.g. moving-bed belt calciners or rotary calciners.

As an example, after the coke is burnt off, a catalyst containing platinum can be regenerated by
chlorine treatment at an elevated temperature. The chlorine treatment causes redispersion of the
platinum by converting it to a volatile platinum chloride, which is then transported through the
gas phase and deposited on the pore walls, where it is treated with H2 and reduced. The result is
an increased dispersion of the platinum and a reactivated catalyst.

The common unit operations used in this sector are drying units, furnaces, leaching and solvent
extraction units. Some end-of-pipe techniques used to control emissions to air are dust
abatement techniques (e.g. electrostatic precipitators, cyclones, fabric filters, ceramic filters,
scrubbers, flares), gas scrubbing systems (e.g. scrubbers, dioxin capture systems, VOC
abatement systems), and waste water treatments.

Users
There is a very precise process in France (Eurocat) which is applied to the recycling of one
specific catalyst family (hydrotreatment) coming mainly from refineries. There is only one
moving-belt calciner process plant in the EU, which has been located in Luxembourg since
1979.

Reference literature
[ 11, WT TWG 2003 ], [ 16, Ruiz, C. 2002 ], [ 18, WT TWG 2004 ]

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5.5.1.4 Treatment of FGT residues

5.5.1.4.1 Recycling of Residual Sodium Chemicals from solid FGT residues

Purpose
The technology described here realises the separation of soluble and insoluble parts of the FGT
(flue-gas treatment) waste, solidifying the insoluble part and purifying and reusing the soluble
part (constituted of inorganic salts) in some industries.

Principle of operation
The process aims to recycle the water-soluble fraction of sodium-based FGT residues to
produce purified brine by dissolution of the salts and purification of the resulting brine, by
separation of insoluble matter, and by adding specific additives and chemical treatments. The
purified brine resulting from the recycling process is a REACH registered product.

Feed and output streams

Feed
Gaseous acid compounds contained in the flue-gas are transformed into sodium salts by the
injection of ground sodium bicarbonate into the flue-gas stream (dry flue-gas treatment).
Typical overall chemical reactions involving the neutralisation of the acid components are the
following:

HCl + NaHCO3 → NaCl + H2O + CO2

SO2 + 2 NaHCO3 + ½ O2 → Na2SO4 + H2O + 2 CO2
HF + NaHCO3 → NaF + H2O + CO2

The neutralisation involves a stage of thermal activation which converts sodium bicarbonate
into a sodium carbonate with a high specific surface and porosity:

2 NaHCO3 (T > 140 °C) → Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O

In a typical flue-gas treatment process, activated carbon is usually injected together with sodium
bicarbonate. The solid waste arising from the sodium bicarbonate-based treatment is completely
removed from the gaseous stream by a filtration step, usually a bag filter, installed downstream
of the sodium bicarbonate injection. Such solid waste is usually called 'RSC' – Residual Sodium
Chemicals.

There are two filtration possibilities for dry flue-gas treatment processes:

 One single filtration step: only a bag filter is installed downstream of the sodium-based
reagent injection. In such a layout, fly ashes are collected together with RSC. In this case,
the soluble part represents about 40 % of the waste input.
 Two filtration steps: a pre-dedusting filter is installed upstream of the sodium-based
reagent injection. This step may consist of an electrostatic precipitator, a cyclone or a bag
filter. In this first step the fly ashes are collected separately from the RSC, which are
collected on a second filter. They contain about 85 % soluble salts.

The main physico-chemical characteristics of typical RSC are listed in Table 5.51
.

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Table 5.51: Typical physico-chemical characteristics of Residual Sodium Chemicals (RSC)

Visual aspect Fine grey powder
Free-flowing density 0.3–0.4 t/m3
Average particle size distribution Approx. 50 μm (D50)
NaCl + Na2SO4 + Na2CO3 > 95 % *
Metals (Al, Pb, Zn, Cu, Fe, Sn, etc.) 0.1–500 mg/kg each
Insoluble matter, with pre-dedusting < 15 %
Insoluble matter, without pre-dedusting < 60 %
* Referred to the ratio of soluble matter contained in the RSC.
Source: [ 185, CEFIC 2014 ]

Output streams
The outputs consist of the following:
 The soluble part of FGT residues which is reused in the chemical industry, replacing the
use of fresh materials (salt is one of the main raw materials for soda ash plants). This
soluble part is recycled at a rate higher than 95 %.
 The landfilled solid part of FGT residues which has a very low soluble fraction and
solidifies better, resulting in a lower consumption of hydraulic binders and a lower
quantity of final waste. The dry filter cake mass is less than 20 % of the original RSC.

Process description
The process for recycling the water-soluble fraction of the RSC can be described by the
following steps (see Figure 5.19 below):

a. reception of trucks;
b. sampling and analysis;
c. pneumatic transfer of RSC into storage silos;
d. addition of water and additives;
e. filtration;
f. temporary storage of solids resulting from the filtration, for later disposal or recovery;
g. purification of clear raw brine in three sequential steps:
i. filtration on sand filter;
ii. organic matter removal on active carbon column;
iii. in-depth heavy metal removal on two ion exchange resin columns;
h. purified brine storage in a buffer tank for analysis;
i. brine transfer by pipeline to the soda ash plant for recycling.

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Source: [ 185, CEFIC 2014 ]

Figure 5.19: RSC recycling process schematic

The process works at ambient temperature and therefore does not require a high energy input.

The treatments do not generate liquid effluents (all liquids are reused as process water to form
the recycled brine) and no significant emissions to air are reported (ambient temperature
process).

Storage silos are equipped with filters to prevent dust emission during RSC transfer from the
silo trucks. CO2 is the sole gaseous emission due to combustion of natural gas when it is
necessary to heat the brine because of low ambient temperatures.

This process is to be compared with the solidification and landfilling of FGT residues. From this
point of view, (1) the solidification is much eased by the separation of the soluble part, and (2)
the quantity of final residues is reduced. This process has been reported to be competitive in
some countries. Operational costs are low and the investment cost of the treatment plant is the
key factor. The capital expenditure is EUR 10–20 million for a capacity of 25–60 kt RSC/year.

Users
This process is implemented in dedicated and centralised plants located close to the soda ash
plant using the produced purified brine, and which receive FGT residues coming mainly from
MSW incineration plants, but also from combustion plants, chemical plants, ceramic and glass
manufacturing, etc.

Two plants work on an industrial scale using this process or a slight variation of it: one in Italy
(Tuscany), with a capacity of 10 kt FGT residues/yr, and one in France (Lorraine), with a
capacity of 50 kt FGT residues/yr. Both supply purified brine as raw material to a soda ash
plant.

Reference literature
[ 18, WT TWG 2004 ], [ 19, WT TWG 2004 ], [ 185, CEFIC 2014 ]

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5.5.1.4.2 Recovery of salts from liquid FGT residues by solution/evaporation

Purpose
The main objective of the operation is to avoid the discharge of saline waste water to the
sewerage system. This is achieved by evaporation of the scrubber liquid from the wet flue-gas
treatment system.

Principle of operation
When solid wastes are produced, the recovery potential can be considered. The recovery, for
example, of salts (NaCl, CaCl2, HCl and gypsum) may be a possibility. These products could be
obtained by evaporation or recrystallisation of the salt from the flue-gas cleaning system waste
water, either locally or at a centralised evaporation plant.

Feed and output streams

When the scrubber fluid is treated separately and subjected to evaporation, recoverable products
like salts or hydrochloric acid can be obtained. The potential reutilisation of such products
strongly depends on the product quality.

Process description
In salt recovery, the scrubber liquid is treated with sodium hydroxide and calcium carbonate to
produce solid gypsum, which after separation leaves a liquid containing mainly sodium and
calcium chloride. The recovered products are subjected to quality control or even treated further
for quality improvement and then sold.

If solid sodium chloride needs to be separated individually from the above solution this is
achieved by evaporation of the solution to a salt content of more than 30 %, at which level pure
salt is crystallised. The above recovered salt products are most commonly reutilised in areas
with a de-icing demand in wintertime.

The reuse of the recovered salts and gypsum may save natural resources.

The major drawbacks of external waste water evaporation for salts not only relate to operational
and material problems but also to the high energy consumption necessary for evaporation.

The evaporation of waste water containing salt is dependent on the salt concentration, which can
vary greatly. Apart from problems of corrosion, the relatively high investment and operational
costs need to be taken into account.

For the production of gypsum, only a few operational problems exist. However, the gypsum
quality is determined not only by its purity with respect to the presence of other undesirable
components but also due to its colour. Normally, a production of about 2–5 kg of recyclable
products per tonne of waste can be expected.

When producing calcium chloride, focus is put on the extreme corrosion potential that may arise
and the risk of an unintended phase shift from a solid to a liquid state and vice versa.

Users
This technique can be applied in municipal waste incinerators with wet flue-gas treatment
systems. For MSW incinerators with wet scrubbing of the incineration flue-gas, no discharge of
the waste water is permitted due to legislation and local demands. The cleaned waste water from
the wet scrubbers will still contain salts which are normally not desirable in the sewage pipe
system because they can cause corrosion or increase the salt content of fresh water bodies. For
this reason the waste water is normally treated thermally and, where the waste water is used for
cooling, by injection into and evaporation in the raw incinerator flue-gas. Here, no recoverable
products are obtained.

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Evaporation of treated saline waste water can be done at both centralised and decentralised
plants. In the latter case, the MSW incinerator itself could supply the energy needed for
evaporation.

For gypsum production, this could be achieved primarily by operational changes only, i.e.
implementation and operation of suitable dewatering devices, including cyclones, pumps, etc.

Evaporative processes have been implemented with success in several countries, especially in
Germany where a number of incineration plants have applied this technology.

The costs for the evaporation and storage of the recovered products are several times the costs
for production of the same salts from natural resources. Thus, this technique is primarily applied
for environmental reasons rather than economic ones.

Reference literature
[ 15, Iswa 2003 ], [ 18, WT TWG 2004 ], [ 19, WT TWG 2004 ]

5.5.1.4.3 Washing of FGT residues and their use as a raw material for production of
construction products

Purpose
To treat waste powders such as FGT residues in order to produce a secondary aggregate for
construction products.

Principle of operation
The washing process treats waste powders such as FGT residues in order to make them suitable
for use in the manufacture of construction products. The waste input powders consist of useful
mineral phases but also contain undesirable soluble fractions. High concentrations of soluble
material are not desirable in the production of construction products and have previously
restricted the recycling of FGT residues.

Feed and output streams

The main feed is FGT residues.

During the process, the chloride levels are significantly reduced; concentrations as low as 0.2 %
can be achieved where required. The chloride is transferred to the effluent which is either
treated in a WWTP on site or discharged to a sewer and treated in a downstream WWTP. The
heavy metals within the FGT residues are not solubilised, but are instead converted to less
soluble species during the process.

The consumption of water can be significantly reduced by recycling process water to the point
of saturation. The waste generated by the washing process is classified as hazardous due to the
residual calcium hydroxide it contains. The properties of the waste can be adjusted to convert
calcium hydroxide to gypsum by the addition of sulphuric acid. Both calcium hydroxide and
gypsum have useful properties for the production of construction products. Where required, the
relative concentrations of these materials can be tailored to the final use of the residue.

Process description
The FGT residues are delivered to the site by bulk road tanker and discharged to a powder
storage silo equipped with high level alarms, load cells, level indicators and reverse jet filters.
The FGT residues are then slurried using water. After a period of time the slurry is pumped
through a membrane filter press. The slurry fills the chambers within the filter press plates,
capturing the solid particles and allowing the liquid to pass through. The solids are held within
the filter press and undergo additional washing and drying steps before the process is complete.

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The liquid filtrate from the process is held within a storage tank and can be recycled into the
process as slurry water until such a point that it becomes saturated. The solid residues are held
within the filter press until the press is opened. The solids then fall into an articulated tipper
trailer and are ready to be shipped to a receiving site (for the production of construction
products).

Users
Two plants in the United Kingdom have reported using this process.

Reference literature
Plant 498.

5.5.1.4.4 Acid extraction

Purpose
To extract heavy metals and salts from fly ashes, using acid.

Principle of operation
The technique solubilises compounds and removes them with water.

Feed and output streams

Treatment options using extraction and separation processes can, in principle, cover all types of
processes extracting specific components from the wastes.

The process can remove a significant part of the total amount of heavy metals from the waste
input (Cd Zn Pb, Cu and Hg); the leachability of the material is reduced by a factor 102–103.

Process description
A number of processes use acid extraction; some examples are given in Table 5.52.

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Table 5.52: Acid extraction technologies

Process Characteristics
This process combines the acid extraction of soluble heavy metals and salts from
both boiler and fly ash, by using the (acidic) scrubber blowdown. Before using the
scrubber liquid, mercury is removed from it by filtration (when activated carbon is
introduced into the scrubber) and/or a specific ion exchanger. The liquid/solid
(L/S) ratio in the extraction step is about 4; the pH is controlled at 3.5; the
residence time is about 45 minutes. The solid residue remaining after leaching the
Acid ash (nearly free of heavy metals) is dewatered, then countercurrently washed on a
extraction belt filter and finally landfilled. It can also be returned to the combustion process
process for complete thermal destruction of organic substances.
The filtrate is treated in order to extract and recover or remove heavy metals by
neutralisation (with lime slurry), precipitation and ion exchange. The dewatered
and rinsed hydroxide sludge from neutralisation contains about 25 % zinc and
possibly substantial amounts of cadmium, lead and copper which can be further
recovered in metallurgical processes. The remaining traces of heavy metals in the
filtrate can be removed by selective heavy metal ion exchange resins.
This process combines acid extraction with thermal treatment. First, boiler and fly
Combination ashes are washed with the first stage wet scrubber solution, and dewatered. Then
of acid the solid residues are treated in a rotary kiln for one hour at around 600 C,
extraction destroying the majority of the organic compounds and volatilising mercury. The
with thermal off-gas is treated in an activated carbon filter. The waste water is treated to remove
treatment heavy metals. The scrubber solution from the second scrubber is used to wash the
bottom ash and to neutralise acidic effluent streams.
This process combines fly ash and NaOH scrubber solution with water with an L/S
Acid
ratio of 5. After mixing, the pH is adjusted to about 6–8 with HCl to extract heavy
extraction
metals, and NaHS is added to bind heavy metals as sulphides. Then a coagulation
sulphide
agent is added and the slurry is dewatered. The filter cake is landfilled and the
process
waste water is treated in a subsequent treatment unit to remove heavy metals.
Source: [ 15, Iswa 2003 ], [ 18, WT TWG 2004 ], [ 186, Schenk 2010 ]

Users
Several techniques have been proposed both in Europe and in Japan for FGT residues.

Most of the plants that operate for 24 hours can adapt the weekly operation period (4–7 days)
according to the FGT residues arising.

The system can be used only in incinerators with a wet FGT system with a permit allowing the
discharge of treated waste water.

The start-up of the first plant was in 1996. Six plants currently operate in Switzerland and one in
the Czech Republic. An acidic extraction unit is implemented at one incineration plant in
Denmark.

The process costs of treating the FGT residues are about EUR 150–250/t (including charges for
recycling the zinc filter cake).

Reference literature
[ 15, Iswa 2003 ], [ 19, WT TWG 2004 ]

5.5.2 Current emission and consumption levels

5.5.2.1 Regeneration of activated carbon

The main environmental issues related to the thermal regeneration of activated carbon are
primarily gaseous effluents such as carbon dioxide. Acidic gases and pesticides may prove a
problem if there are no control measures such as afterburners and/or scrubbers.

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Figure 5.20 shows a schematic of a generic activated carbon regeneration process, including the
release routes that are listed in Table 5.53.

NB: Numbers in the diagram refer to the numbers of the first column of Table 5.53.
Note 1: Multiple hearth furnace illustrated but thermal reactivation may also be carried out in a rotary kiln.
Note 2: Carbon exiting the kiln may also be cooled by other means.
Note 3: Other techniques for dewatering may be used.
Source: [ 67, UK Environment Agency 1996 ]
Figure 5.20: Schematic flow diagram of a generic carbon regeneration plant

Releases to the environment commonly associated with the regeneration of activated carbon
processes are listed in Table 5.53.

Table 5.53: Potential release routes for pollutants

Organic
Halogens

Metals,
compounds
Dust/ CO + metalloids
Source releases to: NO X SO X or partial
solids CO 2 or
oxidation
compounds
products
1 Flue-gases from flue-gas treatment A A A A A A A
2 Fugitive emissions from seal leakages A A A A A A A
3 Emergency vent stack (if applicable) A A A A A A A
4 Aqueous effluent discharge W NA NA NA NA W W
5 Effluent treatment plant sludge NA NA NA NA NA L L
NB: The releases to each medium will be determined to a significant degree by the application for which the
carbon has been used, and hence release of some substances to water and land is possible.
Legend: A = Air; W = Water; L = Residues (land).
NA = Not applicable.
Source: [ 67, UK Environment Agency 1996 ]

Emission results from different regeneration plants are shown in Table 5.54.

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Table 5.54: Range of emissions found in different carbon regenerators

Concentration
Air pollutants
(mg/Nm3)
Particulates 1–34
CO < 3–160
NOX (as NO2) 126–354
SO2 < 2–60
HCl < 1–22
HF <1
VOCs (TOC) 5–15
Dioxins and furans (PCDD and PCDF) (TEQ) < 0.01–0.18 ng/Nm3
Cd < 0.05
Hg < 0.05
Other heavy metals 0.1–0.5
Water pollutants Concentration (mg/l)
Suspended solids 50–300
COD 400
Simazine 0.001
Atrazine 0.001
TEQ (TCDD and TCDF) 0.28–0.4 ng/l
Al 30
Cd 0.0005
Hg 0.0001
Mn 30
Solid waste Composition
Refractory linings NI
General industrial waste NI
Sludge from settlement ponds Mainly carbonaceous fines
NB: Reference conditions of waste gas: dry gas 6 % O2.
NI = No information.
Source: [ 7, UK, H. 1995 ]

Liquid effluent from regeneration plant

Water is used for the transport of activated carbon as slurry to and from the regenerator. This
gives rise to a black water effluent which is clarified and recycled. Water separated from the
slurry will contain suspended solids and possibly pollutants (e.g. pesticides) and is routed to the
effluent treatment plant.

The clean hot activated carbon is either dry cooled or quenched in cold water. For the wet
cooling system, the water becomes alkaline and is therefore dosed with acid. This water is
purged from the system to prevent the accumulation of mineral salts, with fresh/recycled water
make-up as necessary.

Water is also used intermittently in large amounts to backwash activated carbon storage
hoppers, both to remove fines and to level the top surface of the activated carbon. Sufficient
water storage is provided so that this water can be clarified and recycled.

Techniques for controlling disposal to land

In the regeneration of activated carbon most deliveries of carbon are made in bulk tankers. In
certain circumstances drums may be used. Where this is the case, drums are reconditioned and
reused so that disposal is minimised. Other process waste includes sludge or filter cake from
filter presses or settlement tanks in an effluent treatment plant. When disposal is to land the
method of disposal ensures that, if the cake or sludge was to dry out, windblown dust of fine
carbon particulates cannot occur. Other wastes separated from used activated carbon will
include refractory bricks and linings where repairs to kilns and furnaces have taken place
periodically.

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5.5.2.2 Regeneration of waste catalysts

Knowing the source of the spent catalyst can often provide information on potential emissions
due to the presence of acids, oils, organic contaminants (they may generate PCDD during
melting processes), etc. This directly influences the potential emissions to air, water and land.

The physical state of the waste catalyst can also influence the emissions (e.g. the particulate
emissions depend on the particulate size of the waste catalyst, oil content, etc.). Some potential
emissions from different catalyst regeneration plants are [ 16, Ruiz, C. 2002 ]
 air pollutants: SO2, NOX, VOCs, dioxins, metals;
 water pollutants: suspended solids, oil, TOC, metals;
 waste: oil, metals, dust (e.g. from abatement systems).

Consumption for regeneration of spent catalysts

Table 5.55 shows an overall material balance for an example regeneration. Almost 375 tonnes
of catalyst was recovered for reuse.

Table 5.55: Mass balance in a commercial regeneration of cobalt-molybdenum catalyst

Overall material balance Values in kg
As received material 620 982
Inert support - 27 099
Unregenerated dust and fines - 9569
Total unregenerated feed to regenerator = 584 314
Shorts from length grading and regenerated dust and fines - 37 191
Loss on ignition - 172 143
Net regenerated catalyst = 374 980
Source: [ 16, Ruiz, C. 2002 ]

5.5.2.3 Treatment of FGT residues

Table 5.56 gives an overview of the plants from the reference list treating FGT residues.
Table 5.57 and Table 5.58 show respectively the emissions to air and the emissions to water of
these plants.

The emissions are generally very limited: emissions from vents of silos and storage tanks are
collected and treated by bag filters or activated carbon filters and most of the process water is
recycled into the process. In one case the excess waste water is tankered to an off-site WWTP
and in the other case the filtrate undergoes further treatment by anaerobic digestion.

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Table 5.56: Plants from the reference list treating FGT residues

Waste input Waste output Section in this

Plant code Process
description description document
Solubilisation,
Precipitation, Press
filtration (to remove
Sodium-based Sodium chloride-
heavy metals,
residues coming concentrated brine,
activated carbon and
189C from flue-gas Filter cake, Filter 5.5.1.4.1
insoluble matter), Ion
treatment, cake as secondary
exchange (to remove
refused salt material
heavy metals), Filter
cake stabilisation (to
remove soluble salts)
Solubilisation,
Precipitation, Press
filtration (to remove
heavy metals,
Sodium-based
activated carbon and Sodium chloride-
residues coming
333C insoluble matter), Ion concentrated brine, 5.5.1.4.1
from flue-gas
exchange (to remove Filter cake
treatment
heavy metals), Water
washing of the filter
cake (to remove
soluble salts)

Sludges from
FGT residues
497 pH adjustment physico-chemical 5.5.1.4.3
Acid
treatment, filtrate

Sludges from
FGT residues,
physico-chemical
498 waste inorganic Washing 5.5.1.4.3
treatment, Aqueous
acid
effluent

Table 5.57: Emissions to air from plants treating FGT residues

Origin of emissions to Techniques for emissions to Parameters monitored in

Plant code
air air emissions to air

Storage silos are

equipped with filters to
189C prevent dust emission Bag filters NI
during RSC transfer from
the silo trucks

333C No emissions to air NI NI

All bulk storage tanks

497 Activated carbon adsorption NI
vent.
498 NI NI NI
NB: NI = No information.

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Table 5.58: Emissions to water from plants treating FGT residues

Parameters
Techniques monitored
Plant Origin of emissions Type of Receiving
for emissions in
code to water discharge body
to water emissions
to water
The RSC recycling
process does not
release any liquid
effluent: any kind of
waste water, like
rainwater from the
site, accidental
spillages, and
189C NA NA NA NA
acid/basic liquors
arising from the ion
exchange resin
regeneration and
washing steps, is
totally recycled
internally into the
process
333C No emissions to water NA NA NA NA

497 NI NI NI NI NI
No technique
Discharge from for waste water Analysis
the WT plant and treatment. conducted
its auxiliary Aqueous by the
systems, as well filtrate is WWTP
Physico-chemical as from on-site collected into operator in
498 River/Stream
treatments waste water storage for the
pretreatment screening prior framework
facilities, to an to being of the
urban/municipal recycled or effluent
sewer system discharged as a trading
trade effluent
NB: NA = Not applicable, NI = No information

Water usage
The reported average water usage per tonne of waste treated is 2 200 l/t, with a range of 270–
3 000 l/t. Two plants indicated that all water is recycled in the process. One plant reported that
water recycling is carried out.

Energy consumption
The reported average energy consumption per tonne of waste treated is around 110 kW/t, with a
range of 81–207 kWh/t. Electricity is the main energy source.

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5.5.3 Techniques to consider in the determination of BAT for the

regeneration of activated carbon

5.5.3.1 Heat recovery and waste gas treatment

Description
Treatment of waste gas generated by activated carbon regeneration includes heat recovery as
well as primary and secondary techniques for control of emissions to air.

Technical description

Reduction of the volume of waste gas to be treated

By using an indirectly fired kiln, there is a lower volume of gas requiring heating and
abatement. Burner flue-gases that have indirectly heated the kiln are directed to the base of the
stack where they may be combined with the kiln off-gases to reduce the visibility of the emitted
plume. This method may offer the advantage of affording higher partial pressures of steam in
the kiln, which is likely to reduce the formation of oxides of nitrogen. Also, the formation of
halides rather than elemental halogens is likely to be promoted, with the halides being more
easily removed in downstream scrubber systems.

Techniques to control emissions to air

Table 5.59 gives an overview of primary and secondary techniques used for the abatement of
emissions to air.

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Table 5.59: Applicability of techniques for the treatment of waste gases generated by activated
carbon regeneration
Pollution control techniques for the abatement
Description
of particles and acid gases
Furnace temperature.
Rotation speed of the rotary furnace.
Fuel type.
Primary measures for particulate control Designing the regenerator and associated ducting
and equipment to operate under a reduced
pressure, in order to prevent the escape of
regenerator gases into the air.
Afterburner for the gases exiting the furnace or
kiln. The afterburner needs to be in operation at
all times when carbon is present in the kiln.
Mechanical collectors.
Wet scrubbers. Spray absorption techniques may
also be used. It will be necessary to test the pH of
Secondary measures for particulate and acid the scrubber liquor.
gases control Electrostatic precipitators (ESPs).
Fabric filters.
Inertial separators, e.g. cyclones have to be used
in combination with some further abatement
techniques to achieve low emission values.
Cooling the flue-gases with a quench section or
Venturi scrubber.
Reduce furnace and combustion temperatures.
Reduce excess air and thus lower the
concentration of atomic oxygen in higher
temperature zones.
Reduce the residence time in all higher
temperature areas.
Control the furnace heat release rate, and
Primary measures for NOX control
eliminate high temperature peaks.
Flue-gas recirculation (FGR).
Air staging.
Fuel staging.
Furnace insulation.
Low entrance of secondary (cold) air.
Reduced air/fuel ratio.
Selective catalytic reduction (SCR).
Selective non-catalytic reduction (SNCR).
The DESONOX process.
Secondary measures for NOX control
The SNOX process.
The EDTA-Chelate process.
The SOX NOX ROX BOX.
Source: [ 6, UK Department of the Environment 1991 ], [ 18, WT TWG 2004 ],

Achieved environmental benefits

 Optimisation of energy efficiency.
 Reduction of the emissions of particulates, acid gases and NOX to air.

Environmental performance and operational data

The regenerator includes an afterburner chamber, which is equipped and operated in such a way
that the waste gas resulting from the regeneration of the carbon is raised, after the last injection
of air, in a controlled and homogeneous fashion and taking account of the most unfavourable
conditions, to a temperature of at least 850 ºC as measured at the inner wall of the combustion
chamber. This needs to be held for at least two seconds in the presence of at least 6 vol-%
oxygen dry gas, as measured at the exit of the afterburner. For carbon which has been used in
industrial applications where halogenated or other thermally resistant substances are likely to be

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present (e.g. containing more than a certain small percentage), the temperature is typically
raised to at least 1 100 ºC. The residence time, minimum temperature and the oxygen content of
the exhaust gases need to be verified. However, in some circumstances not specified by the
TWG, it may be possible to achieve an equivalent effect with less stringent conditions (some
generic information on this issue can be found in the WI BREF).

A spray dryer followed by fabric or ceramic filters has the additional advantage of allowing
further neutralisation reactions to occur between the trapped solid residues and the exhaust gas
stream. This can lead to a reduction in alkali requirements for a spray dryer of 10–15 %
compared to a wet scrubber.

Cross-media effects
Some air abatement techniques generate liquid effluents which need to be treated.

The use of an indirectly fired kiln instead of a directly fired kiln may imply higher energy needs
as the heat transfer to the waste treated may be lower. On the other hand, the use of an indirectly
fired kiln allows a lower volume of gas requiring heating and abatement, which saves on energy
and the size of abatement equipment.

Technical considerations related to applicability

Indirectly heated furnaces are normally constructed with a metal tube and are not likely to be
suitable for industrial applications due to corrosion problems that may appear during the
treatment of some industrial carbons. There may also be economic restrictions for retrofitting
existing plants.

Flue-gases from either multiple hearth furnaces or rotary kilns generally follow a similar path of
treatment. In the case of co-currently fired rotary kilns, it may be possible to achieve these same
conditions without an afterburner.

The flue-gas treatment depends on the application for which the carbon has been used and the
nature of the fuel used to fire the kiln and afterburner. The equipment described above may
typically be used for carbon that has been used for potable water treatment or for food-grade
applications.

For carbon used in industrial applications, more extensive abatement measures may be required.
In these cases, further chemical scrubbing may be needed to attain the desired achievable
release levels. It may also be necessary for the post-regeneration stage to be maintained at
temperatures of at least 1 100 ºC for a two-second residence time in the presence of at least
6 vol-% oxygen and dry gas, to ensure complete oxidation of certain refractory compounds.

Driving force for implementation

Environmental legislation.

Economics
Plant 637 reported investment costs of about EUR 8–10 million for the rotary kiln and the
associated air abatement system (around 50 % of the costs for each of these two pieces of
equipment).

Example plants
No information provided.

Reference literature
[ 67, UK Environment Agency 1996 ], [ 6, UK Department of the Environment 1991 ],
[ 7, UK, H. 1995 ], [ 18, WT TWG 2004 ], [ 19, WT TWG 2004 ], [ 51, WT TWG 2005 ],

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5.5.4 Techniques to consider in the determination of BAT for the

recovery of components from catalysts

5.5.4.1 Heat recovery and waste gas treatment

Description
Treatment of waste gas generated by spent catalyst regeneration includes heat recovery as well
as primary and secondary techniques for control of emissions to air.

Technical description
Heat recovery
a. Applying heat recovery in the form of energy production or recuperation. For this aim,
recuperative burners, heat exchangers and boilers can be used to recover heat. Steam or
electricity can be generated for use on or off site, e.g. to preheat process or fuel gases.
b. Using oxygen or oxygen-enriched air in the burners.
c. Preheating the combustion air used in burners.
d. Preheating the material charged to the furnace.
e. Automatically controlling the point of extraction using dampers and fan controls so that the
systems are deployed when and where they are needed, for example during charging or
during the ‘roll-out’ of a converter.

Primary techniques to control emissions to air

a. Using sealed furnaces or operation of the furnace at a reduced pressure, which can allow a
very high capture efficiency of the fumes and avoid diffuse emissions to air.
b. Using ducts and fans to convey the collected gases to abatement or treatment processes.
Variable speed fans are used to provide extraction rates that are suitable for changing
conditions such as the gas volume, with a minimum energy consumption.

Secondary techniques to control emissions to air

See Table 5.60

Table 5.60: Abatement techniques applied in regeneration of spent catalysts

Section in this document where
Abatement technique Location where it is applied the abatement technique is
analysed
Cooling waste gas prior to a
Exit of the furnace NA
fabric filter system
Fabric filter Exit of the furnace 2.3.4.4
Wet scrubber Exit of the furnace 2.3.4.10
NB: NA = Not applicable.
Source: adapted from [ 16, Ruiz, C. 2002 ]

Achieved environmental benefits

 Heat and energy recovery, which is an important factor in this industry due to the high
proportion of costs that energy represents.
 Reduction of emissions to air of dust, VOCs, HCl and HF.

Environmental performance and operational data

The use of oxygen-enriched air or oxygen in the burners reduces the overall energy
consumption by allowing the complete combustion of carbonaceous material. At the same time,
waste gas volumes are significantly reduced, allowing smaller fans, etc. to be used.

The advantage of preheating the combustion air used in burners is well documented. If an air
preheat of 400 °C is used, there is an increase in flame temperature of 200 °C, while if the

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preheat is 500 °C the flame temperature increases by 300 °C. This increase in flame temperature
results in a higher efficiency and a reduction in the overall energy consumption. The alternative
to preheating combustion air is to preheat the material charged to the furnace. Theory shows that
8 % energy savings can be obtained for every 100 °C preheat and in practice it is claimed that
preheating to 400 °C leads to a 25 % energy saving, while a preheat of 500 °C leads to a 30 %
energy saving.

The technique used to recover heat varies from site to site depending on a number of factors,
such as the potential uses for heat and energy on or near the site, the scale of operation and the
potential for gases or their constituents to foul or coat heat exchangers.

Many techniques aimed at energy recovery are relatively easy to retrofit but occasionally there
may be some problems with deposition of metal compounds in heat exchangers. A good design
is based on a sound knowledge of the compounds released and their behaviour at various
temperatures. Heat exchanger cleaning mechanisms are also used to maintain their thermal
efficiency.

Applying cooling prior to a bag filter system is an important technique as it provides

temperature protection for the filter and allows a wider choice of fabric. It is sometimes possible
to recover heat at this stage. The temperature of the gases after this heat exchanger can be
between 200 ºC and 450 ºC. The second heat exchanger reduces the gas temperature to 130 ºC
before the bag filter. The heat exchangers are normally followed by a cyclone, which removes
larger particles and acts as a spark arrester.

Cross-media effects
Liquor from wet scrubbing needs to be treated.

Technical considerations related to applicability

Generally applicable.

Driving force for implementation

Energy savings and legislation on air pollution.

Economics
No information provided.

Example plants
No information provided.

Reference literature
[ 16, Ruiz, C. 2002 ]

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5.6 Treatment of excavated contaminated soil

This section deals with biological treatment as well as physico-chemical treatment of excavated
contaminated soil.

5.6.1 Applied processes and techniques

5.6.1.1 Thermal desorption

Purpose
To separate relatively volatile compounds from excavated contaminated soils (and other solid
waste).

Principle of operation
In the thermal desorption process, volatile and semi-volatile contaminants are removed from
soils, sediments, slurries, and filter cakes. Typical operating temperatures are between 175 °C
and 370 °C, but temperatures from 90 °C to 650 °C may be employed. Thermal desorption
promotes physical separation of the components rather than combustion.

Feed and output streams

Soil contaminated with non-biodegradable organic compounds, soil contaminated with
petroleum fuels, soil contaminated with hazardous wastes and tar containing asphalt or similar
waste are the types of waste processed by this treatment. The contaminants are transferred to a
further treatment. The treated solids may be recovered, landfilled or treated further. Off-gas
arising from the heating process (i.e. the gas given off from the waste during the heating
process, containing the vaporised contaminants and water vapour) is collected and cooled, in
order to condense out the contaminants to enable their collection and potential recovery (e.g. by
using the recovered oil or solvent as a fuel).

Thermal desorbers effectively treat soils and remove volatile and semi-volatile organic
compounds. Some higher boiling point substances such as PCBs and dioxins may also be
removed (if present). Inorganic compounds are not easily removed with this type of process,
although some relatively volatile metals such as mercury may be volatilised. The temperatures
reached in thermal desorbers generally do not oxidise metals.

Process description
After contaminated soil is excavated, the waste material is screened to remove objects greater
than 4–8 cm in diameter. Direct or indirect heat exchange vaporises the organic compounds,
producing an off-gas which is typically treated before being vented to the air. In general, any
one of four desorber designs are used: rotary dryer, asphalt plant aggregate dryer, thermal
screw, and the conveyor furnace. The treatment systems include both mobile and stationary
process units designed specifically for treating soil, and asphalt aggregate dryers that can be
adapted to treat soils. Mobile systems are most often used, due to reduced soil transportation
costs and to allow for backfilling of the treated soil. However, stationary systems are also
available. Figure 5.21 shows an example of a rotary thermal desorber installation.

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Source: [ ES comment #3 in [ 21, WT TWG 2016 ]]

Figure 5.21: Example of a rotary thermal desorber installation

In order to destroy contaminants, the desorption process needs a subsequent afterburning and
waste gas treatment. The reason is that desorption merely strips them from the solid or liquid
phase and transfers them to the gas phase. Therefore, devices to control emissions to air are
necessary. The efficiency of the thermal desorption process will vary with the chemical and
physical properties of the specific contaminants. Metals (e.g. lead) tend to remain in the soil
after treatment, so additional soil processing or treatment may be required (e.g. stabilisation).
Thermal desorbers may operate near or above 500 °C, so some pyrolysis and oxidation may
occur, in addition to the vaporisation of water and organic compounds.

Thermal desorbers operating at low temperatures lead to significant fuel savings. They also
produce small volumes of off-gases to be treated. Typical specifications for thermal desorption
systems are shown in Table 5.61.

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Table 5.61: Comparison of features of thermal desorption and off-gas treatment systems
Rotary Thermal Conveyor
Asphalt plant
dryer screw furnace
Fixed and
Mobility Fixed Mobile Mobile
mobile
Typical site size (tonnes) 450–23 000 0–9 000 450–4500 450–5 000
Soil throughput (tonnes/hour) 9–45 23–90 3–14 5–9
Maximum soil feed size (cm) 5–8 5–8 3–5 3–5
Heat transfer method Direct Direct Indirect Direct
Shell
Shell rotation
Soil mixing method rotation and Auger Soil agitators
and lifters
lifters
150–250 (3)
150–300 (1)
Discharge soil temperature (°C) 300–600 300–250 (4) 300–800
300–650 (2)
500–850 (5)
Soil residence time (minutes) 3–7 3–7 30–70 3–10
Thermal desorber exhaust gas 250–450 (1)
250–450 150 500–650
temperature (°C) 400–500 (2)
Co-current
or Co-current or Countercurren
Gas/solids flow Not applicable
countercurre countercurrent t
nt
Atmosphere Oxidative Oxidative Inert Oxidative
Generally not
Afterburner temperature (°C) 750–1 000 750–1 000 (6) 750–1 000
used
10 500–
Maximum thermal duty (MJ/h) (7) 5 300–105 000 7 400–10 500 10 500
105 000
Heat-up time from cold condition
0.5–1.0 0.5–1.0 Not reported 0.5–1.0
(hours)
Cool-down time from hot condition
1.0–2.0 1.0–2.0 Not reported Not reported
(hours)
Total petroleum hydrocarbons
Initial concentration (mg/kg) 800–35 000 500–25 000 (8) 60–50 000 5000
Final concentration (mg/kg) < 10–300 < 20 (8) ND–5500 < 10.0
Removal efficiency (%) 95.0–99.9 Not reported 64–99 > 99.9
BTEX
Initial concentration (mg/kg) Not reported Not reported 155 Not reported
Final concentration (mg/kg) < 1.0 Not reported < 1.0 < 0.01
Removal efficiency (%) Not reported Not reported > 99 Not reported
(1) Carbon steel materials of construction.
(2) Alloy materials of construction.
(3) Hot oil heat transfer system.
(4) Molten salt heat transfer system.
(5) Electrically heated system.
(6) Not used on all systems.
(7) Total duty of thermal desorber plus afterburner.
(8) Vendor information.
NB: ND = Not detectable.

Some techniques to optimise the desorption of contaminants are as follows:

 Using of a bench-scale test to determine the suitability of thermal desorption and the best
residence time and temperature to use.
 The effectiveness of thermal desorption is related to the final soil temperature that is
achieved, which in turn is a function of residence time and heat transfer. The
temperatures and residence times effective in bench-scale systems have also proven to be
effective in pilot-scale systems.
 Applying the appropriate temperature. The typical treatment temperature range for
petroleum fuels from leaking underground storage tank sites is 200–480 °C. For the

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treatment of soils containing pesticides, dioxins, and PCBs, temperatures need to exceed
450 °C.
 Reducing the moisture content of the soil to be treated within a specified range (this being
applied due to the cost of treating waste with a high water content). The typical
acceptable moisture range for rotary dryers and asphalt kilns is 10–30 %, while thermal
screw systems can accommodate higher water loadings of 30–80 %. To remove VOCs,
the ideal soil moisture content is 10–15 % for limiting the VOCs that the water vapour
can carry away. Moisture removed by the process may be added to the soil after
treatment.

Users
Plants treating contaminated soils and tar containing asphalt and similar waste.

Plants 188C and 494 from the reference list.

Reference literature
[ 89, Eklund et al. 1997 ], [ 32, Inertec; dechets, F. and Sita 2002 ], [ 18, WT TWG 2004 ]

5.6.1.2 Soil washing

Purpose
Soil washing is carried out to separate the decontaminated fractions and pollutants.

Principle of operation
Soil washing is an ex situ process in which contaminated soil is excavated and fed through a
water-based washing process. It operates on the principle that contaminants are associated with
certain size fractions of soil particles and that these contaminants can be dissolved or suspended
in an aqueous solution or removed by separating out clay and silt particles from the bulk soil.
Additives such as surfactants or chelating agents are sometimes used to improve the separation
efficiency (the treatment using additives may be referred to as chemical extraction). The
aqueous solution containing the contaminants is treated by conventional waste water treatment
methods.

The process is a water-based process and removes contaminants from soils in one of two ways:

a. by dissolving or suspending them in the wash solution (which is treated later by

conventional waste water treatment methods);
b. by concentrating them into a smaller volume of soil through particle size separation, gravity
separation, and attrition scrubbing (similar to the techniques used in the mineral processing
industry).

The concept of reducing soil contamination through the use of particle size separation is based
on the finding that most organic and inorganic contaminants tend to bind, either chemically or
physically, to clay, silt, and organic soil particles. The silt and clay are attached to sand and
gravel particles by physical processes, primarily compaction and adhesion. Washing processes
that separate the fine (i.e. clay and silt) particles from the coarser (i.e. sand and gravel) soil
particles effectively separate and concentrate the contaminants into a smaller volume of soil that
can be further treated or disposed of more easily.

Feed and output streams

Soil washing is effective for a wide range of organic and inorganic contaminants, including
petroleum and fuel residues. Removal efficiencies range from 90 % to 99 % for volatile organic
compounds and from 40 % to 90 % for semi-volatile compounds. Compounds with low water
solubility such as metals, pesticides or PCBs sometimes require acids or chelating agents to
assist in the removal. Some pilot-scale projects on radionuclides' pollution treatment have been

578 Waste Treatment

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reported. The washing process is also applicable for contaminated sand and gravel from
construction and demolition waste.
While these separation processes may be more effective in treating soils contaminated with
petroleum fuels, generally they are employed to treat soils containing metals or heavy organic
compounds.

Soil washing may be effective for the remediation of soils with a small amount of clay and silt
particles, but large amounts of clay and silt particles reduce the effectiveness of soil washing.

Generally, soil washing units produce recycled materials suitable for the construction industry
(concrete producers, asphalt plants) or as refilling materials after internal quality control and
external control have been carried out on the specific properties of the materials (to ensure
compliance with local regulations).

Different fractions can be distinguished:

 Coarse fraction: gravel which can be calibrated in several ways. This is basically made up
of fine gravel measuring 2–20 mm and coarse gravel measuring 20–80 mm.
 Sand fraction: this consists of sand generally sized from 60 µm to 2 mm.
 Residual organic fraction (> 60 µm): this fraction is incinerated or sent to an appropriate
landfill.
 Fine residual fraction (filter cake < 60 µm): usually this is sent to a special landfill with or
without additional treatment (e.g. inertisation, stabilisation) or may be sent for a further
treatment if required (e.g. thermal desorption, classical incineration).

Process description
The excavation and removal of debris and large objects precedes the soil washing process.
Sometimes water is added to the soil to form a slurry that can be pumped. After the soil is
prepared for soil washing, it is mixed with washing water, and extraction agents are sometimes
added.

After separation from the washing water, the soil is rinsed with clean water and may be returned
to the site. The suspended soil particles are removed by gravity from the washing water as
sludge. Sometimes flocculation is used to aid in sludge removal. This sludge is more
contaminated than the original soil and undergoes further treatment or secure disposal. The
spent washing water from which the sludge is removed is treated and recycled. Residual solids
from the recycling process may require further treatment.

Figure 5.22 presents a general flow scheme of a soil washing plant.

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Source: [ 160, Perseo, P. 2003 ]

Figure 5.22: General flow scheme of a soil washing plant

Typically, soil washing segregates a soil into a small volume of highly contaminated silt and
clay and a larger volume of cleaned coarser soil.

Physical separation methods are mechanical methods for separating mixtures of solids to obtain
a concentrated form of some constituents. Physical separation methods include screening,
attrition scrubbing, or using hydrogravimetric separators such as hydrocyclones, jigs and spiral
classifiers. In addition, in the majority of cases, the processes use water-based chemical agents,

580 Waste Treatment

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which provide both dispersion and extraction. Chemicals (dispersants, collectors, frothing
agents, etc.) may be added in some cases to enhance the quality of the separation.

Table 5.62 and Table 5.63 give an overview of the performance of soil washing.

Table 5.62: Summary of the performance data for soil washing

Range of
Concentration Residual
Plant removal
Contaminants in the untreated concentrations
example efficiencies
soil (ppm) (ppm)
(%)
Example 1 Oil and grease NI 50–83 250–600
Pentachlorophenol NI 90–95 < 115
Example 2
Other organics NI 85–95 <1
Example 3 Oil and grease NI 90–99 < 5–2 400
Volatile organics NI 98– > 99 < 50
Example 4 Semi-volatile organics NI 98– > 99 < 250
Most fuel products NI 98– > 99 < 2 200
Aromatics NI > 81 > 45
Example 5
Crude oil NI 97 2 300
Total organics NI 96 159–201
Example 6
PAHs NI 86–90 91.4–97.5
Example 7 Oil NI > 99 20
Hydrocarbons NI 96.3 82.05
Chlorinated hydrocarbons NI > 75 < 0.01
Example 8
Aromatics NI 99.8 < 0.02
PAHs NI 95.4 15.48
Example 9 Fuel oil 7 666 65 2 650
Example 10 Fuel oil 7 567 73 2 033
Example 11 Fuel oil 9 933 72 2 833
NB: NI = No information.
Source: [ 89, Eklund et al. 1997 ]

Table 5.63: Efficiencies of soil washing for different components

General removal
Pollutants
efficiency (%)
TPH (C10-C40) 90–98
PAHs 90–97
BTEX 90–97
PCBs 90–97
Metals
As 60–80
Cd 60–80
Cr 80–90
Cu 75–85
Hg 85–95
Ni 85–90
Pb 90–95
Zn 85–95
Source: [ 160, Perseo, P. 2003 ]

Users
The soil washing technique is widespread in Europe. The applicability depends on the
suitability for the type of soil that is being treated. When the conditions are right it is a very
cost-effective technique hence the widespread use.

Plants 14 and 40 from the reference list use this technique.

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Reference literature
[ 89, Eklund et al. 1997 ], [ 160, Perseo, P. 2003 ]

5.6.1.3 Vapour extraction

Purpose
Vapour extraction can be used as a method for treating solid waste, e.g. excavated soil
contaminated with volatile hydrocarbons.

Principle of operation
In general terms, vapour extraction removes volatile organic constituents from contaminated
waste by creating a sufficient subsurface airflow to strip contaminants from the vadose
(unsaturated) zone by volatilisation. As the contaminant vapours are removed, they may be
vented directly to the air or controlled in a number of ways.

Feed and output streams

Vapour extraction has been widely used to treat excavated soil contaminated with gasoline or
chlorinated solvents (e.g. TCE). It is also sometimes used to minimise the migration of vapours
into structures or residential areas during some other types of in situ remediation not covered in
this document.

Spills or leaks of fuels typically involve liquids containing dozens of different constituents. For
removal by this treatment to be effective, the contaminants must generally have vapour
pressures greater than 1.0 mm Hg at -7 °C. Complete removal of contaminants may not be
possible with this technique alone. Moreover, this technique is not applicable for saturated soils
or for soils with low air permeability. It is however applicable to the treatment of soil
contaminated with PCBs.

Emissions to air are channelled and, thus, can be readily controlled. The success of the method
varies with the volatility (vapour pressure) of the contaminants present.

Significant residual contamination may remain in the solid waste after treatment.

Process description
The success of the treatment for a given application depends on numerous factors with the two
key criteria being the nature of the contamination and the nature of the waste (e.g. soil). The
tendency of the organic contaminants to partition into water or to be adsorbed onto soil particles
also affects its effectiveness, and hence the compound's water solubility, the Henry’s Law
constant, and the sorption coefficient to the solid waste are of interest. The temperature affects
each of these variables and hence the rate of vapour diffusion and transport. Increasing the
temperature is one option commonly considered for enhancing the treatment performance. Solid
waste can be heated in one of three ways: 1) introduction of heated air or steam, 2) input of
electromagnetic energy through the waste, or 3) heat release through a chemical reaction. The
use of heated air or steam appears to be the most widely used approach.

As the vapours are removed from the solid waste, they are treated to reduce emissions to air.
Direct combustion is theoretically possible if the hydrocarbon content of the exhaust gas is high
enough, but the concentration typically drops significantly during removal. Therefore, natural
gas or some other fuel is needed to maintain combustion. Also, for safety reasons, dilution air is
typically added to maintain the VOC concentration below the lower explosive limit. For lower
levels of hydrocarbons, catalytic oxidation or carbon adsorption may be effective.

Typical systems, measures and equipment include extraction, monitoring, air injection, vacuum
pumps, vapour treatment devices, vapour/liquid separators and liquid phase treatment devices.

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Users
Vapour extraction has been used successfully for several years as a combined two-phase
treatment of both groundwater and contaminated soil, and is increasingly being employed.
Although this treatment may be used for a variety of soil types, its effectiveness depends on the
ability of air to flow through the soil.

Large volumes of excavated soil can be treated in a cost-effective manner.

Reference literature
[ 89, Eklund et al. 1997 ], [ 12, UNEP 2000 ], [ 18, WT TWG 2004 ], [ 19, WT TWG 2004 ]

5.6.1.4 Solvent extraction

Purpose
Solvent extraction is much more effective for treating organic compounds than inorganic
compounds and metals. It can be used in conjunction with other processes to reduce remediation
costs.

Principle of operation
Solvent extraction differs from soil washing in that it employs organic solvents (e.g. propane,
butane, carbon dioxide, aliphatic amines (e.g. triethylamine)) rather than aqueous solutions to
extract contaminants from the soil. Like soil washing, it is a separation process that does not
destroy the contaminants. It works as the contaminants will have a greater solubility in the
solvent than in the soil.

Feed and output streams

Sediments, sludge and soils contaminated with volatile organic compounds (VOCs), petroleum
wastes, PCBs, and halogenated solvents can be effectively treated with solvent extraction. The
removal of inorganic compounds such as acids, bases, salts, and heavy metals is limited, but
these types of compounds usually do not hinder the remediation process. Metals may undergo a
chemical change to a less toxic or leachable form; however, their presence in the waste streams
may still restrict disposal and recycling options.

Whilst these separation processes may be more effective in treating soils contaminated with
petroleum fuels, they are generally employed to treat soils containing metals or heavy organic
compounds.

The concentrated contaminants can be analysed and subsequently designated for further
treatment, recycling or reuse before disposal. While solvent extraction may improve the
condition of the solids, often they may still need dewatering, treatment for residual organic
compounds, additional separation, stabilisation, or some other treatment. The water from the
dewatering process, the solids, and the water from the extractor are analysed to aid in the choice
of the most appropriate treatment and disposal.

The contaminated solvent must then be treated, for example to destroy the PCBs.

Table 5.64 gives an illustration of the performance of solvent extraction.

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Table 5.64: Results of the remediation of API separator sludge by solvent extraction
Initial
Final concentration
Compound concentration Removal (%)
(mg/kg)
(mg/kg)
Anthracene 28.3 0.12 99
Benzene 30.2 0.18 99
Benzo(a)pyrene 1.9 0.33 83
Bis-(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate 4.1 1.04 75
Chrysene 6.3 0.69 89
Ethylbenzene 30.4 0.23 99
Naphthalene 42.2 0.66 98
Phenanthrene 28.6 1.01 96
Pyrene 7.7 1.08 86
Toluene 16.6 0.18 99
Total xylenes 13.2 0.98 93
Source: [ 160, Perseo, P. 2003 ]

Process description
The remediation process begins with excavating the contaminated soil and feeding it through a
screen to remove large objects. In some cases, solvent or water is added to the waste in order to
aid pumping it to the extraction unit. In the extractor, solvent is added and mixed with the waste
to promote the dissolving of the contaminants into the solvent. Laboratory testing can determine
which solvent adequately separates the contaminants from the soil. Generally, the solvent will
have a higher vapour pressure than the contaminants (i.e. a lower boiling point) so that, with an
appropriate pressure or temperature change, the solvent may be separated from the
contaminants, compressed, and recycled to the extractor.

Users
Treatment of contaminated soil.

Reference literature
[ 89, Eklund et al. 1997 ], [ 12, UNEP 2000 ],

5.6.1.5 Biodegradation

Purpose
To reduce the organic contamination of soil using a biological process.

Principle of operation
Aerobic (see Section 4.2) and anaerobic degradation (see Section 4.3) of pollutants in the
excavated soil.

Feed and output streams

The types of contaminants to be treated are biodegradable pollutants, fuels (gasoline, kerosene,
gas oil, heating oils, heavy fuels), mineral oil, waste oils and heavy organic oils. The main
products of this type of treatment are decontaminated excavated soils. However, where
inorganic contamination is present, the soil will need further treatment.

Table 5.65 shows the desired characteristics of soil to be treated by biodegradation.

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Table 5.65: Desired inlet feed characteristics for slurry biodegradation processes for soil
decontamination
Characteristic Desired range
Organic content 0.025–25 w/w-%
Solids content 10–40 w/w-%
Water content 60–90 w/w-%
Solids particle size < 0.635 cm diameter
Feed temperature 15–35 °C
Feed pH 4.5–8.8
Source: [ 89, Eklund et al. 1997 ]

The effectiveness of slurry biodegradation for certain general contaminant groups is shown in
Table 5.66

Table 5.66: Applicability of slurry biodegradation for treatment of contaminants in soil,

sediments and sludges
Contaminant Applicability
Organic contaminants:
Halogenated semi-volatiles 2
Non-halogenated semi-volatiles 2
Pesticides 2
Halogenated volatiles 1
Non-halogenated volatiles 1
Organic cyanides 1
PCBs 1
Dioxins/furans 0
Organic corrosives 0
Inorganic contaminants:
Inorganic cyanides 1
Asbestos 0
Inorganic corrosives 0
Non-volatile metals 0
Radioactive materials 0
Volatile metals 0
Reactive contaminants:
Oxidisers 0
Reducers 0
NB:
0 = No expected effectiveness - expert opinion is that
the technology will not work.
1 = Potential effectiveness - expert opinion is that the
technology will work.
2 = Demonstrated effectiveness - successful
treatability test on some scale has been completed.
Source: [ 89, Eklund et al. 1997 ]

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The chemical nature of the contaminants present in the soils proposed for solid phase
bioremediation is important in determining the rate at which biodegradation will occur.
Although nearly all constituents in petroleum products typically found are biodegradable, the
more complex the molecular structure of the constituents, the more difficult and less rapid the
biological treatment. Aliphatic and monoaromatic constituents with a lower molecular weight
are more easily biodegraded than aliphatic or polyaromatic organic constituents with a higher
molecular weight (see Table 5.67).

Table 5.67: Biodegradability of contaminated soil proposed for solid phase remediation
Chemical nature and biodegradability
Products in which
Biodegradability Example constituents constituents are
typically found

n-butane, I-pentane, n-octane Gasoline

Nonane Diesel fuel

Methylbutane, dimethylpentenes,
Gasoline
MORE DEGRADABLE methyloctanes

↓
Benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, xylenes Gasoline

Propylbenzenes Diesel, kerosene

Decanes Diesel
Dodecanes Kerosene
Tridecanes Heating fuels
LESS DEGRADABLE Tetradecanes Lubricating oils

Naphthalenes Diesel
Fluoranthenes Kerosene
Pyrenes Heating oil
Acenaphthenes Lubricating oils

Source: [FR comment #353 in [ 21, WT TWG 2016 ]]

Process description
The lack of oxygen is the most limiting factor of pollutant biodegradation in soil and lots of
different processes have been developed to optimise soil oxygenation. The various biological
treatments differ with the aeration techniques used. Two types of processes exist: in situ and ex
situ.

In situ biodegradation
In situ biodegradation is the term for biological treatment processes that are performed in the
original place where the contaminated soil is found. Such processes are not covered in this
document as the remediation of unexcavated polluted soils is not considered a waste treatment
activity.

Ex situ biodegradation
Ex situ biodegradation is the general term for treatment processes in which the contaminated
soil or sludge is excavated and remediated through biological processes. Ex situ bioremediation
technology may involve slurry phase bioremediation where aqueous slurry is created by
combining contaminated soil or sludge with water and then the contaminants are biodegraded in
a self-contained reactor or in a lined lagoon. Ex situ biodegradation also encompasses solid
phase bioremediation, such as landfarming, composting, and biopiles. In these processes, the

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contaminated soil is excavated, and oxygen, nutrients, water, or microorganisms are added to
enhance the natural biodegradation of the contaminants.

Slurry phase bioremediation

There are two main objectives behind using slurry phase bioremediation: (1) to destroy the
organic contaminants in the soil or sludge, and, equally important, (2) to reduce the volume of
contaminated material. Slurry biodegradation has been shown to be effective in treating highly
contaminated soils that have fuel or other organic contaminant concentrations ranging from
2 500 mg/kg to 250 000 mg/kg. The slurry process has also shown some potential for treating a
wide range of contaminants, including pesticides, creosote, pentachlorophenol, PCBs, and other
halogenated organics.

Waste preparation is required before applying slurry biodegradation. The preparation may
include excavation and handling of the waste material, as well as screening to remove debris
and large objects. Particle size reduction, water addition, and pH and temperature adjustment
may also be required to meet feed specifications.

Once biodegradation of the contaminants is completed, the treated slurry is sent to a

separation/dewatering system. A clarifier for gravity separation can be used to remove the water
from the soil.

Solid phase bioremediation

Solid phase bioremediation involves the excavation and preparation of contaminated soil to
enhance the bioremediation of contaminants in the soil. The techniques typically used for
preparation of the soil to be bioremediated are sifting/riddling, homogenisation, nutrient
improvement and compost addition. The bioremediation is carried out in biopiles (soil turning
or air injection).

Aerobic treatment involves the storage of biodegradable waste with a bulking agent to increase
the porosity of the soil material. Bioremediation is similar to composting in that the
contaminated soil is piled in large mounds. However, for these processes, air is usually provided
by pulling a vacuum through the pile. Open pile windrows are not used where the contaminants
are volatile due to potential for emissions. Covered processes have the advantage of providing
optimal oxygen, temperature and moisture conditions.

Users
Plants 105, 186C, 353_359, 481, 482_483 and 625 from the reference list.

5.6.2 Current emission and consumption levels

Table 5.68 gives an overview of the plants from the reference list treating contaminated soil,
together with the process used and the associated emissions to air and water.

There are three types of plants on the reference list:

 plants performing biodegradation of contaminated soil, where, except in one case, there
are no channelled emissions to air and emissions to water mostly originate from run-off
water or from landfills which are operated on the same site;
 plants performing thermal desorption of contaminated soil, where emissions are mainly to
air;
 plants performing water washing of contaminated soil, where emissions are mainly to
water.
This section focuses on the last two categories.

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Table 5.68: Plants from the reference list treating contaminated soil
Origin of
Plant Waste Waste input Origin of emissions
Process emissions
code input description to water
to air
Contamina
ted soil
Water- Soil from site
based remediation, landfill Soil
Process water
014 liquid leakage, industrial Soil water washing washing
treatment unit
waste waste water, plant
Other industrial waste
industrial
solid waste
Dry and wet sieving.
Crushing.
Soil water washing
with addition of
flocculants and pH
control (process and
waste water
Hazardous and non- treatment are
hazardous waste: identical). Storage of
mainly contaminated Specific weight hazardous
Contamina
040 soil (70–80 %), separator for wood waste and Soil washing
ted soil
concrete, used and other materials soil
construction with lower specific washing
materials and waste weight.
Physico-chemical
waste water
treatment plant with
champer filter press
(process and waste
water treatment are
identical).
All water in the open-
air process is collected
in a concrete tank. The
Contaminated soil water is used on a
typically from former No continuous basis for
Contamina industrial sites being Aerobic channelled the biological soil-
105
ted soil renovated or other biodegradation emissions cleaning process
types of clean-up to air (humidification), for
operations dust control, and for
evaporation. No water
is emitted to outside
recipients
Biological
degradation
Contamina
186C NI (residence time 3–6 NI NI
ted soil
months) and air
stripping
Desorption in
Contamina
188C NI directly fired rotary Desorption No emissions to water
ted soil
kiln

The water stream is

Organic mainly due to the
Aerobic
353_3 Contamina contaminated soil Aerobic storm water collected
biodegradat
59 ted soil (mainly biodegradation from the building roof
ion
hydrocarbons) and the internal
square/transit route

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Wood and other

green waste from
gardens and parks,
All processes
sludge from the
Ferromagnetic including leachate
municipal waste
separation, aerobic from the landfill.
water treatment
biodegradation (The Water is discharged to
Green plant, fibre waste
composting process an on-site common
waste from production of No
is carried out until WWT facility (when
Sludge pulp and paper, channelled
481 sufficient the design/operation of
Contamina contaminated soil, emissions
biodegradation is the WWT facility is
ted soil horse manure, to air
achieved to use the mainly influenced by
Other bottom ash from
compost to cover the waste water streams
combustion plant at
closed parts of the coming from activities
pulp and paper
landfill with soil). other than the WT
installation, fire-
plant).
damaged paper and
water-damaged
paper, bark
Aerobic
biodegradation
Oil-contaminated
(residence time > 1
soil, sewage sludge
year). Contaminated
from municipal
soil and sewage
waste water
sludge is composted
Contamina treatment and from
in open air strips.
ted soil small-scale The main part of the
The waste is mixed
Sludge residential waste No waste water originates
with 'green waste' to
482_4 Waste with water treatment, channelled from the landfill.
get the correct N/C
83 calorific wood waste and emissions Waste water is treated
ratio, and a structure
value other calorific waste, to air in a municipal waste
that allows oxygen.
WEEE unspecified HW, water treatment plant.
Contaminated soil is
Other treated-wood waste,
composted and
WEEE + other waste
stored on sealed
(fluorescent lamps,
concrete surfaces
cooling equipment,
with collection of
electronic waste)
water directed to the
external WWTP.
Indirectly
Waste with fired rotary
Drilling cuttings Indirectly fired Indirectly fired rotary
494 calorific kiln
from oil-based muds rotary kiln kiln
value Thermal
oxidiser
No
channelled
emissions
to air. No
air emission
control
requirement Batch transport of
Aerobic s, but excess of collected
biodegradation odorous/vol leachate from
Soil contaminated
(residence time: 1 atile heaps sedimentation basin.
Contamina with hazardous
625 year on average. are covered The excess leachate is
ted soil substances from
Can typically range if transported to
various locations
from 3 to 48 necessary. municipal waste
months) If a treatment plant by
significant truck.
smell is
detected,
the waste
treatment in
question is
stopped.
NB: NI = No information.

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5.6.2.1 Emissions from thermal desorption

[ 42, WT TWG 2014 ]

Emissions to air from thermal desorption systems are influenced by the waste characteristics,
the desorption process applied, and the emissions control equipment used. The emissions to air
associated with thermal desorption come from several sources. The sources of emissions to air
vary widely with each process. The stack of an afterburner vents combustion products, as does a
fuel-fired heating system if the combustion gases are not fed into the desorber. A fuel-fired
heating system typically operates with propane, natural gas or fuel oil. If the VOC emission
controls consist of a bag filter, scrubber and vapour phase carbon adsorber, the off-gas will
contain small concentrations of the original contaminants, as well as the products of any
chemical reactions that might occur. The volume of off-gas from a thermal desorption unit
depends on the type of processor. Table 5.69 and Table 5.70 below give an overview of the
emissions to air at the two plants from the reference list performing thermal desorption.

Table 5.69: Control of emissions to air at plants performing thermal desorption of contaminated
soil
Average flow
rate of Pollutants
Plant Heating mode Abatement techniques
emissions to measured
air (Nm3/h)
Alkaline scrubbing (for SO2),
Thermal oxidation (temperature
Dust, SOX, NOX,
850 °C and residence time of 2
CO, HCl, HF,
seconds for VOCs, PAHs,
188C Direct heating 30 771 TVOC, Cd+Tl,
TVOC)
Hg, Sum metals,
Activated carbon adsorption (for
PCDD/PCDF
mercury and PCDD/PCDF),
Bag/fabric filter system (for dust)
Cyclone, Condensation of oil and
aqueous fractions to further
recover and separate oil product SOX, NOX, CO,
494(1) Indirect heating 3 993
and clean water which can be TVOC
recycled through the system,
Thermal oxidation
(1)
Monitoring of stack is not required, therefore data are only available for 2010.

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Table 5.70: Emissions to air measured at plants performing thermal desorption of contaminated
soil
Number of
measurements
Range of average
Parameter Type of Plants during the 3- Standards or
values (mg/Nm3 except
measured measurement concerned year reference methods used
for flow)
period (2010-
2012)
Short-term
average: ½ h /
Continuous 188C 30 771 NI
Flow (m3/h) Long-term
average: Daily
Periodic 494 3993 1 NI

Short-term
Short-term average: 10.1 average: ½ h /
Dust Continuous 188C Beta
Long-term average: 4.4 Long-term
average: Daily

Short-term
Short-term average: 42 average: ½ h /
Continuous 188C IR
SOX Long-term average: 12.1 Long-term
average: Daily
Periodic 494 1087 1 TGN M21
Short-term average: Short-term
148.3 average: ½ h /
Continuous 188C IR
NOX Long-term average: Long-term
116.4 average: Daily
Periodic 494 478 1 BS EN 14792
Short-term
Short-term average: 23.3 average: ½ h /
Continuous 188C IR
CO Long-term average: 9.9 Long-term
average: Daily
Periodic 494 9.8 1 BS EN 15058

Short-term
Short-term average: 4.1 average: ½ h /
HCl Continuous 188C IR
Long-term average: 1.4 Long-term
average: Daily

Short-term
Short-term average: 0.9 average: ½ h /
HF Continuous 188C IR
Long-term average: 0.3 Long-term
average: Daily

Short-term
Short-term average: 8.9 average: ½ h /
Continuous 188C IR
TVOC Long-term average: 3.4 Long-term
average: Daily
Periodic 494 3.7 1 BS EN 12619
Cd+Tl Periodic 188C 0.016 6 NF EN 14385
Hg Periodic 188C 0.113 6 NF EN 13211
Sum metals Periodic 188C 0.158 6 NF EN 14385
NF EN 1948-1-
PCDD/PCDF Periodic 188C 0.035 6
2-3
NB: NI = No information.
IR = Infrared.

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Various types of thermal desorption systems can produce up to nine residual process streams:
treated soil, oversized media rejects, condensed contaminants, water, dust, clean off-gas, phase
separator sludge, aqueous phase spent carbon, and vapour phase spent carbon. Off-gases from
indirectly heated units, e.g. thermal screws, can be treated with smaller chemical/physical
systems, such as a bag filter or a condenser, followed by an afterburner.

As for emissions to water, in one case there is no water release mentioned (Plant 188C) and in
the other (Plant 494) waste water is tankered to off-site WWT after oil is skimmed out but no
measurement is performed.

Energy consumption [ 42, WT TWG 2014 ]

The reported average energy consumption per tonne of waste treated is from 200 kWh/t to
400 kWh/t. The main energy source is fossil fuel (liquid or gaseous).

Water usage [ 42, WT TWG 2014 ]

The reported average water usage ranges from 90 l/t to 180 l/t. In one case, water is used mainly
for dust suppression (dried solids are wetted). In the other case, water is used in a wet scrubber
and for soil cooling.

5.6.2.2 Emissions from vapour extraction of solid waste

[ 42, WT TWG 2014 ]

The emissions to air associated with vapour extraction systems come primarily from the stack.
Additional releases of volatile organics may occur from the treatment of any contaminated
water that is extracted. Fugitive emissions are considered negligible due to the negative pressure
throughout most of the system.

Emissions include untreated volatile organics from the extraction process. Semi-volatile organic
compounds will be removed, though less completely than VOCs, leading to subsequent
emissions to air. There may also be smaller amounts of emissions to air associated with the
control system. Due to the variety of technologies used for vapour treatment, stack emissions
may also include some products of incomplete combustion, NOX, dust, CO, and acid gases. Of
primary concern, however, are the volatile organic compounds. Air emissions data for several
vapour extraction systems are summarised in Table 5.71.

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Table 5.71: Emissions from vapour extraction systems

No of systems Parameter Units Range or value Approximate
surveyed average
Flow rate per well m3/min 0.2–8 2
13 Removal kg/day 0.9–113 27
Exhaust gas concentration ppmv 20–350 100
Total flow rate m3/min 0.1–161 23
Treatment: NA NA NA
 none no systems 9 NA
17  carbon no systems 6 NA
 catalytic incineration no systems 1 NA
 combustion no systems 1 NA
Removal rate kg/day 2–195 45
Total flow rate m3/min 0.7–318 62
17 Pollutant concentration ppmv 150–3 000 400
Control efficiency % 90–99 95
NB: NA = Not applicable.
Source: [ 89, Eklund et al. 1997 ]

The emission rate of VOCs over time from continuously operated vapour extraction systems
tends to show an exponential decay curve.

5.6.2.3 Emissions and consumption of soil washing

[ 42, WT TWG 2014 ]

In the soil washing process, the greatest potential for emissions of volatile contaminants occurs
in the excavation, material handling, feed preparation, and extraction processes. The waste
streams also have the potential to be sources of VOC emissions. The solvent recovery process
involves vaporisation of the solvent, so fugitive emissions are possible from this as well as from
other stages of the solvent process. Waste streams also have the potential to be sources of VOC
emissions if any VOCs are already present in the waste stream. For solvent extraction processes,
emissions of the solvent itself may also be a cause for concern.

Storage areas need to be kept under specific control to avoid pollution dispersion, especially of
dust. For liquid effluents, the plants are always equipped with a water-slurry treatment unit,
where the water is sent before being discharged.

Soil washing generates four waste streams: contaminated solids separated from the washing
water; waste water; waste water treatment sludge and residual solids; and emissions to air.

Table 5.72 and Table 5.73 give an overview of emissions to air at the two plants from the
reference list carrying out water washing of contaminated soil.

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Table 5.72: Control of emissions to air at plants performing water washing of contaminated soil
Average flow
rate of Pollutants measured in
Plant Abatement techniques
emissions to emissions to air
air (Nm3/h)
Wet scrubbing (one horizontal
014 17 Dust
and one vertical wet scrubber)
Bag/fabric filter system
040 (1) NI Activated carbon adsorption TOC, Hg, Pb, Cr, Ni
Water spraying (dust)
(1) Abatement system installed in summer 2014. No measurements provided in the questionnaire.
NB: NI = No information.

Table 5.73: Pollutants measured in emissions to air from plants performing water washing of
contaminated soil
Number of
measurements
Pollutant Type of Plants Average Standard or
during the 3-year
measured measurement concerned (mg/Nm3) method used
reference period
(2010-2012)
Dust Periodic 14 1.9 3 Gravimetric
TOC Periodic 40 NI 3 NI
Hg Periodic 40 NI 3 NI
Sb Periodic 40 NI 3 NI
Cr Periodic 40 NI 3 NI
Ni Periodic 40 NI 3 NI
NB: NI = No information.

As for water, there are no plants from the reference list with direct discharge to the environment.
Table 5.74 and Table 5.75 give an overview of the emissions to water at the two plants from the
reference list carrying out water washing of contaminated soil.

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Table 5.74: Control of emissions to water at plants performing water washing of contaminated
soil

Average water flow

Origin of emissions

emissions to water
emissions to water
Type of discharge

Receiving body

Techniques for

measured in
Plant code

Pollutants
to water

(m3/h)
Discharge from
the WT plant
and its auxiliary Decantation, flocculation, pH, THC,
Process systems, as well neutralisation, PAHs, CN-,
water as from on-site sedimentation (ponds), sulphates, Cd,
014 NI 5.5
treatment waste water precipitation, buffer tanks, Hg, Pb, Cr,
unit pretreatment flotation, sand filter, Cu, Zn, AOX,
facilities, to an activated carbon filter BTEX, PCB
urban/municipal
sewer system
Decantation with
flocculants, press filtering,
filtration, active carbon
filtration/adsorption, pH
control and regulation with
pH, TSS,
CO2 injection, buffer tanks,
Discharge from THC, PAHs,
biological nutrient
the WT plant F-, S2-, SO32-,
removal.
and its auxiliary CN-, NO2-
The pretreated waste water
systems, as well /NO3-, Cd,
is discharged in a common
Soil as from on-site River/ Hg, As, Pb,
040 biological WT plant (not 15
washing waste water Stream Cr, Cr(VI),
part of the treatment plant).
pretreatment Co, Cu, Ni,
Internal water circuit.
facilities, to an Zn, chlorine,
Reduction of water usage
urban/municipal phenols,
and minimisation of waste
sewer system AOX, BTEX,
water. The used water in
Sn
the plant is reused
internally after cleaning as
often as possible (circuit)
before discharge to the
waste treatment plant.
NB: NI = No information.

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Table 5.75: Parameters measured in emissions to water at plants performing water washing of
contaminated soil
Number of
Average measurements
Pollutant Type of Plants
measurement (mg/l during the 3-year
measured measurement concerned
except for pH) reference period
(2010-2012)
Composite sample 14 8.4 NI
24-hour flow-
pH
proportional 40 8.4-11.4 Daily average
composite sample
24-hour flow-
TSS proportional 40 61 Daily average
composite sample
24-hour flow-
proportional 40 0.087 Daily average
THC
composite sample
Composite sample 14 2.52 NI
24-hour flow-
proportional 40 0.057 Daily average
PAHs
composite sample
Composite sample 14 0.0006 NI
24-hour flow-
F- proportional 40 1.7 Daily average
composite sample
24-hour flow-
S2- proportional 40 0.1 Daily average
composite sample
24-hour flow-
SO32- proportional 40 0.5 Daily average
composite sample
24-hour flow-
proportional 40 0.04 Daily average
CN-
composite sample
Composite sample 14 0.005 NI
Sulphates Composite sample 14 644 NI
24-hour flow-
NO2-/NO3- proportional 40 5.8 Daily average
composite sample
24-hour flow-
proportional 40 0.005 Daily average
Cd
composite sample
Composite sample 14 0.008 NI
24-hour flow-
proportional 40 0.0011 Daily average
Hg
composite sample
Composite sample 14 0 NI
24-hour flow-
As proportional 40 0.017 Daily average
composite sample
24-hour flow-
proportional 40 0.01 Daily average
Pb
composite sample
Composite sample 14 0.0349 NI
24-hour flow-
proportional 40 0.089 Daily average
Cr
composite sample
Composite sample 14 0.0273 NI
24-hour flow-
Cr(VI) proportional 40 0.036 Daily average
composite sample

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24-hour flow-
Co proportional 40 0.008 Daily average
composite sample
24-hour flow-
proportional 40 0.023 Daily average
Cu
composite sample
Composite sample 14 0.184 NI
24-hour flow-
Ni proportional 40 0.0074 Daily average
composite sample
24-hour flow-
proportional 40 0.019 Daily average
Zn
composite sample
Composite sample 14 0.325 NI
24-hour flow-
Chlorine proportional 40 0.1 Daily average
composite sample
24-hour flow-
Phenols proportional 40 0.113 Daily average
composite sample
24-hour flow-
proportional 40 0.059 Daily average
AOX
composite sample
Composite sample 14 0.9 NI
24-hour flow-
proportional 40 0.0025 Daily average
BTEX
composite sample
Composite sample 14 0.0017 NI
PCB Composite sample 14 0 NI
24-hour flow-
Sn proportional 40 0.014 Daily average
composite sample

The reported average energy consumption per tonne of waste treated is around 13 kWh/t, with a
range of 8–18 kWh/t. Electricity is the main source of energy, although fossil fuel is also used
for on-site manipulation and transportation of the waste input. [ 42, WT TWG 2014 ]

The reported average water usage per tonne of waste treated is around 86 l/t, with a range of 63–
110 l/t. One plant indicated using water mainly for dust emissions abatement (water spraying),
and that it recycles a large amount of the used water. [ 42, WT TWG 2014 ]

5.6.2.4 Emissions and consumption of biodegradation

Emissions to air due to ex situ biodegradation

Little information exists on volatile losses from ex situ bioremediation processes. Table 5.76
summarises the data available for both slurry phase and biopile systems. Although these data are
limited, volatilisation appears to be a small component of the overall removal of hydrocarbons
in these processes.

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Table 5.76: Summary of emission data for an ex situ bioremediation system

Biodegradation/
Contaminants Emission rate Total emissions Notes
Volatilisation
Slurry phase bioremediation
Off-gas concentrations peaked
Creosote 0.07–6.3 g HC/h NI NI during day 1 and decreased to
near baseline by day 5
425 000 kg of soils were
Petroleum
NI 910 kg HC NI treated. Emissions reduced to
sludge
background level by day 6
10–20 kg/yr;
A full-scale system is
Petroleum 1.5 kg dredging;
NI NI estimated to have 500–
sludge 30 kg storage
2 000 kg of VOC emissions
tank; 4 kg pond
Biopile
Emissions to air measured for
the stockpiling/handling,
mixing, and curing operations.
Mixing components
Gasoline NI NI 99 %/1 %
accounted for 96 % of
contaminants lost. 73 % of
VOCs lost were trapped in
carbon units.
0.01 kg/h HC once Off-gas was also recycled
through; 0.03 kg/h back to the biopiles to further
Petroleum NI NI reduce emissions
HC after treatment
(carbon)
16 ppb BTEX
start-up;
5 ppb BTEX
Petroleum NI >99 %/<1 %
(day 8);
<1 ppb BTEX
(day 35)
NB: HC = Total hydrocarbons.
NI = No information.
Source: [ 89, Eklund et al. 1997 ]

In open lagoons and in aerobic treatment and land treatment processes, the primary
environmental factors which influence emissions to air, in addition to the biodegradability and
volatility of the waste, are process temperature and wind speed. Emissions tend to increase with
an increase in surface turbulence due to wind or mechanical agitation. The temperature affects
emissions through its influence on microbial growth. At temperatures outside the band for
optimal microbial activity, volatilisation will increase. Emissions from self-contained reactors
are also determined by reactor design parameters such as the amount of air or oxygen used to
aerate the slurry. Higher gas flows will strip more volatiles out of the solution and increase
emissions to air.

Energy consumption [ 42, WT TWG 2014 ]

The reported energy consumption per tonne of waste treated is 23 kWh. Both electricity and
fossil fuel are used, almost equally.

Water usage [ 42, WT TWG 2014 ]

The reported water usage per tonne of waste treated is around 50 l. Water is reported to be used
at the same consumption level for the process as cleaning water and for air emissions abatement.
Around a third of the used water is recycled.

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Consumption of raw material

Most often, organic pollutants are used as a source of carbon and energy by microorganisms.
Also, the concentration of nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus must be adjusted to support
microbial growth. Usually, an ammonium salt like NH4Cl is used for nitrogen addition and
phosphorus as phosphate salt. However, microorganism growth needs lots of elements like
vitamins and some metals (Fe, Mg, Cu, etc.). These elements can be naturally present in soil but
improvement can sometimes be necessary. C:N:P ratios are sometimes used to determine the
total quantity of nutrients necessary. In fact, the nutrient concentration in the soil must be
regularly tested. Polluted soil is sometimes mixed with compost (generally in the proportion of
10–30 % compost, and never above 40 %) to optimise biological treatment, in line with the
principles described in Section 4.2. Water is sometimes also used in order to increase the
moisture content of the soil.

Oxygen and nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) are added to the contaminated soil to stimulate
biodegradation. Increasing the microorganisms' flora with specific organisms (e.g. bacteria,
fungus) increases the biodegradability of the contaminants.

[ 42, WT TWG 2014 ]

5.6.3 Techniques to consider in the determination of BAT

5.6.3.1 Thermal desorption

5.6.3.1.1 Reduction of dust and VOC emissions to air from thermal desorption of
contaminated soil

Description
Collection of waste gas and an appropriate combination of abatement techniques such as:

 thermal oxidation;
 bag filter;
 adsorption on activated carbon;
 condensation;
 cyclone.

Technical description
See Sections 2.3.4.2, 2.3.4.4, 2.3.4.6, 2.3.4.8 and 2.3.4.9 for a description of cyclones, fabric
filters, thermal oxidation, condensation and adsorption respectively.

Achieved environmental benefits

Reduction of emissions to air of dust and VOCs.

Environmental performance and operational data

See Table 5.70.

Cross-media effects
See the CWW BREF [ 45, COM 2016 ].

Technical considerations related to applicability

Cyclones are used in combination with some further abatement techniques. See also the CWW
BREF [ 45, COM 2016 ].

Driving force for implementation

Legislation on air pollution.

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Economics
See the CWW BREF [ 45, COM 2016 ].

Example plants
Plants 188C and 494.

Reference literature
[ 42, WT TWG 2014 ]

5.6.3.2 Soil washing

5.6.3.2.1 Treatment and reuse of generated waste water for water washing of
contaminated soil

Description
Process water is reused as much as possible in the process. The excess process waste water is
discharged after treatment, which consists of a suitable combination of the following
techniques:

 neutralisation;
 flocculation;
 decantation/sedimentation;
 filtration;
 adsorption;
 precipitation;
 flotation.

Technical description
See Sections 2.3.6.2.2, 2.3.6.2.3.2, 2.3.6.2.3.4, 2.3.6.2.3.5, 2.3.6.2.3.6, 2.3.6.2.4.1 and
2.3.6.2.4.8 for a description of neutralisation, flocculation, sedimentation, flotation,
precipitation, filtration and adsorption respectively.

Achieved environmental benefits

 Minimisation of water usage.
 Reduction of waste water release.

Environmental performance and operational data

See Section 2.3.6.1.1 for the environmental performance of the plants from the reference list in
terms of emissions to water.

Cross-media effects
Higher energy (electricity) consumption by pumps, filters and treatment equipment.

Technical considerations relevant to applicability

Generally applicable. Recycled water may need to undergo some or all steps of the waste water
treatment before reuse to avoid the accumulation of pollutants in the process.

Economics
See the CWW BREF [ 45, COM 2016 ].

Driving force for implementation

 Reduction of water usage.

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 Legislation on water pollution.

Example plants
Plant 14 recycles about 90 % of the process water, depending on the contamination of the soil
treated.

Plant 40 uses water in the process with a continuous circulation of 700 m3/h. This process water
is fully cleaned/purified/recycled once every operating hour and, after this cleaning by means of
a decanter, sand filter, active carbon filter and pH adjustment, it is reused continuously in the
process.

Reference literature
[ 42, WT TWG 2014 ]

5.6.3.2.2 Control of emissions to air from soil washing

Description
Collection of waste gas and an appropriate combination of abatement techniques such as:

 wet gas and dust scrubber;

 bag filter;
 adsorption on activated carbon.

Technical description
See Sections 2.3.4.4, 2.3.4.9 and 2.3.4.10 for a description of fabric filters, adsorption and
scrubbing respectively.

Achieved environmental benefits

Reduction of emissions to air of dust, VOCs, HCl and HF.

Environmental performance and operational data

See Table 5.73.

Cross-media effects
See the CWW BREF [ 45, COM 2016 ].

Technical considerations related to applicability

See the CWW BREF [ 45, COM 2016 ].

Driving force for implementation

Legislation on air pollution.

Economics
See the CWW BREF [ 45, COM 2016 ].

Example plants
Plants 14 and 40.

Reference literature
[ 42, WT TWG 2014 ]

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5.7 Treatment of water-based liquid waste

5.7.1 Applied processes and techniques

The processes used for the treatment of water-based liquid waste are similar to the techniques
used for the treatment of waste water. The corresponding detailed information is therefore
described only once in Section 2.3.6.

Purpose
Treatments of water-based liquid waste are planned in such a manner that the maximum amount
of recyclable materials can be separated so that a minimum amount of auxiliary materials is
used. The purposes of these treatments are as follows:

 To enable achievement of environmental protection goals, in particular, water quality

management. Materials which may be hazardous to water are either treated, withheld
and/or converted to a non-hazardous form.
 To enable the correct disposal of large quantities of, in general, aqueous liquid waste and
waste requiring special controls.
 To separate the oil or the organic fraction to be used as fuel.

The procedures serve the specific application of physico-chemical reactions for material
conversion (e.g. neutralisation, oxidation, reduction) and for material separation (e.g. filtration,
sedimentation, distillation, ion exchange).

Principle of operation
During the treatment of water-based liquid waste, water is separated and processed for discharge
to sewerage systems or water bodies. This processed water becomes subject to various pieces of
water legislation as soon as it is discharged.

Feed and output streams

The waste input to be treated consists of aqueous liquids or sludge with a relatively high water
content (> 80 w/w-%). The water-based liquid wastes commonly treated are of two main
categories, although sometimes mixed:

 water and minerals (e.g. acidic, alkaline, with heavy metals, toxic); or
 water and organics (e.g. oils, fuels, solvents, organic dissolved salts, with high COD,
POPs).
[ 93, Physico-Chem. Subgroup 2014 ]

The waste input type can be:

 emulsions/cooling lubricants;
 acids (e.g. pickling acids from surface treatments; some further information can be found
in the STM BREF);
 alkaline solutions;
 concentrates/saline solutions containing metals;
 washing water;
 waste water containing hydrocarbons;
 solvent mixtures;
 cyanide wastes;
 sludge;
 aqueous liquid wastes with high concentrations of biodegradable materials;
 aqueous marine waste.

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Without going into detail and/or individual and special cases, examples sources of water-based
liquid wastes are indicated in Table 5.77

Table 5.77: Examples of types of water-based liquid waste

LoW
Title Waste list
chapter
0601 waste acidic solutions
0602 waste alkaline solutions
Wastes from inorganic
06 0603 waste salts and their solutions
chemical processes
0604 waste containing metals
0605 sludges from on-site effluent treatment
0701 wastes from the manufacture, formulation, supply
and use (MFSU) of basic organic chemicals
Wastes from organic 0702 wastes from the MFSU of plastics, synthetic rubber
07
chemical processes and man-made fibres
0706 wastes from the MFSU of fats, grease, soaps,
detergents, disinfectants and cosmetics
Inorganic wastes containing 1101 liquid wastes and sludges from metal treatment and
metal from metal treatment and coating of metals (e.g. galvanic processes, zinc coating
11
the coating of metal; non-ferrous processes, pickling processes, etching, phosphating,
hydrometallurgy alkaline degreasing)
1201 wastes from shaping (including forging, welding,
pressing, drawing, turning, cutting and filing)
Wastes from shaping and surface
12 1202 wastes from mechanical surface treatment
treatment of metals and plastics
processes (blasting, grinding, honing, lapping, polishing)
1203 wastes from water and steam degreasing processes
1304 bilge oils
13 Oil wastes
1305 oil-water separator contents
Wastes from waste treatment
facilities, off-site waste water 1908 wastes from waste water treatment plants not
19 treatment plants and the water otherwise specified
industry

Source: [ 13, Schmidt et al. 2002 ]

The essential mass flow from treatment of water-based liquid waste is the waste water,
corresponding to about 85–95 % mass of the waste accepted for treatment.

Depending on the waste input type and the combination of processes used, the output can
include:
 sludge;
 filter cake;
 waste oil;
 waste fuel;
 spent solvent;
 solid residue;
 water;
 concentrate;
[ 93, Physico-Chem. Subgroup 2014 ]

The sludge generated from treatment of water-based liquid waste can be pressed and sent to
further treatment, pressed and mixed with other sludges (generally organic) on site or mixed
with residues from waste gas cleaning to give a solid product (with an exothermic reaction).
Almost all of the sites produce a sludge/cake, which is then in most cases incinerated or co-
incinerated, and in a few cases directly landfilled.

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Metal levels in the waste are well characterised, but organic contamination is not. Nitrogen and
phosphorus are not typically quantified in waste and will be present in the aqueous solution.
Table 5.78 summarises the waste which may be generated from water-based liquid waste
treatment.

Table 5.78: Process-generated waste from treatment of water-based liquid waste

Specific amount
Process-generated waste
(kg/tonne of total waste processed)
Oil 30–90
Concentrates (1) 14–40
Hydroxide sludge (2) 60–90

Mud from purification and emptying processes 10–50

NB: Data based on the data from PCT plant operators with a total capacity of 850 kt/yr. The data correspond to
the year 2001. The average age of the plants is about 17 years (ranging from 4 to 39 years). Approximately 84 %
(from 73 % to 91 %) of all the physico-chemical plants for the treatment of accepted waste observed here can be
attributed to LoW groups 11,12,13,16 and 19.
The oil is generally recycled and the remaining substances recycled or disposed of, depending on their
characteristics and the market conditions.
(1) Concentrates from evaporation/stripping and membrane filtration as well as from ultrafiltration and ion
exchangers.
(2) The weight relates to damp mud, drained TS: ~ 35–45 %.
Source: [ 13, Schmidt et al. 2002 ]

Waste from the treatment of water-based liquid waste arises principally from
precipitation/flocculation, concentrates from membrane filtration, evaporation or ion exchange;
waste is also produced in cleaning and draining processes, construction and containers. The
extent to which waste can be used depends on the individual case. For example, separated oil is
generally recyclable, concentrates from membrane filtration, evaporation or ion exchange can
be recycled in some cases, sludge from precipitation/flocculation is generally disposed of, and
waste from cleaning and draining is generally disposed of and disposal is usually by
immobilisation or incineration.

The amount of sludge containing metal (filter cake) that is produced depends on the specific
contaminants in the waste water, their concentrations and on the reagents and other chemicals
that are used. The sludge quantity varies from 2.5 % to 10 % of the waste water input. By
replacing lime with sodium hydroxide, the amount of filter cake is reduced. However, lime is
necessary for the precipitation of fluorides.

Filter cakes with a high concentration of metals, e.g. nickel and copper, can be used as a raw
material in the metallurgical industry. In other cases, the filter cake is disposed of as solid waste.

Process description
Plants treating water-based liquid/pumpable waste are configured on a case-by-case basis
depending on requirements and/or application. Each plant has a specific individual
technological and operational concept; this is geared towards the waste to be treated. For this
reason, there is no standard water-based liquid/pumpable waste treatment plant. Although all
plants have inspection and process laboratories and tend to have a neutralisation function, the
range of pretreatment processes, sludge handling methods and the combination of input waste
streams make each a unique operation. The modes of operation of the plants are:

 continuous operation: particularly suitable for large throughputs, waste of relatively

constant composition and for automated operation;
 batch operation: particularly well suited to waste with very variable
characteristics/reaction behaviour.

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The treatment of water-based liquid waste generally includes a combination of the following
steps (see technical descriptions in Section 2.3.6):
 sieving;
 storage/accumulation;
 neutralisation;
 sedimentation;
 precipitation/flocculation;
 ion exchange;
 oxidation/reduction;
 sorption (adsorption/absorption);
 evaporation/distillation;
 membrane filtration;
 stripping;
 extraction;
 filtration/draining;
 acid splitting of emulsions - emulsion breaking;
 organic splitting of emulsions - emulsion breaking;
 centrifugation;
 biological treatment;
 all finishing techniques after biological treatment (including final treatment of the hard
COD).
[ 29, PCT Subgroup 2015 ]

Table 5.79 below shows some examples of different water-based liquid waste treatments.

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Table 5.79: Analysis of some representative types of physico-chemical water-based liquid waste
treatments
Treatment of
Emulsions Liquid and Liquid and
Emulsions
and waste aqueous waste aqueous waste
and oil-
Emulsions with contents with some containing
water
to be organic organic solvents
mixtures
detoxicated solvents and tensides
Sieving
Sedimentation
Ultrafiltration
Evaporation
Heating up
Stripping
Acid splitting
Organic splitting
Oxidation/reduction
Membrane filtration
Flocculation/precipitation
Sedimentation
Draining
Sulphuric precipitation
Filtration
Ion exchanger
Neutralisation
NB: Dark grey: required process; light grey: optional process.
Source: [ 13, Schmidt et al. 2002 ]

Frequently several treatments are used to correctly treat a specific waste. The treatment
combination (type of treatments, sequence of their application, controls) is specified by the plant
laboratory, on the basis of the composition of the waste and its reaction behaviour.

In particular, the following parameters are considered before mixing water-based liquid wastes:
[ 13, Schmidt et al. 2002 ], [ 187, UBA Germany 2003 ], [ 18, WT TWG 2004 ]

a. Not mixing waste waters that contain adsorbable organically bound halogens (AOX),
cyanides, sulphides, aromatic compounds, benzene or hydrocarbons (dissolved, emulsified
or undissolved).
b. For the metals, using mercury, cadmium, lead, copper, nickel and chromium as the
classification parameters for the waste water, since, like arsenic and zinc, they all occur in
waste water partly in dissolved form and partly as suspended sulphides and have to be
reduced in waste water treatment plants. These parameters also serve to control the
effectiveness of the waste water treatment.
c. Ensuring that measures are in place to isolate effluents if the test samples indicate a
potential breach of specifications. Incidents of this nature are recorded in the effluent log.

Water collected in plants carrying out treatment of water-based liquid waste is hydraulically
separated into contaminated waste water and uncontaminated rainwater, and dewatering systems
are separated.

When treating nitrites containing water-based liquid waste, the following is considered:
[ 13, Schmidt et al. 2002 ], [ 187, UBA Germany 2003 ], [ 18, WT TWG 2004 ]

a. avoiding mixing nitrite wastes with other wastes;

b. checking and avoiding nitrous fumes during the oxidation and acidification of nitrites;
c. checking and avoiding nitrous fumes during the reduction of nitrites.

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The following equipment is typically available for reactors in order to control reactions:
 storage vessels for separate storage, depending on the type of treatment;
 reaction containers with adjustable agitators and temperature indicators;
 sedimentation containers;
 metering equipment;
 receiver and storage tanks for chemicals;
 storage tanks and reservoirs for the waste to be treated;
 dosing equipment;
 material resistant to acids and alkalis;
 control of pH value for the chemicals;
 containers for settling and mixing ancillary agents;
 measurement and automatic controls;
 ventilation and filtering of the reaction tanks with facilities for cleaning the exhaust air.

Despite their different configurations and equipment, the following items apply to all processes:
 requirements for environmental protection, such as emission restrictions (in particular,
waste water, exhaust air, groundwater protection);
 control of the plant by a works laboratory which also determines the treatment
programme including the required controls and documentation;
 specialised and expert personnel (management level: qualification from
university/university of applied sciences; operative level: skilled worker, laboratory
assistant);
 the correct discharge of the waste water is guaranteed by its storage after treatment, and
subsequent final inspection.

Simplified flow charts and descriptions of processes for the treatment of water-based liquid
waste are provided below. These examples show that the processes are designed according to
the waste materials to be processed.
[ 29, PCT Subgroup 2015 ]

Treatment of emulsions
The emulsions are split by acid splitting. For this, spent acids and alkalis are mainly used as
ancillary agents. The separated oil is sent to a further process.

The dissolved metals are separated by a three-stage separation step: precipitation/flocculation,

sulphuric precipitation and ion exchange.

The concentrations of solute metals are reduced by flocculation/precipitation steps; the resultant
mud is separated by sedimentation and mechanically drained. Both the waste water and the
filtrate coming from the dewatering step are sent to a subsequent treatment. The aim of this
subsequent treatment is to further reduce the concentrations of the solute metals by means of
sulphuric precipitation and ion exchange which improves the metal removal efficiency.

The aqueous output is subjected to a final inspection (laboratory check) before release. Figure
5.23 below presents a simplified flow chart of the process.

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Source: [ 29, PCT Subgroup 2015 ]

Figure 5.23: Simplified flow chart of a physico-chemical treatment of a water-oil emulsion

Treatment of organic solvents containing water-based liquid waste

In the first process step, the organic solvents are separated by heating and stripping. This
produces a pretreated waste, which no longer contains vaporisable and inflammable materials,
and therefore requires no special safety measures for further treatment.

To safely avoid the formation of explosive compounds, the stripping is performed using air or
inert gas (e.g. nitrogen). It can be beneficial to change the pH value, for example in order to
accelerate the stripping.

Considering the contaminants content of the output of the first step, membrane filtration,
flocculation/precipitation and neutralisation are used for the second process step. The treatment
programme drawn up by the laboratory specifies how the individual treatment methods are to be
combined.

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Figure 5.24 below presents a simplified flow chart of the process.

Source: [ 29, PCT Subgroup 2015 ]

Figure 5.24: Simplified flow chart of a physico-chemical treatment of solvents containing water-
based liquid waste

The condensate from the heating and stripping steps is either recycled or disposed of, depending
on its quality. The exhaust air is treated (e.g. activated carbon filter) before release.

The concentrate from membrane filtration, the drained mud and the solids from sieving are
recycled or disposed of.

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The aqueous output is submitted to a final inspection (laboratory check) before release.

Treatment of aqueous marine waste

Most of the waste water from aqueous marine waste is contaminated with oil, organic
substances and solid material (e.g. sediment).

Figure 5.25 shows an example of the treatment of aqueous marine waste.

Source: [ 35, VROM 2004 ]

Figure 5.25: Simplified flow chart of a physico-chemical and biological process for the treatment of
aqueous marine waste

The generated solid residues from aqueous marine waste are:

 solid residues from the decanter/centrifuge and filters (50 kg/t waste water);
 separated oil and chemical fractions (possibly suitable for reuse as fuel).

Treatment of liquid photographic waste

Desilvered liquids and photo processing waste with a low silver content, such as developers, are
treated by means of sulphide precipitation and membrane filtration. By adding a sodium
sulphide solution, silver ions and other metals are precipitated. The solid particles are filtered
out by pressing the solution through membranes. The permeate from membrane filtration
undergoes further treatment. The silver contained in the sludge is recovered by means of
pyrometallurgical treatment and refinement. These treatments are described in the Non-Ferrous
Metals Industries BREF.

Photo processing liquid wastes with a low silver content are treated by chemical removal. By
adding sodium borohydride, metallic silver is precipitated. The silver is recovered from the
sediment. The desilvered liquid undergoes further treatment. Figure 5.26 below gives an
example of the process steps for the treatment of liquid photographic waste.

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Source: [ 35, VROM 2004 ]

Figure 5.26: Simplified flow chart of a physico-chemical and biological treatment of liquid
photographic waste

Users
Treatment of water-based liquid waste is widely used. The wastes processed are usually from
various industrial and commercial production processes, and from maintenance, repair and
cleaning activities. Some specific industrial sectors served are the printing and photographic
industries. These are examples of those sites, which provide a service to a particular industrial
sector, taking away a wide range of wastes and transferring those that cannot be treated or
recycled in-house.

The plants from the data collection carrying out treatment of water-based liquid waste are: 003,
004, 006, 007, 008, 215, 216, 217, 317, 322, 090, 091, 449, 461, 463, 468, 471, 473, 140, 151,
153, 156, 159, 192, 194, 144_145_147, 149_150, 154_155, 347, 351_352, 368_369_370_371,
392, 393, 395, 401_404, 421_422, 423_424, 486, 489, 550, 607.

5.7.2 Current emission and consumption levels

5.7.2.1 Overview

The treatment of water-based liquid waste generates a flow of decontaminated water. An

analysis of this stream is given in Section 5.7.2.3. The following two figures (Figure 5.27 and
Figure 5.28) summarise potential emissions from the treatment of water-based liquid waste.

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Source: [ 117, Petts, J. and Eduljee, G. 1994 ]

Figure 5.27: Main emission flows from the treatment of water-based liquid waste

NB: Some of these emissions only appear in badly operated physico-chemical treatments.
Source: [ 117, Petts, J. and Eduljee, G. 1994 ],
Figure 5.28: Potential emission streams from the treatment of water-based liquid waste

5.7.2.2 Emissions to air

[ 42, WT TWG 2014 ]

Some organic compounds can travel through the plant without being removed and then end up
in the final sludge or effluent, whereas others may be evaporated during the exothermic
reactions of neutralisation or during sludge pressing. Certain organic wastes contain ‘hidden’
species. For example, lubricating oils contain naphthalene, BTEX, phenols, copper and nitrogen
and can lead to ammonia and xylene emissions to air during the oil separation from water, or to
increased levels in the final site effluent. Aqueous wastes containing solvents may be emitted
due to the heat of the process. High-nitrogen wastes have the potential for ammonia emissions
to air.

The emissions to air from individual plants depend on the abatement system used. Emissions to
air from these treatments are typically VOCs, acid gases and ammonia. It can be seen that if

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closed treatment vessels and air collection/treatment systems are in use, these emissions are
reduced. Issues such as the presence of low concentrations of organic solvents in the waste
might not always be picked up by WT operators, but these may be important environmentally as
they could lead to relevant emissions to air during the process.

Emissions to air may be associated with rapid pH changes, rapid temperature rises and with
vigorous agitation. Gaseous reaction products also still occur. Most plants will liberate VOCs
from the waste through a mixture of heating, agitation or sludge pressing or drying. There is
also always a possibility that reaction intermediates may be released as well. Emissions of
metals to air can be assessed using analytical results. Evaporation also occurs in an uncontrolled
manner, such as the evaporation of solvents when mixing solids and liquids or from the stirring
of sludges in open tanks.

Emissions of organic compounds may appear when treating mixed waste streams (for example,
from the neutralisation of acid, solvents are displaced into the vapour phase which cannot be
abated by a wet scrubber used to abate acidic emissions) or are present because their recovery is
neither technically nor economically viable (that is, as contaminants associated with wastes that
are difficult to handle and are treated by other methods).

Table 5.80 below presents the reported emissions to air from treatment of water-based liquid
waste. It should be read together with Table 5.80 which presents the reported techniques used
for air emissions abatement, the origin of emissions to air, and the exhaust air flow.

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Table 5.80: Emissions to air from the treatment of water-based liquid waste
Number of
Range
measurements
Pollutant Monitorin (mg/Nm3
Plants concerned during the 3-year
measured g except for
reference period
odour)
(2010-2012)
Continuous 401_1, 449, 569_7 Average: 1–5.6 NA
148, 149, 368_1, 463_1, 463_2,
Dust
Periodic 471_1, 471_3, 473, 569_1, 569_2, 0.5–18 2–6
569_3
Average:
Continuous 401_1, 449, 569_7 NA
12–142
SOX 148, 317, 368_1, 463_2, 468_1,
Periodic 468_2, 471_3, 473, 550, 569_1, 0.002–79 1–36
569_2, 569_3
Average:
Continuous 401_1, 569_7 NA
107–238
NOX 148, 215_3, 217, 322, 368_1,
Periodic 463_2, 471_3, 473, 550 569_1, 0.0003–211 1–36
569_2, 569_3
Continuous 449, 569_7 Average: 5–60 NA
CO 368_1, 423, 471_3, 473, 569_1,
Periodic 1.6–425 3–6
569_2, 569_3
Average:
Continuous 449, 569_7 NA
0.5–1.4
06, 140_3, 148, 149, 192, 215_5,
HCl
217, 317, 322, 401_404_1, 449,
Periodic 0.0005–11.3 3–36
463_2, 468_1, 468_2, 468_3, 471 -
1, 471 -2, 471 -3, 550, 569_3
140_3, 217, 401_404_1, 471_3,
HF Periodic 0.3 1–18
569_3
HCN Periodic 322, 463_2 0.1–0.5 1–3
03, 07, 192, 217, 317, 461_1,
H2S Periodic 0.0002–2 1–36
461_2, 461_3, 471_1, 471_2, 550
03, 06, 07, 215_3, 215_4, 215_5,
317, 322, 401_404_1, 401_404_2,
NH3 Periodic 0.00005–20 1–36
461_1, 461_2, 461_3, 463_2,
471_1, 550
Continuous 569_7 0.3–1.5 NA
06, 148, 149, 368_1, 368_2,
TVOC
Periodic 471_1, 471_2, 471_3, 569_1, 1.9–38 2–6
569_3 569_4, 569_5, 569_6
NMVOC Periodic 140_2, 148, 151, 468_4 0.08–52 1–25
Continuous 401_404_1, 449 27.9–44.2
03, 192, 215_1, 215_2, 217,
TOC
Periodic 461_1, 461_2, 461_3, 463_1, 3–84 1–8
463_2, 471_2
Odour
Periodic 08, 368_2, 461_1, 461_2, 461_3, 190–4000 1–13
(OUE/m3)
Cd+Tl Periodic 401_404_1, 471_3, 0.0001 2
Hg Periodic 401_404_1, 471_3, 0.005 2
Sum metals Periodic , 471_3, 0.09 1
PCDD/PCDF Periodic 401_404_1, 471_3, 0.008-0.02 1–18
Benzol Periodic 216, 217 0.1–4.5 1–8
Cd+Hg+Tl
Periodic 148C 0.005 3
(gaseous)
NB: NA = Not applicable.

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Table 5.81: Treatment of water-based liquid waste – Abatement techniques used and origin of
emissions to air

Origin of emissions
Techniques used

Air exhaust flow

Waste input
description
Plant code

(Nm3/h)
to air
Lye and lye mixture
Acids and acid mixtures
Activated carbon Water-solvent mixtures
Storage tanks
adsorption Chemical construction waste
Treatment of
3 Wet scrubbing with Cooling and lubricating liquids 9 800
water-based
sorbent injection Oil-water mixtures
liquid waste
Biofiltering Emulsions
Paint sludge-water mixtures
Landfill leachate
Organic and inorganic acids (e.g.
HCl, HNO3)
Bases (e.g. NaOH, KOH)
Metal recovery,
Basic scrubber system Solid (e.g. soluble salts) and
4 emulsion NI
Acid scrubber liquid hazardous waste
breaking
Oil-water mixtures
Emulsions
Landfill leachate
Wet scrubbing (Step 1
Treatment of Inorganic acids
alkaline washer (NaOH)
6 water-based Inorganic bases 2 000
and Step 2: oxidising
liquid waste Inorganic sludges
washer (KmNOH))
Oil-water mixtures
Oil separator content
Emulsions
Sand catcher
Treatment of
Biofiltering Landfill leachate
7 water-based 4 000
Wet scrubbing Sewage residues
liquid waste
Paint sludge residues
Glue residues
Washing water containing
cyanide
Emulsion
Oil-water mixture
Mixed acid
Lye mixture
Acid scrubber system
Water from tank cleaning
Activated carbon
Waste oil
adsorption Treatment of
Solvents
8 Alkaline oxidative water-based 5 000
Bitumen emulsion
scrubber system liquid waste
Drilling mud
Biofiltering
Oil separators, sand trap contents
Wet scrubbing
Paint sludge
Pharmaceutical waste
Laboratory waste
Detergents
Biodegradable waste water, e.g.
No channelled
90 NA from chemical, pharmaceutical NA
emissions to air
and oil industries
Treatment of Acids (chromic, hydrochloric,
91 NI water-based nitric and similar) containing NI
liquid waste heavy metals, cyanides
Emulsion All types of hazardous waste
Activated carbon
breaking entering a transfer station with
140 adsorption 13 800
Centrifugation sorting/treatment prior to final
Wet scrubbing
Evaporation- treatment:

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condensation Waste waters with a low organic

Transfer station content and high sediment content
Treatment of (soluble oily waters)
waste waters Waste waters with a high organic
containing content, low sediment content and
inorganic salts (soaps, inks, cooling liquid,
substances soluble oils containing waste)
including metal Hydrocarbon-containing waste
compounds waters and sludge
recovery Waste water with biodegradable
organic content
Used resins
Acid (hydrochloric, nitric,
sulphuric)
Soda
Leachates
Inorganic solutions containing
Neutralisation
144 Basic scrubber system Cr(VI) NI
reactors
Liquid waste containing CN
Liquid waste containing phenols
Liquid waste containing oil
Water-based liquid waste with
organics and biodegradable
content
Used acids from research
laboratories (industrial,
university)
Used bases from research
Treatment of laboratories (industrial,
Activated carbon
149 water-based university) 51 000
adsorption
liquid waste Cleaning water, washing liquids
Liquid wastes from chemical
industry
Pasty, organic unreactive wastes
WEEE
Organics and biodegradable
liquid waste
Activated carbon Tank vents,
151 Hydrocarbon liquid waste NI
adsorption centrifugation
containing more than 10 %
sediment
Waste fluids from various sectors:
complex machining emulsions
(water-oil-solids), oily waters
from oil-water separators,
aqueous washing liquids, etc.
Water and sediments
Any type of bulk/packaged waste,
No channelled
153 NA except: radioactive wastes, NA
emissions to air
explosive compounds or wastes
that might ignite spontaneously,
hydrolysable wastes emitting
noxious compounds when in
contact with water, chemically or
physically instable wastes,
asbestos wastes
Liquid waste containing
hydrocarbons
Liquid waste containing organics
and biodegradable organics
Solvents
154 Basic scrubber system Tank vents Acids NI
Bases
Pesticides
Oxidisers
Laboratory effluents
Sludge

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Other solid waste

Offloading, Mix of water-
storage, emulsion based/sediment/hydrocarbons
breaking (organic liquid waste
Biofiltering physico- Liquid waste containing Cr(VI)
Adsorption on activated chemical) Liquid waste containing CN
carbon and treatment, three- Liquid waste containing phenols
156 NI
photocatalytic phase Acids
regeneration centrifugation Bases
Basic scrubber system Offloading, Waste gas cleaning residues
storage, mineral Metal hydroxide sludge or sludge
physico-chemical from metal insolubilisation
treatment treatment (PC plant)
Waste with a high hydrocarbon
content
Waste with a low hydrocarbon
content
Centrifugation Water with oily emulsions
159 Biofiltering NI
Tank vents Water with biodegradable
organics content
Solid organic waste which cannot
be treated by any of the waste
treatment activities of the plant
Liquid waste containing
Blending/mixing sediments, water and
163 Biofiltering step hydrocarbons for phase separation Not monitored
Storage tanks (hydrocarbons, aqueous and
sediments phases)
Spent chromic acid baths from the
chromium plating industry
Various hazardous liquid wastes
mainly containing inorganic
192 Basic scrubber system Treatment process pollutants: typically, waste acids 6 600
and bases, wastes containing
anionic (cyanides, fluorides, etc.)
and/or cationic (heavy metals,
metalloids, etc.) contaminants
Water containing organics and/or
metal compounds
Waste waters with organic
content and sediment and salts
194 Wet scrubbing NI content (soaps, inks, cooling NI
liquid, soluble oils containing
waste, etc.)
Waste water with biodegradable
organic content
Acids
Treatment of Bases
Basic scrubber system
215 water-based Hydrocarbons (oil and fuel liquid) 620–7 500
Acid scrubber system
liquid waste Waste from surface treatment and
mechanical forming Sludge
Treatment of
Activated carbon
216 water-based Organic liquid waste NI
adsorption
liquid waste
Basic scrubber system
Treatment of
Acid scrubber system Inorganic liquid waste
217 water-based 2 500
Activated carbon Organic liquid waste
liquid waste
adsorption
Basic scrubber system
Treatment of Inorganic liquid waste
Acid scrubber system
317 water-based Inorganic acid 2 500
Activated carbon
liquid waste Organic liquid waste
adsorption
Alkaline oxidative Treatment of Waste from surface treatment
322 scrubber system water-based Water from rinsing 1 000
Wet scrubbing liquid waste Emulsion
347 Bag/fabric filter system Treatment of Landfill leachates NI

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Zeolite filter water-based Washing water, process and

liquid waste meteoric
Oil emulsions
No channelled Street cleaning residues
351 NA NI
emissions to air Waste from sewage cleaning
Treatment of
Liquid wastes with solvents
water-based From thermal
Liquid wastes with organic
liquid waste afterburning:
Acid scrubber system contamination
3 400
368 Thermal afterburning Sludge from the biological
Biological From
Biofiltering WWTP and wastes with organic
treatment of biofiltering:
contamination
water-based 6 200
Biodegradable wastes
liquid waste
No channelled
392 NA Landfill leachate NA
emissions to air
No channelled
393 NA Landfill leachate NA
emissions to air
Treatment of
Spent acids
395 NI water-based NI
Spent bases
liquid waste
Acid scrubber system Emission from Separate oil and oil from oil-
Dry electrostatic stack of all water separation
precipitator (ESP) integrated Waste from paint, kit, wax, ink,
401 205 000
Basic scrubber system process, after pharmaceutical waste
Thermal afterburning incinerator and Oily or other organic waste
Water spraying (dust) flue-gas treatment Soil, tar and other minerals
Acids
Bases
Contaminated soil
Biological
449 NI Sludge 4 300
treatment process
Waste oil
Other waste: metal waste, WEEE,
material containing asbestos
Acid and
alkaline/oxidative
Acid scrubber system
scrubbers from Sludge from treatment of urban
Alkaline oxidative
drying chambers waste water
461 scrubber system 35 000–430 000
ventilation Digestate from anaerobic
Water spraying (dust)
(scrubber 1 and 2) treatment of municipal waste
Forced aeration
Direct emission
from chambers
Water-based
liquid waste
Acids
treatment
Bases
Activated carbon Disposal or
463 Contaminated soil NI
adsorption recovery of
Sludge
hazardous waste
Waste oil
Regeneration of
acids or bases
Treatment of
water-based Acids
liquid waste Bases
Immobilisation of Liquid waste with high
468 Basic scrubber system 2 900–5 000
solid and/or pasty biodegradable content
waste Waste oil
Centrifugation of Mixed hazardous waste
waste oil
Sludge, distillation bottoms,
emulsions
Water/waste with high COD and
Physico-chemical
chloride content, with low
471 NI treatment 6 000–9 000
concentration of HC, with metals
Evaporator
and other inorganics, CN, Cr(VI)
Rinsing waters
Landfill leachates

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Acids, Alkalis
Water/waste with hydrocarbons
Basic waste
Liquid cleaning solutions
Waste ink
Water-based Waste from the photographic
473 Electrochemical cells liquid waste industry 2 200
treatment Emulsions
Oily sludge
Antifreeze
Leachate
Liquid cleaning solutions
Oily water from drained sludge,
car washing, floor washing; flush
pit-water, degreasers; cable pits,
decontamination sites
Water from flocculation of
dye/colour waste
IBC washing water
Solvents and paint
Solvents
Treatment of
Used motor oil
486 Enclosed process water-based NI
Oil emulsion
liquid waste
Acids
Bases
Other waste: all types of
electronic equipment (computers,
fridges, telephones), demolition
waste, different kinds of bases,
pesticides, explosives, reactive
flammable waste (organic
peroxides and hydrogen peroxide)
Mixed liquid waste
Different kinds of hazardous
No channelled waste
489 NA NA
emission to air Mixed waste prior to incineration
Impregnated wood, metal and
creosote
Treatment of Acids
550 Basic scrubber system water-based Various mixed wastes NI
liquid waste Neutral sludge
Organic and inorganic liquid
waste
Acid
Treatment of Base
Alkaline oxidative
569 water-based Cyanides 3 000–9 800
scrubber system
liquid waste Oily waste water
Emulsion
Leachate
Inks
Sludge storage,
sludge thickening Indigenous liquid sludge and
607 Biofiltering NI
and sludge imported sludge
dewatering
NB: NI = No information.
NA = Not applicable.

Hydrogen chloride (HCl)

Of the 41 plants that participated in the data collection, 14 provided HCl concentration values,
from 16 emission points. The average reported HCl concentration is around 2 mg/Nm3, with a
range of 0.0005–11.3 mg/Nm3.

The reported waste input is mainly acids, bases, oily water, etc.

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Figure 5.29 below presents the reported measurements of HCl emissions to air from the
treatment of water-based liquid waste.

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Figure 5.29: HCl emissions to air from the treatment of water-based liquid waste

Waste Treatment 621

Chapter 5

Plant 217 reported additional data for 2013 at 11 mg/Nm3, although this plant also shows that
3 mg/Nm3 is achievable (2011 data). Plant 471 did not report the use of an abatement technique
for emissions to air.

Ammonia (NH3)
Of the 41 plants that participated in the data collection, 10 reported NH3 concentration values in
emissions to air, some of them having more than one point of release. The average reported NH3
concentration is around 3 mg/Nm3, with a range of 0.00005–20 mg/Nm3.

As for HCl, the waste input is mainly acids, bases, oily water, and also sludge, and landfill
seepage.

Figure 5.30 below presents the reported measurements of NH3 emissions to air from treatment
of water-based liquid waste.

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Figure 5.30: NH3 emissions to air from the treatment of water-based liquid waste

Waste Treatment 623

Chapter 5

The highest reported value (around 30 mg/Nm3) was reported by Plant 461 carrying out drying
of sludge, which is a very specific process, and from an emission point for which no abatement
technique was indicated.
The waste input in Plant 322 is acid, base and rinsing water. The implemented abatement
techniques are an alkaline oxidative scrubber and a wet scrubber. The NH3 concentration value
provided is estimated by means of a test device.

Organic compounds
Of the 41 plants that participated in the data collection, 18 provided concentration values of
organic compounds, from 25 emission points. The monitoring standards EN 13526 and
EN 12619, by means of which total volatile organic compounds is measured, were reported to
be used by 5 plants. The other reported monitoring standards used are EN 13649 in one case
(measurement of individual organic compounds), EN 14662 in one case (measurement of
benzene), EN 13528 in one case (relates to ambient air quality), and VD 3496 in one case
(measurement of nitrogen compounds). Three plants reported NMVOC concentration values.

Figure 5.31 below presents the reported measurements of organic compounds emissions to air
from the treatment of water-based liquid waste.

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Figure 5.31: Organic compounds emissions to air from the treatment of water-based liquid waste

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The waste input in Plant 217 is inorganic and organic liquid waste. The average value reported
in Figure 5.31 is based on two measurements (one in 2010 and one in 2011), of 130 mg/Nm3
and 39 mg/Nm3 respectively. The high value measured in 2010 was due to an undesired waste
input (with a high amount of toluene).

Plant 151 indicated that, since activated carbon adsorption was installed in 2013, emissions are
below the limit of detection. Plant 461 reported emissions coming from sludge drying chambers,
which is a very specific process.

Except for Plant 140 and Plant 149, the emission load is lower than 0.5 kg/h and the
concentration of organic compounds may range from 2 mg/Nm3 to 43 mg/Nm3 from plants
equipped with the adequate abatement techniques.

5.7.2.3 Emissions to water

5.7.2.3.1 Overview

[ 42, WT TWG 2014 ]

Aqueous output is sent either to a sewer (most of the cases according to the collected data) or to
a receiving water body. Wastes from the chemical industry, high-nitrogen wastes (maybe
landfill leachates) and oil recovery/reprocessing may introduce additional species and thus are
considered more carefully. High-nitrogen wastes increase the likelihood of a discharge of
nitrous oxide. Metals, ammonia and organic chemicals are typically present in water streams.

In many cases, the effluent discharge agreement contains provisions to protect the
sewerage treatment works from the plant discharge, focusing for example on COD, pH,
oil content, ammoniacal nitrogen, metal content, sulphates, sulphites and sulphides,
as well as dichloromethane (the most common halogenated cleaning compound and
liable to be a contaminant of washing water and interceptors). The total discharge volume
will usually be known.

In principle, downstream external waste water treatment plants are able to treat, for
example, TSS, COD/TOC, nitrogen compounds and phosphorus compounds, while it might
not be the case for pollutants such as metals, cyanides and AOX. The information provided
is therefore presented as follows: in Section 5.7.2.3.2 information on direct discharge
to water and parameters/substances such as TSS, COD/TOC, nitrogen compounds and
phosphorus; in Section 5.7.2.3.3 information on plants that reported indirect discharge to
water; and in Section 5.7.2.3.4 information on direct and indirect discharge to water and
parameters/substances such as hydrocarbons, cyanide, AOX and metals.

5.7.2.3.2 Direct discharge

Table 5.82 below gives an overview of the most commonly measured emissions to water from
treatment of water-based liquid waste, for direct discharge. It should be read together with Table
5.83 which gives a brief description of the treatment process, the techniques used, the waste
input and output description, and the flow of emissions to water.

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Table 5.82: Monitoring of emissions to water from treatment of water-based liquid waste – Direct
discharge
Pollutant measured Monitoring Plants concerned
Continuous 90, 144, 421, 423
24-hour flow-proportional composite
140, 156, 192, 368, 569
pH sample
Composite sample 154
Grab sample 392, 449
24-hour flow-proportional composite
140, 144, 156, 192, 368, 569
sample
TSS
Composite sample 154, 421
Grab sample 392, 393, 449
24-hour flow-proportional composite
90, 140, 368, 468, 569
BOD5 sample
Grab sample 392, 393, 449
24-hour flow-proportional composite
90, 368, 569
sample
COD
Composite sample 486
Grab sample 392, 393, 449
Continuous 144, 368, 421
24-hour flow-proportional composite
TOC 140, 156, 192, 423
sample
Composite sample 154,
24-hour flow-proportional composite
140, 156, 192, 368
THC sample
Composite sample 154, 421, 423
24-hour flow-proportional composite
421
PAHs sample
Grab sample 392
24-hour flow-proportional composite 144
Cl- sample 368, 569
Grab sample 393, 449
24-hour flow-proportional composite
192, 140, 368
sample
F-
Composite sample 154
Grab sample 449, 368
24-hour flow-proportional composite
SO32- 368
sample
24-hour flow-proportional composite
140, 144, 156, 192, 569
CN- sample
Composite sample 154
24-hour flow-proportional composite
368, 569
Sulphate sample
Grab sample 393, 449
24-hour flow-proportional composite
90, 569
Total N sample
Grab sample 392, 393
24-hour flow-proportional composite
140,
TKN sample
Grab sample 392, 393
24-hour flow-proportional composite
90, 140, 368*, 423, 569
NO2-/NO3- sample
Grab sample 392,
24-hour flow-proportional composite
90, 140, 156, 368, 423, 569
NH3-N sample
Grab sample 393, 449,
24-hour flow-proportional composite
90, 140, 192, 368, 423, 569
Total P sample
Grab sample 392, 393, 449

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24-hour flow-proportional composite

140, 144, 156, 192, 368, 421, 569
sample
Cd
Composite sample 154, 423
Grab sample 392, 393, 449, 486
Tl Composite sample 154, 423
24-hour flow-proportional composite
140, 144, 368, 421, 569
sample
Hg
Composite sample 154, 423
Grab sample 392, 393, 486
24-hour flow-proportional composite
Sb 368,
sample
24-hour flow-proportional composite
140, 144, 368, 421, 569
sample
As
Composite sample 154, 423
Grab sample 392, 393, 449
24-hour flow-proportional composite
140, 144, 156, 192, 368, 421, 569
sample
Pb
Composite sample 154, 423
Grab sample 392, 393, 449, 486
24-hour flow-proportional composite 90, 140, 144, 156, 192, 368, 421
sample 569
Cr
Composite sample 154, 423
Grab sample 392, 393, 486
24-hour flow-proportional composite
Cr(VI) 140, 144, 156, 192, 368, 421, 569
sample
24-hour flow-proportional composite
Co (cobalt) 368, 421,
sample
24-hour flow-proportional composite
140, 144, 156, 192, 368, 421, 569
sample
Cu
Composite sample 154, 423
Grab sample 392, 393, 449, 486
24-hour flow-proportional composite
144, 368, 421
sample
Mn
Composite sample 154
Grab sample 449
24-hour flow-proportional composite 90, 140, 144, 156, 192, 368, 421
sample 569
Ni
Composite sample 154, 423
Grab sample 392, 393, 449, 486
24-hour flow-proportional composite
144, 368, 421
sample
V
Composite sample 423
Grab sample 486
24-hour flow-proportional composite
140, 144
Sum metals sample
Composite sample 154
24-hour flow-proportional composite
140, 144, 156, 192, 368, 421, 569
sample
Zn
Composite sample 154, 423
Grab sample 392, 393, 449, 486
24-hour flow-proportional composite
144, 156, 192, 368
sample
Fe
Composite sample 154
Grab sample 449
24-hour flow-proportional composite
Chlorine 368
sample
24-hour flow-proportional composite
140, 144, 156, 368, 421, 569
Phenols sample
Grab sample 90, 449

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24-hour flow-proportional composite

140
AOX sample
Composite sample 154
24-hour flow-proportional composite
192
EOX sample
Grab sample 392, 393
24-hour flow-proportional composite
BTEX 421
sample
Non-polar aliphatic
Grab sample 486
hydrocarbons

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Table 5.83: Treatment of water-based liquid waste – Direct discharge – Techniques used, removed substances, waste input description, output and type of release

Type of
release
(batch/
Plant code Treatment process Removed substances Techniques used Waste input description Output
continuous)
and water
flow

Active sludge systems

Heavy metal Aqueous output
First biodegradation (bioreactor) Chemical precipitation Biodegradable waste water, e.g.
(not running at the Residues from Continuous
90 Filtration from chemical, pharmaceutical
moment) waste water 75 m3/h
Pretreatment Centrifugation and oil industries
treatment
Nitrification/denitrification
Active sludge systems
Ultrafiltration
All types of hazardous waste
Inorganics: entering a transfer station with
Neutralisation/precipitation
Detoxication (CN and CrVI), sorting/treatment prior to final
Neutralisation (including nitric treatment:
Detoxication Residues from
and sulphuric acid), Dissolution Waste waters with a low
waste water
Metals (oxidisers), Metal precipitation organic content and high
Metal compound recovery treatment
in hydroxides, Biological sediment content (soluble oily
Liquid fuel
Cr(VI) and CN treatment, Ultrafiltration waters)
Emulsion breaking Residues from Continuous
140 Waste waters with a high
shredding 20 m3/h
Metals Organics: organic content, low sediment
Biological treatment with activated Other solid fuel
Separation by centrifugation, content and salts (soaps, inks,
sludge system Residues from
TOC Evapo-condensation, MCV, cooling liquid, soluble oils
sorting
Emulsion breaking by containing waste)
Finalisation treatment (Ultrafiltration Wood
coagulation, flocculation, (air) Hydrocarbon-containing waste
membrane) for 2 bioreactors + Decanter
flotation, Biological treatment waters and sludge,
and sand filter for 1 bioreactor
by buffer tank, Active sludge Waste water with biodegradable
systems - conventional, organic content
Finishing by Ultrafiltration,
Sand filtration
Removal of pollutants at source Anions or cations Coagulation Used resins Recovered resin
Flocculation Acid (hydrochloric, nitric, Aqueous output
Cr(VI), CN, phenols, Precipitation sulphuric) Other
Hydrocarbon concentration and sludge, oil Decantation Soda Batch
144
distillation/condensation of the aqueous Leachates 10 m3/h
phase Inorganic solutions containing
Cr(VI)
TOC, TSS, MES Liquid waste containing CN

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Biological treatment of the biodegradable Liquid waste containing

aqueous waste water phenols
Liquid waste containing oil
TSS
Finalisation treatment (UF) Water-based liquid waste with
organics and biodegradable
content
Secondary treatment TOC, sludge Active sludge systems Liquid waste containing Liquid fuel
Finalisation treatment Biodegradable organics Neutralisation hydrocarbons Other
Decantation Liquid waste containing residues from
Press filtering organics and biodegradable waste water
Chemical precipitation organics treatment
Batch
Membrane extraction Solvents
(4 hours 350
154 Flocculation Acids
times a year)
Aeration Bases
20–30 m3/h
Buffer tanks Pesticides
Centrifugation Oxidisers
Emulsion breaking Laboratory effluents
Sludge
Other solid waste
Two-phase centrifugation Sediment Centrifugation + Emulsion Mix of water- Residues from
Three-phase centrifugation Oil (hydrocarbons) and breaking (Organic physico- based/sediment/hydrocarbon waste water
Emulsion breaking sediment chemical treatment) liquid waste treatment
UF membrane Oil (hydrocarbons) Biological treatment Liquid waste containing Cr(VI) Other
Nanofiltration BOD5 Nanofiltration Liquid waste containing CN Mixed plastics
Deconditioning TOC, metals Liquid waste containing Recovered
Detoxication Cr(VI), CN, phenols Mineral physico-chemical phenols activated
Neutralisation. Alkalinity-acidity, metals treatment Acid liquid waste containing carbon
Metals precipitation. Sludge filtration Saline biological treatment Basic liquid waste
Biological treatment (activated sludge) Activated carbon filtration Waste gas cleaning residues
Adsorption on activated carbon Inorganics: detoxification, Metal hydroxide sludge or NI
neutralisation, dissolution sludge from metal
156_1W
(oxidisers), precipitation, insolubilisation treatment (PC 15 m3/h
finishing (decantation + air plant)
flotation)
Organics separation by:
centrifugation, decantation, oil
separation, evapo-condensation,
MCV
Emulsion breaking by:
coagulation, flocculation,
air-flotation
Biological treatment by: buffer
tank, activated sludge,

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biomembrane Finishing by:

nanofiltration
Chemical oxido-reduction step If necessary for CN and Neutralisation Spent chromic acid baths from Regenerated
Cr(VI) Precipitation step, followed by the chromium plating industry acid Recovered
a flocculation step Various hazardous liquid resin Aqueous
Neutralisation Metallic hydroxides Sedimentation (ponds) wastes mainly containing output Residues
Precipitation/flocculation/sedimentation Press filtering inorganic pollutants: typically, from waste Batch
192
of complex mineral species Sludge dewatering waste acids and bases, wastes water treatment 200 m3/h
Sulphurisation containing anionic (cyanides,
Press filtration fluorides, etc.) and/or cationic
(heavy metals, metalloids, etc.)
contaminants
Primary treatment Organic complex Buffer tank Liquid wastes with solvents Stabilised
Pretreatment compounds Wet oxidation Liquid wastes with organic residues
Solvents to be separated Neutralisation contamination Residues from
Biodegradable Decantation Sludge from the biological waste water
substances Solvent distillation WWTP and wastes with organic treatment
Continuous
368 Nitrogen Equalisation contamination Other
560 m3/h
Sedimentation Biodegradable wastes
Active sludge system
Biological nutrient removal
Nitrification/denitrification
Dewatering
Pre-denitrification Nitrogen Buffer tanks
Nitrification Nitrogen Active sludge systems
Continuous
392 Post-denitrification Nitrogen Suspended Nitrification/denitrification Landfill leachate Aqueous output
35 m3/h
Cascade aeration and polymer mixing solids Sedimentation (ponds)
Sludge sedimentation
Pre-denitrification Nitrogen Buffer tanks
Nitrification Nitrogen Active sludge systems
Aqueous output Continuous
393 Post-denitrification Nitrogen Suspended Nitrification/denitrification Landfill leachate
10 m3/h
Cascade aeration and polymer mixing solids Sedimentation (ponds)
Sludge sedimentation
Primary treatment Ultrafiltration Drilling waste (cuttings, mud Aqueous output
Finalisation treatment Nanofiltration and sludge): waste water Liquid fuel
Final wet maturation (Bioreactor) Biological treatment containing HC, aqueous liquid Decontaminate
421 NI NI
waste with high concentration d soil
of biodegradable materials
and/or aqueous marine waste
Primary treatment Chemical precipitation Drilling waste (cuttings, mud Decontaminate
Finalisation treatment NI Flotation and sludge): waste water d soil
423 7 m3/h
Final wet maturation (bioreactor) Active sludge systems containing HC, aqueous liquid Aqueous output
Moving-bed trickling filter waste with high concentration Liquid fuel

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system of biodegradable materials

and/or aqueous marine waste
Aqueous output
Residues from
First biodegradation (bioreactor) Filtration NI shredding Continuous
449 Metals
Pretreatment Biological treatment Stabilised 3 m3/h
residues Mixed
plastics
Sediment Active sludge systems - Oil contaminated water from Aqueous output
Emulsion (Oil and larger conventional, Chemical drained sludge; car washing; Residues from
Primary treatment organic molecules) precipitation, Coagulation, floor washing; flushpit water; waste water
Secondary treatment Substances solved in Emulsion breaking, degreasers; cable pits; treatment, Continuous
486 Finalisation treatment water, salt, metals and Flocculation, Flotation, Press decontamination sites, waste oil, liquid 1–3 m3/h
Evaporation organic molecules filtering, Precipitation, Reverse water from flocculation of fuel
Precipitation osmosis system, Sand filtration dye/colour waste; IBC washing,
solvents, paints
Active sludge systems - Acids, chromic acids Liquid fuel
conventional Bases Mixed plastics
Chemical precipitation Sludge with inorganic or Ferrous metal
Coagulation organic contamination Paper, wood
Emulsion breaking Cyanides Oil
Treatment of water-based liquid waste Flocculation Oily water, emulsions,
Mechanical treatment of waste with Flotation lubricating waste oil
calorific value Inorganics and organics
pollutants Press filtering Refrigeration liquids
Re-refining and other preparations for Precipitation Inks NI
569* reuse of waste oils Reverse osmosis system Organic containing water, 20 m3/h
Immobilisation of solid and/or pasty Water and sediments
Sand filtration leachate, biodegradable liquid
waste Sedimentation (ponds) waste
Biodegradable contaminated
soils
Fly ash
Construction and demolition
waste
Non-biodegradable solid waste
* Plants treating mainly wastes other than water-based liquid waste.
NB: NI = No information.

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Flow
Apart from Plants 192 (200 m3/h) and 368 (560 m3/h), the reported flows are below
100 m3/hour. Out of the 16 plants directly discharging to a water body, 3 reported using batch
releases, of which one (Plant 154) is releasing several times per day. And 5 plants did not report
any information on whether the release is continuous or batch.

Chemical oxygen demand (COD) and total organic carbon (TOC)

Of the 12 plants discharging directly to the environment, 5 plants provided COD concentration
values (of which one also provided TOC), and eight TOC concentration values. Eight plants
treat inorganics which are by nature poorly biodegradable. When information was provided, this
is confirmed by the BOD5/COD ratio ranging from 0.01 to 0.05 in five cases (for Plant 449 this
ratio is around 0.5).Figure 5.32 below presents the reported TOC and COD concentration values
for direct discharge, together with the maximum load and the applied abatement techniques.

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Figure 5.32: TOC and COD in emissions to water from treatment of water-based liquid waste – Direct discharge

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The highest COD concentration values (above 300 mg/l) were reported by three plants (Plants
90, 393 and 392), equipped with nitrification/denitrification and biological treatment
techniques; this seems to confirm the competition between abatement of biodegradable organic
compounds and of nitrogen compounds.

The highest TOC concentration values (above 100 mg/l) were reported by plants (fitted with a
biological treatment step) that generally achieve an abatement efficiency of around 95 % or
more (e.g. Plants 140 and 423).

It is noted that the influent may have a very high content of COD/TOC, and that the reported
concentration values in the effluent sometimes show a high variability (e.g. Plant 192).

Although the collected data did not show a clear correlation between the effect of chloride
content in the waste water and COD/TOC abatement efficiency, this effect impeding the
possibility to achieve an abatement efficiency of 95 % is generally recognised. Additional
information on parameters affecting the performance for reducing TOC and COD
concentrations can be found in the CWW BREF [ 45, COM 2016 ].

Biologic oxygen demand in five days (BOD5)

Of the 12 plants discharging directly to a water body, 5 reported BOD5 concentration values in
the effluent.

In the effluents, the BOD/COD ratio is mostly < 0.2, indicating relatively non-biodegradable
aqueous outputs.

Total suspended solids (TSS)

Of the 12 plants directly discharging to the environment, 9 provided TSS concentration values.
The reported sampling method is mainly 24-hour flow-proportional composite sampling, with a
short-term average.

Figure 5.33 below presents the reported concentration values for direct discharge, together with
the maximum load and the applied abatement techniques.

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Figure 5.33: TSS in emissions to water from treatment of water-based liquid waste – Direct discharge

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In several cases, the reported TSS concentration values show a high variability (e.g. Plants 144,
192, 392 and 393). However, the 97th percentile of the values (or the majority of the sample
concentration values) is generally lower than 60 mg/l for plants equipped with abatement
techniques such as filtration, sedimentation and/or flocculation.

Nitrogen compounds
As shown in Table 5.82, either Total N and/or Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen (TKN) and/or ammonia
(NH3-N) and/or nitrite/nitrate (NO2-/NO3-) are used for determining the concentration of
nitrogen-related parameters (see Table 5.84).

Table 5.84: Nitrogen compounds monitored in emissions to water from the treatment of water-
based liquid waste – Direct discharge
Plant code Monitored nitrogen-related parameter
90 Total N, NO2-/NO3-, NH3-N
140 TKN, NO2-/NO3-, NH3-N
156 NH3-N
368 NO2-/NO3-, NH3-N
392 Total N, TKN, NO2-/NO3-
393 Total N, TKN, NH3-N
423 NO2-/NO3-, NH3-N
449 NH3-N
569 NH3-N, NO2-/NO3

Those parameters are not equivalent; therefore analytical results are not comparable (for
example Total N > TKN). Additional information on this topic can be found in the CWW BREF
[ 45, COM 2016 ]

Data collection showed the following:

 Total N concentration values were reported by four plants (of which two also reported
NH3-N, two also TKN, and one also NO2/NO3). Three of these plants are equipped with a
nitrification/denitrification step. The highest concentration values were reported by Plant
392 and Plant 393 which treat landfill leachate. For these three plants, the abatement
efficiency ranges were 75–90 %.
 TKN concentration values were reported by three plants (of which two also reported
Total N, one also NH3-N, and one also NO2/NO3). The highest concentration value was
reported by Plant 140 (194 mg/l), with the 97th percentile around 120 mg/l. This plant also
reported concentration values for NO2/NO3 at a maximum of 35 mg/l, corresponding to a
maximum TKN concentration value of around 90 mg/l. The additional information
provided in 2016 shows a very high content of nitrogen compounds in the waste input,
especially the inorganics (up to 2 g/l for Total N, TKN and NH3-N, and up to 8.8 g/l for
NO2/NO3), and salinity ranging from 0.5 % to 1 % for organics, and from 3 % to 5 % for
inorganics. According to the information provided, the abatement efficiency for TKN can
be estimated to be around 90 %.
 NH3-N concentration values were reported by six plants (of which two also reported Total
N, one also TKN, and two also NO2/NO3). The highest concentration value was reported
by Plant 156 (335 mg/l as a maximum), with the 97th percentile at 200 mg/l. Plant 426,
which treats waste water from offshore drilling, reported a concentration value of 90 mg/l
as a maximum. Plant 449, which indicates a salt content of 25 g/l in the waste input,
reported a NH3-N concentration value of around 18 mg/l as a maximum.
 NO2/NO3 concentration values were reported by four plants (of which one also reported
Total N, two also NH3-N, and two also TKN). The highest concentration value (around
35 mg/l) was reported by Plant 140 (see TKN above).

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Regarding Total N emissions from plants treating nitric acid, no concentration values and no
information on abatement efficiency were provided by plants discharging directly to the
environment. One plant (Plant 91) treating nitric acid and discharging to a sewer provided a
Total N concentration value of around 160 mg/l, although without any information to allow the
calculation of the abatement efficiency. According to information provided by some plants
discharging directly to the environment (but not treating nitric acid), a Total N abatement
efficiency of between 75 % and 90 % is achievable. It can be assumed that this level of
efficiency is also achievable by a plant treating nitric acid.

Regarding the applicability of nitrification, although the data collection did not allow the
correlation of a high chloride content with the applicability of nitrification, this correlation is
clearly identified, e.g. in the CWW BREF, and this would not be different for the treatment of
water-based liquid waste. The same reasoning can be applied regarding the influence of a low
temperature of the waste water (e.g. below 12 C).

Total phosphorus (Total P)

Of the 12 plants directly discharging to a water body, 8 reported Total P concentration values in
the effluent.

Figure 5.34 below presents the reported concentration values for direct discharge, together with
the maximum load and the applied abatement techniques.

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Figure 5.34: Total P in emissions to water from the treatment of waste – Direct discharge

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The highest concentration value was reported by Plant 192, with a high variability, and a 97 th
percentile range of 5–9 mg/l. The Total P concentration value reported by Plant 423 is high (up
to 36 mg/l), although this plant is equipped with chemical precipitation which is, in principle,
appropriate for abating phosphorus (no information on the waste input content (drilling muds)
was provided).

Phenols
Of the 12 plants directly discharging to a water body, 6 reported phenol concentration values in
the effluent.

Figure 5.35 presents the reported phenol concentration values for direct discharge, together with
the maximum load and the applied abatement techniques.

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Figure 5.35: Phenols in emissions to water from the treatment of waste – Direct discharge

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The highest concentration values were reported by Plants 156 and 140 (additional information
provided in 2015) due to very high peaks. For Plant 156, the 97th percentile range was 0.3–
0.5 mg/l in 2015. For Plant 140, these peaks come from treatment of inorganics, the discharge
of which is added to that from the treatment of organics according to the information provided.

5.7.2.3.3 Indirect discharge

Table 5.85 below presents an overview of the reported monitoring of HOI, THC, cyanides,
AOX and metal emissions to water from the treatment of water-based liquid waste that is
released to a sewer or to an off-site waste water treatment plant (indirect discharge), which may
not be capable to treat such pollutants. It should be read together with Table 5.86 which shows
that the techniques used are similar to those used in plants directly discharging to a receiving
water body.

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Table 5.85: Monitoring of emissions to water from the treatment of water-based liquid waste –
Indirect discharge
Pollutant
Monitoring Plants concerned
measured
24-hour flow-proportional composite
156, 215
HOI sample
Composite sample 215, 217, 322, 463
24-hour flow-proportional composite
3, 4, 8, 151, 156, 159, 194
sample
THC
Composite sample 148, 149, 217
Grab sample 347, 351
24-hour flow-proportional composite
4, 91, 156, 473, 550
sample
CN-
Composite sample 7, 148, 215, 217, 317, 322
Grab sample 6, 351
24-hour flow-proportional composite
3, 8, 140, 194, 468
sample
AOX
Composite sample 148, 151, 153, 215, 216, 217, 317, 322
Grab sample 351
24-hour flow-proportional composite 3, 4, 8, 91, 151, 153, 156, 194, 468,
sample 473, 550
Cd
Composite sample 7, 149, 215, 216, 217, 317, 322, 463
Grab sample 347, 351, 395, 486
24-hour flow-proportional composite
3, 4, 8, 91, 151, 468, 473
sample
Hg
Composite sample 7, 148, 149, 153, 215, 217, 317, 322
Grab sample 347, 351, 395, 486
24-hour flow-proportional composite
3, 4, 8, 151, 473
sample
As
Composite sample 7, 148, 153, 217, 317, 322, 463
Grab sample 347, 351, 395
24-hour flow-proportional composite 3, 4, 8, 91, 151, 153, 156, 159, 194,
sample 468, 473, 550
Pb
Composite sample 7, 148, 149, 215, 217, 317, 322, 463
Grab sample 347, 351, 395, 486
24-hour flow-proportional composite 3, 4, 8, 91, 151, 153, 156, 194, 468,
sample 473
Cr 7, 148, 149, 215, 216, 217, 317, 322,
Composite sample
463
Grab sample 6, 347, 351, 395, 486
24-hour flow-proportional composite
4, 8, 151, 153, 156, 194, 468
sample
Cr(VI)
Composite sample 7, 148, 217, 317, 322
Grab sample 6, 347
24-hour flow-proportional composite 3, 4, 8, 91, 151, 153, 156, 194, 468,
sample 473, 550
Cu
Composite sample 7, 148, 149, 215, 217, 317, 322, 463
Grab sample 6, 347, 351, 395, 486
24-hour flow-proportional composite
468
Mn sample
Composite sample 148
24-hour flow-proportional composite 3, 4, 8, 91, 151, 153, 156, 194, 468,
sample 473, 550
Ni
Composite sample 7, 148, 149, 215, 217, 317, 322, 463
Grab sample 6, 347, 351, 395, 486
24-hour flow-proportional composite 3, 4, 8, 91, 151, 153, 156, 194, 473,
sample 550
Zn
Composite sample 7, 148, 149, 215, 217, 317, 322, 463
Grab sample 6, 347, 351, 395, 486

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Table 5.86: Treatment of water-based liquid waste – Indirect discharge - Techniques used, removed substances, waste input description, output and type of release

Type of
release
Water-based liquid waste Removed (batch/
Plant code Techniques used Waste input description Output Point of release
treatment process substances continuous)
and water
flow

Bases and base mixtures

Acids and acid mixtures
Water-solvent mixtures
Oil Chemical construction Aqueous output
Heavy metals waste Residues from
Primary treatment
CSB Cooling and lubricating waste water Continuous Off-site common
03 Finalisation treatment NI
NO2 liquids treatment 3 m3/h WWT facilities
Post treatment (bioreactor)
NO3 Oil-water mixtures Regenerated oil
Ammonia Emulsions Concentrates
Paint sludge-water
mixtures
Landfill leachate
Organic and inorganic
acids (e.g. HCl, HNO3)
Air stripping Bases (e.g. NaOH, KOH) Batch
Primary treatment Neutralisation Chemical Solid (e.g. soluble salts) Aqueous output 200–250 Urban/municipal
04 NI
Secondary treatment reduction Chemical and liquid hazardous waste Press cake times a year sewer system
oxidation Oil-water mixtures 25 m3/h
Emulsions
Landfill leachate
Filtration
Batch
Primary treatment Ion exchange
Inorganic acids, inorganic Aqueous output, 56–124 times Urban/municipal
06 Secondary treatment NI Neutralisation
bases, inorganic sludge sludge a year sewer system
Finalisation treatment Press filtering
2 m3/h
Sand filtration

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Oil-water mixtures
Oil separator content
Oil Emulsions
Primary treatment Aqueous output
Heavy metals Active sludge systems - Sand catcher
Regenerated oil
CSB SBR Flocculation Landfill leachate Batch Urban/municipal
07 Residues from
NO2 Emulsion breaking Press Sewage residues 48 m3/day sewer system
Finalisation treatment waste water
NO3 filtering Paint sludge residues
treatment
Ammonia Glue residues
Washing water containing
cyanide
Emulsion
Oil-water mixture
Hydroxide precipitation: Heavy metals
Mixed acid
removal of pollutants at source
Lye mixture
Primary treatment: All water-
Water from tank cleaning Aqueous output
based waste streams first go Solids
Waste oil Liquid fuel Batch
through a basin system, where Filtration
Solvents Residues from 170 times a
sinking and swimming solids Active sludge system – Urban/municipal
08 Bitumen emulsion waste water year during
are discharged SBR sewer system
Drilling mud Treatment one day
Emulsion breaking Adsorption
Oil separators, sand trap Mix of output 7 m3/h
Toxic compounds elimination
contents materials
(e.g. oxidising of cyanide) / Oils
Paint sludge
Final wet maturation
Pharmaceutical waste
(bioreactor) Toxic substances
Laboratory waste
Detergents
Chemical oxidation Acids (chromic,
Aqueous output
Chemical precipitation hydrochloric, nitric and Continuous Urban/municipal
91 Primary treatment NI Filter cake of metal
Dewatering Flocculation similar) containing heavy 2.5 m3/h sewer system
hydroxide sludge
Adsorption metals, cyanides
Pretreatment Cleaning water, washing Aqueous output Batch
Neutralisation liquids, aqueous liquid Liquid fuel 7–10 times a Off-site common
148 NI Oil separation
Blending waste from chemical Sludge year WWT facilities
Centrifugation industries Other output 22 m3/h

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Used acids from research

laboratories (industrial,
university) Aqueous output
Used bases from research Residues from
laboratories (industrial, shredding
Batch
Neutralisation university) Ferrous metal
Around 50 Off-site common
149 Blending NI Decantation Cleaning water, washing Glass
times a year WWT facilities
liquids Wood
during 4 hours
Liquid wastes from Output from the
chemical industry temporary storage
Pasty, organic unreactive of hazardous waste
wastes
WEEE
Sludge
Centrifugation TOC and sludge Organics and
Emulsion breaking Biodegradable Active sludge systems - biodegradable liquid waste
Liquid fuel Continuous Urban/municipal
151 Biological treatment/activated organics conventional Hydrocarbon liquid waste
Sludge 195 m3/h sewer system
sludge system Ultrafiltration containing more than 10 %
UF membrane TSS sediment

Waste fluids from various

sectors: complex
machining emulsions
(water-oil-solids), oily
Breaking of emulsions and
waters from oil-water
precipitation of complex Liquid fuel
separators, aqueous
hydroxide species Aqueous output
washing liquids, etc.
Vacuum evaporation Complex dewatered
Water and sediments
Triple-phase high-speed hot hydroxide
Any type of bulk/packaged
centrifugation precipitate from
waste, except: radioactive
Filtration on a recessed-plate Neutralisation Biological filtration Urban/municipal
153 NI wastes, explosive 4 m3/h
filter press nutrient removal Sludge sewer system
compounds or wastes that
Gravity settling of sludges Output from
might ignite
originating from cleaning repackaging and
spontaneously,
operations from temporary
hydrolysable wastes
Acid/base neutralisation of storage of
emitting noxious
clarified waste waters hazardous waste
compounds when in
Aerobic bioreactor
contact with water,
chemically or physically
instable wastes, asbestos
wastes

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Centrifugation + Mix of water-

Emulsion breaking based/sediment/hydrocarb
Two-phase centrifugation (Organic physico- ons liquid waste
Three-phase centrifugation Sediment chemical treatment) Liquid waste containing
Emulsion breaking Oil Biological treatment Cr(VI)
UF membrane (hydrocarbons) Nanofiltration Liquid waste containing Residues from
Nanofiltration and sediment CN waste water
Deconditioning Oil Mineral physico- Liquid waste containing treatment
Detoxication (hydrocarbons) chemical treatment phenols Mixed plastics Urban/municipal
156C_2W 4 m3/h
Neutralisation BOD5 Saline biological Acid liquid waste Recovered sewer system
Metal precipitation TOC, metals treatment containing activated carbon
Sludge filtration Cr(VI), CN, Activated carbon Basic liquid waste Oily phase from
Biological treatment (activated phenols filtration Waste gas cleaning centrifugation
sludge) Alkalinity-acidity, residues
Adsorption on activated metals Metal hydroxide sludge or
carbon sludge from metal
insolubilisation treatment
(PC plant)
Waste with a high
hydrocarbon content
Waste with a low
hydrocarbon content
Liquid fuel
Active sludge systems - Water with oily emulsions
Bioreactor Aqueous output Continuous Urban/municipal
159 NI conventional Water with biodegradable
UF membrane Other 6 m3/h sewer system
Ultrafiltration organics content
Organic waste which
cannot be treated by any of
the waste treatment
activities of the plant
Liquid waste containing
sediments, water and
Aqueous output
Separation of sediments / Hydrocarbons hydrocarbons for phase
163 NI Sludge NI NA
water / hydrocarbons Sludge separation (hydrocarbons,
Other output
aqueous and sediments
phases)

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Water containing organics

and/or metal compounds Aqueous output
Sediment
Decantation: removal of Waste waters with organic Residues from
pollutants at source content and sediment and waste water
Oily concentrates Active sludge systems -
Evaporation/concentration salts content (soaps, inks, treatment Urban/municipal
194 TOC/sludge conventional 5 m3/h
Emulsion breaking cooling liquid, soluble oils Concentrates sewer system
biodegradable Ultrafiltration
Bioreactor containing waste, etc.) Highly
organics
UF membrane Waste water with concentrated oily
TSS
biodegradable organic waste
content
Acids
Aqueous output
Bases
Pretreatment Immobilised solid
Emulsion breaking Hydrocarbons (oil and fuel
Emulsion breaking waste Urban/municipal
215 NI Buffer tanks Dewatering liquid) 5 m3/h
Oil separation Regenerated oil sewer system
Filtration Flocculation Waste from surface
Evaporation Stabilised residues
treatment and mechanical
Other
forming Sludge
Absorption Buffer tanks
Pretreatment Aqueous output Batch
Decantation Emulsion
Vacuum distillation Residues from Around 15 Urban/municipal
216 NI breaking Evaporation Organic liquid waste
Finalisation treatment waste water times a year sewer system
Filtration Ultrafiltration
treatment during 8 hours
Vacuum distillation
Absorption Aeration
Air stripping
Buffer tanks Batch
Aqueous output
Pretreatment Centrifugation Around 2 000
Inorganic liquid waste Residues from Urban/municipal
217 Primary treatment NI Chemical oxidation times a year
Organic liquid waste waste water sewer system
Finalisation treatment Chemical precipitation during 5 hours
treatment
Chemical 7 m3/h
Reduction
Dewatering
Absorption
Aeration Buffer tanks
Aqueous output Batch
Pretreatment Centrifugation Chemical Inorganic liquid waste
Residues from Around 1 260 Urban/municipal
317 Primary treatment NI oxidation Chemical Inorganic acid
waste water times a year sewer system
Finalisation treatment precipitation Chemical Organic liquid waste
treatment during 5 hours
reduction Dewatering
Emulsion breaking

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Emulsion breaking Aqueous output

Chemical oxidation Waste from surface Residues from Batch
Pretreatment
Chemical reduction treatment waste water Around 110 Urban/municipal
322 Primary treatment NI
Neutralisation Chemical Rinsing water treatment times a year sewer system
Finalisation treatment
precipitation Press Emulsion Recovered catalyst during 4 hours
filtering Liquid fuel
Aqueous output
Landfill leachates
Metals Residues from
Washing water, process Off-site common
347 Primary treatment Solids NI waste water 20 m3/h
and meteoric WWT facilities
Hydrocarbons treatment
Oil emulsions
Regenerated oil
Coagulation Flocculation
Clarification/flocculation (with Heavy metals Street cleaning residues Residues from
Chemical precipitation Urban/municipal
351 FeCl3 and NaOH) Waste from sewage waste water 30 m3/h
Sedimentation (ponds) sewer system
If necessary, sand filter Suspended solids cleaning treatment
Neutralisation
Chemical precipitation Aqueous output
Spent acids Off-site common
395 Finalisation treatment NI Press filtering Filter cake NI
Spent bases WWT facilities
Neutralisation Packaging
Aqueous output
Separate oil and oil from
Aeration Buffer tanks Decontaminated
oil-water separation
Coagulation soil
Waste from paint, kit,
Centrifugation Ferrous metal
wax, ink, pharmaceutical Batch when Urban/municipal
401 NI NI Detoxification Regenerated
waste raining sewer system
Dewatering Filtration solvent
Oily or other organic
Flocculation Flotation residues from waste
waste
Skimming water treatment
Soil, tar and other minerals
Other
Acids Aqueous output
Bases Immobilised solid
Urban/municipal
463 Primary treatment NI NI Sludge waste NI
sewer system
Waste oil Liquid fuel
Water-based liquid waste Regenerated oil
Solids
Pretreatment Active sludge system Biodegradable waste water
Metals and
468 Primary treatment Centrifugation Acid Aqueous output NI NI
sediments
Secondary treatment Chemical precipitation Base
DBO

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Water/waste with high

COD and chloride content,
with low concentration of Aqueous output
HC, with metals and other Sludge
471 NI NI NI Continuous NI
inorganics, CN, Cr(VI) Liquid fuel
Rinsing waters
Landfill leachates
Acids, Alkalis
Water/waste with
hydrocarbons
Basic waste
Liquid cleaning solutions
Residues from
Waste ink
Primary treatment waste water Urban/municipal
Active sludge systems - Waste from the
473 Finalisation treatment NI treatment NI sewer system
SBR Evaporation photographic industry
Post-treatment (bioreactor) Empty containers
Emulsions
Used oil
Oily sludge
Antifreeze
Leachate
Liquid cleaning solutions
On-site common
WWT facilities
(when the
Aqueous output design/operation of
Evaporation
Residues from Continuous the WWT facility is
489 NI NI Ultrafiltration Mixed liquid waste
waste water 2 m3/h mainly influenced
Biological purification
treatment by waste water
streams coming
from activities other
than the WT plant)
Batch
Dewatering Filtration Acids Aqueous output
Primary treatment Metals 270 times a Urban/municipal
550 Neutralisation Various mixed wastes Immobilised solid
Filter press Solids year sewer system
Precipitation Neutral sludge waste
16 m3/h
Flocculation and physical Active sludge systems - Residues from Urban/municipal
Indigenous liquid sludge Continuous
607 separation of liquid and settled Solids conventional waste water
and imported sludge 820 m3/h sewer system
solids Precipitation treatment
NB: NI = No information.

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5.7.2.3.4 Direct and indirect discharge (THC, HOI, CN, AOX and metals)

This section gives an overview of the emissions to water, both in the case of direct discharge
and in the case of indirect discharge, for those substances which may not be abated by the
downstream waste water treatment plant.

Total hydrocarbons (THC) and hydrocarbon oil index (HOI)

Of the 41 plants that participated in the data collection, 18 reported THC concentration values,
and 7 reported HOI concentration values. Figure 5.36 presents the reported THC and HOI
concentration values, together with the maximum load and the applied abatement techniques.

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Figure 5.36: THC and HOI in emissions to water from the treatment of water-based liquid waste

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Regarding THC, the highest concentration values were reported by Plants 04 and 192 treating
mainly inorganics. Plant 217 reported maximum concentration values decreasing from 13 mg/l
in 2010 to around 5 mg/l in 2012, and also reported HOI concentration values below 5 mg/l in
2014 and 2015.

As for HOI, the highest (and highly variable) concentration values were reported by Plants 421
and 423, which treat drilling muds. Plant 153 reported a maximum concentration value of
18 mg/l in 2010, decreasing to 2 mg/l in 2012, and with the 97th percentile below 5.5 mg/l. Plant
215 reported a maximum concentration value of 17 mg/l in 2015, with a median (17
measurements) below 5 mg/l.

Cyanide (CN-)
Of the 41 plants that participated in the data collection, 18 provided CN- concentration values.

Figure 5.37 below shows the reported cyanide concentration values, together with the maximum
load and the applied abatement techniques.

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Figure 5.37: Cyanide in emissions to water from the treatment of water-based liquid waste

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Plant 06 reported concentration values ranging from 0.01 mg/l to 6 mg/l, but mainly around
3 mg/l. It is indicated that CN- is one of the parameters that needs to be controlled before release
into the downstream facility. This may mean that this downstream facility is able to treat CN - to
a certain extent. Plants 144 and 192 reported highly variable CN- concentration values, both
with the 97th percentile at 0.1 mg/l. Plant 550 reported highly variable CN- concentration values,
ranging from < 0.2 mg/l to 9 mg/l.

Adsorbable organically bound halogens (AOX)

Of the 41 plants that participated in the data collection, 15 provided AOX concentration values,
most of them carrying out biological treatments and/or chemical oxidation.

Figure 5.38 below shows the reported AOX concentration values, together with the maximum
load and the applied abatement techniques.

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Figure 5.38: AOX in emissions to water from the treatment of water-based liquid waste

The highest AOX concentrations are reported by Plant 140. These values were reported for
2011 only (monthly average of 24-hour flow-proportional composite samples) and range from
0.3 mg/l to 3.3 mg/l.

Arsenic (As)
Of the 41 plants that participated in the data collection, 26 reported As concentration values.
Figure 5.39 below shows the reported As concentration values, together with the maximum load
and the applied abatement techniques.

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Figure 5.39: Arsenic in emissions to water from the treatment of water-based liquid waste

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The highest concentration value reported by Plant 154 results from two high values measured in
2015 (around 0.3 mg/l), whereas the 97th percentile is 0.05 mg/l.

Cadmium (Cd)
Of the 41 plants that participated in the data collection, 34 reported Cd concentration values.
Figure 5.40 below shows the reported Cd concentration values, together with the maximum load
and the applied abatement techniques.

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Figure 5.40: Cadmium in emissions to water from the treatment of water-based liquid waste

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Five plants, all equipped with appropriate techniques to abate metals (e.g. chemical
precipitation), reported Cd concentration values above 0.1 mg/l (Plants 140, 144, 156, 192 and
550). The variability of these concentration values is high, with the 97 th percentile below
0.1 mg/l for all plants but Plant 192 in 2010. In 2011 and 2012, Plant 192 reported maximum
concentration values below 0.1 mg/l.

Chromium (Cr)
Of the 41 plants that participated in the data collection, 40 reported Cr concentration values.

Figure 5.41 below shows the reported Cr concentration values, together with the maximum load
and the applied abatement techniques.

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Figure 5.41: Chromium in emissions to water from the treatment of water-based liquid waste

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According to the information provided, Plant 347 discharges to an external physico-chemical

water-based liquid waste treatment plant. The highest concentration value was reported for 2010
by Plant 192. In 2011 and 2012, the maximum concentration value reported by this plant was
0.5 mg/l, with the 97th percentile around 0.3 mg/l. Plants 140, 144, 154 and 156, all equipped
with an appropriate technique to abate metals (chemical precipitation), reported highly variable
concentration values, with a 97th percentile below 0.3 mg/l.

Hexavalent chromium (Cr(VI))

Of the 41 plants that participated in the data collection, 19 provided Cr(VI) concentration
values.

Figure 5.42 below shows the reported Cr(VI) concentration values, together with the maximum
load and the applied abatement techniques.

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Figure 5.42: Hexavalent chromium in emissions to water from the treatment of water-based liquid waste

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Plant 468 reported concentration values as being < 0.5 mg/l (24-hour flow-proportional
composite sampling, daily average). Plant 217 reported concentration values ranges of 0.01–
0.14 mg/l in 2014 and 0.01–0.05 mg/l in 2015 (composite sample taken for each batch).

Copper (Cu)
Of the 41 plants that participated in the data collection, 35 reported Cu concentration values.
Figure 5.43 below shows the reported Cu concentration values, together with the maximum load
and the applied abatement techniques.

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Figure 5.43: Copper in emissions to water from the treatment of water-based liquid waste

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Plant 550 reported highly variable concentration values, ranging from < 0.2 mg/l to 5 mg/l, and
discharging to an external waste water treatment plant. According to the information provided,
the waste input may contain up to 96 mg/l Cu. Plant 156 reported significantly higher Cu
concentration values coming from the treatment of inorganics (up to 7 mg/l in 2014) than from
the treatment of organics (up to 0.8 mg/l in 2014). It should be noted that the maximum reported
TSS concentration values coming from the treatment of inorganics was up to 525 mg/l in 2014.
Plant 347 reported discharging to an external physico-chemical water-based liquid waste
treatment plant. Plants 144 and 192 reported highly variable Cu concentration values, with the
97th percentile below 0.5 mg/l.

Mercury (Hg)
Of the 41 plants that participated in the data collection, 29 reported Hg concentration values.

Figure 5.44 below shows the reported Hg concentration values, together with the maximum load
and the applied abatement techniques.

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Figure 5.44: Mercury in emissions to water from the treatment of water-based liquid waste

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Plants 156 and 473 did not report being equipped with techniques to abate dissolved metals, or
with activated carbon. Plant 471 reported Hg concentration values as being lower than
0.05 mg/l, and Plant 215 as being lower than 0.025 mg/l. Plant 569 reported Hg concentration
values ranging from 0.01 mg/l in 2010 to 0.04 mg/l in 2011 and 2012 (24-hour flow-
proportional composite sample, long-term average). Plants 322 and 154 reported Hg
concentration values either mostly at 0.02 mg/l (all but one of the six concentration values
reported by Plant 322), or with a 97th percentile at 0.02 mg/l (Plant 154).

Nickel (Ni)
Of the 41 plants that participated in the data collection, 35 reported Ni concentration values.

Figure 5.45 below shows the reported Ni concentration values, together with the maximum load
and the applied abatement techniques.

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Figure 5.45: Nickel in emissions to water from the treatment of water-based liquid waste

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Plants 140, 153, and 194 did not report being equipped with chemical precipitation. Plant 156
reported highly variable Ni concentration values, with the 97th percentile around 2 mg/l. It
should be noted that this plant carries out the treatment of inorganics and the treatment of
organics in two separate lines. The effluent is released after treatment at the same point of
discharge. The Ni concentration values from the treatment of inorganics are reported to be
around 10 times higher than for the treatment of organics. It should be noted that the maximum
reported TSS concentration values coming from the treatment of inorganics are up to 1 264 mg/l
(2015).

Lead (Pb)
Of the 41 plants that participated in the data collection, 35 reported Pb concentration values.
Figure 5.46 below shows the reported Pb concentration values, together with the maximum load
and the applied abatement techniques.

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Figure 5.46: Lead in emissions to water from the treatment of water-based liquid waste

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Plants 156, 192 and 486 reported variable concentration values: for Plant 156, the 97th percentile
is below 0.3 mg/l; for Plant 486, three out of 36 Pb concentration values are above 0.3 mg/l); for
Plant 192, the maximum reported concentration values were equal to or below 0.3 mg/l in 2010
and 2011.

Zinc (Zn)
Of the 41 plants that participated in the data collection, 36 reported Zn concentration values
Figure 5.47 below shows the reported Zn concentration values, together with the maximum load
and the applied abatement techniques.

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Figure 5.47: Zinc in emissions to water from the treatment of water-based liquid waste

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Plant 194 did not report being equipped with techniques to abate dissolved metals. As for Ni
and Cu, Plant 156 reported Zn concentration values significantly higher coming from the
treatment of inorganics (up to 16 mg/l in 2015) than from the treatment of organics (up to
2 mg/l in 2015). It should be noted that the maximum reported TSS concentration values
coming from the treatment of inorganics was up to 1 264 mg/l in 2015.

[ 9, UK EA 2001 ], [ 10, Babtie Group Ltd 2002 ], [ 11, WT TWG 2003 ], [ 33, Irish EPA 2003]

5.7.2.4 Energy consumption

The energy consumption per tonne of waste treated reported by plants which indicated that their
activity is only the treatment of water-based liquid waste ranges from 10 kWh/t to 210 kWh/t,
with an average of 50 kWh/t (some plants reported carrying out other waste treatment activities
which renders comparison of the data on energy consumption impossible).

Depending on the waste input type and on the process, heat may be required for the heating of
tanks and pipelines in order to keep them frost-free, for the preparation of chemicals, for the
improvement of separation processes and for other processes. The amount of energy consumed
also depends on climatic conditions. Electricity is required for pumps, compressors and other
facilities.

Further differences in energy consumption may be caused by a difference in storage capacity or

the application of evaporation. The highest values were reported by plants performing
evaporation, wet oxidation, etc., where a high amount of energy is needed.

Consumption of energy of liquid photographic waste

The electricity required for electrolysis ranges from 12 kWh/t to 46 kWh/t of photographic
liquid waste. The electricity consumption is dependent on the iron content. For bleach-fix, the
consumption is higher due to the higher iron content. The ultrafiltration requires approximately
27 kWhe and 13 MJ/t of liquid waste for the heating of the rinse water. The electricity
consumption for the chemical removal of silver is estimated as 3.5 kWh/t of liquid photographic
waste.

The energy consumption for evaporation is approximately 220 MJ/t of waste water. If
evaporation is also applied as a pretreatment, in the case of colour photo processing waste
water, the energy consumption is approximately 350 MJ/t of waste water. The required
electricity for electroflocculation, in the case of extra desilvering, is approximately 80 kWh/t of
waste water. Further physico-chemical and biological treatment requires approximately
5 kWhe/t of waste water.

5.7.2.5 Raw material consumption

Waste waters
In some physico-chemical treatments, bases are necessary. In some cases, waste bases are
reused in waste applications for neutralisation purposes. The neutralising agent used could be a
solid or liquid waste stream or a bought-in alkali, as most plants need to buy in some
supplementary alkalis. Aqueous acid containing metals, alkali and neutral wastes are common
additions and the treatments for water-based liquid waste are typically designed to produce a
sludge containing slightly alkaline metal. Table 5.87 shows the consumption levels of some
physico-chemical treatments of contaminated water.

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Table 5.87: Consumption levels of some treatments of water-based liquid waste

Specific Yearly Yearly Yearly Yearly consumption Yearly consumption
Yearly
consumption consumption of consumption of consumption of lacquer treatment of laboratory
Parameter consumption
(kg/tonne of inorganic pathway organic of WWT facility chemical treatment
(t/yr) *
waste treated) * (t/yr) pathway (t/yr) (t/yr) (t/yr) (t/yr)
Lacquer: 15 000
Average throughput 45 000 NI 20 000 66 000 30 000 Solvent: 15 000 1000
Lacquer powder: 1000
HCl: 69 HCl: 8
Average consumption of acids 230 (1) 5.1 HCl: 39.4 NI 0.5
Sulphuric: 48 Phosphoric: 8
Lime 590 (1) 13.1 1 023 NI 50 NI 10
Flocculation agents 290 6.4 NI 8 16 NI NI
Other chemicals (2) NI 0.4–3.0 NI NI NI NI NI
Sodium sulphite NI NI 10.2 NI 2 NI NI
Water usage NI NI 759 9 900 1788 2 700 NI
Fuel oil: 1 139 m3
Energy consumption NI NI NI 275 kW 369 MWh NI
Electricity: 189 MWh
Waste water NI NI 11 573 48 348 12687 NI 250
Hydrogen peroxide NI NI 6.2 NI NI NI 0.1
Sodium hypochlorite NI NI 4.9 NI NI NI NI
Iron chloride solution NI NI NI 118 NI NI NI
Iron oxide NI NI NI NI 65.8 NI NI
Sodium hydroxide NI NI NI 110 NI NI 1
Activated carbon NI NI NI 6 NI NI NI
Potassium permanganate NI NI NI NI 0.4 NI NI
Splitting additives NI NI NI NI 25 NI NI
Amidosulphone acid NI NI NI NI NI NI NI
(1) Values do not include accepted and used waste acids or waste alkalis.
(2) Detoxification chemicals, organic breaking up of emulsions, sorption, sulphuric precipitation.
* NB: Data based on the data from PCT plant operators with a combined capacity of 850 kt/yr. The data correspond to the year 2001. The average age of the plants is about 17
years (ranging from 4 to 39 years). Approximately 84 % (from 73 % to 91 %) of all the PCT plants for treatment of accepted waste observed here can be attributed to LoW
groups 11,12,13,16 and 19.
NI = No information.
Source: [ 13, Schmidt et al. 2002 ], [ 97, UBA Germany 2003 ],

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A total amount of approximately 0.4 m3 of prepared chemicals is used per m3 of waste water.
Table 5.88 shows the chemicals consumed and some of their consumption levels for
detoxification, neutralisation and dewatering for the removal of metals.

Table 5.88: Chemicals consumed and some of their consumption levels for detoxification,
neutralisation and dewatering for the removal of metals from waste waters
Chemical Consumption
Lime or sodium hydroxide for (NaOH 50 %) 120 l/m3 of
neutralisation/precipitation waste water
Sulphuric or hydrochloric acid for acidification (HCl 30 %) 10 l/m3 of waste water
Hypochlorite (oxidation cyanide) NI
Iron (II) sulphate or sodium bisulphite
NI
(reduction Cr6+ to Cr3+)
Aluminium sulphate or chloride (flocculation) NI
Iron (III) chloride (flocculation) NI
Sodium sulphide (precipitation) 0.3 kg/m3 of waste water
Materials for the improvement of precipitation,
NI
flocculation, coagulation and complex destruction
NB: NI = No information.
Source: [ 35, VROM 2004 ]

Precipitation/flocculation
The following inorganic materials are predominantly used in precipitation/flocculation:

 caustic soda;
 soda ash (sodium carbonate);
 lime;
 iron (III) chloride;
 iron (II) chloride;
 aluminium sulphate;
 sulphides, sulphites.

Synthetic flocculation materials are also used for the improvement of floc formation and
sedimentation characteristics. They consist principally of non-ionic polymers, anionic polymers,
cationic polymers and co-polymers of ionic and non-ionic compounds.

Table 5.89 shows the chemicals used for the precipitation of solute heavy metals; this
information refers to chemically pure chemicals. In practice, it may be that the quantities
actually required are 10–20 % greater.

Table 5.89: Theoretical consumption of alkalis in precipitation per 100 g of metal

Used alkali Metal to be precipitated
(g) Fe (II) Fe (III) Cu Ni Cr Zn
CaO 100 150 88 96 162 86
Ca(OH)2 134 201 116 126 213 114
NaOH 144 216 126 136 231 122
Na2CO3 190 285 168 181 307 162
MgO 73 110 63 69 117 62
Mg(OH)2 105 158 92 100 169 90
Source: [ 13, Schmidt et al. 2002 ]

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Consumption of chemicals
Table 5.90 shows the consumption of chemicals for sulphide precipitation/ultrafiltration of
photographic liquid waste.

Table 5.90: Consumption of chemicals for sulphide precipitation/ultrafiltration

Consumption
Chemical (kg/t of photo Function
processing waste)

Sodium sulphide (40 %) 0.1 Precipitation of silver (and other metals)

Citric acid 0.7 Cleaning of the membranes
Sodium hydroxide 0.01 Cleaning of the membranes
Detergents 0.01 Cleaning of the membranes
Water 75 Cleaning of the membranes
Source: [ 35, VROM 2004 ]

For the chemical removal of silver, the consumption of chemicals is estimated at 1.5 litres of
sodium borohydride and 2.5 litres of sulphuric acid per tonne of photographic liquid waste.

In the physico-chemical treatment of desilvered photographic liquid waste, several chemicals

are used. The consumption levels are shown in Table 5.91. If evaporation is applied as a
pretreatment, practically no chemicals are consumed in the following treatment steps. Most
contaminants have already been removed in the evaporation step.

Table 5.91: Consumption of chemicals in the treatment of desilvered photographic liquid waste
Consumption
Chemical
(kg/t of waste water)
Sodium hydroxide (33 %) 0.007
FeCl3 0.003
Powder carbon 0.5
Flocculant (1) 5
Na2S (40 %) (1) 15
1
( ) In the case of desilvering.
Source: [ 35, VROM 2004 ]

5.7.3 Techniques to consider in the determination of BAT

The techniques used in the treatment of water-based liquid waste are similar to those end-of-
pipe techniques used for the treatment of waste water described in Section 2.3.6. Therefore this
section contains only specific information on techniques to consider in the treatment of water-
based liquid waste.

5.7.3.1 Monitoring of the waste input

Description
Monitoring the waste input, for example in terms of:
 bioeliminability (e.g. BOD, BOD to COD ratio, Zahn-Wellens test, biological inhibition
potential, activated sludge inhibition test);
 feasibility of emulsion breaking, e.g. by means of laboratory tests.

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Technical description
In order to ensure that the waste input complies with the installation treatment capabilities, tests
are carried out under the supervision of analytical experts from the waste treatment plant and in
representative conditions with the original waste input.

Regarding bioeliminability, it may include monitoring of BOD concentration, BOD/COD ratio,

refractory COD/TOC loads, results of biotests (e.g. a Zahn-Wellens test can be used).

When relevant, laboratory-scale tests are performed to predict the performance of the treatment,
e.g. on breaking of emulsion.

See also Sections 2.3.2.1, 2.3.2.2, and 2.3.2.3.

Achieved environmental benefits

The achieved environmental benefits of the technique include the improvement of the overall
performance of the waste treatment.

Environmental performance and operational data

Some information is provided in Sections 2.3.2.1 to 2.3.2.4.

A wide range of tests are available to determine the biodegradability of the waste input; the test
to be carried out depends not only on the test material but also on other factors such as aerobic
or anaerobic test conditions, presence of other organic substrate, etc. [ 188, CEN 2009 ]. The
technical report ISO/TR 15462 gives an overview of the existing tests.

When the BOD to COD ratio is used as an indicator of the waste input biodegradability, the
following ranges are generally accepted as a rule of thumb [ 45, COM 2016 ]:

 BOD/COD ratio < 0.2: relatively non-degradable waste input;

 BOD/COD ratio from 0.2 to 0.4: moderately to highly degradable waste input;
 BOD/COD ratio > 0.4: highly degradable waste input.

Cross-media effects
None.

Technical considerations relevant to applicability

Generally applicable.

Economics
Some information is provided in Sections 2.3.2.1 to 2.3.2.4.

Driving force for implementation

Efficient waste management.

Example plants
All plants treating water-based liquid waste that participated in the data collection reported
having procedures to ensure the compliance of the waste input with the treatment capabilities.

Reference literature
[ 45, COM 2016 ], [ 42, WT TWG 2014 ], [ 188, CEN 2009 ]

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5.7.3.2 Techniques for the prevention or reduction of emissions to air from

the treatment of water-based liquid waste

Description
Collection of waste gas and an appropriate combination of abatement techniques such as:

 adsorption (see Section 2.3.4.9);

 wet (e.g. basic or acid) gas scrubber (see Section 2.3.4.10);
 biofilter (see Section 2.3.4.7);
 thermal oxidation (see Section 2.3.4.6).

Technical description
See Section 2.3.4.9, Section 2.3.4.10, Section 2.3.4.7, and Section 2.3.4.6 for descriptions of
adsorption, wet gas scrubbers biofilters, and thermal oxidation respectively.

Achieved environmental benefits

Reduction of emissions to air of HCl, NH3, and organic compounds.

Environmental performance and operational data

Table 5.92 and Table 5.93 below present the environmental performance of the reference plants
in terms of emissions to air of HCl and Indications of the reported origin of emissions to air, the
standard used for the monitoring, and the number of measurements during the three reference
years are also given in these tables.

Additional information on the environmental performance of each technique can be found in the
CWW BREF [ 45, COM 2016 ].

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Table 5.92: Environmental performance of the treatment of water-based liquid waste in terms of
HCl emissions to air
Number of
Main techniques
Conc. Conc. Conc. measurements
to Type of
Plant code Min. Average Max. over the 3-
prevent/reduce measurement
(mg/Nm3) (mg/Nm3) (mg/Nm3) year reference
emissions
period
Activated carbon
149_150C 0.2 2.22 4.3 Periodic 2
adsorption
Basic scrubber
192C 0.4 1.72 3.6 Periodic 6
system
Basic scrubber
215_5 1.7 1.7 1.7 system, Acid Periodic 1
scrubber system
Basic scrubber
system, Acid
217 2.6 2.6 2.6 scrubber system, Periodic 1
Activated carbon
adsorption
Basic scrubber
system, Acid
317 0.2 0.2 0.2 scrubber system, Periodic 1
Activated carbon
adsorption
Alkaline
oxidative
322 1 1 1 Periodic 7
scrubber system,
Wet scrubbing
Acid scrubber
system, Dry
electrostatic
precipitation
(ESP), Basic
401_404_1 0.1 1.3 4.8 Periodic 18
scrubber system,
Thermal
afterburning,
Water spraying
(dust)
449 0.5 0.5 0.5 No information Continuous NA
Activated carbon
463_2 2 2 2 Periodic 3
adsorption
Basic scrubber
468_1 0.002 0.04 0.1 Periodic 3
system
Basic scrubber
468_2 0.001 0.0011 0.002 Periodic 3
system
471_2 0 0.8 1.3 No information Periodic 3
Basic scrubber
550 0 0.001 0.003 Periodic 36
system
Alkaline
569_3 2 2 2 oxidative Periodic 1
scrubber system
Alkaline
569_7 0.2 0.4 1.4 oxidative Continuous NA
scrubber system

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Table 5.93: Environmental performance of treatment of water-based liquid waste in terms of

emissions of organic compounds to air

Conc. Max. (mg/Nm3)

measurements during
Type of measurement
Conc. Min. (mg/Nm3)
Pollutant/ Parameter

the 3-year reference

Main techniques to

period (2010-2012)
Max. Load (g/h)

prevent/reduce
Conc. Average

Number of
Plant code

(mg/Nm3)

emissions
Biofiltering,
Wet
scrubbing
with sorbent
injection
03 TOC 5 22 43 473 Periodic 3
(with water;
and with
hydrogen
peroxide
since 2014)
Wet
scrubbing
(Step 1
alkaline
washer
06 TVOC 17 17 17 34 Periodic 3
(NaOH) and
Step 2:
oxidising
washer
(KmNOH))
Basic
192C TVOC 2.6 5.6 13.7 80 scrubber Periodic 6
system
Basic
scrubber
215_1 TOC 3 3 3 23 system, Acid Periodic 1
scrubber
system
Basic
scrubber
215_2 TOC 3 3 3 NI system, Acid Periodic 1
scrubber
system
Basic
scrubber
system, Acid
scrubber
217 TVOC 39 39 39 98 Periodic 1
system,
Activated
carbon
adsorption
Acid
scrubber
368_1 TVOC 0.7 2 4.3 17 system, Periodic 6
Thermal
afterburning
368_2 TVOC 0.5 9.6 17.2 92 Biofiltering Periodic 3

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Acid
scrubber
system, Dry
electrostatic
precipitation
(ESP), Basic
401_1 TOC 4.8 3.9 4.1 912 scrubber Continuous NA
system,
Thermal
afterburning,
Water
spraying
(dust)
No
449 TOC 31 28 44 136 Continuous NA
information
Acid
scrubber
system,
Alkaline
oxidative
scrubber
461_2 TOC 22.4 30.5 45 3786 Periodic 3
system,
Water
spraying
(dust),
Forced
aeration
461_3 TOC 4 8.275 12 6768 None Periodic 8
Activated
463_2 TOC 5 6 7 NI carbon Periodic 3
adsorption
471_2 TVOC 2 2 2 13 NI Periodic 3
471_3 TVOC 2 4.9 9 46 NI Periodic 5
Alkaline
oxidative
569_1 TVOC 3 16 40 390 Periodic 6
scrubber
system
Alkaline
oxidative
569_3 TVOC 2 2 2 15 Periodic 6
scrubber
system
Alkaline
oxidative
569_7 TVOC 0.6 1.5 0.3 NI Continuous NA
scrubber
system
NB: NI = No information.
NA = Not applicable.

Cross-media effects
See the CWW BREF [ 45, COM 2016 ] for the potential cross-media effects of each individual
technique.

No cross-media effects are identified for an appropriate combination of abatement techniques

for emissions to air.

Technical considerations relevant to applicability

See the CWW BREF [ 45, COM 2016 ] for technical considerations relevant to the applicability
of each individual technique.

Determining the appropriate combination of abatement techniques based on the characteristics

of the waste input treated and on the treatment process is generally applicable.

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Economics
See the CWW BREF [ 45, COM 2016 ].

Driving force for implementation

Environmental legislation.

Example plants
See Table 5.92 and Table 5.93 above.

Reference literature
[ 42, WT TWG 2014 ], [ 45, COM 2016 ]

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5.8 Treatment of waste containing POPs or mercury and

treatment of other waste
5.8.1 Treatment of POP-containing waste

5.8.1.1 Applied processes and techniques

5.8.1.1.1 Decontamination of waste or equipment polluted with persistent organic

pollutants (POPs)

Purpose
Decontamination of equipment or substances polluted with POPs before reuse, recycling or
disposal.

Principle of operation
Decontamination is intended to remove POPs from equipment or substances. These pollutants
are undesirable because they present an important risk to health and/or the environment in the
reuse, recycling or disposal of the equipment or substances in an environmentally sound way.

Process description
Separation can be performed by various techniques depending on the type of waste or
equipment and the type of contaminants:

 washing with solvent, biocide, neutralising agent;

 crushing;
 sorting, sieving;
 vacuum cleaning;
 distillation;
 thermal processes, etc.

Operating precautions or conditions are adapted to each case.

Feed and output streams

Feed
The feed is input waste which contains POPs and is intended to be reused or recovered at a level
complying with requirements for its further use or disposal in an environmentally sound way.

Some examples of process feed are electrical transformers containing PCBs or capacitors
containing PCBs.

Output
Generally, the output from a WT plant is a treated waste. However, the output can be
differentiated into two types. One type is the treated waste (typically representing the main part
of the output) which in some cases can be reused or recovered elsewhere. The other type is the
waste generated by the treatment process itself. The appearance of the latter not only depends on
the type of waste treated, but also on the type of treatment applied to the waste. Indeed, this
second type of waste is more dependent on the treatment than on the actual type of waste
treated.

The output waste is analysed according to the relevant parameters for the receiving facility or
the further use, if so intended, in order to improve the knowledge of the output. For instance,
porous parts of a contaminated transformer (wood and paper) are incinerated in a high-
temperature kiln.

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Reference literature
[ 29, PCT Subgroup 2015 ]

5.8.1.1.2 Decontamination of PCB-containing waste

High-temperature incineration is the most widely available and used technology for effective
PCB destruction. The complete destruction of PCB molecules by incineration only takes place
under well-defined conditions (a high temperature (1 100 °C minimum) and a residence time of
2 seconds for gaseous fractions and 30 minutes for solid fractions). Incineration leads to the
unintentional generation of POPs such as PCDD/Fs and dioxin-like PCBs. Incineration of PCBs
is outside the scope of this document.

For slightly contaminated liquids, alternative technologies are sometimes used as a local
solution in the absence of an adequate high-temperature incinerator.

Some oil types require special care and attention: lubrication oil in open applications can
contain PCBs. Dissemination is to be avoided at all costs whenever the concentration exceeds
1 ppm of PCBs.

Mobile treatment systems can be applied to transformers in operation.

Reference literature
[ 29, PCT Subgroup 2015 ]

5.8.1.1.2.1 Equipment cleaning

Purpose
The decontamination of PCB-containing equipment.

Principle of operation
Technologies for cleaning PCB-containing transformers can be divided into three main
categories: draining, retrofilling and solvent washing.

Process description
 Draining: The PCB-contaminated oil is drained from the transformer, which is followed
by chemical decontamination of the oil (substitution of chlorine atoms of the PCB
molecules contained in the oil by hydrogen atoms), checking of the porous material of the
transformer (wood, paper, etc.) and the space between metal pieces (copper winding,
magnetic steel plate, etc.) and reinjection of the cleaned oil into the transformer for reuse.
 Retrofilling: Reclassification of an oil transformer to non-PCB status involves the
permanent reduction of the PCB concentration from more than 50 ppm to less than
50 ppm for the rest of its working life.
In order to reduce the PCB concentration in the core and coil of a PCB-contaminated
transformer, the contaminated oil is drained out and it is replaced with new, non-PCB
containing oil.
According to statistics, after a maximum period of nine months (depending on the type of
transformer) in service on load, the PCB concentration in the tank will stabilise as the
PCBs leach from the core. The core components that retain PCBs include the paper,
wood, tape and particleboard. As long as a transformer is close to full load, about 90 % of
the PCBs will leach from the core to the tank, leaving 10 % still in the core and coils.
For transformers that are contaminated with PCBs to levels exceeding 500 ppm, the units
will have to be drained and refilled every nine months until the final PCB level is below
50 ppm. This process is referred to as 'serial retrofilling'. The number of 'steps' depends

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on the initial contamination and can only be assessed by sampling the transformer oil
after the period mentioned.
 Solvent washing: Extraction of the PCB oil, by solvent washing of the transformer,
followed by dismantling and further decontamination of the components to allow
recycling of the metal components.
After suitable pretreatment, oil containing a low concentration of PCB may be hydrogenated at
high temperatures so that it can be reused. Here, the transformers are not recovered as such.

An example of the third method is the following:

Carcasses of used transformers are washed with perchloroethylene (PER). Here, the carcass is
filled with the solvent and allowed to stand for an extended period before the solvent is replaced
with fresh PER. This operation is repeated (typically three times) until the carcass passes the
required ‘swab test’. During the cleaning operation, the transformer carcass is under a suction
hood or covered with a steel plate in order to minimise losses of PER to air. After use, the PER
is distilled on site for reuse, and the residual sludge is sent for incineration and/or to some of the
POP destruction technologies described in Section 5.8.1.1.3.

Transformer decontamination is carried out at specialist and PCB-licensed sites, which clean the
PCB-contaminated transformers and store the PCB contaminated oil. The wastes such as oils,
drums, cleaning waters and cleaning solvent sludge are all sent to off-site high-temperature
incineration.

Transformer carcasses and windings are recovered after thorough cleaning with PER.

Cleaning of capacitors containing PCBs

Capacitors are similar to transformers in that they are made up of an active core, held in a
metallic casing. However, the active core is not copper windings, but instead consists of
interwoven rolls of fine aluminium foil, separated by thin films of paper and/or plastic. The
techniques used for cleaning these capacitors are as follows:

 The casing of the capacitor is removed and decontaminated by solvent washing; this is a
straightforward decontamination process since the casing is non-porous. The core is
incinerated.
 It may be possible to go one step further by treatment of the core after its removal from
the casing. This decontamination step usually involves shredding of the core followed by
treatment with a solvent. This allows the level of residual PCBs to be reduced.
 The technology allowing the largest amount of recycling is similar to the above: it also
treats the mixed aluminium/plastic/paper residues by separating these components and
solvent washing. Aluminium can then be reused; the only components to be disposed of
by high-temperature incineration are the mixed paper/plastic shreds.

Feed and output streams

The feed is comprised of PCB-contaminated equipment.

The output includes PCB-contaminated oil; transformer carcasses and windings; aluminium;
and mixed plastic/papers.

Reference literature
[ 29, PCT Subgroup 2015 ]

5.8.1.1.3 Destruction of POPs

Purpose
Destruction and irreversible transformation of the POP content in wastes.

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Principle of operation
Table 5.94 below lists commercially available operations for the environmentally sound
destruction and irreversible transformation of the POP content in wastes.

Table 5.94: Overview of technologies for the destruction and irreversible transformation of POPs
in wastes
POPs
Technology POP-
Pesticide POPs PCB PCDDs/ PFOS HBCD
BDEs
PCDFs

Yes, for certain

Alkali metal Yes ND ND ND ND
pesticides:
reduction
chlordane, HCH
Advanced solid waste
ND ND ND ND ND Yes
incineration (ASWI)
Yes, for certain
Base catalysed pesticides:
decomposition Yes Yes ND ND ND
chlordane, HCH
(BCD)
DDT
Catalytic
hydrodechlorination ND Yes Yes NA NA ND
(CHD)

Cement kiln co-

Yes for all pesticides Yes Yes ND Yes Yes
incineration
Yes, for certain
Gas phase chemical
pesticides: Yes Yes ND ND ND
reduction (GPCR)
DDT, HCB
Hazardous waste
Yes for all pesticides Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
incineration
Yes, for most
pesticides including
Plasma arc chlordane, Yes ND ND ND ND
chlordecone, DDT,
endosulfan, heptaclor
Plasma melting
decomposition ND Yes ND ND ND ND
method (PMD)
Supercritical water Yes, for certain
oxidation (SCWO) Yes for
pesticides: chlordane Yes ND ND ND
and subcritical water PCDDs
oxidation and DDT
Thermal and
metallurgical ND ND Yes ND Yes ND
production of metals
NB: ND = Not determined.
NA = Not applicable.
Source: [ 189, UNEP 2015 ]

Incineration is not within the scope of this document and, for reasons of conciseness, only some
of these techniques are described later in this section but more details about these techniques
may be found in [ 189, UNEP 2015 ]

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This section concentrates on treatments, some of which are summarised below in Table 5.95,
related to these very specific types of waste (e.g. waste containing PCBs, dioxins and furans).

Table 5.95: Some specific treatments for waste containing PCBs and/or other POPs
Process Principle of
Feed and output streams Process description
technique operation
The dispersion is carried out at a
temperature above that of the melting
point of the sodium, i.e. 98 °C. Being
Reaction of liquid, the metal surface can be
Dechlori- metallic alkali Waste input: PCB-contaminated renewed continuously. In this way a
nation with chlorine oils reasonable reaction rate can be
with atoms contained achieved, thus decreasing the cost of
metallic in the Output: organic compounds (oil the decontamination process.
alkali chlorinated which may be reused) and salt The process must avoid the formation
compounds of a polymer or must take the
formation of this solid into account
and introduce a separation step to
yield the pure reusable oil.
Chlorines from PCBs are removed by
polyethylene glycol (PEG) acting as a
nucleophile in reaction with PCBs
under alkaline conditions. This
process has proven to be practical and
highly cost-effective for PCB
treatment directly in transformer oil
and the recovery of the treated oil.
Furthermore, the process avoids the
use of potentially dangerous alkali
Reaction of metals and alkali metal oxides being
potassium generally employed as catalysts.
hydroxide As the process is carried out at low
Waste input: oils contaminated
(KOH) and temperatures (140–160 °C) the
Dechlori- with PCB (less than 5 000 ppm)
polyethylene formation of furans and dioxins by
nation
glycol (PEG) thermal decomposition of PCBs is
with Output: mineral oil, which may
with chlorine not possible. The gases released are
KPEG be reused after a regeneration
atoms contained carbon dioxide and water vapour,
treatment, and sludge (KCl)
in the which are retained by a filter of
chlorinated activated carbon.
compounds The waste generated by the treatment
forms a 'sludge' product of the
combination of chlorine molecules of
PCBs extracted with the alkaline
compounds. This 'mud' (alkali
chloride) precipitates due to the
insolubility and weight, separating
from the cleared oil.
Dechlorination treatment can achieve
PCB levels of less than 2 ppm
(ASTM D4059 method).
Typical process used in mineral oil
Hydrogen reacts
refineries and carried out at
with chlorinated Waste input: transformer fluids
temperatures of 850 °C and higher.
organic and high-strength DDT waste
This technique converts
compounds or pesticide mixtures
Hydroge- approximately 40 % of the methane
non-chlorinated
nation of produced to hydrogen, via the water
organic Output: primarily methane and
POPs shift reaction, and the remaining part
contaminants, hydrogen chloride for PCBs and
to hydrogen in the catalytic steam
such as PAHs, methane and minor amounts of
reformer. In this way, the process can
at high light hydrocarbons for PAHs
operate without an external supply of
temperatures
hydrogen. For highly concentrated

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wastes, the process produces an

excess of methane. It uses draw
combustion air from off site or
ambient air on site, after first filtering
it through activated carbon, for the
combustion process.
This technique uses an alkali or
alkaline earth metal dissolved in a
Waste input: halogenated
solvent such as ammonia, or certain
organic compounds, including
Free electrons in amines or ethers, to produce a
PCBs, dioxins, pesticides,
a solvated solution containing free electrons and
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and
electron solution metal cations. The destruction
chemical warfare agents
Solvated convert efficiencies vary from 86 % to
electron contaminants to 100 %. Chlorine and other halogens
Output: decontaminated soils
process relatively are selectively stripped from organic
are said to be suitable for
harmless halides by free electrons and captured
returning to the site, and, as an
substances and by the metal cations to form salts
additional benefit, are enriched
salts (e.g. CaCl2). For example, a PCB
in nitrogen from the trace
molecule can be converted to
amounts of residual ammonia
biphenyl in a rapid reaction at
ambient temperatures.
NB: Some other treatments outside the scope of this document are available for the treatment of wastes contaminated
with POPs. These include co-incineration in cement kilns, hazardous waste incineration and plasma treatments.
Source: [ 12, UNEP 2000 ], [ 190, UNEP 2004 ], [ 29, PCT Subgroup 2015 ],

Dehalogenation is applied to oil transformers with PCB contents of between 25 ppm

and 2 000 ppm. The process can be applied to the following:

 Dehalogenation and recovery of bulk transformer mineral oils contaminated with PCBs.
 Cleaning and recovery of operating transformers containing mineral oils contaminated
with PCBs. This step is performed by means of recirculation of the dehalogenated
mineral oil and it permits the extraction of the residual PCBs absorbed in the different
components of the transformers (e.g. paper and wood).

The concentration range mentioned above is the typical range in which this technique is found
to be economically viable. Technically there is not a problem when applied at higher
concentrations but it has been found that there are other types of more economically viable PCB
treatment processes.
According to the US DOE, this system can handle most types of waste, including landfill
leachates, lagoon bottoms, soils, sludges, liquids, and gases. However, the US DOE has
cautioned that reaction by-products and intermediate reduction products need to be monitored in
the off-gas from both the reduction process and the boiler. It also noted the need to determine
the fate of mercury and other volatile inorganics.

The process is non-discriminatory; that is to say, organic molecules such as PCBs, PAHs,
chlorophenols, dioxins, chlorobenzenes, pesticides, herbicides and insecticides are
quantitatively converted to methane.

The output of dehalogenation is oil with dielectric characteristics that make it possible for it to
be reused for the same purpose, with a PCB content of less than 1 ppm.

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Users
No information provided.

Reference literature
[ 163, Ecodeco 2002 ], [ 18, WT TWG 2004 ], [ 29, PCT Subgroup 2015 ], [ 189, UNEP 2015 ]

5.8.1.1.4 Innovative processes

Purpose
Removal of harmful components (e.g. brominated flame retardants – BFRs) and recycling of
polymers from waste plastic materials by selective extraction.

Principle of operation
BFRs contained in waste plastics are selectively extracted and the remaining polymers can be
recycled.

The process consists of three steps: a) the dissolving of the waste plastic material in solvents; b)
the addition of the precipitant to form a gelatinous precipitation product (polymers) with BFRs
and other contaminants (e.g. softeners, additives) remaining in the solvent; c) the gelatinous
polymer fraction is separated from the solvent fraction which contains contaminants, further
dried and prepared for remelting into products.

For dissolving polymers (step a), the solvents used comprise ketones, ether, cycloalkanes,
esters, in particular acetone, methylethylketone, tetrahydrofuran, dialkylester of dicarboxylic
acids and fatty acid alkylester, e.g. fatty acid methylester (FAME)

As the precipitant (step b), water, alcohols, in particular methanol, ethanol, isopropanol, n-
propanol or butanol or mixtures thereof are used.

The contaminants in the solvent fraction from step b) are concentrated and removed from the
process. The majority of solvents are recycled and reused in the process so that the volume of
solvent used for the process is comparatively small in relation to the treated plastic (< 1 %).

Output streams
The final products of the process are usable polymer recyclate, BFR-rich concentrate, and, if
present, a metals-rich insoluble fraction. The concentrated BFRs recovered from the process can
be destroyed by non-combustion technologies or irreversibly transformed as reagents in
industrial processes [ 191, IPEN 2012 ]

Users
The process has been applied at laboratory and pilot plant scales. For example, after battery
removal, post-consumer mobile phones were treated, yielding polymer particles suitable for
extrusion and injection moulding processes [ 192, Mäurer et al. 2005 ], [ 193, patent WO
2006/131376 A1 2006 ]

In another example, expanded polystyrene (EPS) waste was successfully treated at the pilot
scale to produce re-expandable PS that is comparable to virgin polystyrene in usability [ 192,
Mäurer et al. 2005 ]. In a small-scale feasibility study, both BFRs and PBDD/Fs, which were
present as co-contaminants, were successfully removed from plastic wastes from Canadian
WEEE dismantling plants [ 194, Schlummer et al. 2008 ].

References
[ 191, IPEN 2012 ], [ 192, Mäurer et al. 2005 ], [ 194, Schlummer et al. 2008 ], [ 193, patent
WO 2006/131376 A1 2006 ], [EEB comment #343 in [ 21, WT TWG 2016 ]], [ 195, CreaCycle
GmbH 2017 ]

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5.8.1.2 Current emission and consumption levels

Hydrogenation of POPs
At a Canadian facility, product gas was found to contain no detectable PCBs, while
concentrations of total chlorobenzenes and dioxins were similar to those of the blank solutions.
This suggests that the product gas did not contain quantifiable levels of these substances. When
the product gas was burnt in the steam reformer, dioxins were emitted from the reformer stack
at a concentration of 15 pg TEQ/Nm3. This dioxin formation was attributed to the use of PCB-
contaminated air as the reformer’s combustion air.
All outputs from the destruction of PCB-contaminated waste using this process can be contained
and tested. There are no uncontrolled emissions from the process which could result in releases
of PCB-contaminated air, solids or liquids to the surrounding environment. Releases of PCBs to
the environment could only occur during waste handling prior to treatment, where the
possibility of spillage exists.

Because the reaction takes place in a reducing atmosphere in the absence of oxygen, the
possibility of dioxin and furan formation is said to be eliminated. If the hydrogen content is
maintained at percentages greater than 50 % (dry basis), the formation of PAHs is prevented.

Table 5.96 shows the reported destruction efficiency of hydrogenation processes.

Table 5.96: Reported destruction efficiency of hydrogenation processes

Destruction and removal
Type of waste Destruction efficiency (%)
efficiency (DRE) (%)
PCB oils 99.999808–99.9999996 99.9999985–99.9999997
Chlorobenzenes 99.9999836–99.9999972 99.9999842–99.9999985
Dioxins present in PCB oils 99.999–99.9999 NI
NB: NI = No information.
Source: [ 12, UNEP 2000 ]

If either the product gas or the ambient air used as combustion air for the boiler or similar units
contains hydrogen chloride or other chlorinated species, dioxins may be generated during their
combustion. In order to meet the fundamental technical criteria for POP destruction, both the
product gas and combustion air must be treated to remove such chlorine donors and so prevent
dioxin formation.

Care is required to avoid high rates of gas generation, which could over-pressurise systems. The
process has a limited surge capacity: over-pressurisation could therefore result in the release of
waste material.

During typical operations, 30–50 % of the product gas is burnt as fuel for the boiler or other
auxiliary units.

Residues generated by the process include product gas from the reactor, scrubber water and
sludge from the product gas treatment, and small quantities of grit from the reactor. The product
gas is either catalytically reformed to recover hydrogen or burnt as fuel in one or more of the
auxiliary systems – the boiler, the catalytic reformer and/or the sequencing batch vaporiser.

Hydrogenation of PCBs and POPs

All emissions and residues are captured for assay and reprocessing, if needed. Destruction rates
ranging from 99.9 % to 99.99999 % have been reported at sites operating on a commercial scale
in Australia.

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Decontamination of PCB-containing equipment

[ 42, WT TWG 2014 ]
Table 5.97 gives an overview of the emissions to air of Plant 191 which carries out
decontamination and dismantling of PCB-containing equipment. VOC emissions are generated
by the use of solvent for equipment washing. There is no water release reported for this process.

Table 5.97: Emissions to air from Plant 191

Number of
Parameter/
Type of measurements during
pollutant Average
measurement the 3-year reference
measured
period (2010–2012)
Flow (m3/h) Periodic 55 825 9
NMVOC
Continuous 74 NA
(mg/Nm3)
PCB (µg/Nm3) Periodic 0.5 8
dl-PCB (
Periodic 0.06 9
ng I-TEQ/Nm3)
NB: NA = Not applicable.

No water usage was reported. Energy consumption was reported as the overall consumption for
the integrated hazardous waste incineration.

5.8.1.3 Techniques to consider in the determination of BAT

5.8.1.3.1 Optimisation of the environmental performance of PCB decontamination

Description
Design and operational measures to prevent and reduce emissions generated by decontamination
of PCB-containing waste.

Technical description
a) Design measures to prevent dispersion of PCBs from the whole storage and treatment
area:
o dedicated storm and run-off water collection system;
o resin coating applied to the whole concrete floor of the storage and treatment
area (since most standard concrete floors absorb PCBs).

b) Implementation of staff access rules to prevent dispersion of contamination:

o accesses to storage and treatment areas are locked;
o special qualification needed to access the area where the contaminated waste or
equipment is stored and handled;
o prior to accessing the restricted area, staff put on an individual protective outfit
in a 'clean' cloakroom;
o after leaving the restricted area, staff go to a 'dirty' cloakroom where the
contaminated individual protective outfit is managed with special care.

c) Monitoring of PCB emissions to air.

d) Prevention of contaminated liquid dispersion during the decontamination process:

o procedures for filling, emptying and (dis)connecting the vacuum vessel;
o external surfaces of the equipment to be decontaminated are cleaned with
anionic detergent;

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o pumping the contaminated oil out of the transformer with a pump or under
vacuum instead of gravity emptying;
o long period of drainage (12 hours at least) to avoid any dripping of
contaminated liquid during further treatment operations, after the separation of
the core from the casing.

e) Control of emissions to air:

o the air of the decontamination workshop is collected and treated with activated
carbon filters;
o the vacuum pump exhaust is connected to a high-temperature incinerator,
thermal oxidation or adsorption on activated carbon.

f) Disposal of waste treatment residues:

o porous parts of the contaminated transformer (wood and paper) are incinerated
at a high temperature (1 100 °C);
o destruction of the PCBs in the oils (e.g. dechlorination, hydrogenation, solvated
electron processes, high-temperature incineration).

Achieved environmental benefits

All techniques aim at improving the environmental performance of PCB decontamination and
reducing PCB emissions to air.

Environmental performance and operational data

No information provided.

Cross-media effects
 Possible consumption of reagents for the decontamination and/or the abatement system.
 Possible cross-media effects during the incineration of residues.

Technical considerations relevant for applicability

Generally applicable.

Economics
No information provided.

Driving force for implementation

 POPs regulation (EC 850/2004).
 Occupational safety.

Example plants
In Plant 191, materials containing PCBs are introduced into closed heating vessels under
depression (autoclaves) equipped with i) a vacuum pump to suck out air/steam mixtures and ii)
a condenser to recover the solvent (prior to further distillation). The opening of the autoclaves is
strictly controlled, and performed only after complete cooling. The complete PCB working zone
(including the dismantling workshop, autoclaves, distillation column, etc.) is located in specific
bunded areas, within buildings equipped with devices for airstream collection. The various
collected airstreams (process vents/fugitive emissions) are thoroughly treated, by high-
temperature incineration and activated carbon adsorption respectively.

The solvent is regenerated through distillation on site, allowing the consumption of such
reactants to be minimised, as well as the reduction of the final wastes requiring destruction
through high-temperature incineration. VOC emissions from the whole process including
solvent loading/regenerating operations are carefully prevented or treated, and monitored.

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Reference literature
[ 196, Amiard et al. 2016 ], [ 29, PCT Subgroup 2015 ], [ 42, WT TWG 2014 ]

5.8.1.3.2 Capture and control of VOC emissions from solvent washing

Description
Solvent emissions from solvent loading/handling operations, autoclaving and the final
regeneration step (distillation column) are collected and distilled to recover solvent and reuse it
in the process. The various collected airstreams over the whole working zone (process
vents/fugitive emissions) are treated by high-temperature incineration or adsorption on activated
carbon.

Technical description
The complete working zone is located on specific diked areas, within buildings equipped with
devices for airstream collection. The continuously extracted airstream, which potentially
contains VOCs and particularly chlorinated organic compounds (like tetrachloroethylene), is
passed through an adsorption device composed of multiple rechargeable boxes, wherein the key
molecules are adsorbed onto highly activated granular carbon with a large surface area and then
removed from the carrier airstream.

The multiple-bed adsorber is sized (bed depths and surface loading rates), installed and operated
in order to ensure optimal gas contact and sufficient time to reach adsorption equilibrium. The
process removes the pollutants for which it is designed to almost undetectable levels: chiefly
chlorinated organic compounds, i.e. molecules with high molecular weights (> 50 g/mol) and
high boiling points (> 50 °C), such as, typically, tetrachloroethylene (molecular weight:
165 g/mol, boiling point: 121 °C).

The system is of interest for (air)streams with low proportions of pollutants when applied for
ambient air purification. For gas streams with high pollutant contents (typically solvent vents,
etc.), high-temperature incineration may be performed.

The diffuse VOC emissions are monitored.

Achieved environmental benefits

 Reduction of VOC emissions.
 Recovery of solvent.

Environmental performance and operation data

Table 5.97 shows data on emissions to air and Figure 5.48 gives an example of emissions to air
treatment.

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Source: Plant 191 [ 42, WT TWG 2014 ]

Figure 5.48: Flow chart of emissions to air at a plant using solvent washing for PCB
decontamination

Cross-media effects
Incineration and distillation generate emissions to air.

Driving force for implementation

 Legislation on air pollution.
 Cost of solvent.

Technical considerations relevant for applicability

Generally applicable.

Economics
Once installed, the technology is simple to operate (almost unattended until the adsorbent
becomes spent and then requires replacement), as well as to maintain. The operating costs
depend mainly on the amount of activated carbon consumed, keeping in mind that the value of
the adsorbent is strictly related to its adsorption capacity (associated to its internal pore structure
and tortuosity), rather than to only weight or volume.

Example plants
Plant 191.

Reference literature
[ 42, WT TWG 2014 ]

5.8.2 Treatment of mercury-containing waste

For reasons of simplicity and to avoid repetition in this document, this section addresses both
physico-chemical treatment and mechanical treatment of mercury-containing waste. This

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section does not aim however to list all applied treatments, which are detailed in [ 189, UNEP
2015 ]

5.8.2.1 Applied processes and techniques

Purpose
The aim is to treat the waste to separate the mercury.

Principle of operation
Decontamination processes differ depending on the type of waste. All processes aim at
separating the mercury from one/several other fraction(s). This can be done mechanically,
chemically or thermally. The safe management of these processes involves the avoidance of
mercury emission in order to protect health and the environment. In some cases, mercury can
also be recovered for allowed uses.

Process description
Some examples of treatment of mercury-containing waste are as follows:

 Sorting/breaking of thermometers and contactors and separation of the liquid mercury

from the other fractions.
 Centrifuging sludge containing mercury in order to remove most of the metallic mercury.
The residual sludge has a low mercury content and is treated in the vacuum distillation
process.
 Shredding/sieving the gas discharge lamps, removing the iron and separating it in
fractions. The fluorescent powder containing mercury is treated in the vacuum distillation
process. The powders may then be treated to recover rare earth elements.
 End-cut/air-push treatment of the gas discharge lamps through heating and cooling the
end breaks. Afterwards, the fluorescent powder containing mercury is blown out (air-
push). A selection unit can be added to this pretreatment technique. This detects the
powders in order to selectively blow them out. Reuse of the powders is possible.
 Shredding of flat panel displays containing mercury lamps.
 Treatment of batteries and button cells by pyrometallurgy where the mercury in the waste
gas treatment is specifically trapped.
 Treatment of spent activated carbon and mercury guards from natural gas
decontamination by thermal treatment where the mercury in the waste gas treatment is
specifically trapped.

Treatment of lamps and flat panel displays containing mercury has been standardised in
EN 50625 and in the associated technical specifications (TS 50625-3-1 and TS 50625-3-2).

Once the mercury has been removed from the waste, it can undergo the following sequence of
treatments:

 separation and concentration of the mercury by evaporation and condensation;

 treatment of the off-gases with dust filters and activated carbon filters;
 return of the dust and the contaminated carbon from the gas treatment into the process.

When mercury-containing waste is distilled, the distillate (water and organic fractions) is treated
by the following techniques:

 Incineration in a waste incinerator.

 Conducting the gases from the distillation through an afterburner (at approximately
850 ºC) and a condenser. The off-gases are cleaned by waste gas treatment (e.g. scrubber,

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dust filter and activated carbon filter). The separated dust and the contaminated carbon
are returned to the distillation vessel. This alternative raises the recovery rate.
 Purifying the water fraction (after separation) and returning the deposit to the distillation
vessel. This alternative raises the recovery rate.

In the process of vacuum distillation, waste containing mercury is evaporated under vacuum
conditions at approximately 300–650 ºC. The liquid components (e.g. mercury, water and oil)
are distilled from the waste and condensed. In the condensation, the mercury and the distillate
are separated. The metallic mercury is drained and possibly refined. The mercury is recycled as
a secondary raw material when allowed.

Because of the hazardous nature of the vapours containing mercury, safety measures are
required. These include exhaust systems; test measuring; locks; safety procedures for filling,
emptying and (dis)connecting the vacuum vessels; and decontamination facilities. To minimise
the risk of explosion, other safety measures, such as an airtight operation of the system,
automatic pressure control, and smoke- and spark-free areas, are applied.

After decontamination, whatever the technique or the combination of techniques used, the rate
of mercury removal is above 95 %.

Feed and output streams

The feed is sludge containing mercury from the oil and gas production industry, batteries,
catalysts, activated carbon filters, thermometers, waste from the dental sector, fluorescent tubes,
flat panel displays, blasting grit and soil. Different waste streams are treated separately in the
vacuum distillation. The capacities of the example plants range from 300 t/yr to 600 t/yr of
waste containing mercury.

In a thermal soil remediation plant, with a throughput of 2 t/h of soil containing mercury and
with mercury raw gas concentrations of up to 20 mg/Nm3, a maximum removal rate of 99.9 %
has been reported. It has also been reported that the mercury content of the soil (1–300 mg/kg)
decreased to less than 5 mg/kg following thermal treatment. Another treatment reported a
resulting percentage of the mercury emitted to the air as being 0.0015 %. The emissions range
from 0.04 mg/Nm3 to 0.2 mg/Nm3.

In the vacuum distillation of the sludge containing mercury (1–4 % mercury), 99.6 % of the
mercury is recovered. About 0.1 % of the mercury is left in the residue and about 0.15 % is left
in the distillate, which is to be incinerated. The latter percentage ends up in the off-gases. By
means of the activated carbon filter, 99.9 % of this mercury is separated. The maximum
concentration of mercury in the residue is 50 mg/kg (dry matter).

The consumption of electricity for the heating of the vacuum vessel and for the vacuum pump
amounts to 3.5 GJ/tonne of waste. The consumption of cooling water is approximately
13 tonnes per tonne of waste containing mercury. For the treatment of the sludge containing 2 %
mercury, the activated carbon needed amounts to 24 kg/tonne of sludge.

Output
Separated mercury or mercury-containing residues may be managed as follows:

 When mercury is recycled for authorised uses, the purity of the mercury is at least
99.95 % and should comply with the specifications of the end user. Distillation may be
necessary to reach this level.
 Disposal of the remaining fractions containing mercury.
 Treatment of the liquid mercury in order to transform it into HgS with a Hg/HgS
transformation rate above 99.999 % before it is sent to dedicated disposal.
Two plants in Belgium and in the United Kingdom treat fluorescent tubes and discharge lamps
with the shredding technique. The British plant also extracts residual mercury inside phosphor

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powder in a retort oven and treats mercury-containing flat panel displays which are shredded
after external power has been removed. One plant in France treats florescent tubes with the end-
cut/air-push technology.

The plants mentioned above are Plants 59, 146C, 588, 589 and 590.

Reference literature
[ 86, VDI and Dechema 2002 ], [ 18, WT TWG 2004 ], [ 19, WT TWG 2004 ], [ 35, VROM
2004 ], [ 29, PCT Subgroup 2015 ], [ 189, UNEP 2015 ], [ 197, CENELEC 2014 ]

5.8.2.2 Current emission and consumption levels

[ 42, WT TWG 2014 ]

Table 5.98 gives an overview of the plants from the reference list treating mercury-containing
waste. These are plants treating WEEE such as fluorescent tubes, gas discharge lamps and flat
panel displays. These devices are treated in shredders or by an end-cut/air-push machine.

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Table 5.98: Plants from the reference list treating mercury-containing waste

Plant Waste input

Output description Process
code description

Fluorescent tubes
Non-ferrous metal, Ferrous metal, Glass,
059 and other mercury- Shredder
Fluorescent powder, Plastic
containing waste

Refuse after sorting, lamps (bubble),

End-cut/air-push
146C Fluorescent tubes breakings in machine, glass, metallic caps,
machine
powder, floor cleaning water
Ferrous metal shred fragments
Mixed polymer shred fragments
Aluminium shred fragments
Copper-rich shred fragments
Mix of non-Fe and plastics
Dust/Light fraction
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB)-
containing capacitors
Batteries
Printed circuit boards greater than 10 cm2
Small domestic
Toner cartridges, liquid and paste, as well
appliances.
as colour toner
Primary sources:
Asbestos waste and components which Dismantling small
588(1) Waste arising from
contain asbestos appliances
public amenity
Liquid crystal displays of a surface greater
sites and business
than 100 cm2 and all those backlit with gas
users
discharge lamps
External electric cables
Components containing refractory ceramic
fibres
Components containing radioactive
substances
Electrolyte capacitors containing
substances of concern (height > 25 mm,
diameter > 25 mm or proportionately
similar volume
Aluminium shred fragments
WEEE gas Polymer shred fragments
Shredder and
589(1) discharge lamps Glass fragments
retort plant
containing mercury Phosphor powder
Mercury
Flat panel display
Ferrous metal shred fragments
(FPD), WEEE
Aluminium shred fragments
containing
Copper-rich shred fragments
mercury.
Mixed polymer shred fragments
590 (1) Primary sources: Shredder
Mixed light film plastics
Waste arising from
Mixed plastics and non-Fe fines
public amenity
Mixed glass and shredder fines
sites and business
Dust/Light fraction
users
(1) Plants 588, 589 and 590 are three production lines of the same plant.

Table 5.99 and Table 5.100 give an overview of the emissions to air from the plants treating
mercury-containing waste. Air is generally captured at the source (machine or work station) by
a local exhaust ventilation (LEV) system and treated with a dedusting device and activated
carbon adsorption. Mercury is monitored in emissions to air at all the plants except Plant 588
which is in fact a work station for the manual dismantling of small appliances.

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Table 5.99: Emissions to air from plants treating mercury-containing waste

Techniques for emissions
Plant code Origin of emissions to air
to air

Air from the enclosed process is extracted

Deduster filter and activated carbon
059 and led over a sulphur-impregnated
adsorption
activated carbon filter

Treatment of mercury-containing waste

146C_1 Cyclones and activated carbon adsorption
(from the machine)

Dust filter and activated carbon

146C_2 Hall atmosphere
adsorption

Bag/fabric filter system, high-efficiency

588 (1)(2) Mechanical particle (HEPA) filter system, activated
carbon adsorption

Bag/fabric filter system, high-efficiency

589 (2) Mechanical particle (HEPA) filter system, activated
carbon adsorption

Bag/fabric filter system, high-efficiency

590 (1)(2) Mechanical particle (HEPA) filter system, activated
carbon adsorption

(1) Plants 588 and 590 are connected to the same air extraction system.
(2) There are no emissions to air from these three plants. The exhaust air is recirculated.

Table 5.100: Parameters measured in emissions to air from plants treating mercury-containing
waste

Parameter Range (mg/Nm3 except for

Type of measurement Plants concerned
measured flow)
Continuous 146_1, 146_2 2250–11 700
Flow (Nm3/h)
Periodic 059, 588, 589, 590 11 325–22 040
Continuous 146_1, 146_2 0.0012–0.0016
Hg
Periodic 059, 589 (1), 590 0.0031–0.0338
Continuous 146_1 0.3
Dust
Periodic 059, 588, 589 0.5–0.7
Cd Periodic 588, 589 0.0028
Pb Periodic 588, 589 0.0052
TOC Periodic 059 <1
(1) One value at 0.37 mg/Nm3 corresponds to a measurement taken ahead of the activated carbon. The other 11 values
are below 0.018 mg/Nm3.

See also Figure 2.5 for the dust emissions.

There are no emissions to water reported from these plants.

Water usage
Water usage was reported by one plant as around 20 m3/year for floor cleaning.

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Energy consumption
The reported average energy consumption per tonne of waste treated is around 180 kW/t, with a
range of 147–360 kW/t. Electricity is the main source of energy. One plant reported using
propane for the process.

5.8.2.3 Techniques to consider in the determination of BAT

5.8.2.3.1 Reduction of mercury and dust emissions to air

Description
Collection at source, followed by abatement and monitoring of mercury emissions.

Technical description
 Equipment treating mercury-containing WEEE is enclosed, under negative pressure and
connected to a local exhaust ventilation (LEV) system.
 Waste gas is treated by dedusting techniques such as cyclones (see Section 2.3.4.2), bag
filters (see Section 2.3.4.4) or HEPA filters (see Section 2.3.4.5) followed by adsorption
on activated carbon (see Section 2.3.4.9).
 Treated air is released outside the buildings or recycled.
 The efficiency of the waste gas treatment is monitored.
 Mercury levels are measured regularly in the treatment and storage areas (e.g. once every
week) to detect potential mercury leaks.

Achieved environmental benefits

 Limitation of mercury and dust emissions to air.
 Reduction of diffuse mercury emissions in the process.

Environmental performance and operational data

Plant 588 is enclosed and generally operates under negative pressure (air extraction) for most of
the process. This effectively eliminates fugitive emissions from the process, driving dust and
other emissions through the dedicated LEV system. Dust emissions from the dedicated LEV
outlet duct averaged 0.48 mg/m3 over the three-year period, with one result being spurious and
negatively affecting the average. The average over 2012, for example, is 0.23 mg/m3, with lead
at 0.0051 mg/m3 and cadmium at 0.0059 mg/m3 for the same period.

The air exhausted from the dedicated LEV is not released to (external) air but circulates within
the internal processing environment. The air within the general processing environment is also
addressed by a secondary 'ambient' LEV system for potential fugitive emissions and
continuously improving the quality of air in the ambient environment. The dust fraction from
the dedicated LEV dust collection point is also assessed on a regular basis and demonstrates the
effective extraction, capture and retention of various metal elements from the air extracted from
the process, including but not limited to lead and cadmium. For example, the 2012 second
quarter result from the dust fraction analysis contained 780 mg/kg lead, 19 mg/kg cadmium,
406 mg/kg antimony, 3 900 mg/kg zinc, etc.

The combined systems maintain a high quality of air within the processing environment but the
significant environmental benefit is that there is no need to vent exhaust air to the external
environment and thus risk pollution.

Table 5.101 and Table 5.102 show the environmental performance of the plants treating
mercury-containing waste, in terms of mercury and dust emissions to air respectively.

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Table 5.101: Environmental performance of plants treating mercury-containing waste (mercury

emissions to air)
Number of
measuremen
Main
Minimum Average Maximum Type of ts during the
techniques to
Plant concentratio concentratio concentratio measuremen 3-year
prevent/redu
n (mg/Nm3) n (mg/Nm3) n (mg/Nm3) ts reference
ce emissions
period
(2010–2012)
Bag filter
Sulphur-
59 < 0.005 0.006 0.007 impregnated Periodic 4
activated
carbon
Bag filter
Cyclones
146C_
0.0007 0.0012 0.0053 Activated Continuous NA
1
carbon
adsorption
Bag filter
146C_ Activated
0 0.0016 0.0072 Continuous NA
2 carbon
adsorption
Bag filter
system
HEPA filter
588 (1) NI NI NI NI NI
Activated
carbon
adsorption
Bag filter
system
HEPA filter
589 (1) 0.0002 0.0032 0.018 Periodic 12
Activated
carbon
adsorption
Bag filter
system
HEPA filter
590 (1) 0.0003 0.003 0.005 Periodic 3
Activated
carbon
adsorption
(1) There are no emissions to air from these three plants. The exhaust air is recirculated.

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Table 5.102: Environmental performance of plants treating mercury-containing waste (dust

emissions to air)
Number of
measurements
Main
Minimum Average Maximum Type of during the
techniques to
Plant concentration concentration concentration measurement 3-year
prevent/redu
(mg/Nm3) (mg/Nm3) (mg/Nm3) s reference
ce emissions
period (2010–
2012)
Bag filter
Sulphur-
59 < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5 impregnated Periodic
activated 4
carbon
Bag filter
Cyclones
146C_1 0.08 0.33 1.42 Activated Continuous
carbon NA
adsorption
Bag filter
Activated
146C_2 NA NA NA Not monitored
carbon
adsorption NA
Bag filter
system
HEPA filter
588 (1) 0.01 0.48 2.3 Periodic 12
Activated
carbon
adsorption
Bag filter
system
HEPA filter
589 (1) 0.12 0.67 3.1 Periodic 12
Activated
carbon
adsorption
Bag filter
system
HEPA filter
590 (1) NI NI NI NI NI
Activated
carbon
adsorption

(1) There are no emissions to air from these three plants. The exhaust air is recirculated.

Cross-media effects
 Noise emitted from the LEV system fans.
 Increased energy usage.
 Contaminants are concentrated in abatement devices.

Technical considerations related to applicability

This technique may be applied to all shredder/hammer mill/crusher-type processes as well as to
end-cut/push-air machines and separation equipment.

Limiting factors may include the physical space available to deploy sophisticated LEV systems.

Economics
No information provided.

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Driving force for implementation

 Legislation on air pollution.
 Occupational safety.

Example plants
Plants 59, 146, 588, 589 and 590

Reference literature
[ 29, PCT Subgroup 2015 ], [ 198, Goodship et al. 2012 ], [ 42, WT TWG 2014 ]

5.8.3 Treatment of SF6-containing waste

Purpose
Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) is used in electrical equipment for its dielectric properties. The aim
of the process is to treat the equipment to separate SF6.

Principle of operation
All processes aim at separating the gaseous SF6 and solid decomposition products from
one/several other fraction(s). The safe management of these processes involves the avoidance of
SF6 emissions in order to protect workers (risk of asphyxia) and the environment as SF 6 has a
high global warming potential.

Process description
The decontamination process has two main steps:

 SF6 recovery process by pressure compensation chamber (see Figure 5.49);

 removal of solid decomposition products from the enclosure by washing machine.

Source: ES comment #5 in [ 21, WT TWG 2016 ]

Figure 5.49: Decontamination of SF6-containing waste

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SF6 recovery process by pressure compensation chamber

The transfer of SF6 between the enclosure and gas storage cylinder/container is done by the
combined work of an oil-free vacuum pump and an oil-free reciprocating compressor. The
vacuum pump evacuates the enclosure and the reciprocating compressor fills the high-pressure
gas storage cylinder/container.

Depending of the type, manufacturer and life cycle of the electrical equipment, the enclosure is
more or less resistant to high vacuum. The enclosure is often damaged or has been designed to
only resist slight overpressures, representing a high risk of rupture (with the consequential
emission of SF6 to the atmosphere and the mixing of SF6 with air), which means it is necessary
to use a pressure compensation chamber.

This pressure compensation chamber is a device used to reduce the pressure difference between
the outer and inner sides of the enclosure during the recovery of SF6. The vacuum inside the
chamber and the enclosure is applied simultaneously.

The operating principle of the pressure compensation chamber has three main steps:

 the electrical equipment containing SF6 is introduced into the chamber and the enclosure is
connected to the SF6 suction;
 the SF6 is sucked out of the enclosure while the pressure is reduced simultaneously in the
chamber and in the enclosure until the final vacuum;
 ambient air is reintroduced into the chamber and the enclosure to re-establish atmospheric
pressure

Removal of solid decomposition products from the enclosure by washing machine

Under high temperature conditions which may occur in the case of corona and spark discharges
(due to insulation defects) or switching electric arcs (in load break switches or due to insulation
breakdown), SF6 decomposes into products that are toxic and corrosive and are in gaseous or
powder form. After the SF6 extraction, the solid decomposition products must be collected by a
vacuum cleaner or wiped with a clean lint-free rag. Finally, an alkaline solution is used to wash
and neutralise all parts, which are then rinsed with clean water.

Feed and output streams

Input
Any electrical equipment containing SF6.

Outputs
As a result of the decontamination process, three products are generated:

 used SF6 gas: a hazardous waste, suitable after purification for reuse in gas compartments,
which consequently reduces the usage of new gas;
 decontaminated electric equipment;
 used washing solutions: after filtration and disposal of separated solids, the solutions can
potentially be reused.

Users
One plant in Spain is carrying out this process. Some electrical equipment manufacturers also
provide SF6 recovery services.

Reference literature
[ 199, CIGRE 1997 ], [ 200, IEC 2013 ], [ 201, IEC 2004 ], [ES comment #5 in [ 21, WT TWG
2016 ],

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5.8.4 Treatment of waste asbestos

Purpose
Thermochemical conversion technology combines chemical treatment and heat to bring about a
remineralisation of asbestos and other silicate materials. The remineralisation process
accomplishes several goals including:

 conversion of asbestos minerals into non-asbestos minerals, without the need for melting;
 destruction of organic compounds, through pyrolysis and/or oxidation;
 immobilisation of metals and radionuclides.

Principle of operation
The process involves shredding and then mixing material containing asbestos with fluxing
agents and heating the fluxed mixture. The presence of the fluxing agents at elevated
temperatures (approximately 1 200 °C) results in the rapid remineralisation of asbestos fibres,
which are converted into non-asbestos minerals such as diopside, wollastonite, olivine and small
quantities of glass.

The technology provides treatment effectiveness equivalent to that of vitrification without the
requirement for melting the waste. In particular it:

 converts asbestos materials into inert, non-hazardous recyclable material;

 results in a significant reduction of the waste volume; the volume of the treated product
can be significantly reduced from the original waste (up to 90 %), but may ultimately
require landfill disposal if radioactive contaminants are present.

The process also results in the destruction of organics, including PCBs to a 99.9999 %
destruction removal efficiency. Toxic metals are stabilised in the sintered product through
molecular bonding and the technology developer believes that, based on preliminary testing, the
process will also be effective for radionuclides based upon work with radiological surrogates.

Feed and output streams

The process is effective on waste asbestos and also on other waste including demolition debris
and predominantly organic waste. The technology is applicable to liquid and solid wastes that
are reasonably homogeneous or that can be made so without excessive expense. The process can
treat wastes contaminated with a variety of contaminants including volatile organic compounds;
semi-volatile organic compounds; PCBs and dioxins; inorganic contaminants such as asbestos
and cyanide; metals including arsenic, lead, chromium, barium, zinc, selenium and cadmium;
radionuclides that can be vitrified such as transuranic elements, caesium, thorium and uranium;
and mixtures of these contaminants.

Wastes for which there are limited data or for which it is believed that the technology is not
economically viable or technically compatible include mercury, gaseous radionuclides such as
14
C, explosives and some chemical agents (although here it is believed that the technology may
be applicable, but there are no data to support such a claim).

Process description
The processing equipment consists of four primary systems which are:

 feed preparation;
 rotary hearth converter;
 off-gas treatment; and
 product removal.

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Pyrolysis or oxidation of the organic compounds takes place in the rotary hearth. The pyrolysis
and/or oxidation products are directed via an induced draft to a thermal oxidation unit that
destroys any residual organic contamination that might be present in the off-gas. From the
thermal oxidiser, the off-gases are cooled and scrubbed of any particulates and acid components
that might be present. The presence of demineralising agents accelerates molecular diffusion in
inorganic waste during heating, which destroys inorganic compounds such as asbestos and
causes a simultaneous oxidation and molecular bonding of metals and radionuclides within the
waste media. This results in the immobilisation of metals and radionuclides. The process also
results in significant reduction of the waste volume. The extent of volume reduction is
dependent upon the type of material being treated and can range from 10 % for soils to over
90 % for materials containing friable asbestos or primarily organic materials.

The technology provides treatment effectiveness equivalent to that of vitrification without the
requirement for melting the waste. This makes the technology less expensive and more versatile
than vitrification for certain wastes. The capital cost for a unit processing 50 tonnes per day is
approximately USD 10 million. This figure can vary depending upon local costs and market
conditions.

The three largest and most significant contributors to the overall cost are fuel, equipment and
labour. Fuel makes up approximately 36 % of the total cost, equipment makes up 30 %, and
labour about 22 %. Other items such as reagents, maintenance, water, electricity, personal
protection equipment and filters make up the remaining 12 % of the overall cost. These cost
allocations can vary depending upon system capacity and local costs. Depending upon these
variables, operating costs can typically range from USD 200 to USD 500 per tonne.

Users
A commercial-scale plant (15 tonnes per day) was operated in Tacoma, Washington, USA and
processed over 1 000 tonnes of asbestos waste. A 50 tonnes/day system is currently proposed
for use in Bermuda and another in the United Kingdom. Three additional 60 tonnes/day plants
have been formally proposed in Africa. [ 202, USA DoE 2002 ], [ 18, WT TWG 2004 ], [UK
comment #169 in [ 21, WT TWG 2016 ].

5.8.5 Treatment of healthcare waste

Purpose
Sterilisation of healthcare waste prior to incineration.

Principle of operation
Pretreatment of healthcare waste may be carried out by thermal treatment, for instance by
autoclaving or with thermal screws (see Section 5.3.2.1.1). It may also be carried out by
ozonation.

Feed and output streams

Different streams of healthcare wastes are collected in colour-coded bags or containers from any
public or private establishment providing healthcare services including hospitals, clinics, care
homes and nurseries.

The outputs are residues which are sent to incineration for destruction and/or energy recovery.

Users
Healthcare sector.

Thermal treatment is carried out at Plants 507 and 508.

Ozonation has been carried out at Union Hospital located in Terre Haute, Indiana, USA since
2008.

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References
[ 203, Ozonator Industries 2017 ], [UK comment #169 in [ 21, WT TWG 2016 ]

5.8.6 Regeneration of spent acids

[ 5, Militon et al. 1998 ], [ 11, WT TWG 2003 ], [ 204, WT TWG 2002 ], [ 18, WT TWG 2004 ]
Only waste sulphuric and hydrochloric acids are regenerated.

5.8.6.1 Regeneration of spent sulphuric acid

Two methods for regenerating spent sulphuric acid exist.

One is the thermal decomposition of spent sulphuric acid to give SO2, achieved in a furnace at
temperatures of around 1 000 °C. The SO2 produced is then used as a feedstock in the
production of H2SO4. Both processes (thermal decomposition and SO2 conversion to H2SO4) are
covered in the LVIC-AAF BREF [ 30, COM 2007 ]. There are some industrial processes where
sulphuric acid is used (e.g. production of titanium dioxide). In such cases, the recycling of the
spent sulphuric acid is an integral part of the process and will be covered in the BREF that
covers that industrial process.

The second process to regenerate spent sulphuric acid is based on the reconcentration of
weak/spent sulphuric acid, with or without the separation of the potential impurities (e.g. salts).

Purpose
To reuse the spent sulphuric acid for the same purpose as it was originally used or for a new use.

Principle of operation
Reconcentration of the weak sulphuric acid by evaporation.

Feed and output streams

Spent/weak sulphuric acid is concentrated to a stronger acid solution.

Process description
Concentrations close to 70 % H2SO4 have been achieved by evaporation. The range of
temperatures varies with the processes. There are many processes but the most common are
based on forced circulation evaporators which allow a very stable operation; due to the large
circulation, any solid in the acid will remain in the suspension and can be separated out in the
concentrated acid, if necessary.

Because the cost of the process is very dependent on energy (medium-pressure steam), a
multiple-effect evaporator can considerably reduce the operating costs; vacuum operation
allows lower operating temperatures and the use of more standard materials for equipment
construction.

Another process for weak acid concentration uses hot gases (from sulphuric acid or any other
process): by contacting hot gases and weak acid, the water will be evaporated towards the water
saturation. The process takes place at atmospheric pressure but, due to the relatively high gas
volume, some acid carry-over must be prevented, by demisters or other similar devices.

Submerged combustion processes consist of the production of flue-gases at very high

temperatures (in excess of 1 500 °C) directly over the spent acid; the flue-gases pass through the
spent acid allowing water to evaporate from it, undergoing an adiabatic cooling down to 150–
250 °C. Before being discharged into the air, the gases are cooled and scrubbed; in general, no
especially high SO2 emissions will be expected but NOX levels might be important.

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Other processes, such as Chemico, have been used for 70 years for increasing sulphuric acid
concentration; the principle is similar, except that the combustion does not take place within the
vessel and the temperature is considerably lower (in the range of 600 °C).

Users
Metals production and processing industry.

5.8.6.2 Regeneration of spent hydrochloric acid

Most often, hydrochloric acid (HCl) is produced as a by-product from chlorination processes.
HCl is generally produced in the gaseous phase and directly reused in a chemical process. It can
also be dissolved in water and used as a raw material for the production of other chemicals, such
as a water treatment product (e.g. FeCl3) in electrolysis or as a neutralisation agent. HCl can be
used in applications such as metal pickling or ion exchange regeneration.

Afterwards, spent hydrochloric acid is neutralised rather than regenerated (see Section
2.3.6.2.2). Some other regeneration treatments exist, for example reuse as a pickling acid.
However, for this use, no treatment is carried out on these streams, so they are not covered in
this document.

Table 5.103 shows the type of emissions from the treatment of waste acids and bases.

Table 5.103: Emissions from the treatment of waste acids and bases

Activity Air Water Soil and wastes

Halogens: HCl and HF
Treatment of waste acids Halogens: HCl and HF NA
NOX
Treatment of sulphuric acid Sulphur oxides NA NA
NB: NA = Not applicable.
Source: [ 9, UK EA 2001 ]

Additional information on regeneration of spent hydrochloric acid can be found in the chemical
BREFs.

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6 BEST AVAILABLE TECHNIQUES (BAT) CONCLUSIONS FOR

WASTE TREATMENT

Scope
These BAT conclusions concern the following activities specified in Annex I to
Directive 2010/75/EU, namely:

 5.1. Disposal or recovery of hazardous waste with a capacity exceeding 10 tonnes per
day involving one or more of the following activities:
(a) biological treatment;
(b) physico-chemical treatment;
(c) blending or mixing prior to submission to any of the other activities listed in
points 5.1 and 5.2 of Annex I to Directive 2010/75/EU;
(d) repackaging prior to submission to any of the other activities listed in points 5.1
and 5.2 of Annex I to Directive 2010/75/EU;
(e) solvent reclamation/regeneration;
(f) recycling/reclamation of inorganic materials other than metals or metal
compounds;
(g) regeneration of acids or bases;
(h) recovery of components used for pollution abatement;
(i) recovery of components from catalysts;
(j) oil re-refining or other reuses of oil;

 5.3. (a) Disposal of non-hazardous waste with a capacity exceeding 50 tonnes per day
involving one or more of the following activities, and excluding activities covered
by Council Directive 91/271/EEC of 21 May 1991 concerning urban waste-water
treatment:
(i) biological treatment;
(ii) physico-chemical treatment;
(iii) pre-treatment of waste for incineration or co-incineration;
(iv) treatment of ashes;
(v) treatment in shredders of metal waste, including waste electrical and
electronic equipment and end-of-life vehicles and their components.
(b) Recovery, or a mix of recovery and disposal, of non-hazardous waste with a
capacity exceeding 75 tonnes per day involving one or more of the following
activities, and excluding activities covered by Directive 91/271/EEC:
(i) biological treatment;
(ii) pre-treatment of waste for incineration or co-incineration;
(iii) treatment of ashes;
(iv) treatment in shredders of metal waste, including waste electrical and
electronic equipment and end-of-life vehicles and their components.

When the only waste treatment activity carried out is anaerobic digestion, the
capacity threshold for this activity shall be 100 tonnes per day.

 5.5. Temporary storage of hazardous waste not covered under point 5.4 of Annex I to
Directive 2010/75/EU pending any of the activities listed in points 5.1, 5.2, 5.4 and 5.6 of
Annex I to Directive 2010/75/EU with a total capacity exceeding 50 tonnes, excluding
temporary storage, pending collection, on the site where the waste is generated.

 6.11. Independently operated treatment of waste water not covered by Directive

91/271/EEC and discharged by an installation undertaking activities covered under points
5.1, 5.3 or 5.5 as listed above.

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Referring to independently operated treatment of waste water not covered by Directive

91/271/EEC above, these BAT conclusions also cover the combined treatment of waste water
from different origins if the main pollutant load originates from the activities covered under
points 5.1, 5.3 or 5.5 as listed above.

These BAT conclusions do not address the following:

 Surface impoundment.
 Disposal or recycling of animal carcases or of animal waste covered by the activity
description in point 6.5 of Annex I to Directive 2010/75/EU when this is covered by the
BAT conclusions on the slaughterhouses and animal by-products industries (SA).
 On-farm processing of manure when this is covered by the BAT conclusions for the
intensive rearing of poultry or pigs (IRPP).
 Direct recovery (i.e. without pretreatment) of waste as a substitute for raw materials in
installations carrying out activities covered by other BAT conclusions, e.g.:
o Direct recovery of lead (e.g. from batteries), zinc or aluminium salts or recovery of
the metals from catalysts. This may be covered by the BAT conclusions for the
non-ferrous metals industries (NFM).
o Processing of paper for recycling. This may be covered by the BAT conclusions for
the production of pulp, paper and board (PP).
o Use of waste as fuel/raw material in cement kilns. This may be covered by the
BAT conclusions for the production of cement, lime and magnesium oxide (CLM).
 Waste (co-)incineration, pyrolysis and gasification. This may be covered by the BAT
conclusions for waste incineration (WI) or the BAT conclusions for large combustion
plants (LCP).
 Landfill of waste. This is covered by Directive 1999/31/EC on the landfill of waste. In
particular, underground permanent and long-term storage (≥ 1 year before disposal, ≥ 3
years before recovery) are covered by Directive 1999/31/EC.
 In situ remediation of contaminated soil (i.e. unexcavated soil).
 Treatment of slags and bottom ashes. This may be covered by the BAT conclusions for
waste incineration (WI) and/or the BAT conclusions for large combustion plants (LCP).
 Smelting of scrap metals and metal-bearing materials. This may be covered by the BAT
conclusions for non-ferrous metals industries (NFM), the BAT conclusions for iron and
steel production (IS), and/or the BAT conclusions for the smitheries and foundries
industry (SF).
 Regeneration of spent acids and alkalis when this is covered by the BAT conclusions for
ferrous metals processing.
 Combustion of fuels when it does not generate hot gases which come into direct contact
with the waste. This may be covered by the BAT conclusions for large combustion plants
(LCP) or by Directive 2015/2193/EU.

Other BAT conclusions and reference documents which could be relevant for the activities
covered by these BAT conclusions are the following:

 Economics and cross-media effects (ECM);

 Emissions from storage (EFS);
 Energy efficiency (ENE);
 Monitoring of emissions to air and water from IED installations (ROM);
 Production of cement, lime and magnesium oxide (CLM);
 Common waste water and waste gas treatment/management systems in the chemical sector
(CWW);
 Intensive rearing of poultry or pigs (IRPP).

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These BAT conclusions apply without prejudice to the relevant provisions of EU legislation,
e.g. the waste hierarchy.

Definitions
For the purposes of these BAT conclusions, the following definitions apply:

Term used Definition

General terms
Emissions of pollutants into the environment through any kind
Channelled emissions of duct, pipe, stack, etc. This also includes emissions from open-
top biofilters.
Measurement using an 'automated measuring system'
Continuous measurement
permanently installed on site.
Written document provided by the waste producer/holder
certifying that the empty waste packaging concerned (e.g.
Declaration of cleanliness
drums, containers) is clean with respect to the acceptance
criteria.
Non-channelled emissions (e.g. of dust, organic compounds,
odour) which can result from 'area' sources (e.g. tanks) or 'point'
Diffuse emissions
sources (e.g. pipe flanges). This also includes emissions from
open-air windrow composting.
Discharge to a receiving water body without further downstream
Direct discharge
waste water treatment.
Numbers that can be multiplied by known data such as
Emissions factors
plant/process data or throughput data to estimate emissions.
Existing plant A plant that is not a new plant.
High-temperature oxidation to burn combustible compounds of
waste gases from industrial operations with an open flame.
Flaring
Flaring is primarily used for burning off flammable gas for
safety reasons or during non-routine operating conditions.
Particles from the combustion chamber or formed within the
Fly ashes
flue-gas stream, that are transported in the flue-gas.
Fugitive emissions Diffuse emissions from 'point' sources.
Hazardous waste as defined in point 2 of Article 3 of Directive
Hazardous waste
2008/98/EC.
Indirect discharge Discharge which is not a direct discharge.
Waste of biological origin with a relatively high water content
Liquid biodegradable waste
(e.g. fat separator contents, organic sludges, catering waste).
A major change in the design or technology of a plant with
Major plant upgrade major adjustments or replacements of the process and/or
abatement technique(s) and associated equipment.
Mechanical biological treatment Treatment of mixed solid waste combining mechanical treatment
(MBT) with biological treatment such as aerobic or anaerobic treatment.
A plant first permitted at the site of the installation following the
New plant publication of these BAT conclusions or a complete replacement
of a plant following the publication of these BAT conclusions.
Output The treated waste exiting the waste treatment plant.
Pasty waste Sludge which is not free-flowing.
Measurement at specified time intervals using manual or
Periodic measurement
automated methods.
Recovery Recovery as defined in Article 3(15) of Directive 2008/98/EC.
Re-refining Treatments carried out on waste oil to transform it to base oil.
Treatments and processes mainly designed to make the treated
Regeneration materials (e.g. spent activated carbon or spent solvent) suitable
again for a similar use.

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Area which needs special protection, such as:

- residential areas;
Sensitive receptor - areas where human activities are carried out (e.g. neighbouring
workplaces, schools, daycare centres, recreational areas,
hospitals or nursing homes).
Placement of liquid or sludgy discards into pits, ponds, lagoons,
Surface impoundment
etc.
Treatment of waste wood, waste oil, waste plastics, waste
Treatment of waste with calorific
solvents, etc. to obtain a fuel or to allow a better recovery of its
value
calorific value.
Volatile (hydro)fluorocarbons: VOCs consisting of fluorinated
(hydro)carbons, in particular chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs),
VFCs
hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) and hydrofluorocarbons
(HFCs).
Volatile hydrocarbons: VOCs consisting entirely of hydrogen
VHCs
and carbon (e.g. ethane, propane, iso-butane, cyclopentane).
Volatile organic compound as defined in Article 3(45) of
VOC
Directive 2010/75/EU.
Waste holder Waste holder as defined in Article 3(6) of Directive 2008/98/EC.
Waste input The incoming waste to be treated in the waste treatment plant.
Waste consisting of aqueous liquids, acids/alkalis or pumpable
Water-based liquid waste sludges (e.g. emulsions, waste acids, aqueous marine waste)
which is not liquid biodegradable waste.
Pollutants/parameters
Adsorbable organically bound halogens, expressed as Cl, include
AOX
adsorbable organically bound chlorine, bromine and iodine.
Arsenic, expressed as As, includes all inorganic and organic
Arsenic
arsenic compounds, dissolved or bound to particles.
Biochemical oxygen demand. Amount of oxygen needed for the
BOD biochemical oxidation of organic and/or inorganic matter in five
(BOD5) or in seven (BOD7) days.
Cadmium, expressed as Cd, includes all inorganic and organic
Cadmium
cadmium compounds, dissolved or bound to particles.
Chlorofluorocarbons: VOCs consisting of carbon, chlorine and
CFCs
fluorine.
Chromium, expressed as Cr, includes all inorganic and organic
Chromium
chromium compounds, dissolved or bound to particles.
Hexavalent chromium, expressed as Cr(VI), includes all
Hexavalent chromium chromium compounds where the chromium is in the oxidation
state +6.
Chemical oxygen demand. Amount of oxygen needed for the
total chemical oxidation of the organic matter to carbon dioxide.
COD
COD is an indicator for the mass concentration of organic
compounds.
Copper, expressed as Cu, includes all inorganic and organic
Copper
copper compounds, dissolved or bound to particles.
Cyanide Free cyanide, expressed as CN-.
Dust Total particulate matter (in air).
Hydrocarbon oil index. The sum of compounds extractable with
a hydrocarbon solvent (including long-chain or branched
HOI
aliphatic, alicyclic, aromatic or alkyl-substituted aromatic
hydrocarbons).
HCl All inorganic gaseous chlorine compounds, expressed as HCl.
HF All inorganic gaseous fluorine compounds, expressed as HF.
Hydrogen sulphide. Carbonyl sulphide and mercaptans are not
H2S
included.
Lead, expressed as Pb, includes all inorganic and organic lead
Lead
compounds, dissolved or bound to particles.
Mercury, expressed as Hg, includes elementary mercury and all
Mercury inorganic and organic mercury compounds, gaseous, dissolved
or bound to particles.
NH3 Ammonia.

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Nickel, expressed as Ni, includes all inorganic and organic

Nickel
nickel compounds, dissolved or bound to particles.
Number of European Odour Units (ouE) in one cubic metre at
Odour concentration standard conditions measured by dynamic olfactometry
according to EN 13725.
PCB Polychlorinated biphenyl.
Polychlorinated biphenyls as listed in Commission Regulation
Dioxin-like PCBs
(EC) No 199/2006.
PCDD/F Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin/furan(s).
PFOA Perfluorooctanoic acid.
PFOS Perfluorooctanesulphonic acid.
The sum of phenolic compounds, expressed as phenol
Phenol index
concentration and measured according to EN ISO 14402.
Total organic carbon, expressed as C (in water), includes all
TOC
organic compounds.
Total nitrogen, expressed as N, includes free ammonia and
Total N ammonium nitrogen (NH4–N), nitrite nitrogen (NO2–N), nitrate
nitrogen (NO3–N) and organically bound nitrogen.
Total phosphorus, expressed as P, includes all inorganic and
Total P
organic phosphorus compounds, dissolved or bound to particles
Total suspended solids. Mass concentration of all suspended
TSS solids (in water), measured via filtration through glass fibre
filters and gravimetry.
TVOC Total volatile organic carbon, expressed as C (in air).
Zinc, expressed as Zn, includes all inorganic and organic zinc
Zinc
compounds, dissolved or bound to particles.

For the purposes of these BAT conclusions, the following acronyms apply:

Acronym Definition
EMS Environmental management system
EoLVs End-of-life vehicles (as defined in Article 2(2) of Directive 2000/53/EC)
HEPA High-efficiency particle air (filter)
IBC Intermediate bulk container
LDAR Leak detection and repair
LEV Local exhaust ventilation system
POP Persistent organic pollutant (as listed in Regulation No (EC) 850/2004)
Waste electrical and electronic equipment (as defined in Article 3(1) of Directive
WEEE
2012/19/EU)

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General considerations
Best Available Techniques

The techniques listed and described in these BAT conclusions are neither prescriptive nor
exhaustive. Other techniques may be used that ensure at least an equivalent level of
environmental protection.

Unless otherwise stated, the BAT conclusions are generally applicable.

Emission levels associated with the best available techniques (BAT-AELs) for emissions to
air

Unless stated otherwise, emission levels associated with the best available techniques (BAT-
AELs) for emissions to air given in these BAT conclusions refer to concentrations (mass of
emitted substances per volume of waste gas) under the following standard conditions: dry gas at
a temperature of 273.15 K and a pressure of 101.3 kPa, without correction for oxygen content,
and expressed in g/Nm3 or mg/Nm3.

For averaging periods of BAT-AELs for emissions to air, the following definitions apply.

Type of Averaging period Definition

measurement
Average over a period of one day based on valid
Continuous Daily average
hourly or half-hourly averages.
Average over the Average value of three consecutive measurements of
Periodic
sampling period at least 30 minutes each (1).
(1) For any parameter where, due to sampling or analytical limitations, a 30-minute measurement is inappropriate, a
more suitable measurement period may be employed (e.g. for the odour concentration). For PCDD/F or dioxin-like
PCBs, one sampling period of 6 to 8 hours is used.

Where continuous measurement is used, the BAT-AELs may be expressed as daily averages.

Emission levels associated with the best available techniques (BAT-AELs) for emissions to
water

Unless stated otherwise, emission levels associated with the best available techniques (BAT-
AELs) for emissions to water given in these BAT conclusions refer to concentrations (mass of
emitted substances per volume of water), expressed in µg/l or mg/l.

Unless stated otherwise, averaging periods associated with the BAT-AELs refer to either of the
following two cases:

 in the case of continuous discharge, daily average values, i.e. 24-hour flow-proportional
composite samples;
 in the case of batch discharge, average values over the release duration taken as flow-
proportional composite samples, or, provided that the effluent is appropriately mixed and
homogeneous, a spot sample taken before discharge.

Time-proportional composite samples can be used provided that sufficient flow stability is
demonstrated.

All BAT-AELs for emissions to water apply at the point where the emission leaves the
installation.

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Abatement efficiency

The calculation of the average abatement efficiency referred to in these BAT conclusions (see
Table 6.1) does not include, for COD and TOC, initial treatment steps aiming at separating the
bulk organic content from the water-based liquid waste, such as evapo-condensation, emulsion
breaking or phase separation.

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6.1 General BAT conclusions

6.1.1 Overall environmental performance

BAT 1. In order to improve the overall environmental performance, BAT is to

implement and adhere to an environmental management system (EMS) that incorporates
all of the following features:

I. commitment of the management, including senior management;

II. definition, by the management, of an environmental policy that includes the continuous
improvement of the environmental performance of the installation;
III. planning and establishing the necessary procedures, objectives and targets, in conjunction
with financial planning and investment;
IV. implementation of procedures paying particular attention to:

(a) structure and responsibility,

(b) recruitment, training, awareness and competence,
(c) communication,
(d) employee involvement,
(e) documentation,
(f) effective process control,
(g) maintenance programmes,
(h) emergency preparedness and response,
(i) safeguarding compliance with environmental legislation;

V. checking performance and taking corrective action, paying particular attention to:

(a) monitoring and measurement (see also the JRC Reference Report on Monitoring of
emissions to air and water from IED installations – ROM),
(b) corrective and preventive action,
(c) maintenance of records,
(d) independent (where practicable) internal or external auditing in order to determine
whether or not the EMS conforms to planned arrangements and has been properly
implemented and maintained;

VI. review, by senior management, of the EMS and its continuing suitability, adequacy and
effectiveness;
VII. following the development of cleaner technologies;
VIII. consideration for the environmental impacts from the eventual decommissioning of the
plant at the stage of designing a new plant, and throughout its operating life;
IX. application of sectoral benchmarking on a regular basis;
X. waste stream management (see BAT 2);
XI. an inventory of waste water and waste gas streams (see BAT 3);
XII. residues management plan (see description in Section 6.6.5);
XIII. accident management plan (see description in Section 6.6.5);
XIV. odour management plan (see BAT 12);
XV. noise and vibration management plan (see BAT 17).

Applicability
The scope (e.g. level of detail) and nature of the EMS (e.g. standardised or non-standardised)
will generally be related to the nature, scale and complexity of the installation, and the range of
environmental impacts it may have (determined also by the type and amount of wastes
processed).

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BAT 2. In order to improve the overall environmental performance of the plant, BAT
is to use all of the techniques given below.

Technique Description
These procedures aim to ensure the technical (and legal) suitability
of waste treatment operations for a particular waste prior to the
arrival of the waste at the plant. They include procedures to collect
information about the waste input and may include waste sampling
Set up and implement waste
and characterisation to achieve sufficient knowledge of the waste
a. characterisation and pre-
composition. Waste pre-acceptance procedures are risk-based
acceptance procedures
considering, for example, the hazardous properties of the waste, the
risks posed by the waste in terms of process safety, occupational
safety and environmental impact, as well as the information provided
by the previous waste holder(s).
Acceptance procedures aim to confirm the characteristics of the
waste, as identified in the pre-acceptance stage. These procedures
define the elements to be verified upon the arrival of the waste at the
plant as well as the waste acceptance and rejection criteria. They
Set up and implement waste may include waste sampling, inspection and analysis. Waste
b.
acceptance procedures acceptance procedures are risk-based considering, for example, the
hazardous properties of the waste, the risks posed by the waste in
terms of process safety, occupational safety and environmental
impact, as well as the information provided by the previous waste
holder(s).
A waste tracking system and inventory aim to track the location and
quantity of waste in the plant. It holds all the information generated
during waste pre-acceptance procedures (e.g. date of arrival at the
plant and unique reference number of the waste, information on the
previous waste holder(s), pre-acceptance and acceptance analysis
Set up and implement a waste results, intended treatment route, nature and quantity of the waste
c. tracking system and
held on site including all identified hazards), acceptance, storage,
inventory
treatment and/or transfer off site. The waste tracking system is risk-
based considering, for example, the hazardous properties of the
waste, the risks posed by the waste in terms of process safety,
occupational safety and environmental impact, as well as the
information provided by the previous waste holder(s).
This technique involves setting up and implementing an output
quality management system, so as to ensure that the output of the
waste treatment is in line with the expectations, using for example
existing EN standards. This management system also allows the
Set up and implement an performance of the waste treatment to be monitored and optimised,
d. output quality management and for this purpose may include a material flow analysis of relevant
system components throughout the waste treatment. The use of a material
flow analysis is risk-based considering, for example, the hazardous
properties of the waste, the risks posed by the waste in terms of
process safety, occupational safety and environmental impact, as
well as the information provided by the previous waste holder(s).
Waste is kept separated depending on its properties in order to
enable easier and environmentally safer storage and treatment. Waste
e. Ensure waste segregation
segregation relies on the physical separation of waste and on
procedures that identify when and where wastes are stored.

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Compatibility is ensured by a set of verification measures and tests

in order to detect any unwanted and/or potentially dangerous
chemical reactions between wastes (e.g. polymerisation, gas
evolution, exothermal reaction, decomposition, crystallisation,
Ensure waste compatibility precipitation) when mixing, blending or carrying out other treatment
f. prior to mixing or blending of
operations. The compatibility tests are risk-based considering, for
waste
example, the hazardous properties of the waste, the risks posed by
the waste in terms of process safety, occupational safety and
environmental impact, as well as the information provided by the
previous waste holder(s).
Sorting of incoming solid waste (1) aims to prevent unwanted
material from entering subsequent waste treatment process(es). It
may include:
 manual separation by means of visual examinations;
 ferrous metals, non-ferrous metals or all-metals separation;
g. Sort incoming solid waste
 optical separation, e.g. by near-infrared spectroscopy or X-ray
systems;
 density separation, e.g. by air classification, sink-float tanks,
vibration tables;
 size separation by screening/sieving.
1
( ) Sorting techniques are described in Section 6.6.4

BAT 3. In order to facilitate the reduction of emissions to water and air, BAT is to
establish and to maintain an inventory of waste water and waste gas streams, as part of
the environmental management system (see BAT 1), that incorporates all of the following
features:

(i) information about the characteristics of the waste to be treated and the waste treatment
processes, including:
(a) simplified process flow sheets that show the origin of the emissions;
(b) descriptions of process-integrated techniques and waste water/waste gas treatment at
source including their performances;
(ii) information about the characteristics of the waste water streams, such as:
(a) average values and variability of flow, pH, temperature, and conductivity;
(b) average concentration and load values of relevant substances and their variability (e.g.
COD/TOC, nitrogen species, phosphorus, metals, priority substances /
micropollutants);
(c) data on bioeliminability (e.g. BOD, BOD to COD ratio, Zahn-Wellens test, biological
inhibition potential (e.g. inhibition of activated sludge)) (see BAT 52);
(iii) information about the characteristics of the waste gas streams, such as:
(a) average values and variability of flow and temperature;
(b) average concentration and load values of relevant substances and their variability (e.g.
organic compounds, POPs such as PCBs);
(c) flammability, lower and higher explosive limits, reactivity;
(d) presence of other substances that may affect the waste gas treatment system or plant
safety (e.g. oxygen, nitrogen, water vapour, dust).

Applicability
The scope (e.g. level of detail) and nature of the inventory will generally be related to the
nature, scale and complexity of the installation, and the range of environmental impacts it may
have (determined also by the type and amount of wastes processed).

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BAT 4. In order to reduce the environmental risk associated with the storage of waste,
BAT is to use all of the techniques given below.

Technique Description Applicability

This includes techniques such as:
 the storage is located as far as
technically and economically possible
from sensitive receptors, watercourses,
etc.;
Optimised storage  the storage is located in such a way so Generally applicable to new
a. location plants.
as to eliminate or minimise the
unnecessary handling of wastes within
the plant (e.g. the same wastes are
handled twice or more or the transport
distances on site are unnecessarily
long).
Measures are taken to avoid accumulation of
waste, such as:
 the maximum waste storage capacity is
clearly established and not exceeded
taking into account the characteristics
Adequate storage of the wastes (e.g. regarding the risk of
b. capacity fire) and the treatment capacity;
 the quantity of waste stored is regularly
monitored against the maximum
allowed storage capacity;
 the maximum residence time of waste is
clearly established.
This includes measures such as: Generally applicable.
 equipment used for loading, unloading
and storing waste is clearly documented
and labelled;
c. Safe storage operation  wastes known to be sensitive to heat,
light, air, water, etc. are protected from
such ambient conditions;
 containers and drums are fit for purpose
and stored securely.
Separate area for
When relevant, a dedicated area is used for
storage and handling
d. of packaged hazardous storage and handling of packaged hazardous
waste.
waste

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BAT 5. In order to reduce the environmental risk associated with the handling and
transfer of waste, BAT is to set up and implement handling and transfer procedures.

Description
Handling and transfer procedures aim to ensure that wastes are safely handled and transferred to
the respective storage or treatment. They include the following elements:

 handling and transfer of waste are carried out by competent staff;

 handling and transfer of waste are duly documented, validated prior to execution and
verified after execution;
 measures are taken to prevent, detect and mitigate spills;
 operation and design precautions are taken when mixing or blending wastes (e.g.
vacuuming dusty/powdery wastes).

Handling and transfer procedures are risk-based considering the likelihood of accidents and
incidents and their environmental impact.

6.1.2 Monitoring

BAT 6. For relevant emissions to water as identified by the inventory of waste water
streams (see BAT 3), BAT is to monitor key process parameters (e.g. waste water flow, pH,
temperature, conductivity, BOD) at key locations (e.g. at the inlet and/or outlet of the
pretreatment, at the inlet to the final treatment, at the point where the emission leaves the
installation).

BAT 7. BAT is to monitor emissions to water with at least the frequency given below,
and in accordance with EN standards. If EN standards are not available, BAT is to use
ISO, national or other international standards that ensure the provision of data of an
equivalent scientific quality.

Minimum Monitoring
Substance/ Waste treatment
Standard(s) monitoring associated
parameter process
frequency (1) (2) with
Adsorbable
organically bound Treatment of water-
EN ISO 9562 Once every day
halogens (AOX) based liquid waste
3 4
( )( )
Benzene, toluene,
ethylbenzene, Treatment of water-
EN ISO 15680 Once every month
xylene (BTEX) based liquid waste
3 4
( )( )

All waste BAT 20

treatments except
Chemical oxygen Once every month
No EN standard treatment of water-
demand (COD) (5)
available based liquid waste
(6)

Treatment of water-
Once every day
based liquid waste
Various EN
standards
Free cyanide (CN-) Treatment of water-
available (i.e. Once every day
(3) (4) based liquid waste
EN ISO 14403-1
and -2)

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Mechanical
treatment in
shredders of metal
waste
Treatment of
WEEE containing
VFCs and/or VHCs
Once every month
Hydrocarbon oil Re-refining of
EN ISO 9377-2
index (HOI) (4) waste oil
Physico-chemical
treatment of waste
with calorific value
Water washing of
excavated
contaminated soil
Treatment of water-
Once every day
based liquid waste
Mechanical
treatment in
shredders of metal
waste
Treatment of
WEEE containing
VFCs and/or VHCs
Mechanical
biological treatment
of waste
Arsenic (As), Re-refining of
Cadmium (Cd), waste oil Once every month
Chromium (Cr), Physico-chemical
Copper (Cu), Nickel Various EN
treatment of waste
(Ni), Lead (Pb), standards
with calorific value
Zinc (Zn) available (e.g.
Physico-chemical
(3) (4) EN ISO 11885,
treatment of solid
EN ISO 17294-2,
and/or pasty waste
EN ISO 15586)
Regeneration of
spent solvents
Water washing of
excavated
contaminated soil

Treatment of water-
Once every day
based liquid waste

Manganese (Mn) (3) Treatment of water-

Once every day
( 4) based liquid waste

Various EN
Hexavalent standards
Treatment of water-
chromium (Cr(VI)) available (i.e. EN Once every day
based liquid waste
(3) (4) ISO 10304-3,
EN ISO 23913)
Mechanical
Various EN treatment in
standards shredders of metal
Mercury (Hg)
available (i.e. waste Once every month
(3) (4)
EN ISO 17852, Treatment of
EN ISO 12846) WEEE containing
VFCs and/or VHCs

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Mechanical
biological treatment
of waste
Re-refining of
waste oil
Physico-chemical
treatment of waste
with calorific value
Physico-chemical
treatment of solid
and/or pasty waste
Regeneration of
spent solvents
Water washing of
excavated
contaminated soil

Treatment of water-
Once every day
based liquid waste

PFOA (3) No EN standard All waste Once every six

PFOS (3) available treatments months
Re-refining of
waste oil
Physico-chemical Once every month
6 treatment of waste
Phenol index ( ) EN ISO 14402
with calorific value
Treatment of water-
Once every day
based liquid waste
Biological
treatment of waste
Once every month
Total nitrogen EN 12260, Re-refining of
(Total N) (6) EN ISO 11905-1 waste oil
Treatment of water-
Once every day
based liquid waste
All waste
treatments except
Once every month
Total organic treatment of water-
carbon (TOC) EN 1484 based liquid waste
(5) (6)
Treatment of water-
Once every day
based liquid waste
Various EN
Biological
standards Once every month
treatment of waste
available ( i.e.
Total phosphorus
EN ISO 15681-1
(Total P) (6)
and -2, Treatment of water-
Once every day
EN ISO 6878, based liquid waste
EN ISO 11885)

All waste
treatments except
Once every month
Total suspended treatment of water-
EN 872
solids (TSS) (6) based liquid waste

Treatment of water-
Once every day
based liquid waste

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(1) Monitoring frequencies may be reduced if the emission levels are proven to be sufficiently stable.
(2) In the case of batch discharge less frequent than the minimum monitoring frequency, monitoring is carried out once
per batch.
(3) The monitoring only applies when the substance concerned is identified as relevant in the waste water inventory
mentioned in BAT 3.
(4) In the case of an indirect discharge to a receiving water body, the monitoring frequency may be reduced if the
downstream waste water treatment plant abates the pollutants concerned.
(5) Either TOC or COD is monitored. TOC is the preferred option, because its monitoring does not rely on the use of
very toxic compounds.
(6) The monitoring applies only in the case of a direct discharge to a receiving water body.

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BAT 8. BAT is to monitor channelled emissions to air with at least the frequency
given below, and in accordance with EN standards. If EN standards are not available,
BAT is to use ISO, national or other international standards that ensure the provision of
data of an equivalent scientific quality.

Minimum
Monitoring
Substance/Pa Standard monitoring
Waste treatment process associated
rameter (s) frequency
with
( 1)
Brominated No EN
Mechanical treatment in Once every
flame standard BAT 25
shredders of metal waste year
retardants (2) available
No EN
Treatment of WEEE containing Once every
CFCs standard BAT 29
VFCs and/or VHCs six months
available
Mechanical treatment in Once every
BAT 25
EN 1948- shredders of metal waste (2) year
Dioxin-like
1, -2, and Once every
PCBs Decontamination of equipment
-4 (3) three BAT 51
containing PCBs
months
Mechanical treatment of waste BAT 25
Mechanical biological treatment
BAT 34
of waste
Physico-chemical treatment of
Once every BAT 41
EN solid and/or pasty waste
Dust six months
13284-1 Thermal treatment of spent
activated carbon, waste catalysts BAT 49
and excavated contaminated soil
Water washing of excavated
BAT 50
contaminated soil
Thermal treatment of spent
activated carbon, waste catalysts
BAT 49
and excavated contaminated Once every
HCl EN 1911 soil (2) six months
Treatment of water-based liquid
BAT 53
waste (2)
Thermal treatment of spent
No EN
activated carbon, waste catalysts Once every
HF standard BAT 49
and excavated contaminated six months
available
soil (2)
Once every
EN Treatment of WEEE containing
Hg three BAT 32
13211 mercury
months
No EN
Once every
H 2S standard Biological treatment of waste (4) BAT 34
six months
available
Metals and
metalloids
except
mercury
EN Mechanical treatment in Once every
(e.g. As, Cd, BAT 25
14385 shredders of metal waste year
Co, Cr, Cu,
Mn, Ni, Pb,
Sb, Se, Tl, V)
(2)

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Once every
Biological treatment of waste (4) BAT 34
six months
No EN
Physico-chemical treatment of
NH3 standard BAT 41
solid and/or pasty waste (2) Once every
available
Treatment of water-based liquid six months
BAT 53
waste (2)
Odour Once every
EN 13725 Biological treatment of waste (5) BAT 34
concentration six months
EN 1948-
Mechanical treatment in Once every
PCDD/F (2) 1, -2 and BAT 25
shredders of metal waste year
-3 (3)

Mechanical treatment in Once every

BAT 25
shredders of metal waste six months

Treatment of WEEE containing Once every

BAT 29
VFCs and/or VHCs six months
Mechanical treatment of waste Once every
BAT 31
with calorific value (2) six months
Mechanical biological treatment Once every
BAT 34
of waste six months
Physico-chemical treatment of
BAT 41
solid and/or pasty waste (2)
EN Re-refining of waste oil BAT 44
TVOC
12619 Physico-chemical treatment of
BAT 45
waste with calorific value
Regeneration of spent solvents BAT 47
Once every
Thermal treatment of spent
six months
activated carbon, waste catalysts BAT 49
and excavated contaminated soil
Water washing of excavated
BAT 50
contaminated soil
Treatment of water-based liquid
BAT 53
waste (2)
Once every
Decontamination of equipment
three BAT 51
containing PCBs (6)
months
(1) Monitoring frequencies may be reduced if the emission levels are proven to be sufficiently stable.
(2) The monitoring only applies when the substance concerned is identified as relevant in the waste gas
stream based on the inventory mentioned in BAT 3.
(3) Instead of EN 1948-1, sampling may also be carried out according to CEN/TS 1948-5.
(4) The odour concentration may be monitored instead.
(5) The monitoring of NH3 and H2S can be used as an alternative to the monitoring of the odour
concentration.
(6) The monitoring only applies when solvent is used for cleaning the contaminated equipment.

BAT 9. BAT is to monitor diffuse emissions of organic compounds to air from the
regeneration of spent solvents, the decontamination of equipment containing POPs with
solvents, and the physico-chemical treatment of solvents for the recovery of their calorific
value, at least once per year using one or a combination of the techniques given below.

Technique Description
Sniffing methods, optical gas imaging, solar occultation flux or differential
a Measurement
absorption. See descriptions in Section 6.6.2.
Calculation of emissions based on emissions factors, periodically validated
b Emissions factors
(e.g. once every two years) by measurements.
Calculation of diffuse emissions using a mass balance considering the
c Mass balance solvent input, channelled emissions to air, emissions to water, the solvent
in the process output, and process (e.g. distillation) residues.

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BAT 10. BAT is to periodically monitor odour emissions.

Description
Odour emissions can be monitored using:
 EN standards (e.g. dynamic olfactometry according to EN 13725 in order to determine
the odour concentration or EN 16841-1 or -2 in order to determine the odour exposure);
 when applying alternative methods for which no EN standards are available (e.g.
estimation of odour impact), ISO, national or other international standards that ensure the
provision of data of an equivalent scientific quality.
The monitoring frequency is determined in the odour management plan (see BAT 12).

Applicability
The applicability is restricted to cases where an odour nuisance at sensitive receptors is expected
and/or has been substantiated.

BAT 11. BAT is to monitor the annual consumption of water, energy and raw materials
as well as the annual generation of residues and waste water, with a frequency of at least
once per year.

Description
Monitoring includes direct measurements, calculation or recording, e.g. using suitable meters or
invoices. The monitoring is broken down at the most appropriate level (e.g. at process or
plant/installation level) and considers any significant changes in the plant/installation.

6.1.3 Emissions to air

BAT 12. In order to prevent or, where that is not practicable, to reduce odour
emissions, BAT is to set up, implement and regularly review an odour management plan,
as part of the environmental management system (see BAT 1), that includes all of the
following elements:

 a protocol containing actions and timelines;

 a protocol for conducting odour monitoring as set out in BAT 10;
 a protocol for response to identified odour incidents, e.g. complaints;
 an odour prevention and reduction programme designed to identify the source(s); to
characterise the contributions of the sources; and to implement prevention and/or
reduction measures.

Applicability
The applicability is restricted to cases where an odour nuisance at sensitive receptors is expected
and/or has been substantiated.

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BAT 13. In order to prevent or, where that is not practicable, to reduce odour
emissions, BAT is to use one or a combination of the techniques given below.

Technique Description Applicability

Minimising the residence time of
(potentially) odorous waste in storage or
in handling systems (e.g. pipes, tanks,
Minimising residence Only applicable to open
a. times containers), in particular under anaerobic
systems.
conditions. When relevant, adequate
provisions are made for the acceptance of
seasonal peak volumes of waste.
Using chemicals to destroy or to reduce
Not applicable if it may
Using chemical the formation of odorous compounds (e.g.
b. treatment hamper the desired output
to oxidise or to precipitate hydrogen
quality.
sulphide).
In the case of aerobic treatment of water-
based liquid waste, it may include:
 use of pure oxygen;
 removal of scum in tanks;
Optimising aerobic
c. treatment  frequent maintenance of the aeration Generally applicable.
system.
In the case of aerobic treatment of waste
other than water-based liquid waste, see
BAT 36.

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BAT 14. In order to prevent or, where that is not practicable, to reduce diffuse
emissions to air, in particular of dust, organic compounds and odour, BAT is to use an
appropriate combination of the techniques given below.

Depending on the risk posed by the waste in terms of diffuse emissions to air, BAT 14d is
especially relevant.

Technique Description Applicability

This includes techniques such as:
 appropriate design of piping layout
(e.g. minimising pipe run length,
reducing the number of flanges and
valves, using welded fittings and
Minimising the number
pipes);
a. of potential diffuse Generally applicable.
emission sources  favouring the use of gravity transfer
rather than using pumps;
 limiting the drop height of material;
 limiting traffic speed;
 using wind barriers.
This includes techniques such as:
 valves with double packing seals or
equally efficient equipment;
 high-integrity gaskets (such as spiral
wound, ring joints) for critical
applications;
Selection and use of  pumps/compressors/agitators fitted Applicability may be
b. high-integrity with mechanical seals instead of restricted in the case of
equipment packing; existing plants due to
 magnetically driven pumps/ operability requirements.
compressors/agitators;
 appropriate service hose access ports,
piercing pliers, drill heads, e.g. when
degassing WEEE containing VFCs
and/or VHCs.
This includes techniques such as:
 appropriate selection of construction
materials;
c. Corrosion prevention  lining or coating of equipment and
Generally applicable.
painting of pipes with corrosion
inhibitors.
This includes techniques such as:
 storing, treating and handling waste
and material that may generate diffuse The use of enclosed
emissions in enclosed buildings equipment or buildings may
and/or enclosed equipment (e.g. be restricted by safety
conveyor belts); considerations such as the risk
Containment, collection
of explosion or oxygen
d. and treatment of diffuse  maintaining the enclosed equipment or
depletion.
emissions buildings under an adequate pressure;
The use of enclosed
 collecting and directing the emissions equipment or buildings may
to an appropriate abatement system also be constrained by the
(see Section 6.6.1) via an air extraction volume of waste.
system and/or air suction systems
close to the emission sources.
Dampening potential sources of diffuse
dust emissions (e.g. waste storage, traffic
e. Dampening
d areas, and open handling processes) with
Generally applicable.
water or fog.

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This includes techniques such as:

 ensuring access to potentially leaky
equipment;
f. Maintenance Generally applicable.
 regularly controlling protective
equipment such as lamellar curtains,
fast-action doors.
This includes techniques such as
Cleaning of waste regularly cleaning the whole waste
g. treatment
g and storage treatment area (halls, traffic areas, storage Generally applicable.
areas areas, etc.), conveyor belts, equipment
and containers.
See Section 6.6.2. When emissions of
organic compounds are expected, a
Leak detection and LDAR programme is set up and
h. repair (LDAR) implemented using a risk-based approach, Generally applicable.
programme considering in particular the design of the
plant and the amount and nature of the
organic compounds concerned.

BAT 15. BAT is to use flaring only for safety reasons or for non-routine operating
conditions (e.g. start-ups, shutdowns) by using both of the techniques given below.

Technique Description Applicability

This includes the provision of
Generally applicable to new plants.
a gas recovery system with
a. Correct plant design A gas recovery system may be
sufficient capacity and the use
retrofitted in existing plants.
of high-integrity relief valves.
This includes balancing the
b. Plant management gas system and using Generally applicable.
advanced process control.

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BAT 16. In order to reduce emissions to air from flares when flaring is unavoidable,
BAT is to use both of the techniques given below.

Technique Description Applicability

Optimisation of height and
pressure, assistance by steam,
Generally applicable to new flares.
air or gas, type of flare tips,
Correct design of flaring In existing plants, applicability may
a. etc., to enable smokeless and
devices be restricted, e.g. due to
reliable operation and to
maintenance time availability.
ensure the efficient
combustion of excess gases.
This includes continuous
monitoring of the quantity of
gas sent to flaring. It may
include estimations of other
parameters (e.g. composition
of gas flow, heat content, ratio
of assistance, velocity, purge
gas flow rate, pollutant
Monitoring and recording as
b. emissions (e.g. NOX, CO, Generally applicable.
part of flare management
hydrocarbons), noise). The
recording of flaring events
usually includes the duration
and number of events and
allows for the quantification
of emissions and the potential
prevention of future flaring
events.

6.1.4 Noise and vibrations

BAT 17. In order to prevent or, where that is not practicable, to reduce noise and
vibration emissions, BAT is to set up, implement and regularly review a noise and
vibration management plan, as part of the environmental management system (see
BAT 1), that includes all of the following elements:

I. a protocol containing appropriate actions and timelines;

II. a protocol for conducting noise and vibration monitoring;
III. a protocol for response to identified noise and vibration events, e.g. complaints;
IV. a noise and vibration reduction programme designed to identify the source(s), to
measure/estimate noise and vibration exposure, to characterise the contributions of the
sources and to implement prevention and/or reduction measures.

Applicability
The applicability is restricted to cases where a noise or vibration nuisance at sensitive receptors
is expected and/or has been substantiated.

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BAT 18. In order to prevent or, where that is not practicable, to reduce noise and
vibration emissions, BAT is to use one or a combination of the techniques given below.

Technique Description Applicability

Noise levels can be reduced by increasing For existing plants, the
Appropriate location the distance between the emitter and the relocation of equipment and
a. of equipment and receiver, by using buildings as noise building exits or entrances
buildings screens and by relocating building exits or may be restricted by a lack
entrances. of space or excessive costs.
This includes techniques such as:
i. inspection and maintenance of
equipment;
ii. closing of doors and windows of
enclosed areas, if possible;
iii. equipment operation by
b. Operational measures
experienced staff; Generally applicable.
iv. avoidance of noisy activities at
night, if possible;
v. provisions for noise control during
maintenance, traffic, handling and
treatment activities.
This may include direct drive motors,
c. Low-noise equipment
compressors, pumps and flares.
This includes techniques such as:
i. noise reducers;
Applicability may be
Noise and vibration ii. acoustic and vibrational insulation
d. restricted by a lack of space
control equipment of equipment;
(for existing plants).
iii. enclosure of noisy equipment;
iv. soundproofing of buildings.
Applicable only to existing
plants, as the design of new
plants should make this
technique unnecessary. For
existing plants, the insertion
Noise propagation can be reduced by
of obstacles may be
inserting obstacles between emitters and
e. Noise attenuation receivers (e.g. protection walls,
restricted by a lack of space.
For mechanical treatment in
embankments and buildings).
shredders of metal wastes, it
is applicable within the
constraints associated with
the risk of deflagration in
shredders.

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6.1.5 Emissions to water

BAT 19. In order to optimise water consumption, to reduce the volume of waste water
generated and to prevent or, where that is not practicable, to reduce emissions to soil and
water, BAT is to use an appropriate combination of the techniques given below.

Technique Description Applicability

Water consumption is optimised by using
measures which may include:
 water-saving plans (e.g.
establishment of water efficiency
objectives, flow diagrams and water
mass balances);

a. Water management  optimising the use of washing water Generally applicable.

(e.g. dry cleaning instead of hosing
down, using trigger control on all
washing equipment);
 reducing the use of water for
vacuum generation (e.g. use of
liquid ring pumps with high boiling
point liquids).
Water streams are recirculated within the
plant, if necessary after treatment. The
degree of recirculation is limited by the
b. Water recirculation water balance of the plant, the content of Generally applicable.
impurities (e.g. odorous compounds)
and/or the characteristics of the water
streams (e.g. nutrient content).
Depending on the risks posed by the
waste in terms of soil and/or water
contamination, the surface of the whole
c. Impermeable surface waste treatment area (e.g. waste Generally applicable.
reception, handling, storage, treatment
and dispatch areas) is made impermeable
to the liquids concerned.
Depending on the risks posed by the
liquids contained in tanks and vessels in
terms of soil and/or water contamination,
this includes techniques such as:
 overflow detectors;
 overflow pipes that are directed to a
contained drainage system (i.e. the
Techniques to reduce the relevant secondary containment or
likelihood and impact of another vessel);
d. Generally applicable.
overflows and failures  tanks for liquids that are located in a
from tanks and vessels suitable secondary containment; the
volume is normally sized to
accommodate the loss of
containment of the largest tank
within the secondary containment;
 isolation of tanks, vessels and
secondary containment (e.g. closing
of valves).
Depending on the risks posed by the Applicability may be
waste in terms of soil and/or water constrained when high
Roofing of waste storage contamination, waste is stored and treated volumes of waste are stored
e.
and treatment areas in covered areas to prevent contact with or treated (e.g. mechanical
rainwater and thus minimise the volume treatment in shredders of
of contaminated run-off water. metal waste).

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Each water stream (e.g. surface run-off Generally applicable to new

water, process water) is collected and plants.
treated separately, based on the pollutant
Segregation of water content and on the combination of Generally applicable to
f.
streams treatment techniques. In particular, existing plants within the
uncontaminated waste water streams are constraints associated with
segregated from waste water streams that the layout of the water
require treatment. collection system.
The waste treatment area is connected to Generally applicable to new
drainage infrastructure. plants.
Rainwater falling on the treatment and
Adequate drainage storage areas is collected in the drainage Generally applicable to
g.
infrastructure infrastructure along with washing water, existing plants within the
occasional spillages, etc. and, depending constraints associated with
on the pollutant content, recirculated or the layout of the water
sent for further treatment. drainage system.
Regular monitoring for potential leakages
The use of above-ground
is risk-based, and, when necessary,
components is generally
equipment is repaired.
applicable to new plants. It
The use of underground components is
Design and maintenance may be limited however by
minimised. When underground
provisions to allow the risk of freezing.
h. components are used, and depending on
detection and repair of
the risks posed by the waste contained in
leaks The installation of
those components in terms of soil and/or
secondary containment may
water contamination, secondary
be limited in the case of
containment of underground components
existing plants.
is put in place.
Appropriate buffer storage capacity is
provided for waste water generated
during other than normal operating Generally applicable to new
conditions using a risk-based approach plants.
(e.g. taking into account the nature of the
Appropriate buffer pollutants, the effects of downstream For existing plants,
i.
storage capacity waste water treatment, and the receiving applicability may be limited
environment). by space availability and by
The discharge of waste water from this the layout of the water
buffer storage is only possible after collection system.
appropriate measures are taken (e.g.
monitor, treat, reuse).

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BAT 20. In order to reduce emissions to water, BAT is to treat waste water using an
appropriate combination of the techniques given below.

Typical pollutants
Technique (1) Applicability
targeted
Preliminary and primary treatment, e.g.
a. Equalisation All pollutants

b. Neutralisation Acids, alkalis

Generally applicable.
Physical separation, e.g. screens, sieves, grit
Gross solids, suspended
c. separators, grease separators, oil-water solids, oil/grease
separation or primary settlement tanks
Physico-chemical treatment, e.g.
Adsorbable dissolved
non-biodegradable or
d. Adsorption inhibitory pollutants, e.g.
hydrocarbons, mercury,
AOX
Dissolved non-
biodegradable or
e. Distillation/rectification inhibitory pollutants that
can be distilled, e.g. some
solvents
Precipitable dissolved
non-biodegradable or
f. Precipitation inhibitory pollutants, e.g.
metals, phosphorus
Oxidisable dissolved non-
biodegradable or
g. Chemical oxidation inhibitory pollutants, e.g.
nitrite, cyanide Generally applicable.
Reducible dissolved non-
biodegradable or
h. Chemical reduction inhibitory pollutants, e.g.
hexavalent chromium
(Cr(VI))
i. Evaporation Soluble contaminants
Ionic dissolved non-
biodegradable or
j. Ion exchange inhibitory pollutants, e.g.
metals
Purgeable pollutants, e.g.
hydrogen sulphide (H2S),
ammonia (NH3), some
k. Stripping adsorbable organically
bound halogens (AOX),
hydrocarbons
Biological treatment, e.g.
l. Activated sludge process Biodegradable organic
Generally applicable.
compounds
m. Membrane bioreactor

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Nitrogen removal
Nitrification may not be
applicable in the case of
high chloride
concentrations (e.g.
above 10 g/l) and when
the reduction of the
chloride concentration
Nitrification/denitrification when the
n. treatment includes a biological treatment Total nitrogen, ammonia prior to nitrification
would not be justified by
the environmental
benefits. Nitrification is
not applicable when the
temperature of the waste
water is low (e.g.
below 12 °C).
Solids removal, e.g.
o. Coagulation and flocculation
p. Sedimentation Suspended solids and
Filtration (e.g. sand filtration, Generally applicable.
particulate-bound metals
q. microfiltration, ultrafiltration)

r. Flotation
(1) The descriptions of the techniques are given in Section 6.6.3.

Table 6.1: BAT-associated emission levels (BAT-AELs) for direct discharges to a receiving water
body

BAT-AEL Waste treatment process to which the

Substance/Parameter
(1) BAT-AEL applies
 All waste treatments except
10–60 mg/l treatment of water-based liquid
Total organic carbon (TOC) (2) waste
10–100 mg/l (3)  Treatment of water-based liquid
(4) waste
 All waste treatments except
30–180 mg/l treatment of water-based liquid
Chemical oxygen demand (COD) (2) waste
30–300 mg/l (3)  Treatment of water-based liquid
(4) waste
Total suspended solids (TSS) 5–60 mg/l  All waste treatments
 Mechanical treatment in shredders
of metal waste
 Treatment of WEEE containing
VFCs and/or VHCs
 Re-refining of waste oil
Hydrocarbon oil index (HOI) 0.5–10 mg/l  Physico-chemical treatment of
waste with calorific value
 Water washing of excavated
contaminated soil
 Treatment of water-based liquid
waste
 Biological treatment of waste
1–25 mg/l (5) (6)
 Re-refining of waste oil
Total nitrogen (Total N)
 Treatment of water-based liquid
10–60 mg/l (5)
waste
(6) (7)

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0.3–2 mg/l  Biological treatment of waste

Total phosphorus (Total P)  Treatment of water-based liquid
1–3 mg/l (4)
waste
 Re-refining of waste oil
0.05– 0.2 mg/l  Physico-chemical treatment of
Phenol index waste with calorific value
 Treatment of water-based liquid
0.05–0.3 mg/l
waste
 Treatment of water-based liquid
Free cyanide (CN-) (8) 0.02– 0.1 mg/l
waste
Adsorbable organically bound halogens  Treatment of water-based liquid
0.2–1 mg/l
(AOX) (8) waste

Arsenic (expressed as As) 0.01–0.05 mg/l  Mechanical treatment in shredders

of metal waste
Cadmium (expressed as Cd) 0.01–0.05 mg/l  Treatment of WEEE containing
VFCs and/or VHCs
Chromium (expressed as Cr) 0.01–0.15 mg/l  Mechanical biological treatment of
waste
Copper (expressed as Cu) 0.05–0.5 mg/l  Re-refining of waste oil
 Physico-chemical treatment of
Lead (expressed as Pb) 0.05–0.1 mg/l (9) waste with calorific value
 Physico-chemical treatment of solid
Nickel (expressed as Ni) 0.05–0.5 mg/l and/or pasty waste
Metals and Mercury (expressed as Hg) 0.5–5 µg/l  Regeneration of spent solvents
metalloids (8)  Water washing of excavated
Zinc (expressed as Zn) 0.1–1 mg/l (10) contaminated soil

Arsenic (expressed as As) 0.01–0.1 mg/l

Cadmium (expressed as Cd) 0.01–0.1 mg/l
Chromium (expressed as Cr) 0.01–0.3 mg/l
Hexavalent chromium
0.01–0.1 mg/l
(expressed as Cr(VI))  Treatment of water-based liquid
Copper (expressed as Cu) 0.05–0.5 mg/l waste
Lead (expressed as Pb) 0.05–0.3 mg/l
Nickel (expressed as Ni) 0.05–1 mg/l
Mercury (expressed as Hg) 1–10 µg/l
Zinc (expressed as Zn) 0.1–2 mg/l
(1) The averaging periods are defined in the General considerations.
(2) Either the BAT-AEL for COD or the BAT-AEL for TOC applies. TOC monitoring is the preferred option because
it does not rely on the use of very toxic compounds.
(3) The upper end of the range may not apply:
 when the abatement efficiency is ≥ 95 % as a rolling yearly average and the waste input shows the
following characteristics: TOC > 2 g/l (or COD > 6 g/l) as a daily average and a high proportion of
refractory organic compounds (i.e. which are difficult to biodegrade); or
 in the case of high chloride concentrations (e.g. above 5 g/l in the waste input).
(4) The BAT-AEL may not apply to plants treating drilling muds/cuttings.
(5) The BAT-AEL may not apply when the temperature of the waste water is low (e.g. below 12 °C).
(6) The BAT-AEL may not apply in the case of high chloride concentrations (e.g. above 10 g/l in the waste input).
(7) The BAT-AEL only applies when biological treatment of waste water is used.
(8) The BAT-AELs only apply when the substance concerned is identified as relevant in the waste water inventory
mentioned in BAT 3.
(9) The upper end of the range is 0.3 mg/l for mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste.
(10) The upper end of the range is 2 mg/l for mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste.

The associated monitoring is given in BAT 7.

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Table 6.2: BAT-associated emission levels (BAT-AELs) for indirect discharges to a receiving
water body

BAT-AEL Waste treatment process to which the

Substance/Parameter
(1) (2) BAT-AEL applies
 Mechanical treatment in shredders
of metal waste
 Treatment of WEEE containing
VFCs and/or VHCs
 Re-refining of waste oil
Hydrocarbon oil index (HOI) 0.5–10 mg/l  Physico-chemical treatment of
waste with calorific value
 Water washing of excavated
contaminated soil
 Treatment of water-based liquid
waste
 Treatment of water-based liquid
Free cyanide (CN-) (3) 0.02– 0.1 mg/l
waste
Adsorbable organically bound halogens  Treatment of water-based liquid
0.2–1 mg/l
(AOX) (3) waste

Arsenic (expressed as As) 0.01–0.05 mg/l

 Mechanical treatment in shredders
Cadmium (expressed as Cd) 0.01–0.05 mg/l of metal waste
 Treatment of WEEE containing
VFCs and/or VHCs
Chromium (expressed as Cr) 0.01–0.15 mg/l
 Mechanical biological treatment
of waste
Copper (expressed as Cu) 0.05–0.5 mg/l  Re-refining of waste oil
Lead (expressed as Pb) 0.05–0.1 mg/l (4)  Physico-chemical treatment of
waste with calorific value
Nickel (expressed as Ni) 0.05–0.5 mg/l  Physico-chemical treatment of
solid and/or pasty waste
Metals and  Regeneration of spent solvents
metalloids (3) Mercury (expressed as Hg) 0.5–5 µg/l  Water washing of excavated
contaminated soil
Zinc (expressed as Zn) 0.1–1 mg/l (5)

Arsenic (expressed as As) 0.01–0.1 mg/l

Cadmium (expressed as Cd) 0.01–0.1 mg/l
Chromium (expressed as Cr) 0.01–0.3 mg/l
Hexavalent chromium
0.01–0.1 mg/l
(expressed as Cr(VI))  Treatment of water-based liquid
Copper (expressed as Cu) 0.05–0.5 mg/l waste
Lead (expressed as Pb) 0.05–0.3 mg/l
Nickel (expressed as Ni) 0.05–1 mg/l
Mercury (expressed as Hg) 1–10 µg/l
Zinc (expressed as Zn) 0.1–2 mg/l
(1) The averaging periods are defined in the General considerations.
(2) The BAT-AELs may not apply if the downstream waste water treatment plant abates the pollutants concerned,
provided this does not lead to a higher level of pollution in the environment.
(3) The BAT-AELs only apply when the substance concerned is identified as relevant in the waste water inventory
mentioned in BAT 3.
(4) The upper end of the range is 0.3 mg/l for mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste.
(5) The upper end of the range is 2 mg/l for mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste.

The associated monitoring is given in BAT 7.

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6.1.6 Emissions from accidents and incidents

BAT 21. In order to prevent or limit the environmental consequences of accidents and
incidents, BAT is to use all of the techniques given below, as part of the accident
management plan (see BAT 1).

Technique Description
These include measures such as:
 protection of the plant against malevolent acts;
 fire and explosion protection system, containing
a. Protection measures equipment for prevention, detection, and extinction;
 accessibility and operability of relevant control
equipment in emergency situations.
Procedures are established and technical provisions are in place to
Management of manage (in terms of possible containment) emissions from
b. incidental/accidental emissions
accidents and incidents such as emissions from spillages,
firefighting water, or safety valves.
This includes techniques such as:
 a log/diary to record all accidents, incidents, changes to
Incident/accident registration procedures and the findings of inspections;
c.
and assessment system
 procedures to identify, respond to and learn from such
incidents and accidents.

6.1.7 Material efficiency

BAT 22. In order to use materials efficiently, BAT is to substitute materials with waste.

Description
Waste is used instead of other materials for the treatment of wastes (e.g. waste alkalis or waste
acids are used for pH adjustment, fly ashes are used as binders).

Applicability
Some applicability limitations derive from the risk of contamination posed by the presence of
impurities (e.g. heavy metals, POPs, salts, pathogens) in the waste that substitutes other
materials. Another limitation is the compatibility of the waste substituting other materials with
the waste input (see BAT 2).

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6.1.8 Energy efficiency

BAT 23. In order to use energy efficiently, BAT is to use both of the techniques given
below.

Technique Description
An energy efficiency plan entails defining and calculating the specific
energy consumption of the activity (or activities), setting key performance
indicators on an annual basis (for example, specific energy consumption
a. Energy efficiency plan expressed in kWh/tonne of waste processed) and planning periodic
improvement targets and related actions. The plan is adapted to the
specificities of the waste treatment in terms of process(es) carried out,
waste stream(s) treated, etc.
An energy balance record provides a breakdown of the energy
consumption and generation (including exportation) by the type of source
(i.e. electricity, gas, conventional liquid fuels, conventional solid fuels,
and waste). This includes:
(i) information on energy consumption in terms of delivered energy;
b. Energy balance record
(ii) information on energy exported from the installation;
(iii) energy flow information (e.g. Sankey diagrams or energy
balances) showing how the energy is used throughout the process.
The energy balance record is adapted to the specificities of the waste
treatment in terms of process(es) carried out, waste stream(s) treated, etc.

6.1.9 Reuse of packaging

BAT 24. In order to reduce the quantity of waste sent for disposal, BAT is to maximise
the reuse of packaging, as part of the residues management plan (see BAT 1).

Description
Packaging (drums, containers, IBCs, pallets, etc.) is reused for containing waste, when it is in
good condition and sufficiently clean, depending on a compatibility check between the
substances contained (in consecutive uses). If necessary, packaging is sent for appropriate
treatment prior to reuse (e.g. reconditioning, cleaning).

Applicability
Some applicability restrictions derive from the risk of contamination of the waste posed by the
reused packaging.

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6.2 BAT conclusions for the mechanical treatment of waste

Unless otherwise stated, the BAT conclusions presented in Section 6.2 apply to the mechanical
treatment of waste when it is not combined with biological treatment, and in addition to the
general BAT conclusions in Section 6.1.

6.2.1 General BAT conclusions for the mechanical treatment of waste

6.2.1.1 Emissions to air

BAT 25. In order to reduce emissions to air of dust, and of particulate-bound metals,
PCDD/F and dioxin-like PCBs, BAT is to apply BAT 14d and to use one or a combination
of the techniques given below.

Technique Description Applicability

See Section 6.6.1.
Cyclones are mainly used as
a. Cyclone Generally applicable.
preliminary separators for coarse
dust.
May not be applicable to
exhaust air ducts directly
connected to the shredder when
b. Fabric filter See Section 6.6.1. the effects of deflagration on the
fabric filter cannot be mitigated
(e.g. by using pressure relief
valves).
c. Wet scrubbing See Section 6.6.1. Generally applicable.
The waste to be shredded is
damped by injecting water into
the shredder. The amount of
water injected is regulated in
relation to the amount of waste Only applicable within the
Water injection into the being shredded (which may be constraints associated with local
d.
shredder monitored via the energy conditions (e.g. low
consumed by the shredder temperature, drought).
motor).
The waste gas that contains
residual dust is directed to
cyclone(s) and/or a wet scrubber.

Table 6.3: BAT-associated emission level (BAT-AEL) for channelled dust emissions to air from
the mechanical treatment of waste

BAT-AEL
Parameter Unit
(Average over the sampling period)
Dust mg/Nm3 2–5 (1)
1 3
( ) When a fabric filter is not applicable, the upper end of the range is 10 mg/Nm .

The associated monitoring is given in BAT 8.

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6.2.2 BAT conclusions for the mechanical treatment in shredders of

metal waste

Unless otherwise stated, the BAT conclusions presented in this section apply to the mechanical
treatment in shredders of metal waste, in addition to BAT 25.

6.2.2.1 Overall environmental performance

BAT 26. In order to improve the overall environmental performance, and to prevent
emissions due to accidents and incidents, BAT is to use BAT 14g and all of the techniques
given below:

a. implementation of a detailed inspection procedure for baled waste before shredding;

b. removal of dangerous items from the waste input stream and their safe disposal (e.g. gas
cylinders, non-depolluted EoLVs, non-depolluted WEEE, items contaminated with PCBs
or mercury, radioactive items);
c. treatment of containers only when accompanied by a declaration of cleanliness.

6.2.2.2 Deflagrations

BAT 27. In order to prevent deflagrations and to reduce emissions when deflagrations
occur, BAT is to use technique a. and one or both of the techniques b. and c. given below.

Technique Description Applicability

This includes:
 a deflagration reduction
programme designed to
identify the source(s), and to
implement measures to
prevent deflagration
occurrences, e.g. inspection of
waste input as described in
Deflagration BAT 26a, removal of
a. management plan dangerous items as described
in BAT 26b;
 a review of historical Generally applicable.
deflagration incidents and
remedies and the
dissemination of deflagration
knowledge;
 a protocol for response to
deflagration incidents.
Pressure relief dampers are
installed to relieve pressure waves
b. Pressure relief dampers coming from deflagrations that
would otherwise cause major
damage and subsequent emissions.
Generally applicable for new
plants, depending on the input
Use of a low-speed shredder material.
c. Pre-shredding installed upstream of the main Applicable for major plant
shredder upgrades where a significant
number of deflagrations have been
substantiated.

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6.2.2.3 Energy efficiency

BAT 28. In order to use energy efficiently, BAT is to keep the shredder feed stable.

Description
The shredder feed is equalised by avoiding disruption or overload of the waste feed which
would lead to unwanted shutdowns and start-ups of the shredder.

6.2.3 BAT conclusions for the treatment of WEEE containing VFCs

and/or VHCs

Unless otherwise stated, the BAT conclusions presented in this section apply to the treatment of
WEEE containing VFCs and/or VHCs, in addition to BAT 25.

6.2.3.1 Emissions to air

BAT 29. In order to prevent or, where that is not practicable, to reduce emissions of
organic compounds to air, BAT is to apply BAT 14d, BAT 14h and to use technique a. and
one or both of the techniques b. and c. given below.

Technique Description
All refrigerants and oils are removed from the WEEE containing
VFCs and/or VHCs and captured by a vacuum suction system (e.g.
Optimised removal and
achieving refrigerant removal of at least 90 %). Refrigerants are
a. capture of refrigerants
separated from oils and the oils are degassed.
and oils
The amount of oil remaining in the compressor is reduced to a
minimum (so that the compressor does not drip).
Waste gas containing organic compounds such as VFCs/VHCs is
sent to a cryogenic condensation unit where they are liquefied (see
b. Cryogenic condensation
description in Section 6.6.1). The liquefied gas is stored in
pressurised vessels for further treatment.
Waste gas containing organic compounds such as VFCs/VHCs is led
into adsorption systems (see description in Section 6.6.1). The spent
activated carbon is regenerated by means of heated air pumped into
the filter to desorb the organic compounds. Subsequently, the
regeneration waste gas is compressed and cooled in order to liquefy
c. Adsorption
the organic compounds (in some cases by cryogenic condensation).
The liquefied gas is then stored in pressurised vessels. The
remaining waste gas from the compression stage is usually led back
into the adsorption system in order to minimise VFC/VHC
emissions.

Table 6.4: BAT-associated emission levels (BAT-AELs) for channelled TVOC and CFC
emissions to air from the treatment of WEEE containing VFCs and/or VHCs

BAT-AEL
Parameter Unit
(Average over the sampling period)
TVOC mg/Nm3 3–15
CFCs mg/Nm3 0.5–10

The associated monitoring is given in BAT 8.

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6.2.3.2 Explosions

BAT 30. In order to prevent emissions due to explosions when treating WEEE
containing VFCs and/or VHCs, BAT is to use either of the techniques given below.

Technique Description
By injecting inert gas (e.g. nitrogen), the oxygen concentration in
a. Inert atmosphere enclosed equipment (e.g. in enclosed shredders, crushers, dust and
foam collectors) is reduced (e.g. to 4 vol-%).
By using forced ventilation, the hydrocarbon concentration in
b. Forced ventilation enclosed equipment (e.g. in enclosed shredders, crushers, dust and
foam collectors) is reduced to < 25 % of the lower explosive limit.

6.2.4 BAT conclusions for the mechanical treatment of waste with

calorific value

In addition to BAT 25, the BAT conclusions presented in this section apply to the mechanical
treatment of waste with calorific value covered by points 5.3 a) iii) and 5.3 b) ii) of Annex I to
Directive 2010/75/EU.

6.2.4.1 Emissions to air

BAT 31. In order to reduce emissions to air of organic compounds, BAT is to apply
BAT 14d and to use one or a combination of the techniques given below.

Technique Description
a. Adsorption

b. Biofilter
See Section 6.6.1.
c. Thermal oxidation

d. Wet scrubbing

Table 6.5: BAT-associated emission level (BAT-AEL) for channelled TVOC emissions to air
from the mechanical treatment of waste with calorific value

BAT-AEL
Parameter Unit
(Average over the sampling period)
TVOC mg/Nm3 10–30 (1)
1
( ) The BAT-AEL only applies when organic compounds are identified as relevant in the waste gas stream, based on
the inventory mentioned in BAT 3.

The associated monitoring is given in BAT 8.

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6.2.5 BAT conclusions for the mechanical treatment of WEEE

containing mercury

Unless otherwise stated, the BAT conclusions presented in this section apply to the mechanical
treatment of WEEE containing mercury, in addition to BAT 25.

6.2.5.1 Emissions to air

BAT 32. In order to reduce mercury emissions to air, BAT is to collect mercury
emissions at source, to send them to abatement and to carry out adequate monitoring.

Description
This includes all of the following measures:

 equipment used to treat WEEE containing mercury is enclosed, under negative pressure
and connected to a local exhaust ventilation (LEV) system;
 waste gas from the processes is treated by dedusting techniques such as cyclones, fabric
filters, and HEPA filters, followed by adsorption on activated carbon (see Section 6.6.1);
 the efficiency of the waste gas treatment is monitored;
 mercury levels in the treatment and storage areas are measured frequently (e.g. once every
week) to detect potential mercury leaks.

Table 6.6: BAT-associated emission level (BAT-AEL) for channelled mercury emissions to air
from the mechanical treatment of WEEE containing mercury

BAT-AEL
Parameter Unit
(Average over the sampling period)
Mercury (Hg) µg/Nm3 2–7

The associated monitoring is given in BAT 8.

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6.3 BAT conclusions for the biological treatment of waste

Unless otherwise stated, the BAT conclusions presented in Section 6.3 apply to the biological
treatment of waste, and in addition to the general BAT conclusions in Section 6.1. The BAT
conclusions in Section 3 do not apply to the treatment of water-based liquid waste.

6.3.1 General BAT conclusions for the biological treatment of waste

6.3.1.1 Overall environmental performance

BAT 33. In order to reduce odour emissions and to improve the overall environmental
performance, BAT is to select the waste input.

Description
The technique consists of carrying out the pre-acceptance, acceptance and sorting of the waste
input (see BAT 2) so as to ensure the suitability of the waste input for the waste treatment, e.g.
in terms of nutrient balance, moisture or toxic compounds which may reduce the biological
activity.

6.3.1.2 Emissions to air

BAT 34. In order to reduce channelled emissions to air of dust, organic compounds and
odorous compounds, including H2S and NH3, BAT is to use one or a combination of the
techniques given below.

Technique Description
a. Adsorption See Section 6.6.1.
See Section 6.6.1.
A pretreatment of the waste gas before the biofilter (e.g. with a water or
acid scrubber) may be needed in the case of a high NH3 content (e.g. 5–
40 mg/Nm3) in order to control the media pH and to limit the formation
b. Biofilter of N2O in the biofilter.
Some other odorous compounds (e.g. mercaptans, H2S) can cause
acidification of the biofilter media and necessitate the use of a water or
alkaline scrubber for pretreatment of the waste gas before the biofilter.
See Section 6.6.1. The fabric filter is used in the case of mechanical
c. Fabric filter biological treatment of waste.
d. Thermal oxidation See Section 6.6.1.
See Section 6.6.1. Water, acid or alkaline scrubbers are used in
e. Wet scrubbing combination with a biofilter, thermal oxidation or adsorption on activated
carbon.

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Table 6.7: BAT-associated emission levels (BAT-AELs) for channelled NH3, odour, dust and
TVOC emissions to air from the biological treatment of waste
BAT-AEL
Parameter Unit (Average over the sampling Waste treatment process
period)
NH3 (1) (2) mg/Nm3 0.3–20
Odour All biological treatments of waste
ouE/Nm3 200–1 000
concentration (1) (2)
Dust mg/Nm3 2–5 Mechanical biological treatment
TVOC mg/Nm3 5–40 (3) of waste
(1) Either the BAT-AEL for NH3 or the BAT-AEL for the odour concentration applies.
(2) This BAT-AEL does not apply to the treatment of waste mainly composed of manure.
(3) The lower end of the range can be achieved by using thermal oxidation.

The associated monitoring is given in BAT 8.

6.3.1.3 Emissions to water and water usage

BAT 35. In order to reduce the generation of waste water and to reduce water usage,
BAT is to use all of the techniques given below.

Technique Description Applicability

Generally applicable to
new plants.
Leachate seeping from compost
piles and windrows is Generally applicable to
a. Segregation of water streams segregated from surface run-off existing plants within the
water (see BAT 19f). constraints associated with
the layout of the water
circuits.
Recirculating process water
streams (e.g. from dewatering of
liquid digestate in anaerobic
processes) or using as much as
possible other water streams
(e.g. water condensate, rinsing
water, surface run-off water).
b. Water recirculation The degree of recirculation is Generally applicable.
limited by the water balance of
the plant, the content of
impurities (e.g. heavy metals,
salts, pathogens, odorous
compounds) and/or the
characteristics of the water
streams (e.g. nutrient content).
Optimising the moisture content
Minimisation of the generation of the waste in order to
c. of leachate Generally applicable.
minimise the generation of
leachate.

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6.3.2 BAT conclusions for the aerobic treatment of waste

Unless otherwise stated, the BAT conclusions presented in this section apply to the aerobic
treatment of waste, and in addition to the general BAT conclusions for the biological treatment
of waste in Section 6.3.1.

6.3.2.1 Overall environmental performance

BAT 36. In order to reduce emissions to air and to improve the overall environmental
performance, BAT is to monitor and/or control the key waste and process parameters.

Description
Monitoring and/or control of key waste and process parameters, including:

 waste input characteristics (e.g. C to N ratio, particle size);

 temperature and moisture content at different points in the windrow;
 aeration of the windrow (e.g. via the windrow turning frequency, O2 and/or CO2
concentration in the windrow, temperature of air streams in the case of forced aeration);
 windrow porosity, height and width.

Applicability
Monitoring of the moisture content in the windrow is not applicable to enclosed processes when
health and/or safety issues have been identified. In that case, the moisture content can be
monitored before loading the waste into the enclosed composting stage and adjusted when it
exits the enclosed composting stage.

6.3.2.2 Odour and diffuse emissions to air

BAT 37. In order to reduce diffuse emissions to air of dust, odour and bioaerosols from
open-air treatment steps, BAT is to use one or both of the techniques given below.

Technique Description Applicability

Use of semipermeable Active composting windrows are covered by
a. Generally applicable.
membrane covers semipermeable membranes.
This includes techniques such as the
following:

 Taking into account weather conditions

and forecasts when undertaking major
outdoor process activities. For instance,
avoiding formation or turning of
windrows or piles, screening or
shredding in the case of adverse
meteorological conditions in terms of
Adaptation of operations to emissions dispersion (e.g. the wind speed
b. Generally applicable.
the meteorological conditions is too low or too high, or the wind blows
in the direction of sensitive receptors).

 Orientating windrows, so that the

smallest possible area of composting
mass is exposed to the prevailing wind, to
reduce the dispersion of pollutants from
the windrow surface. The windrows and
piles are preferably located at the lowest
elevation within the overall site layout.

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6.3.3 BAT conclusions for the anaerobic treatment of waste

Unless otherwise stated, the BAT conclusions presented in this section apply to the anaerobic
treatment of waste, and in addition to the general BAT conclusions for the biological treatment
of waste in Section 6.3.1.

6.3.3.1 Emissions to air

BAT 38. In order to reduce emissions to air and to improve the overall environmental
performance, BAT is to monitor and/or control the key waste and process parameters.

Description
Implementation of a manual and/or automatic monitoring system to:

 ensure a stable digester operation;

 minimise operational difficulties, such as foaming, which may lead to odour emissions;
 provide sufficient early warning of system failures which may lead to a loss of
containment and explosions.

This includes monitoring and/or control of key waste and process parameters, e.g.:

 pH and alkalinity of the digester feed;

 digester operating temperature;
 hydraulic and organic loading rates of the digester feed;
 concentration of volatile fatty acids (VFA) and ammonia within the digester and
digestate;
 biogas quantity, composition (e.g. H2S) and pressure;
 liquid and foam levels in the digester.

6.3.4 BAT conclusions for the mechanical biological treatment (MBT)

of waste

Unless otherwise stated, the BAT conclusions presented in this section apply to MBT, and in
addition to the general BAT conclusions for the biological treatment of waste in Section 6.3.1.

The BAT conclusions for the aerobic treatment (Section 6.3.2) and anaerobic treatment
(Section 6.3.3) of waste apply, when relevant, to the mechanical biological treatment of waste.

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6.3.4.1 Emissions to air

BAT 39. In order to reduce emissions to air, BAT is to use both of the techniques given
below.

Technique Description Applicability

Splitting of the total waste gas
stream into waste gas streams
with a high pollutant content and
Segregation of the waste gas
a. waste gas streams with a low
streams
pollutant content, as identified in
the inventory mentioned in
BAT 3.
Recirculation of waste gas with a
low pollutant content in the
Generally applicable to new
biological process followed by
plants.
waste gas treatment adapted to
the concentration of pollutants
Generally applicable to existing
(see BAT 34).
plants within the constraints
The use of waste gas in the
associated with the layout of the
biological process may be limited
air circuits.
b. Recirculation of waste gas by the waste gas temperature
and/or the pollutant content.
It may be necessary to condense
the water vapour contained in the
waste gas before reuse. In this
case, cooling is necessary, and the
condensed water is recirculated
when possible (see BAT 35) or
treated before discharge.

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6.4 BAT conclusions for the physico-chemical treatment of

waste
Unless otherwise stated, the BAT conclusions presented in Section 6.4 apply to the physico-
chemical treatment of waste, and in addition to the general BAT conclusions in Section 6.1.

6.4.1 BAT conclusions for the physico-chemical treatment of solid

and/or pasty waste

6.4.1.1 Overall environmental performance

BAT 40. In order to improve the overall environmental performance, BAT is to

monitor the waste input as part of the waste pre-acceptance and acceptance procedures
(see BAT 2).

Description
Monitoring the waste input, e.g. in terms of:
 content of organics, oxidising agents, metals (e.g. mercury), salts, odorous compounds;
 H2 formation potential upon mixing of flue-gas treatment residues, e.g. fly ashes, with
water.

6.4.1.2 Emissions to air

BAT 41. In order to reduce emissions of dust, organic compounds and NH3 to air, BAT
is to apply BAT 14d and to use one or a combination of the techniques given below.

Technique Description
a. Adsorption
b. Biofilter
See Section 6.6.1.
c. Fabric filter
d. Wet scrubbing

Table 6.8: BAT-associated emission level (BAT-AEL) for channelled emissions of dust to air
from the physico-chemical treatment of solid and/or pasty waste
BAT-AEL
Parameter Unit
(Average over the sampling period)
Dust mg/Nm3 2–5

The associated monitoring is given in BAT 8.

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6.4.2 BAT conclusions for the re-refining of waste oil

6.4.2.1 Overall environmental performance

BAT 42. In order to improve the overall environmental performance, BAT is to

monitor the waste input as part of the waste pre-acceptance and acceptance procedures
(see BAT 2).

Description
Monitoring of the waste input in terms of content of chlorinated compounds (e.g. chlorinated
solvents or PCBs).

BAT 43. In order to reduce the quantity of waste sent for disposal, BAT is to use one or
both of the techniques given below.

Technique Description
Using the organic residues from vacuum distillation, solvent
a. Material recovery
extraction, thin film evaporators, etc. in asphalt products, etc.
Using the organic residues from vacuum distillation, solvent
b. Energy recovery
extraction, thin film evaporators, etc. to recover energy.

6.4.2.2 Emissions to air

BAT 44. In order to reduce emissions of organic compounds to air, BAT is to apply
BAT 14d and to use one or a combination of the techniques given below.

Technique Description
a. Adsorption See Section 6.6.1.
See Section 6.6.1. This includes when the waste gas is sent to a
b. Thermal oxidation
process furnace or a boiler.
c. Wet scrubbing See Section 6.6.1.

The BAT-AEL set in Section 6.4.5 applies.

The associated monitoring is given in BAT 8.

6.4.3 BAT conclusions for the physico-chemical treatment of waste

with calorific value

6.4.3.1 Emissions to air

BAT 45. In order to reduce emissions of organic compounds to air, BAT is to apply
BAT 14d and to use one or a combination of the techniques given below.

Technique Description
a. Adsorption

b. Cryogenic condensation
See Section 6.6.1
c. Thermal oxidation
d. Wet scrubbing

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The BAT-AEL set in Section 6.4.5 applies.

The associated monitoring is given in BAT 8.

6.4.4 BAT conclusions for the regeneration of spent solvents

6.4.4.1 Overall environmental performance

BAT 46. In order to improve the overall environmental performance of the

regeneration of spent solvents, BAT is to use one or both of the techniques given below.

Technique Description Applicability

Applicability may be restricted
Solvents are recovered from the when the energy demand is
a. Material recovery distillation residues by evaporation. excessive with regards to the
quantity of solvent recovered.
The residues from distillation are
b. Energy recovery used to recover energy.
Generally applicable.

6.4.4.2 Emissions to air

BAT 47. In order to reduce emissions of organic compounds to air, BAT is to apply
BAT 14d and to use a combination of the techniques given below.

Technique Description Applicability

May not be applicable to the
Recirculation of process The process off-gases from the treatment of halogenated solvent
a. off-gases in a steam condensers are sent to the steam wastes, in order to avoid
boiler boiler supplying the plant. generating and emitting PCBs
and/or PCDD/F.
There may be limitations to the
applicability of the technique due
b. Adsorption See Section 6.6.1. to safety reasons (e.g. activated
carbon beds tend to self-ignite
when loaded with ketones).
May not be applicable to the
treatment of halogenated solvent
c. Thermal oxidation See Section 6.6.1. wastes, in order to avoid
generating and emitting PCBs
and/or PCDD/F.
Condensation or
d. cryogenic condensation See Section 6.6.1. Generally applicable.

e. Wet scrubbing See Section 6.6.1. Generally applicable.

The BAT-AEL set in Section 6.4.5 applies.

The associated monitoring is given in BAT 8.

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6.4.5 BAT-AEL for emissions of organic compounds to air from the

re-refining of waste oil, the physico-chemical treatment of waste
with calorific value and the regeneration of spent solvents

Table 6.9: BAT-associated emission level (BAT-AEL) for channelled emissions of TVOC to air
from the re-refining of waste oil, the physico-chemical treatment of waste with
calorific value and the regeneration of spent solvents

BAT-AEL (1)
Parameter Unit
(Average over the sampling period)

TVOC mg/Nm3 5–30

(1) The BAT-AEL does not apply when the emission load is below 2 kg/h at the emission point provided that no CMR
substances are identified as relevant in the waste gas stream, based on the inventory mentioned in BAT 3.

6.4.6 BAT conclusions for the thermal treatment of spent activated

carbon, waste catalysts and excavated contaminated soil

6.4.6.1 Overall environmental performance

BAT 48. In order to improve the overall environmental performance of the thermal
treatment of spent activated carbon, waste catalysts and excavated contaminated soil,
BAT is to use all of the techniques given below.

Technique Description Applicability

Recovered heat may be used, for
example, for preheating of
Heat recovery from the combustion air or for the
a. Generally applicable.
furnace off-gas generation of steam, which is
also used in the reactivation of
the spent activated carbon.
Indirectly fired furnaces are
normally constructed with a
An indirectly fired furnace is
metal tube and applicability may
used to avoid contact between
be restricted due to corrosion
b. Indirectly fired furnace the contents of the furnace and
problems.
the flue-gases from the
There may be also economic
burner(s).
restrictions for retrofitting
existing plants.
This includes techniques such
as:
 control of the furnace
temperature and of the
rotation speed of the rotary
Process-integrated techniques furnace;
c. Generally applicable.
to reduce emissions to air
 choice of fuel;
 use of a sealed furnace or
operation of the furnace at
a reduced pressure to avoid
diffuse emissions to air.

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6.4.6.2 Emissions to air

BAT 49. In order to reduce emissions of HCl, HF, dust and organic compounds to air,
BAT is to apply BAT 14d and to use one or a combination of the techniques given below.

Technique Description
See Section 6.6.1. The technique is used in combination with
a. Cyclone
further abatement techniques.
b. Electrostatic precipitator (ESP)
c. Fabric filter
d. Wet scrubbing
See Section 6.6.1.
e. Adsorption
f. Condensation
g. Thermal oxidation (1)
(1) Thermal oxidation is carried out with a minimum temperature of 1 100 °C and a two-second residence time for the
regeneration of activated carbon used in industrial applications where refractory halogenated or other thermally
resistant substances are likely to be present. In the case of activated carbon used for potable water- and food-grade
applications, an afterburner with a minimum heating temperature of 850 °C and a two-second residence time is
sufficient (see Section 6.6.1).

The associated monitoring is given in BAT 8.

6.4.7 BAT conclusions for the water washing of excavated

contaminated soil

6.4.7.1 Emissions to air

BAT 50. In order to reduce emissions of dust and organic compounds to air from the
storage, handling, and washing steps, BAT is to apply BAT 14d and to use one or a
combination of the techniques given below.

Technique Description
a. Adsorption
b. Fabric filter See Section 6.6.1.
c. Wet scrubbing

The associated monitoring is given in BAT 8.

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6.4.8 BAT conclusions for the decontamination of equipment

containing PCBs

6.4.8.1 Overall environmental performance

BAT 51. In order to improve the overall environmental performance and to reduce
channelled emissions of PCBs and organic compounds to air, BAT is to use all of the
techniques given below.

Technique Description
This includes techniques such as:
Coating of the storage and treatment
a.  resin coating applied to the concrete floor of the
areas
whole storage and treatment area.
This includes techniques such as:
 access points to storage and treatment areas are
locked;
Implementation of staff access rules
 special qualification is required to access the area
b. to prevent dispersion of
where the contaminated equipment is stored and
contamination
handled;
 separate 'clean' and 'dirty' cloakrooms to put
on/remove individual protective outfit.
This includes techniques such as:
 external surfaces of the contaminated equipment are
cleaned with anionic detergent;
 emptying of the equipment with a pump or under
vacuum instead of gravity emptying;
Optimised equipment cleaning and  procedures are defined and used for filling,
c.
drainage emptying and (dis)connecting the vacuum vessel;
 a long period of drainage (at least 12 hours) is
ensured to avoid any dripping of contaminated liquid
during further treatment operations, after the
separation of the core from the casing of an electrical
transformer.
This includes techniques such as:
 the air of the decontamination area is collected and
treated with activated carbon filters;
 the exhaust of the vacuum pump mentioned in
technique c. above is connected to an end-of-pipe
abatement system (e.g. a high-temperature
Control and monitoring of emissions
d. incinerator, thermal oxidation or adsorption on
to air
activated carbon);
 the channelled emissions are monitored (see
BAT 8);
 the potential atmospheric deposition of PCBs is
monitored (e.g. through physico-chemical
measurements or biomonitoring).
This includes techniques such as:
 porous, contaminated parts of the electrical
transformer (wood and paper) are sent to high-
e. Disposal of waste treatment residues temperature incineration;
 PCBs in the oils are destroyed (e.g. dechlorination,
hydrogenation, solvated electron processes, high-
temperature incineration).
Recovery of solvent when solvent Organic solvent is collected and distilled to be reused in
f.
washing is used the process.

The associated monitoring is given in BAT 8.

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6.5 BAT conclusions for the treatment of water-based liquid

waste
Unless otherwise stated, the BAT conclusions presented in Section 6.5 apply to the treatment of
water-based liquid waste, and in addition to the general BAT conclusions in Section 6.1.

6.5.1 Overall environmental performance

BAT 52. In order to improve the overall environmental performance, BAT is to

monitor the waste input as part of the waste pre-acceptance and acceptance procedures
(see BAT 2).

Description
Monitoring the waste input, e.g. in terms of:

 bioeliminability (e.g. BOD, BOD to COD ratio, Zahn-Wellens test, biological inhibition
potential (e.g. inhibition of activated sludge));
 feasibility of emulsion breaking, e.g. by means of laboratory-scale tests.

6.5.2 Emissions to air

BAT 53. In order to reduce emissions of HCl, NH3 and organic compounds to air, BAT
is to apply BAT 14d and to use one or a combination of the techniques given below.

Technique Description
a. Adsorption

b. Biofilter
See Section 6.6.1.
c. Thermal oxidation

d. Wet scrubbing

Table 6.10: BAT-associated emission levels (BAT-AELs) for channelled emissions of HCl and
TVOC to air from the treatment of water-based liquid waste

BAT-AEL (1)
Parameter Unit
(Average over the sampling period)
Hydrogen chloride (HCl) 1–5
mg/Nm3
TVOC 3–20 (2)
(1) These BAT-AELs only apply when the substance concerned is identified as relevant in the waste gas stream,
based on the inventory mentioned in BAT 3.
(2) The upper end of the range is 45 mg/Nm3 when the emission load is below 0.5 kg/h at the emission point.

The associated monitoring is given in BAT 8.

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6.6 Description of techniques

6.6.1 Channelled emissions to air

Typical pollutant(s)
Technique Description
abated
Adsorption is a heterogeneous reaction in which gas molecules
are retained on a solid or liquid surface that prefers specific
compounds to others and thus removes them from effluent
Mercury, volatile
streams. When the surface has adsorbed as much as it can, the
organic compounds,
Adsorption adsorbent is replaced or the adsorbed content is desorbed as
hydrogen sulphide,
part of the regeneration of the adsorbent. When desorbed, the
odorous compounds
contaminants are usually at a higher concentration and can
either be recovered or disposed of. The most common
adsorbent is granular activated carbon.
The waste gas stream is passed through a bed of organic
material (such as peat, heather, compost, root, tree bark,
softwood and different combinations) or some inert material
(such as clay, activated carbon, and polyurethane), where it is
biologically oxidised by naturally occurring microorganisms
Ammonia, hydrogen into carbon dioxide, water, inorganic salts and biomass.
sulphide, volatile A biofilter is designed considering the type(s) of waste input.
Biofilter
organic compounds, An appropriate bed material, e.g. in terms of water retention
odorous compounds capacity, bulk density, porosity, structural integrity, is selected.
Also important are an appropriate height and surface area of the
filter bed. The biofilter is connected to a suitable ventilation
and air circulation system in order to ensure a uniform air
distribution through the bed and a sufficient residence time of
the waste gas inside the bed.
Condensation is a technique that eliminates solvent vapours
from a waste gas stream by reducing its temperature below its
dew point. For cryogenic condensation, the operating
temperature can be down to -120 °C, but in practice it is often
Condensation
Volatile organic between -40 °C and -80 °C in the condensation device.
and cryogenic
compounds Cryogenic condensation can cope with all VOCs and volatile
condensation
inorganic pollutants, irrespective of their individual vapour
pressures. The low temperatures applied allow for very high
condensation efficiencies which make it well-suited as a final
VOC emission control technique.
Cyclone filters are used to remove heavier particulates, which
‘fall out’ as the waste gases are forced into a rotating motion
Cyclone Dust before they leave the separator.
Cyclones are used to control particulate material, primarily
PM10.
Electrostatic precipitators operate such that particles are
charged and separated under the influence of an electrical field.
Electrostatic Electrostatic precipitators are capable of operating under a wide
precipitator Dust range of conditions. In a dry ESP, the collected material is
(ESP) mechanically removed (e.g. by shaking, vibration, compressed
air), while in a wet ESP it is flushed with a suitable liquid,
usually water.
Fabric filters, often referred to as bag filters, are constructed
from porous woven or felted fabric through which gases are
Fabric filter Dust passed to remove particles. The use of a fabric filter requires
the selection of a fabric suitable for the characteristics of the
waste gas and the maximum operating temperature.
HEPA filters (high-efficiency particle air filters) are absolute
filters. The filter medium consists of paper or matted glass fibre
HEPA filter Dust
with a high packing density. The waste gas stream is passed
through the filter medium, where particulate matter is collected.

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The oxidation of combustible gases and odorants in a waste gas

stream by heating the mixture of contaminants with air or
Thermal Volatile organic
oxygen to above its auto-ignition point in a combustion
oxidation compounds
chamber and maintaining it at a high temperature long enough
to complete its combustion to carbon dioxide and water.
Dust, volatile organic
compounds, gaseous The removal of gaseous or particulate pollutants from a gas
acidic compounds stream via mass transfer to a liquid solvent, often water or an
Wet
(alkaline scrubber), aqueous solution. It may involve a chemical reaction (e.g. in an
scrubbing
gaseous alkaline acid or alkaline scrubber). In some cases, the compounds may
compounds (acid be recovered from the solvent.
scrubber)

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6.6.2 Diffuse emissions of organic compounds to air

A structured approach to reduce fugitive emissions

of organic compounds by detection and subsequent
repair or replacement of leaking components.
Currently, sniffing (described by EN 15446) and
optical gas imaging methods are available for the
identification of leaks.
Sniffing method: The first step is the detection
using hand-held organic compound analysers
measuring the concentration adjacent to the
equipment (e.g. using flame ionisation or photo-
ionisation). The second step consists of enclosing
the component in an impermeable bag to carry out
a direct measurement at the source of the emission.
This second step is sometimes replaced by
Leak detection and repair Volatile organic
mathematical correlation curves derived from
(LDAR) programme compounds
statistical results obtained from a large number of
previous measurements made on similar
components.
Optical gas imaging methods: Optical imaging
uses small lightweight hand-held cameras which
enable the visualisation of gas leaks in real time, so
that they appear as 'smoke' on a video recorder
together with the normal image of the component
concerned, to easily and rapidly locate significant
organic compound leaks. Active systems produce
an image with a back-scattered infrared laser light
reflected on the component and its surroundings.
Passive systems are based on the natural infrared
radiation of the equipment and its surroundings.
Sniffing and optical gas imaging methods are
described under leak detection and repair
programme.
Full screening and quantification of emissions from
the installation can be undertaken with an
appropriate combination of complementary
methods, e.g. Solar occultation flux (SOF) or
Differential absorption LIDAR (DIAL) campaigns.
These results can be used for trend evaluation over
time, cross-checking and updating/validation of the
ongoing LDAR programme.
Solar occultation flux (SOF): The technique is
Measurement of diffuse Volatile organic
based on the recording and spectrometric Fourier
VOC emissions compounds
Transform analysis of a broadband infrared or
ultraviolet/visible sunlight spectrum along a given
geographical itinerary, crossing the wind direction
and cutting through VOC plumes.
Differential absorption LIDAR (DIAL): This is a
laser-based technique using differential absorption
LIDAR (light detection and ranging), which is the
optical analogue of radio wave-based RADAR.
The technique relies on the backscattering of laser
beam pulses by atmospheric aerosols, and the
analysis of the spectral properties of the returned
light collected with a telescope.

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6.6.3 Emissions to water

Typical pollutant(s)
Technique Description
targeted
The biological oxidation of dissolved
organic pollutants with oxygen using
the metabolism of microorganisms. In
the presence of dissolved oxygen
(injected as air or pure oxygen), the
organic components are transformed
into carbon dioxide, water or other
Biodegradable organic metabolites and biomass (i.e. the
Activated sludge process
compounds activated sludge). The
microorganisms are maintained in
suspension in the waste water and the
whole mixture is mechanically
aerated. The activated sludge mixture
is sent to a separation facility from
where the sludge is recycled to the
aeration tank.
Adsorbable dissolved Separation method in which
non-biodegradable or compounds (i.e. pollutants) in a fluid
Adsorption inhibitory pollutants, e.g. (i.e. waste water) are retained on a
hydrocarbons, mercury, solid surface (typically activated
AOX carbon).
Organic compounds are oxidised to
less harmful and more easily
biodegradable compounds.
Techniques include wet oxidation or
Oxidisable dissolved
oxidation with ozone or hydrogen
non-biodegradable or
Chemical oxidation peroxide, optionally supported by
inhibitory pollutants, e.g.
catalysts or UV radiation. Chemical
nitrite, cyanide
oxidation is also used to degrade
organic compounds causing odour,
taste and colour and for disinfection
purposes.
Reducible dissolved
Chemical reduction is the conversion
non-biodegradable or
of pollutants by chemical reducing
Chemical reduction inhibitory pollutants, e.g.
agents into similar but less harmful or
hexavalent chromium
hazardous compounds.
(Cr(VI))
Coagulation and flocculation are used
to separate suspended solids from
waste water and are often carried out
in successive steps. Coagulation is
carried out by adding coagulants with
charges opposite to those of the
Suspended solids and suspended solids. Flocculation is
Coagulation and flocculation
particulate-bound metals carried out by adding polymers, so
that collisions of microfloc particles
cause them to bond to produce larger
flocs. The flocs formed are
subsequently separated by
sedimentation, air flotation or
filtration.

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Distillation is a technique to separate

compounds with different boiling
points by partial evaporation and
Dissolved non- recondensation.
biodegradable or Waste water distillation is the removal
Distillation/rectification inhibitory pollutants that of low-boiling contaminants from
can be distilled, e.g. waste water by transferring them into
some solvents the vapour phase. Distillation is
carried out in columns, equipped with
plates or packing material, and a
downstream condenser.
Balancing of flows and pollutant loads
Equalisation All pollutants by using tanks or other management
techniques.
The use of distillation (see above) to
concentrate aqueous solutions of high-
boiling substances for further use,
processing or disposal (e.g. waste
water incineration) by transferring
Evaporation Soluble pollutants water to the vapour phase. It is
typically carried out in multistage
units with increasing vacuum, to
reduce the energy demand. The water
vapours are condensed, to be reused
or discharged as waste water.
The separation of solids from waste
water by passing them through a
Filtration
porous medium, e.g. sand filtration,
microfiltration and ultrafiltration.
Suspended solids and The separation of solid or liquid
particulate-bound metals particles from waste water by
attaching them to fine gas bubbles,
Flotation
usually air. The buoyant particles
accumulate at the water surface and
are collected with skimmers.
The retention of undesired or
hazardous ionic constituents of waste
Ionic dissolved non-
water and their replacement by more
biodegradable or
Ion exchange acceptable ions using an ion exchange
inhibitory pollutants, e.g.
resin. The pollutants are temporarily
metals
retained and afterwards released into a
regeneration or backwashing liquid.
A combination of activated sludge
treatment and membrane filtration.
Two variants are used: a) an external
recirculation loop between the
activated sludge tank and the
Biodegradable organic
Membrane bioreactor membrane module; and b) immersion
compounds
of the membrane module in the
aerated activated sludge tank, where
the effluent is filtered through a
hollow fibre membrane, the biomass
remaining in the tank.
Microfiltration (MF) and
ultrafiltration (UF) are membrane
filtration processes that retain and
Suspended solids and
Membrane filtration concentrate, on one side of the
particulate-bound metals
membrane, pollutants such as
suspended particles and colloidal
particles contained in waste waters.

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The adjustment of the pH of waste

water to a neutral level
(approximately 7) by the addition of
chemicals. Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
or calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) may
Neutralisation Acids, alkalis be used to increase the pH, whereas
sulphuric acid (H2SO4), hydrochloric
acid (HCl) or carbon dioxide (CO2)
may be used to decrease the pH. The
precipitation of some pollutants may
occur during neutralisation.
A two-step process that is typically
incorporated into biological waste
water treatment plants. The first step
is aerobic nitrification where
microorganisms oxidise ammonium
Nitrification/denitrification Total nitrogen, ammonia (NH4+) to the intermediate nitrite
(NO2-), which is then further oxidised
to nitrate (NO3-). In the subsequent
anoxic denitrification step,
microorganisms chemically reduce
nitrate to nitrogen gas.
The separation of oil and water and
subsequent oil removal by gravity
separation of free oil, using separation
Oil-water separation Oil/grease equipment or emulsion breaking
(using emulsion breaking chemicals
such as metal salts, mineral acids,
adsorbents and organic polymers).
Suspended solids and The separation of suspended particles
Sedimentation
particulate-bound metals by gravitational settling.
The conversion of dissolved
Precipitable dissolved pollutants into insoluble compounds
non-biodegradable or by adding precipitants. The solid
Precipitation
inhibitory pollutants, e.g. precipitates formed are subsequently
metals, phosphorus separated by sedimentation, air
flotation or filtration.
The removal of purgeable pollutants
Purgeable pollutants, e.g. from the aqueous phase by a gaseous
hydrogen sulphide phase (e.g. steam, nitrogen or air) that
(H2S), ammonia (NH3), is passed through the liquid. They are
Stripping some adsorbable subsequently recovered (e.g. by
organically bound condensation) for further use or
halogens (AOX), disposal. The removal efficiency may
hydrocarbons be enhanced by increasing the
temperature or reducing the pressure.

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6.6.4 Sorting techniques

Technique Description
Air classification (or air separation, or aeraulic separation) is
a process of approximate sizing of dry mixtures of different
particle sizes into groups or grades at cut points ranging from
10 mesh to sub-mesh sizes. Air classifiers (also called
Air classification
windsifters) complement screens in applications requiring cut
points below commercial screen sizes, and supplement sieves
and screens for coarser cuts where the special advantages of
air classification warrant it.
Metals (ferrous and non-ferrous) are sorted by means of a
detection coil, in which the magnetic field is influenced by
All-metal separator
metal particles, linked to a processor that controls the air jet
for ejecting the materials that have been detected.
Non-ferrous metals are sorted by means of eddy current
separators. An eddy current is induced by a series of rare
earth magnetic or ceramic rotors at the head of a conveyor
Electromagnetic separation of non- that spins at high speed independently of the conveyor. This
ferrous metals process induces temporary magnetic forces in non-magnetic
metals of the same polarity as the rotor, causing the metals to
be repelled away and then separated from the other
feedstock.
Material is manually separated by means of visual
examination by staff on a picking line or on the floor, either
to selectively remove a target material from a general waste
Manual separation stream or to remove contamination from an output stream to
increase purity. This technique generally targets recyclables
(glass, plastic, etc.) and any contaminants, hazardous
materials and oversized materials such as WEEE.
Ferrous metals are sorted by means of a magnet which
attracts ferrous metal materials. This can be carried out, for
Magnetic separation
example, by an overband magnetic separator or a magnetic
drum.
Materials are sorted by means of a near-infrared sensor
which scans the whole width of the belt conveyor and
transmits the characteristic spectra of the different materials
Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS)
to a data processor which controls an air jet for ejecting the
materials that have been detected. Generally NIRS is not
suitable for sorting black materials.
Solid materials are separated into two flows by exploiting the
Sink-float tanks
different material densities.
Materials are sorted according to their particle size. This can
be carried out by drum screens, linear and circular oscillating
Size separation
screens, flip-flop screens, flat screens, tumbler screens and
moving grates.
Materials are separated according to their density and size,
moving (in slurry in the case of wet tables or wet density
Vibration table
separators) across an inclined table, which oscillates
backwards and forwards.
Material composites are sorted according to various material
densities, halogen components, or organic components, with
X-ray systems the aid of X-rays. The characteristics of the different
materials are transmitted to a data processor which controls
an air jet for ejecting the materials that have been detected.

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6.6.5 Management techniques

The accident management plan is part of the EMS (see

BAT 1) and identifies hazards posed by the plant and the
associated risks and defines measures to address these risks.
Accident management plan
It considers the inventory of pollutants present or likely to be
present which could have environmental consequences if
they escape.
A residues management plan is part of the EMS (see BAT 1)
and is a set of measures aiming to 1) minimise the
generation of residues arising from the treatment of waste, 2)
Residues management plan
optimise the reuse, regeneration, recycling and/or recovery
of energy of the residues, and 3) ensure the proper disposal
of residues.

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7 EMERGING TECHNIQUES
Article 3(14) of Directive 2010/75/EU defines an ‘emerging technique’ as a 'novel technique for
an industrial activity that, if commercially developed, could provide either a higher general level
of protection of the environment or at least the same level of protection of the environment and
higher cost savings than existing best available techniques'. This chapter contains those
techniques that may appear in the near future and that may be applicable to the waste treatment
sector.

7.1 General techniques

7.1.1 Online XRF analysis

Description
The technique of online analysis is one of the latest developments in the field of analysis and
quality assurance. It can be used for all applications in the preparation of solid recovered fuels.

Technical description
Online analysis is used for crushed and/or uncrushed materials, with automatic elimination of
materials that do not comply with the quality criteria, e.g. for solid recovered fuels - especially
when the chlorine and/or bromine values are exceeded.

The technique is based on high-speed X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis, whereby a large
quantity of crushed or uncrushed materials (depending on the technical performance and
definition) can be detected and/or analysed every hour and can be automatically eliminated by
overdrawing nominal stock.

The configuration of the measuring unit and/or analyser takes place directly above a conveyor.
A material stream as uniform as possible is directed under the measuring unit and/or analyser
and is analysed and/or measured.

If a limit value is exceeded, an electronic signal (digital or analogue) follows. Using software
and/or an electronics unit, the objectionable material is automatically (mechanically,
hydraulically, pneumatically, electrostatically or magnetically) discharged. The measuring unit
and/or analyser can be equipped with one or more X-ray tubes or with one or more detectors.

As an additional control and quality assurance for the material input, a hand-held unit can be
used too. The hand-held unit is also based on the X-ray fluorescence method and it can
especially used for the detection and/or analysis of chlorine, bromine and heavy metals.

Achieved environmental benefits

The following elements can be detected and analysed with this tool (depending on equipment
and software): Cl, Br, Cd, Hg, Pb, As, Se, Ni, Sb, Cu, Ba, Cr, Sn, Mo, Zn, Sr, Fe, Co, Ti, V, Rb,
Ir, Pt, Au, Ag, Pd, Nb, W, Bi, Mn, Ta, Zr, Hf, and Re.

Cross-media effects
No information provided.

Environmental performance and operational data

No information provided.

Economics
No information provided.

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Technical considerations related to applicability

This tool is applicable for practically all recycling metal, plastic, wood, glass, ground waste,
mud, and non-ferrous metal.

Example plants
No information provided.

Reference literature
[ 18, WT TWG 2004 ]

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7.2 Mechanical treatments

7.2.1 Mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste
[ 26, Mech. subgroup 2014 ]

7.2.1.1 Dissolution of VOCs

VOCs come from oil, grease and wax present in the shredder infeed. In the past these VOCs
came from EoLVs; nowadays EoLVs are depolluted with oil fuel and other removed liquid. It
follows that enforcing depollution prevents most sources of VOCs from entering the shredder in
the first place. EoLVs account for 30 % of scrap, the remainder is mixed scrap, and more mixed
scrap means lower VOCs. VOCs in mixed scrap can come from residues in aerosol cans, paint
tins and oil residues. Other sources can be plastics, rubber and hardened glues.

There are several technical approaches for VOC removal from shredder air systems. In
principle, there are four solutions:

 condensation of VOCs by forced cooling;

 adsorption of VOCs by activated carbon;
 destruction of VOCs in regenerative thermal oxidisers;
 dissolution of VOCs in liquids.

Dissolution of VOCs in water can easily be integrated into the current filter configuration since
the dust removal already includes a wet scrubber.

The set-up comprises a modified wet Venturi scrubber and a flue-gas scrubber followed by
water treatment through flotation (Figure 7.1). Tests have been conducted and have resulted in
collection of VOCs in the flotation agent residue, and, depending on the input, more than 60 %
of VOCs were removed. Peak emissions can therefore be reduced. Investment costs for the
VOC reduction are in the order of EUR 500 000 per installation. The increase in operating costs
is negligible, whilst residues for disposal increase by 1–2 m3 per day and may be disposed of
with other residues. The quality of the wash water is substantially improved.

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Source:[ 26, Mech. subgroup 2014 ] METSO

Figure 7.1: Dissolution of VOCs

Status
The dissolution of VOCs is still in the test phase concerning water additives, water cleanliness
and expected emission limit performance.

7.2.1.2 Abatement of VOCs in exhaust air from shredders by ionisation in

combination with activated carbon adsorption

Description
The technique consists of a combination of ionisation (oxidation of organic molecules by
injection of ionised air) and activated carbon adsorption for abatement of VOC emissions.

It is usually combined with the continuous monitoring of VOC emissions.

Technical description
Fresh air is ionised in a chamber where electrodes generate a strong electrical field. The
ionisation chamber is equipped with a pre-filter (filter class G4) to allow sufficiently low dust
levels in the extracted air.

In a subsequent (mixing) chamber, the ionised air stream is combined with the raw gas stream
from the shredder (15–20 % ionised air compared to the total exhaust air), which has passed
through a filter to ensure the required dust levels. Finally, the air passes through an activated
carbon filter. Regeneration of the activated carbon is performed by loading it with ionised air
only, to (partly) oxidise the adsorbed molecules, after each operational period of the shredder (at
night, when no exhaust air stream is generated).

Figure 7.2 shows a diagram of the technique as tested in the pilot plant.

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Source: [ 75, Umweltbundesamt (AT) 2015 ]

Figure 7.2: Diagram of the pilot installation performing ionisation and activated carbon
adsorption

Indication of when the technique might become commercially available

The technique described was tested in a one-month pilot test at an Austrian shredder plant of
Loacker Recycling GmbH in 2014, and a project is currently under way for the construction of a
large-scale filter unit at the plant based on the results. Currently, the service time of the
activated carbon filter is being optimised. At the German shredder plant of SRP Saarländische
Rohprodukte GmbH the technique is currently being tested at full scale.

Potential performance compared to existing best available techniques

 Reduced VOC emissions: abatement efficiency for VOCs has been found to be > 95 %.
 Reduced odour emissions: no measurable odour after the filter.
 Reduced dust emissions: considerably lower levels compared to state-of-the-art exhaust
air treatment using cyclones and wet scrubbers.

Cross-media effects
 Increase in energy use and use of raw materials (activated carbon).
 Generation of ozone in the electrical field of the ionisation chamber. If it is not
completely reacted in the activated carbon unit it may lead to ozone emissions.
 Generation of hazardous waste – saturated activated carbon to be treated.

Preliminary cost-benefit estimate

The investment costs for a typical shredder plant are estimated at approximately EUR 1 million.
Cost-determining factors are the applied dedusting technique, air flows and the type of
explosion decoupling.

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Driving force for implementation

Local emission requirements.

Example plants
The technique has been tested in a one-month pilot test at the Austrian shredder plant of
Loacker Recycling GmbH and is applied at full scale by the German shredder plant of SRP
Saarländische Rohprodukte GmbH.

Reference literature
[ 75, Umweltbundesamt (AT) 2015 ]

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7.3 Biological treatments

7.3.1 Composting

7.3.1.1 Monitoring of emissions to air - Inverse dispersion technique using

Lagrangian modelling

Description
Quantification of the complete fugitive emissions from a full-scale composting plant by an
inverse dispersion technique using concentration information at points upwind and downwind of
the source combined with meteorological data and an atmospheric dispersion model.

Technical description
The technique can determine emission rates from well-defined source areas of any shape over
large spatial and temporal scales. The concentration measurement could be a point or a line
average obtained with closed- or open-path analysers. Typically, line sensors are used since they
provide a better average over the source plume and reduce sensitivity to changes in wind
direction. The acquisition of path-integrated concentration data can be accomplished with
several types of ground-based optical remote sensing (ORS) instruments covering spectral
ranges from ultraviolet to infrared, such as open-path Fourier transform infrared (OP-FTIR),
ultraviolet differential absorption spectroscopy (UV-DOAS) or open-path tunable diode laser
spectroscopy (OP-TDLS). A three-dimensional ultrasonic anemometer provides key wind and
turbulence parameters needed for the dispersion model.

The inverse dispersion technique uses atmospheric dispersion models to calculate the theoretical
relationship between a source emission rate (e.g. composting plant) and downwind
concentration (the ‘C–Q relationship’) at a given state of the atmosphere. The key element of
this method is an accurate and user-friendly dispersion model. Lagrangian stochastic models
provide the most natural and accurate means of calculating atmospheric dispersion. Such
models can be employed in forward or backward mode to derive C–Q (sensor-source)
relationships. In the forward case, individual particles are released from a prescribed source
area, and the dispersion of the particles is modelled with a stochastic turbulent flow field (e.g.
LASAT - Lagrangian Simulation of Aerosol Transport; Janicke Consulting, 2011). In the
backward case, the same formalism is applied, but the particles are modelled backward in time
as they travel upwind from the concentration sensor. By analysing the backward trajectories, the
locations where the particles touch down within the source area are recorded (e.g. Windtrax –
bLS dispersion model; Flesch et al., 1995). The choice of an appropriate dispersion model
depends, among others, on the site conditions (e.g. complexity of buildings and topography).
While the bLS dispersion model proved to be a particularly good choice for calculating the C–Q
relationship for ground-level sources and for concentration observations taken near the source in
ideal conditions, LASAT includes a mass-consistent diagnostic wind field model which takes
into account turbulence in complex terrain and recirculation effects around buildings.

The following aspects should be considered when applying this method:

 The inverse dispersion technique to estimate the source strength depends on a good
description of atmospheric dispersion, which is known to be difficult in extreme stability
conditions and/or low wind speeds.
 The concentration should be measured far enough downwind of a plant to avoid wind
turbulence, but close enough so as to meaningfully measure concentration rise. The
threshold distance should be more than 10 times the height of the dominant wind
obstacle.

Achieved environmental benefits

Quantification of the complete fugitive emissions from a full-scale composting plant.

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Environmental performance and operational data

Emission rates can be quantified with an uncertainty of less than 10–20 %. Until now, the
inverse dispersion technique has been mainly used in the field of research. However, it is on its
way to becoming a standardised method, e.g. for landfills (associate standard VDI 4285). There
is also a guide available for its application at biogas plants [ 205, Liebetrau et al. 2013 ].

It should be mentioned that there is still a need for research on the limits of the dispersion
models for specific applications. Furthermore, the measurements and modelling require
appropriate technical expertise.

Economics
No information provided.

Technical considerations related to applicability

The method has been used to characterise fugitive emissions from large area sources including
landfills, agricultural operations, biogas plants [ 206, Flesch et al. 2011 ], [ 207, Hrad et al. 2014
] and full-scale open windrow composting [ 207, Hrad et al. 2014 ].

Cross-media effects
None identified.

Driving force for implementation

Quantification of emission rates with reduced uncertainty.

Example plants
No information provided.

Reference literature
[ 209, Biological Subgroup 2015 ], [ 206, Flesch et al. 2011 ], [ 207, Hrad et al. 2014 ], [ 208,
Hrad et al. 2014 ], [ 205, Liebetrau et al. 2013 ]

7.3.1.2 Container composting

Description
Container composting is a composting method that takes place in closed containers allowing a
natural supply of oxygen (aerobic process). The method may be applied to organic domestic
waste, sewage sludge, garden waste, livestock manure and other organics.

Technical description
The plant consists of a covered space with storage facilities for the different waste fractions so
that odours and uncontrolled water ingress can be avoided.

A front-loader loads the different fractions into a mixing plant where they are layered. Any
impurities such as stones and plastics are removed manually. The mixing plant is equipped with
load cells that keep track of how much of each fraction is entering the mixer so as to optimise
the aerobic biological process. A bacterial culture is added to the mixture to accelerate and
improve the biological process. Depending on the desired bio-compost to be produced, additives
are added, for example in the form of structural material, straw, bio-ash or sand.

A conveyor leads the blended material into a container where the actual composting takes place.
Composting can be done under a roof or in the open air.

The container is equipped with tilt-top or a lid, ventilation in the gable, and provided with a
pyramid-shaped double perforated plate bottom. The structure makes it possible to let the air
coming in through the tube at the bottom pass freely through the material without the use of

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energy. A wireless temperature probe records the temperature every half hour. The temperature
is about 60 °C after a two-day stay.

After approximatively 30 days, the compost is sanitised, by maintaining the temperature at

70 °C for one hour during the process.

Then the compost is piled in windrows for another 30 days before it is analysed and declared
ready for marketing as bio-compost - an organic fertiliser and soil conditioner. The total
processing time is typically two months. The process is shown Figure 7.3 below.

Source: [ 138, Danish EPA 2014 ], Compsoil

Figure 7.3: Container composting process

Potential performance compared to existing BAT (environment, use of resources,

operational data, etc.)
The aerobic degradation by microorganism is accelerated by use of a bacterial culture so the
processing time is much shorter than windrow composting (two months compared to four
months).

Compared to composting in windrows, the odour emissions are very low: full-scale
measurement has shown 0.66 OUE/s per tonne on average. The loss of nitrogen in container
composting is lower than in windrow composting (6 % compared to 25 %).

The energy consumption is much lower than composting in windrows or box/tunnel

composting: 25 kWh per tonne of waste input compared to 30 kWh for windrow composting.

The process allows the breakdown of xenobiotics, pharmaceuticals and personal care products
by aerobic degradation.

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Preliminary cost-benefit estimate

The operating cost is less than that of windrow composting (DKK 150 versus DKK 300 per
tonne of input waste).

Applicability
The method is based on well-known processes and the size of the plant can be adapted
continuously as needed by investment in containers and space for the plant.

Cross-media effects
The composting process is a net consumer of energy to run machinery, etc.

Driving force for implementation

I. Environmental benefits.
II. Reduction of landfilling and incineration of waste.
III. Recycling of organics in a biological circuit.

Timescale for availability

The technique was expected to be available mid-2015.

Example plants
Compsoil A/S, Trinderupvej 10, 9500 Hobro, Denmark.

Reference literature
[ 138, Danish EPA 2014 ]

7.3.2 Anaerobic treatment

7.3.2.1 Dry anaerobic digestion of organic household waste

Description
Removal, collection and recycling of nitrogen and phosphorus from the waste water of a dry
anaerobic digestion (DAD) plant treating unsorted municipal solid waste.

Technical description
A new, compact plant (AMRECO) was developed for the chemical removal and recycling of
nitrogen and phosphorus from liquid from a combined MSW biogas/composting plant in
Thailand, based on the dry anaerobic process (DAD). The process is shown in Figure 7.4 below.

Removal of nitrogen and phosphorus is based on magnesium ammonium phosphate (MAP)

precipitation.

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Source: [ 209, Biological Subgroup 2015 ]

Figure 7.4: The DAD process

The result will be improved gas yield and recovery and conversion of nutrients from the waste
to a valuable 'clean' fertiliser. The purposes of the technique are:

 to optimise the biogas production by reducing the N load on the anaerobic process;
 to recover/utilise N and P by a new chemical precipitation process;
 to produce plant and process test documentation that can be used for
cleaning/regeneration of N and P from other types of fluids too (waste water, landfill
leachate, etc.)

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Compared to traditional wet anaerobic biogas plants, DAD plants have low requirements for the
physical structure and composition of the waste, making this process optimal for the digestion
of unsorted municipal waste.

Environmental performance and operational data

The environmental effects are as follows:

1. Increased biogas production due to the reduced inhibiting effect of ammonia. The
biogas production target of the pilot plant is 1.1 million m3/year. An increased yield of
10 % approximately, i.e. 100 000 m3 of biogas/year (60 toe/year) is expected for this
plant.
2. Extraction of N and P from water. The estimated annual quantities from the pilot plant
are 15–20 tonnes of nitrogen and 3–5 tonnes of phosphorus.

Similarly, environmental benefits are expected for sludge treatment plants. A high nitrogen
concentration in the waste water from anaerobic sludge digestion tanks often leads to excessive
loads on the existing biological treatment, and may complicate the plant's biological treatment
process. Removing nitrogen and phosphorus from waste water can increase the capacity of the
waste water treatment and may be a serious alternative to a plant expansion. It also means the
collection of nitrogen and phosphorus instead of 'evaporation' of nitrogen to the atmosphere.

The technique is not yet commercially available and a final test of the pilot plant was planned
for 2015.

Technical considerations related to applicability

No information provided.

Cross-media effects
No information provided.

Driving force for implementation

The objective of this project is also to be cost-efficient. AMRECO used with other anaerobic
process technologies (e.g. UASB) will be able to reduce the cost associated with waste water
treatment, e.g. within the food industry.

Recovery of nitrogen and phosphorus from waste streams is also a driving force.

Economics
No information provided.

Example plants
AMRECO demonstration plant, Thailand.

Reference literature
[ 209, Biological Subgroup 2015 ], [ 210, SKAP 2017 ]

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8 CONCLUDING REMARKS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR

FUTURE WORK
Timing of the review process
The key milestones of the review process are summarised in Table 8.1 below.

Table 8.1: Key milestones of the WT BREF review process

Key milestone Date
Reactivation of the TWG 24 June 2013
Call for initial positions 29 July 2013
Kick-off meeting 25 to 28 November 2013
Drawing up of questionnaires September 2013 to June 2014
Information collection August 2013 to November 2014
Draft 1 of the revised WT BREF December 2015
End of commenting period on Draft 1
18 March 2016
(3413 comments received)
Final TWG meeting 19 to 23 March 2017

During the BREF review process, a total of nine waste treatment plants were visited in Germany
and in France, in 2015 and 2016 respectively.

In addition, two events were organised to improve the exchange of information:

 one workshop in June 2015 on the physico-chemical treatments of waste;

 a series of webinars in September 2016 on the data collected via the questionnaires (see
below).

Sources of information and information gaps

The main sources of information for the review process were:

 scientific and technical literature;

 about 300 filled-in questionnaires from operators of Waste Treatment plants for the
various processes;
 additional information from the TWG members;
 more than 3 400 comments on Draft 1 of the revised BREF;
 information gathered from site visits;
 outcomes of the workshop and of the webinars mentioned above;
 contributions provided by the three thematic subgroups (see below).

During the Kick-off meeting, it was decided to create three thematic TWG subgroups in charge
of providing the TWG with contributions for the revision of the text of the 2006 BREF:

 a subgroup on biological treatments of waste;

 a subgroup on mechanical treatments of waste;
 a subgroup on physico-chemical treatments of waste.

In total, more than 500 documents were posted in BATIS, and about 200 of them are referenced
in the revised WT BREF.

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Degree of consensus reached during the information exchange

At the final TWG meeting in March 2017, a high degree of consensus was reached on most of
the BAT conclusions. However, nine split views were expressed, which fulfil the conditions set
out in Section 4.6.2.3.2 of Commission Implementing Decision 2012/119/EU. They are
summarised in Table 8.2 below.

Table 8.2: Split views expressed

Alternative
BAT Split view View expressed by proposed level
conclusion (if any)
Add a BAT conclusion that stipulates under
which conditions it is BAT to mix or blend
waste with hazardous properties, either with
EURITS, HWE
NA other categories of hazardous waste or with NA
(supported by EEB)
other waste, substances or materials (e.g. to
avoid increasing pollutant emissions of
downstream waste treatments)

Add a BAT conclusion to reduce the residual

NA BE NA
toxicity of the effluent
Decrease the lower and upper ends of the
Tables 6.1 BAT-AEL range for cadmium emissions to
BE, EEB 1–50 µg/l
and 6.2 water for direct and indirect discharges from
treatment of water-based liquid waste

Decrease the upper end of the BAT-AEL

BAT 20, range for mercury emissions to water for BE
Tables 6.1 5 µg/l
direct and indirect discharges from treatment (supported by EEB)
and 6.2 of water-based liquid waste

BAT 20, Modify the BAT-AEL range for cadmium

emissions to water for direct and indirect
Tables 6.1 EEB < 4 µg/l
discharges from waste treatments other than
and 6.2 treatment of water-based liquid waste

Modify footnote 1 of the table and increase

Table 6.3 the upper end of the range when a fabric FR, EuRIC 20 mg/Nm3
filter is not applicable

Add a BAT conclusion regarding the

prevention and reduction of diffuse
NA BE NA
emissions from the mechanical treatment in
shredders of metal waste.

As far as MBT plants and intensive

decomposition of highly putrescible waste
are concerned, reformulate the BAT
BAT 34 IT, EEB NA
statement as follows: "(…) BAT is to apply
BAT 14d and to use one or a combination of
the techniques given below."
Decrease the upper end of the BAT-AEL
Table 6.7 range for NH3 emissions to air from MBT EEB 10 mg/Nm3
plants

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Consultation of the Forum and subsequent formal adoption procedure of the BAT
Conclusions
In accordance with Article 13(3) of the Directive, the Forum gave its opinion on the draft Best
Available Techniques (BAT) reference document for Waste Treatment at its meeting of 19-20
December 2017:

1. The Forum welcomed the draft Best Available Techniques (BAT) reference document for
Waste Treatment as presented by the Commission.
2. The Forum acknowledged the discussions held at its meeting of 19-20 December 2017 and
agreed that the changes to the draft Best Available Techniques (BAT) reference document for
Waste Treatment, as proposed in Annex A of the Forum's opinion, should be included in the
final document.
3. The Forum reaffirmed the comments in Annex B of the Forum's opinion as representing the
views of certain members of the Forum but on which no consensus existed within the Forum to
include them in the final document.

Subsequently, the Commission took the opinion of the IED Article 13 Forum into account when
preparing the draft Commission Implementing Decision establishing best available techniques
(BAT) conclusions for waste treatment. The IED Article 75 Committee, at its meeting of 12
April 2018, gave a positive opinion on this draft Commission Implementing Decision.

Subsequently, the Commission Implementing Decision (EU) 2018/1147 establishing best

available techniques (BAT) conclusions for waste treatment was adopted on 10 August 2018
and published in the Official Journal of the European Union (OJ L 208, 17.8.2018, p. 38).

Recommendations for future work

The information exchange revealed a number of issues that should be addressed during the next
review of the WT BREF. The recommendations for the next review include the following:

 related to the direct and indirect discharges to water and associated monitoring:
o to collect information on the salt content in water-based liquid waste (in
particular for drilling muds/cuttings) and its effect on the efficiency of
TOC/COD treatment/removal;
o to collect information on the relation between TSS and heavy metal emissions
to water;
o to collect information on effluent toxicity;
 related to the emissions to air from biological treatment:
o to collect information on H2S emissions from biological treatment;
 related to the re-refining of waste oil, waste with calorific value and regeneration of spent
solvents:
o to consider the specificities of these sectors, in particular the variability of
waste input and its effects on emissions to air, in the data collection for these
sectors;
 related to mixing or blending hazardous waste with other waste, substances or materials:
o to collect information on the measures taken to avoid increasing pollutant
emissions of downstream waste treatments;
 related to the mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste:
o to collect information on the monitoring of diffuse emissions to air of dust and
particle-bound PCDD/F and PCBs.

Suggested topics for future R&D work

The Commission is launching and supporting, through its Research and Technological
Development programmes, a series of projects dealing with clean technologies, emerging
effluent treatment and recycling technologies and management strategies. Potentially, these

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projects could provide a useful contribution to future BREF reviews. Readers are therefore
invited to inform the European IPPC Bureau of any research results which are relevant to the
scope of this document (see also the fifth section of the Preface of this document).

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9 ANNEXES

9.1 List of plants that participated in the data collection

Plant code Location (city) MS Main waste treatment process
003 Trofaiach AT Treatment of water-based liquid waste
004 Vienna AT Treatment of water-based liquid waste
006 Neustadt AT Treatment of water-based liquid waste
007 Krems AT Treatment of water-based liquid waste
008 Wels AT Treatment of water-based liquid waste
14 Vienna AT Treatment of excavated contaminated soil
Physico-chemical treatment of solid and/or pasty
015 Vienna AT
waste
017 Bergheim AT Mechanical biological treatment (MBT)
019 Oberpullendorf AT Mechanical biological treatment (MBT)
020 Wels AT Anaerobic treatment
021 Wien AT Aerobic treatment
024 Enns AT Mechanical treatment of waste with calorific value
025 Götzis AT Mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste
026 Hall (Tirol) AT Mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste
027 Amstetten AT Mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste
028 Laxenburg AT Mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste
029 Bürmoos AT Mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste
030 Rietz AT Mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste
St. Michael In Der
031 AT Mechanical treatment of waste with calorific value
Obersteiermark
032 Neustadt AT Mechanical treatment of waste with calorific value
034 Redlham AT Mechanical treatment of waste with calorific value
035 Linz AT Mechanical treatment of waste with calorific value
037 Halbenrain AT Mechanical biological treatment (MBT)
038 Pixendorf AT Aerobic treatment
40 Linz AT Treatment of excavated contaminated soil
054 Menen BE Mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste
Kallo and
055 BE Mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste
Willebroek
56 Kallo (Beveren) BE Regeneration of spent solvents
Physico-chemical treatment of solid and/or pasty
058 Antwerp BE
waste
59 Doel (Kallo) BE Treatment mercury-containing waste
062 Leuven BE Aerobic treatment
069 Brugge BE Aerobic treatment
071 Ieper BE Anaerobic treatment
072 Roeselare BE Anaerobic treatment
073 Maasmechelen BE Aerobic treatment
074 Brecht BE Aerobic treatment
Physico-chemical treatment of waste with calorific
78 Engis BE
value
Physico-chemical treatment of waste with calorific
79_80_81_82 Seneffe BE
value
089 Brno CZ Mechanical biological treatment (MBT)
090 Skaelskoer DK Treatment of water-based liquid waste
091 Nyborg DK Treatment of water-based liquid waste
092 Kalundborg DK Re-refining of waste oils
93 Holsted DK Other combination of treatment/waste
095 Grenaa DK Mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste
097 Holbæk DK Anaerobic treatment
100 Risskov DK Mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste
104 København DK Aerobic treatment
105 Silkeborg DK Treatment of excavated contaminated soil
110 Odense DK Aerobic treatment

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Annexes

111 Pojanluoma FI Anaerobic treatment

113 Hämeenlinna FI Anaerobic treatment
114 Espoo FI Aerobic treatment
115 Lahti FI Mechanical treatment of waste with calorific value
116 Oulu FI Mechanical treatment of waste with calorific value
117 Pietarsaari FI Other combination of treatment/waste
122 Kerava FI Mechanical treatment of waste with calorific value
124 Aubiat FR Aerobic treatment
125 Ingrandes/Vienne FR Aerobic treatment
126 Bellegarde FR Aerobic treatment
127 Gueltas FR Mechanical biological treatment (MBT)
128 Boissy Le Sec FR Aerobic treatment
129 Bollène FR Aerobic treatment
130 Lantic FR Mechanical biological treatment (MBT)
131 ETAMPES FR Anaerobic treatment
132 Ribeauvillé FR Anaerobic treatment
133 Merignac FR Mechanical treatment of waste with calorific value
136 Villenave d'Ornon FR Mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste
137 Issoire FR Mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste
Treatment of WEEE containing VFCs and/or
138 Bruyeres Sur Oise FR
VHCs
Malancourt La
140 FR Treatment of water-based liquid waste
Montagne
144_145_147 Limay FR Treatment of water-based liquid waste
146 Limay FR Treatment mercury-containing waste
Physico-chemical treatment of waste with calorific
148 Givors FR
value
149_150 Givors FR Treatment of water-based liquid waste
151 Noisy Le Sec FR Treatment of water-based liquid waste
Physico-chemical treatment of waste with calorific
152 Le Havre FR
value
153 Etupes FR Treatment of water-based liquid waste
154_155 Dunkerque FR Treatment of water-based liquid waste
156 Chasse sur Rhône FR Treatment of water-based liquid waste
Saint Brice
157 FR Blending/mixing
Courcelles
Saint-Aubin Les
159 FR Treatment of water-based liquid waste
Elbeuf
Gonfreville-
160 FR Re-refining of waste oils
l'Orcher
165 Domjevin FR Blending/mixing
168 Chauny FR Regeneration of spent solvents
169 Beaufort FR Regeneration of spent solvents
170 Troyes FR Regeneration of spent solvents
Physico-chemical treatment of waste with calorific
172 Hersin Coupigny FR
value
Physico-chemical treatment of waste with calorific
174 Airvault FR
value
Physico-chemical treatment of solid and/or pasty
176 Villeparisis FR
waste
Physico-chemical treatment of solid and/or pasty
181 Drambon FR
waste
186 Graulhet FR Treatment of excavated contaminated soil
Physico-chemical treatment of solid and/or pasty
187 Graulhet FR
waste
Saint-Pierre De
188 FR Treatment of excavated contaminated soil
Chandieu
Rosieres Aux Regeneration/recovery of pollution abatement
189 FR
Salines components / FGT residues
191 Saint Vulbas FR Treatment of waste containing POPs
192 Ottmarsheim FR Treatment of water-based liquid waste

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 Annexes

193 Dieuze FR Other combination of treatment/waste

194 Le Mans FR Treatment of water-based liquid waste
Physico-chemical treatments of waste with
199 Darmstadt DE
calorific value
200 Darmstadt DE Temporary storage of hazardous waste
214 Bochum DE Regeneration of spent solvents
215 Iserlohn DE Treatment of water-based liquid waste
216 Biebesheim DE Treatment of water-based liquid waste
217 Kassel DE Treatment of water-based liquid waste
219 Bargenstedt DE Mechanical treatment of waste with calorific value
Physico-chemical treatment of solid and/or pasty
221 Nuremberg DE
waste
Physico-chemical treatment of solid and/or pasty
222 Unterbreizbach DE
waste
Physico-chemical treatment of solid and/or pasty
223 Herfagrund DE
waste
Physico-chemical treatment of solid and/or pasty
224 Philippsthal DE
waste
Physico-chemical treatment of solid and/or pasty
225 Zielitz DE
waste
Physico-chemical treatment of solid and/or pasty
226 Bad Friedrichshall DE
waste
Physico-chemical treatment of solid and/or pasty
228 Sonderhausen DE
waste
Physico-chemical treatment of solid and/or pasty
229 Bernburg DE
waste
235 Dollbergen DE Re-refining of waste oils
239 Hannover DE Mechanical biological treatment (MBT)
243 Neumuenster DE Mechanical biological treatment (MBT)
244 Ringsheim DE Mechanical biological treatment (MBT)
251 Braunschweig DE Anaerobic treatment
255 Frankfurt am Main DE Anaerobic treatment
256 Borgstedt DE Anaerobic treatment
Königs
257 DE Mechanical biological treatment (MBT)
Wusterhausen
259 Trittau DE Anaerobic treatment
260 Viersen DE Aerobic treatment
261 Korschenbroich DE Aerobic treatment
262 Hannover DE Aerobic treatment
265 Rhadereistedt DE Anaerobic treatment
266 Neuss DE Mechanical biological treatment (MBT)
267 Großpösna DE Mechanical biological treatment (MBT)
268 Stammham DE Anaerobic treatment
269 Karlsruhe DE Mechanical treatment of waste with calorific value
270 Bruchsal DE Mechanical treatment of waste with calorific value
273 Ni DE Mechanical treatment of waste with calorific value
277 Gescher DE Mechanical treatment of waste with calorific value
278 Meschede DE Mechanical treatment of waste with calorific value
279 Erftstadt DE Mechanical treatment of waste with calorific value
280 Berlin DE Mechanical treatment of waste with calorific value
282 Hamburg DE Mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste
285 Trier DE Mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste
286 Eberswalde DE Mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste
288 Eppingen DE Mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste
289 Leer DE Mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste
290 Rostock DE Mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste
291 Wilhelmshaven DE Mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste
293 Mannheim DE Mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste
294 Brandenburg DE Mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste
Lindlar Am
299 DE Repackaging of hazardous waste
Berkebach

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Annexes

304 Berlin DE Temporary storage of hazardous waste

305 Duningen DE Temporary storage of hazardous waste
306 Berlin DE Temporary storage of hazardous waste
307 Sennfeld DE Temporary storage of hazardous waste
308 Schwerin DE Temporary storage of hazardous waste
311 Berlin DE Repackaging of hazardous waste
312 Berlin DE Mechanical treatment of waste with calorific value
313 Heilbronn DE Temporary storage of hazardous waste
314 Bad Saulgau DE Temporary storage of hazardous waste
315 Berlin DE Temporary storage of hazardous waste
317 Frankfurt DE Treatment of water-based liquid waste
319 Wildeshausen DE Anaerobic treatment
322 Bremen DE Treatment of water-based liquid waste
324 Berlin DE Blending/mixing
325 Heilbronn DE Mechanical treatment of waste with calorific value
326 Berlin DE Mechanical treatment of waste with calorific value
327 Lubeck DE Temporary storage of hazardous waste
Ballynalurgan,
328 Kilmainhamwood, IE Aerobic treatment
Kells
331 Kilberry IE Aerobic treatment
Physico-chemical treatment of waste with calorific
332 Fermoy IE
value
Rosignano Regeneration/recovery of pollution abatement
333 IT
Marittimo components / FGT residues
Physico-chemical treatment of solid and/or pasty
336 Brescia IT
waste
337 Villafalletto IT Mechanical biological treatment (MBT)
338 Giussago (PV) IT Mechanical biological treatment (MBT)
CORTEOLONA
339 IT Anaerobic treatment
(PV)
Physico-chemical treatment of solid and/or pasty
340 Giussago (PV) IT
waste
341 Zinasco IT Anaerobic treatment
347 Ravenna IT Treatment of water-based liquid waste
Physico-chemical treatment of solid and/or pasty
348 Ravenna IT
waste
Voltana di Lugo
349 IT Anaerobic treatment
(RA)
350 Ostellato (FE) IT Mechanical biological treatment (MBT)
351_352 Milano IT Treatment of water-based liquid waste
Polpenazze Del
353_359 IT Treatment of excavated contaminated soil
Garda (Bs)
Polpenazze del
354_360 IT Treatment of excavated contaminated soil
Garda (BS)
Polpenazze Del
361_363 IT Mechanical treatment of waste with calorific value
Garda (Bs)
Polpenazze del
364_365 IT Mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste
Garda (BS)
Polpenazze del
366 IT Temporary storage of hazardous waste
Garda (BS)
368_369_370_371 Grassobbio (BG) IT Treatment of water-based liquid waste
Castiglione Delle
372 IT Aerobic treatment
Stiviere
377 RIMINI IT Anaerobic treatment
382 Pinerolo IT Anaerobic treatment
392 Assendelft NL Treatment of water-based liquid waste
393 Middenmeer NL Treatment of water-based liquid waste
394 Almelo NL Regeneration of spent solvents
395 Almelo NL Treatment of water-based liquid waste
396 Nieuwdorp NL Temporary storage of hazardous waste

786 Waste Treatment

 Annexes

Treatment of WEEE containing VFCs and/or

397 Dordrecht NL
VHCs
398 Winterswijk NL Blending/mixing
Rotterdam Physico-chemical treatment of solid and/or pasty
399 NL
Maastvlakte waste
400 Moerdijk NL Temporary storage of hazardous waste
401_404 Moerdijk NL Treatment of water-based liquid waste
406_407 Enschede NL Aerobic treatment
410_411 Wilp NL Aerobic treatment
412 Maastricht NL Aerobic treatment
413 Vlissingen NL Aerobic treatment
414 Drachten NL Aerobic treatment
415 Groningen NL Anaerobic treatment
416 Zutphen NL Aerobic treatment
417 Rijpwetering NL Aerobic treatment
418 Haps NL Aerobic treatment
419 Waddinxveen NL Aerobic treatment
420 Beuningen NL Regeneration of spent solvents
421_422 Averøy NO Treatment of water-based liquid waste
423_424 Bergen NO Treatment of water-based liquid waste
425_426 Porsgrunn NO Mechanical treatment of waste with calorific value
Physico-chemical treatment of solid and/or pasty
427 Holmestrand NO
waste
432 Swarzędz PL Mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste
434 Ścinawka Dolna PL Mechanical biological treatment (MBT)
Physico-chemical treatment of waste with calorific
440 Cascais PT
value
441 Carregado PT Mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste
442 Valea Mare Pravat RO Mechanical treatment of waste with calorific value
443 Hoghiz RO Mechanical treatment of waste with calorific value
447 Valls ES Regeneration of spent solvents
449 Valencia ES Treatment of water-based liquid waste
Physico-chemical treatment of waste with calorific
450 Castelló ES
value
452 El Campello ES Mechanical biological treatment (MBT)
453 Jijona ES Mechanical biological treatment (MBT)
454 Villana ES Mechanical biological treatment (MBT)
San Martín de la
455 ES Mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste
Vega
456 Aznalcóllar ES Mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste
Treatment of WEEE containing VFCs and/or
458 Aoiz ES
VHCs
459 Marratxí ES Anaerobic treatment
460 Marratxí ES Aerobic treatment
461 Marratxí ES Treatment of water-based liquid waste
463 Bilbao ES Treatment of water-based liquid waste
464 Asua-Erandio ES Mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste
468 El Astillero ES Treatment of water-based liquid waste
Physico-chemical treatment of waste with calorific
469 Albox ES
value
El Pont De
Vilomara I Treatment of WEEE containing VFCs and/or
470 ES
Rocafort VHCs
(Barcelona)
471 Constantí ES Treatment of water-based liquid waste
Castellbisbal
472 ES Mechanical treatment of waste with calorific value
(Barcelona)
473 Guarromán ES Treatment of water-based liquid waste
474 Deba (Guipuzkoa) ES Temporary storage of hazardous waste
Physico-chemical treatment of solid and/or pasty
475 Nerva ES
waste

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Annexes

Montornès Del
476 ES Regeneration of spent solvents
Vallès
478 Hallstahammar SE Mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste
481 Hyltebruk SE Treatment of excavated contaminated soil
482_483 Älmhult SE Treatment of excavated contaminated soil
484 Sävsjö SE Anaerobic treatment
485 SKÖVDE SE Anaerobic treatment
486 Malmo SE Treatment of water-based liquid waste
Malmö, Burlöv and
487 SE Mechanical treatment of waste with calorific value
Lomma
489 Linköping SE Treatment of water-based liquid waste
493 Birmingham UK Mechanical treatment of waste with calorific value
494 Middlesbrough UK Treatment of excavated contaminated soil
Physico-chemical treatment of solid and/or pasty
495_496 Ilkeston UK
waste
Regeneration/recovery of pollution abatement
497 Ilkeston UK
components / FGT residues
Regeneration/recovery of pollution abatement
498 Stoke-on-Trent UK
components / FGT residues
Physico-chemical treatment of waste with calorific
507 Wolverhampton UK
value
Physico-chemical treatment of waste with calorific
508 Merseyside UK
value
511 Ashbourne UK Aerobic treatment
Physico-chemical treatment of waste with calorific
514 Coatbridge UK
value
516 Liverpool UK Mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste
517 Great Blakenham UK Mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste
518 Whitesmith UK Aerobic treatment
519 London UK Mechanical biological treatment (MBT)
520 Padworth UK Aerobic treatment
521 Basingstoke UK Aerobic treatment
525 Bracknell UK Aerobic treatment
526 Gwynedd UK Anaerobic treatment
Northamptonshire
528 UK Anaerobic treatment
(nr Rushden),
529 Bedford UK Anaerobic treatment
530 Near Croydon UK Aerobic treatment
531 Devon UK Aerobic treatment
534 Cassington UK Anaerobic treatment
537 Perth UK Aerobic treatment
541 Perth UK Anaerobic treatment
542 Todmorden UK Aerobic treatment
543 Bunwell UK Aerobic treatment
544 Acton UK Aerobic treatment
546 Coven UK Aerobic treatment
547 Gaydon UK Aerobic treatment
548 Nottingham UK Aerobic treatment
Physico-chemical treatment of waste with calorific
549 Southampton UK
value
550 Walsall UK Treatment of water-based liquid waste
Physico-chemical treatment of solid and/or pasty
551 Walsall UK
waste
552 Walsall UK Repackaging of hazardous waste
Physico-chemical treatment of waste with calorific
553 Sheffield UK
value
554 Liverpool UK Regeneration of spent solvents
566 Bielsko-Biała PL Mechanical biological treatment (MBT)
Physico-chemical treatment of solid and/or pasty
569 Santarém PT
waste
570 Chamusca PT Re-refining of waste oils

788 Waste Treatment

 Annexes

Casal do Marco -
571 PT Mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste
Seixal
572 Sipoo FI Aerobic treatment
573 Ceków PL Mechanical biological treatment (MBT)
574 Chełm PL Mechanical treatment of waste with calorific value
Sant Martí
579 ES Aerobic treatment
D'Albars
580 Obersontheim DE Aerobic treatment
588 Huddersfield UK Treatment mercury-containing waste
589 Huddersfield UK Treatment mercury-containing waste
590 Huddersfield UK Treatment mercury-containing waste
592 March UK Anaerobic treatment
594 Bristol UK Mechanical biological treatment (MBT)
605 Aspropyrgos EL Re-refining of waste oils
606 Bradford UK Aerobic treatment
607 Antrim UK Treatment of water-based liquid waste
608 Wrexham UK Aerobic treatment
609 Huntingdon UK Aerobic treatment
610 Elsteraue DE Re-refining of waste oils
Physico-chemical treatment of solid and/or pasty
613 Bleicherode DE
waste
Physico-chemical treatment of solid and/or pasty
614 Sollstedt DE
waste
Heidenheim-
615 DE Mechanical treatment of waste with calorific value
Mergelstetten
Physico-chemical treatment of solid and/or pasty
618 Třinec CZ
waste
619 Ceccano IT Re-refining of waste oils
620 Pieve Fissiraga IT Re-refining of waste oils
621 Annone Di Brianza IT Aerobic treatment
622 Near Bridgewater UK Aerobic treatment
623 Great Torrington UK Aerobic treatment
624 Alcover ES Re-refining of waste oils
625 Kalundborg DK Treatment of excavated contaminated soil
626 Lantarón ES Other combination of treatment/waste
627 Hagen DE Mechanical treatment of waste with calorific value
628 Friedland DE Mechanical biological treatment (MBT)
Treatment of WEEE containing VFCs and/or
629 Grevenbroich DE
VHCs
Treatment of WEEE containing VFCs and/or
630 Mettlach DE
VHCs
Hagen Im
631 DE Aerobic treatment
Bremischen
632 Ludres FR Mechanical treatment of waste with calorific value
633 Bruguieres FR Mechanical treatment of waste with calorific value
Finale Emilia -
634 IT Aerobic treatment
Modena
635 Vimercate IT Aerobic treatment
Treatment of WEEE containing VFCs and/or
636 Timelkam AT
VHCs
638 Deinze BE Anaerobic treatment
Physico-chemical treatment of waste with calorific
FR_xxx Frontignan FR
value

Waste Treatment 789

 Glossary

GLOSSARY
This glossary is meant to facilitate the understanding of the information contained in this
document. The definitions of terms in this glossary are not legal definitions (even if some of
them may coincide with definitions given in European legislation), they are meant to help the
reader understand some key terms in the context of their use in the specific sector covered by
this document.

This glossary is divided into the following sections:

I. ISO country codes

II. Monetary units
III. Unit prefixes, number separators and notations
IV. Units and measures
V. Chemical elements
VI. Chemical formulae commonly used in this document
VII. Acronyms
VIII. Definitions

Waste Treatment 791

Glossary

I. ISO country codes

ISO code Country
Member States (*)
AT Austria
BE Belgium
BG Bulgaria
CZ Czech Republic
CY Cyprus
DE Germany
DK Denmark
EE Estonia
EL Greece
ES Spain
FI Finland
FR France
HR Croatia
HU Hungary
IE Ireland
IT Italy
LT Lithuania
LU Luxembourg
LV Latvia
MT Malta
NL Netherlands
PL Poland
PT Portugal
RO Romania
SE Sweden
SI Slovenia
SK Slovakia
UK United Kingdom
Non-member countries
NO Norway
(*) The protocol order of the Member States is
based on the alphabetical order of their
geographical names in the original language(s).

792 Waste Treatment

 Glossary

II. Monetary units

Code(1) Country/territory Currency
Member State currencies
EUR Euro area (2) euro (pl. euros)
DKK Denmark Danish krone (pl. kroner)
GBP United Kingdom pound sterling (pl. pounds sterling)
Other currencies
USD United States US dollar
(1) ISO 4217 codes.
(2) Includes Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy,
Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Portugal, Slovakia, Slovenia and Spain.

Waste Treatment 793

Glossary

III. Unit prefixes, number separators and notations

Numbers in this document are written using the '.' character as the decimal separator and the
space as the separator for thousands.

The symbol ~ (around; about) is the notation used to indicate approximation.

The symbol Δ (delta) is the notation used to indicate a difference.

The following table contains the frequently used prefixes:

Symbol Prefix 10n Word Decimal Number

M mega 106 Million 1 000 000
k kilo 103 Thousand 1 000
------- ------- 1 One 1
m milli 10−3 Thousandth 0.001
µ micro 10−6 Millionth 0.000 001
n nano 10−9 Billionth 0.000 000 001

794 Waste Treatment

 Glossary

IV. Units and measures

Unit Measure name Conversion and
Unit name
symbol (measure symbol) comment
normal
atm Pressure (P) 1 atm = 101 325 N/m2
atmosphere
1.013 bar = 100 kPa =
bar bar Pressure (P)
1 atm
Temperature (T)
°C degree Celsius
temperature difference (ΔT)
d day Time
g gram Weight
h hour Time
J joule Energy
Temperature (T)
K Kelvin 0 °C = 273.15 K
temperature difference (ΔT)
kcal kilocalorie Energy 1 kcal = 4.1868 kJ
kg kilogram Weight
kJ kilojoule Energy
kPa kilopascal Pressure
kWh kilowatt-hour Energy 1 kWh = 3 600 kJ
l litre Volume
m metre Length
m2 square metre Area
m3 cubic metre Volume
mg milligram Weight 1 mg = 10-3 g
mm millimetre 1 mm = 10-3 m
min minute
megawatts
MWe Electric energy
electric (energy)
megawatts Thermal energy
MWth
thermal (energy) Heat
nm nanometre 1 nm = 10-9 m
normal cubic
Nm3 Volume at 101.325 kPa, 273.15 K
metre
European odour
OUE Odour
unit
Pa pascal 1 Pa = 1 N/m2
ppb parts per billion Composition of mixtures 1 ppb = 10-9
ppm parts per million Composition of mixtures 1 ppm = 10-6
parts per million
ppmv Composition of mixtures
by volume
revolutions per
rpm RPM Rotational speed, frequency
minute
s second Time
1 St = 10-4 m2/s; old, cgs
St stokes Kinematic viscosity
unit
t metric tonne Weight 1 t = 1 000 kg or 106 g
Mass flow
t/d tonnes per day
Materials consumption
Mass flow
t/yr tonnes per year
Materials consumption
vol-% percentage by
Composition of mixtures
% v/v volume
wt-% percentage by
Composition of mixtures
w/w-% weight
W watt Power 1 W = 1 J/s
yr year Time
μm micrometre Length 1 μm = 10-6 m

Waste Treatment 795

Glossary

V. Chemical elements
Symbol Name Symbol Name
Ac Actinium Mn Manganese
Ag Silver Mo Molybdenum
Al Aluminium N Nitrogen
Am Americium Na Sodium
Ar Argon Nb Niobium
As Arsenic Nd Neodymium
At Astatine Ne Neon
Au Gold Ni Nickel
B Boron No Nobelium
Ba Barium Np Neptunium
Be Beryllium O Oxygen
Bi Bismuth Os Osmium
Bk Berkelium P Phosphorus
Br Bromine Pa Protactinium
C Carbon Pb Lead
Ca Calcium Pd Palladium
Cd Cadmium Pm Promethium
Ce Cerium Po Polonium
Cf Californium Pr Praseodymium
Cl Chlorine Pt Platinum
Cm Curium Pu Plutonium
Co Cobalt Ra Radium
Cr Chromium Rb Rubidium
Cs Caesium Re Rhenium
Cu Copper Rf Rutherfordium
Dy Dysprosium Rh Rhodium
Er Erbium Rn Radon
Es Einsteinium Ru Ruthenium
Eu Europium S Sulphur
F Fluorine Sb Antimony
Fe Iron Sc Scandium
Fm Fermium Se Selenium
Fr Francium Si Silicon
Ga Gallium Sm Samarium
Gd Gadolinium Sn Tin
Ge Germanium Sr Strontium
H Hydrogen Ta Tantalum
He Helium Tb Terbium
Hf Hafnium Tc Technetium
Hg Mercury Te Tellurium
Ho Holmium Th Thorium
I Iodine Ti Titanium
In Indium Tl Thallium
Ir Iridium Tm Thulium
K Potassium U Uranium
Kr Krypton V Vanadium
La Lanthanum W Tungsten
Li Lithium Xe Xenon
Lr Lawrencium Y Yttrium
Lu Lutetium Yb Ytterbium
Md Mendelevium Zn Zinc
Mg Magnesium Zr Zirconium

796 Waste Treatment

 Glossary

VI. Chemical formulae commonly used in this document

Chemical formula Name (explanation)
CH4 Methane
Cl- Chloride ion
CN- Cyanide ion
CO Carbon monoxide
F- Fluoride ion
HCl Hydrogen chloride
HF Hydrogen fluoride
H 2S Hydrogen sulphide
H2SO4 Sulphuric acid
NaOH Sodium hydroxide. Also called caustic soda
NH3 Ammonia
N 2O Nitrous oxide
NO2- Nitrite ion
NO3- Nitrate ion
NOX Nitrogen oxides (mixture of NO and NO2)
SO32- Sulphite ion
SOX Sulphur oxides (mixture of SO2 and SO3)

Waste Treatment 797

Glossary

VII. Acronyms
Acronym Full phrase
ABS Polyacrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene
AD Anaerobic digestion
European agreement concerning the international carriage of dangerous goods
ADR
by road
AMS Automated measuring system
AOX Adsorbable organically bound halogens
API American Petroleum Institute
APME TEC Association of Plastic Manufacturers in Europe, Technical Centre
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
BAT Best Available Techniques, as defined in Article 3(10) of the IED
Best Available Techniques - associated emission level, as defined in Article
BAT-AEL
3(13) of the IED
Best Available Techniques - associated performance emission level, as
BAT-AEPL described in Section 3.3.2 of Commission Implementing Decision
2012/119/EU
BOD Biochemical oxygen demand
BREF Best available techniques (BAT) reference document
BTEX Benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, xylene
CAS Chemical abstracts service (chemicals registry number)
CCFL Cold cathode fluorescent lamps
CCTV Closed-circuit television
CDW Construction and demolition waste
Conseil Européen de l’Industrie Chimique (European Chemical Industry
CEFIC
Council)
CEMBUREAU European Cement Association
Comité Européen de Normalisation (European Committee for
CEN
standardisation)
CEPI Confederation of European Paper Industries
CEWEP Confederation of European Waste-to-Energy Plants
CFC Chlorofluorocarbon
CHP Combined heat and power (cogeneration).
COD Chemical oxygen demand
CPI Corrugated plate interceptor
CRT Cathode ray tube
CV Calorific value, e.g. in MJ/kg or MJ/m3
DAD Dry anaerobic digestion
DAF Dissolved air flotation
DCH Direct contact hydrogenation process of waste oils
DCM Dichloromethane
Deutsches Institut für Normung (German national organisation for
DIN
standardisation)
DM Dry matter. The matter after drying of its moisture content
DRE Destruction and removal efficiency
DS Dry solids (content)
EA Environment Agency (England and Wales)
EAF Electric arc furnace
EBA European Biogas Association
ECN European Compost Network
EDTA Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid
EDTMA Ethylenediaminetetra (methylenephosphonic) acid
EEA European Environment Agency
EEB European Environmental Bureau
EERA European Electronics Recyclers Association
EFTA European Free Trade Association
EIPPCB European Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control Bureau
ELV Emission limit value

798 Waste Treatment

 Glossary

Acronym Full phrase

Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (Council Regulation (EC) No
EMAS
1221/2009)
EMS Environmental management system.
EN European Norming (EN standards)
EoLV End-of-life vehicle (as defined in Article 2(2) of Directive 2000/53/EC)
EOP End-of-pipe (measure)
EOX Extractable organic halogens
EPA Environmental Protection Agency (US)
ERFO European Recovered Fuel Organisation
ESP Electrostatic precipitator
ESRG European Solvent Recycler Group
EQS Environmental quality standard
ESWET European Suppliers of Waste to Energy Technology
ETBE Ethyl tert-butyl ether
EU European Union
EUCOPRO European Association for Co-processing
EURELECTRIC Union of the Electricity Industry
EuRIC European Recycling Industries’ Confederation
EURITS EU for Responsible Incineration and Treatment of Special Waste
EUROFER European Steel Association
EUROMETAUX European non-ferrous metals association
EWC European waste code
Fédération Européenne des Activités de la Dépollution et de l'Environnement
FEAD
(European Federation of Waste Management and Environmental Services)
FGT Flue-gas treatment
FID Flame ionisation detector
GAC Granular activated carbon
GEIR Groupement Européen de l'Industrie de la Régénération
GWP Global warming potential
HCB Hexachlorobenzene
HCFC Hydrochlorofluorocarbon
HEPA High-efficiency particle air filter
HFC Hydrofluorocarbon
HFO Heavy fuel oil
HP High pressure
HWE Hazardous Waste Europe
IBC Intermediate bulk container
IED Industrial Emission Directive (2010/75/EU)
IPPC Integrated pollution prevention and control
IR Infrared
ISO International Organisation for Standardisation
JRC Joint Research Centre
KOH Potassium hydroxide
KPEG Potassium and polyethylene glycol
L/S Liquid/solid ratio
LCA Life cycle assessment
LCP Large combustion plant
LDAR Leak detection and repair
LEL Lower explosive limit
LEV Local exhaust ventilation system
LFO Light fuel oil
LHV Lower heating value
LPG Liquefied petroleum gas
LOQ Limit of quantification
LoW List of Waste (from COM Decision 2000/532/EC)
MAP Magnesium ammonium phosphate
MBR Membrane bioreactor
MBT Mechanical biological treatment
MEK Methyl ethylketone

Waste Treatment 799

Glossary

Acronym Full phrase

MIBK Methyl isobutyl ketone
MF Microfiltration
MLSS Mixed liquor suspended soil
MP Medium pressure
MS (European Union) Member State
MSW Municipal solid waste
MWE Municipal Waste Europe
Normal – refers to volume of gases under normal operating conditions with a
N
temperature of 273.15 K and pressure of 101.325 kPa
NA Not applicable
ND Not determined / Not detectable
NF Nanofiltration
NGO Non-Governmental organisation
NI No information
NIRS Near-infrared spectroscopy
NMVOC Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compound
NOC Normal operating conditions
ODS Ozone-depleting substance
OGI Optical gas imaging
OJ Official Journal (of the EU)
OMP Odour management plan
ORGALIME European Engineering Industries Association
ORS Optical remote sensing
OTNOC Other than normal operating conditions
PA Polyamides
PAC Powder activated carbon
PAH Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon
PBT Polybutylene terephthalate
PC Polycarbonates
PCB Polychlorinated biphenyl
PCDD/Fs Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins/dibenzofurans
PCPs Polycarbonate
PCT Physico-chemical treatment
PDA Propane deasphalting (for waste oils)
PEG Polyethylene glycol
PEMS Predictive emissions monitoring system
PET Polyethylene terephthalate
PID Piping and instrumentation diagrams
PLC Programmable logic controller
PM Particulate matter
PP Polypropylene
PPE Personal protective equipment
POPs Persistent organic pollutants
PRTR European Pollutant Release and Transfer Register
PS Polystyrene
PSA Pressure swing adsorption
PST Post-shredder technology
PTFE Polytetrafluoroethylene
PUR Polyurethane
PVC Polyvinyl chloride
QMS Quality management system
RDF Refuse-derived fuel
REF Recovered fuel
RH Relative humidity
RO Reverse osmosis
RSC Residual Sodium Chemicals
RTO Regenerative thermal oxidiser
SBR Sequencing batch reactor
SCR Selective catalytic reduction

800 Waste Treatment

 Glossary

Acronym Full phrase

SHF Shredder heavy fraction
SLF Shredder light fraction
SNCR Selective non-catalytic reduction
SRF Solid recovered fuel
TCE Trichloroethylene
TDA Thermal deasphalting (for waste oils)
TDS Total dissolved solids
TEQ Toxicity equivalents (I-TEQ: international toxicity equivalents)
TFE Thin film evaporator
THC Total hydrocarbon
TKN Total Kjeldahl nitrogen
TOC Total organic carbon
TSS Total suspended solids
TWG Technical Working Group
UASB Upflow anaerobic sludge blanket
Umweltbundesamt – Federal Environment Agency, i.e. from Germany or
UBA
Austria
UF Ultrafiltration
ULPA Ultra-low penetration air filter
UV Ultraviolet
VFA Volatile fatty acids
VFC Volatile (hydro)fluorocarbon
VHC Volatile hydrocarbon
VOC Volatile organic compound
WEEE Waste electrical and electronic equipment
WFD Waste Framework Directive (2008/98/EC)
WO Waste oil
WT Waste treatment
WWT(P) Waste water treatment (plant)

Waste Treatment 801

 Glossary

VIII. Definitions
A biological process for treating municipal and industrial waste
Activated sludge process
waters by the use of microorganisms under aerobic conditions.
Aerobic processes Biological processes that occur in the presence of oxygen.
Biological processes that occur in the absence of oxygen and other
Anaerobic processes
electron-accepting substances except carbon dioxide/carbonate.
An equal or uniform payment made each year over the useful life of
the proposed technique. The sum of all the payments has the same
Annual capital cost ‘present value’ as the initial investment expenditure. The annual
capital cost of an asset reflects the opportunity cost to the investor
of owning the asset.
The capacity of a natural body of water to receive waste waters or
Assimilative capacity toxic materials without harmful effects and without damage to
aquatic life or humans who consume the water.
A measure of the ease with which a substance will degrade as a
Biodegradability
result of biological metabolism.
Biofuel Biofuel as defined in Article 2(i) of Directive 2009/28/EC.
The removal of nitrogen and/or phosphorus from aqueous effluents
Biological nutrient removal
in biological treatment processes.
Biomass Biomass as defined in Article 2(e) of Directive 2009/28/EC.
The use of living organisms, e.g. bacteria, to remove pollutants
Bioremediation
from contaminated sites.
Bio-waste Bio-waste as defined in Article 3(4) of Directive 2008/98/EC.
Bottom ash Solid residues from a combustion process.
Emissions from a tank resulting from an increase in its headspace
pressure (due to the evaporation and/or expansion of the tank's
Breathing contents), and air ingress into a tank resulting from a reduction in
its headspace pressure (due to the condensation and/or contraction
of the tank's contents).
A substance or object, resulting from a production process, the
primary aim of which is not the production of that item and which
By-product
is not regarded as being waste, and which meets the requirements of
Article 5 of Directive 2008/98/EC on waste.
Solid or semi-solid material remaining on a filter after pressure
Cake
filtration.
Chemical abstracts service (registry number). A division of the
American Chemical Society holds registries of chemical
CAS substances; providing a unique numerical identifier for chemical
compounds, polymers, biological sequences, mixtures and alloys
which designates only one substance.
Procedure by which a third party gives written assurance that a
Certification product, process or service conforms to specified requirements.
Certification can apply to instruments, equipment and/or personnel.
Emissions of pollutants into the environment through any kind of
Channelled emissions duct, pipe, stack, etc. This also includes emissions from open-top
biofilters.
Chelating agent A compound capable of chelation with metal ions.
The formation of a closed ring of atoms by the attachment of
Chelation compounds or radicals to a central polyvalent metal ion
(occasionally non-metallic).
Complexing agent See chelating agent.
Substance embedded in a mixture, e.g. in waste water, waste gas,
Component
solid waste.
A composite sample refers to a water sample which is taken
continuously over a given period, or a sample consisting of several
Composite sample
samples taken either continuously or discontinuously over a given
period (e.g. during 24 hours) and blended.
Measurement with an automated measuring system (AMS)
Continuous measurement permanently installed on site for continuous monitoring of
emissions, according to EN 14181:2004.

802 Waste Treatment

 Glossary

Control of emissions Techniques used to limit, reduce, minimise, or prevent emissions.

Water used for energy transfer (heat removal from components and
industrial equipment), which is kept in a network separated from
Cooling water
industrial water and which can be released back to receiving waters
without further treatment.
Any of two or more products coming from the same unit process or
Co-product
product system.
The shutdown of an installation including decontamination and/or
Decommissioning
dismantling.
Combustion which propagates through a gas or across the surface
Deflagration
of an explosive at subsonic speeds, driven by the transfer of heat.
Non-channelled emissions (e.g. of dust, organic compounds, odour)
which can result from 'area' sources (e.g. tanks) or 'point' sources
Diffuse emissions
(e.g. pipe flanges). This also includes emissions from open air-
windrow composting.
Multiple sources of similar diffuse or direct emissions distributed
Diffuse emission sources inside a defined area; they can be point, linear, surface or volume
sources.
Digestate The solid residue remaining after anaerobic digestion.
Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins (PCDDs) and polychlorinated
Dioxins
dibenzofurans (PCDFs).
Specific quantitative determination of the emitted compounds at
Direct measurements
source.
Physical release of a pollutant through a defined outlet (i.e.
Discharge channelled) of the system (e.g. sewer, stack, vent, curbing area,
outfall).
Discrete Not continuous, i.e. having gaps between all possible values.
Natural or artificial removal of surface and subsurface water from
Drainage
an area, including surface streams and groundwater pathways.
Emptying the liquid contents of a system to a collection system or
Draining
other storage system, creating a possible liquid waste stream.
Dust Total particulate matter (in air).
The direct or indirect release of substances, vibrations, heat or noise
Emission from individual or diffuse sources in the installation into the air,
water or land (from Directive 2010/75/EU)
Numbers that can be multiplied by known data such as
Emissions factors
plant/process activity data or throughput data to estimate emissions.
End-of-pipe, device or treatment system applied to waste water or
EOP channelled exhaust or flue-gas at the outlet of a collection system
prior to release into the environment.
List of Waste as per Article 7 of the European Waste Framework
Directive (Directive 2008/98/EC on waste) – hierarchical list of
waste descriptions set by COM Decision 2000/532/EC. This List
LoW
classifies waste materials and categorises them by:
(a) the activity from which they are produced; and
(b) their characteristics.
Gas/air stream coming off a combustion or extraction process; it
Exhaust gas (or exhaust
may contain gaseous or particulate components. There is no link
air)
with exhausting through a stack.
Existing plant A plant that is not a new plant.
A mixture of combustion products and air leaving a combustion
Flue-gas
chamber and that is directed up a stack to be emitted.
Particles from the combustion chamber or formed within the flue-
Fly ashes
gas stream that are transported in the flue-gas.
A process of becoming dusty or clogged, e.g. by undesirable foreign
Fouling matter, such as dirt and other material, accumulating and clogging
pores and coating surfaces.
Emissions of pollutants into the environment resulting from a
gradual loss of tightness of a piece of equipment designed to contain
Fugitive emissions
an enclosed fluid (gaseous or liquid). Fugitive emissions are a
subset of diffuse emissions.

Waste Treatment 803

 Glossary

High-temperature oxidation to burn combustible compounds of

waste gases from industrial operations with an open flame. Flaring
Flaring
is primarily used for burning off flammable gas for safety reasons or
during non-routine operating conditions.
Hazardous waste as defined in Article 3(2) of Directive
Hazardous waste
2008/98/EC.
Directive 2010/75/EU of the European Parliament and of the
IED Council of 24 November 2010 on industrial emissions (integrated
pollution prevention and control).
Directive 2008/1/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council
of 15 January 2008 concerning integrated pollution prevention and
IPPC Directive
control (IPPC Directive) which has been replaced by Directive
2010/75/EU on industrial emissions (IED).
Laboratory smalls Laboratory chemicals in containers of a small capacity.
Solution obtained by leaching. The solution consists of liquid that,
Leachate in passing through matter, extracts solutes, suspended solids or any
other component of the material through which it has passed.
Gaseous or liquid spills out of system/equipment due to
Leakage
system/equipment failure.
Mineral rock consisting merely of CaCO3 used as CaCO3 or as raw
material for producing quicklime (calcium oxide) by
Limestone
decarburisation and hydrated lime (calcium hydroxide) by the
hydration of quicklime.
Waste of biological origin with a relatively high water content (e.g.
Liquid biodegradable waste
fat separator contents, organic sludges, catering waste).
Water added to a process or a circuit to replace water that is lost by,
Make-up water
for example, leakage or evaporation.
Treatment of mixed solid waste combining mechanical treatment
Mechanical biological
(e.g. shredding) with biological treatment such as aerobic or
treatment (MBT)
anaerobic treatment.
Systematic surveillance of the variations of a certain chemical or
Monitoring physical characteristic of emissions, discharges, consumption,
equivalent parameters or technical measures, etc.
A plant first operated at the installation following the publication of
New plant
these BAT conclusions.
Output The treated waste coming out of the waste treatment plant.
Pasty waste Sludge which is not free-flowing.
Determination of a measure (particular quantity subject to
Periodic measurement measurement) at specified time intervals using manual or automated
methods.
Discrete/ individual/ separate/ discontinuous/ grab/ spot sampling -
individual samples are taken at different intervals, typically
depending on time or waste water volume flow rate. Three sampling
formats can be identified:
 periodic time-dependent sampling – discrete samples of
Periodic sampling equal volume are taken at equal time intervals;
 periodic flow-proportional sampling – discrete samples are
taken of variable volumes at equal time intervals;
 periodic samples taken at fixed flow intervals – discrete
samples of equal volume are taken after the passage of a
constant volume.
Programmable logic controller: digital computer used for the
PLC
automation of industrial processes.
Visible or measurable discharge of a contaminant from a given
Plume point of origin, usually a channelled emission from the stack at an
industrial site.
The emissions source. Pollution sources can be categorised as:
 point or concentrated sources;
 dispersed sources;
Pollution source
 line sources, including mobile (transport) and stationary
sources;
 area sources.

804 Waste Treatment

 Glossary

Refers to the ability of a measurement to be consistently

Precision
reproduced.
A measure/technique that changes the way in which the core
Primary measure/technique process operates thereby reducing raw emissions or consumption
(see also the counterpart: end-of-pipe technique).
Pressure swing adsorption: technique used to separate some gas
species from a mixture of gases under pressure according to the
PSA
species' molecular characteristics and affinity for an adsorbent
material (e.g. for hydrogen production).
Replacement of the gaseous contents of a system by air or inert
Purging
gases.
Radioactive material, as defined in the IAEA Safety Glossary, 2016
Radioactive material
Revision.
Recovery Recovery as defined in Article 3(15) of Directive 2008/98/EC.
Recycling Recycling as defined in Article 3(17) of Directive 2008/98/EC.
Reuse Reuse as defined in Article 3(13) of Directive 2008/98/EC.
Re-refining Treatments carried out on waste oil to be transformed to base oil.
Conditions that are specified, e.g. in connection with operating a
Reference conditions
process, collecting samples.
Treatments and processes mainly designed to make the treated
Regeneration equipment (e.g. activated carbon) or material (e.g. spent solvent)
usable again.
Actual discharge (routine, usual or accidental) of emissions into the
Release
environment.
The containment and/or decontamination of contaminated
environmental media such as soil, groundwater, sediment, or
Remediation
surface water from a contaminated site intended for further use. The
area of the site may be larger than the fenced area.
A process of periodic transmission of information about
environmental performance, including emissions and compliance
Reporting
with permit conditions, to authorities or to the internal management
of the installation and other agencies, such as the general public.
R-phrases are standard phrases indicating the special risk arising
from the dangers involved in using the dangerous substance. The
wording of the R-phrases is laid down in Annex III to Directive
R-phrases
67/548/EEC on the approximation of laws, regulations and
administrative provisions relating to the classification, packaging
and labelling of dangerous substances.
Part of the precipitation and snowmelt that does not infiltrate but
Run-off
moves as overland flow.
Sampling is the process by which a portion of substance is
collected to form a representative part (the sample) of the whole,
Sampling, sample
for the purpose of examination of the substance or material under
consideration. (See also continuous sampling, periodic sampling.)
A specific type of diagram used for displaying flows through a
Sankey diagram
system, e.g. to show mass, energy, material, money flows.
Sequencing batch reactor - a variation of the conventional activated
sludge system to treat waste waters containing organic material
SBR
whereby the aeration and settlement take place in the same vessel
(no need for a secondary clarifier).
Area which needs special protection, such as:
- residential areas;
Sensitive receptor
- areas where human activities are carried out (e.g. schools, daycare
centres, recreational areas, hospitals or nursing homes).
Slag A vitrified or partially vitrified residue.
A suspension with high solids content, such as the type precipitated
Sludge
by sewage treatment.
A suspension of solid particles in a liquid but at a lower
Slurry
concentration than found in a sludge.
Specific Emissions/consumption related to a reference basis, such as
emissions/consumption production capacity, or actual production.

Waste Treatment 805

 Glossary

A measurement relating to a specific point in time – not a

Spot measurement
continuous measurement.
A discrete sample taken at random time intervals. It si generally not
Spot sample
related to the waste water volume discharged.
Referring to a temperature of 273.15 K a pressure of 101.325 kPa
Standard conditions
and a specified oxygen content.
Measurable or calculable quantities which can be closely related,
directly or indirectly, to conventional direct measurements of
Surrogate parameter pollutants, and which may therefore be monitored and used instead
of the direct pollutant values for some practical purposes. Also
called proxy parameter.
Technical Instructions on Air Quality Control. German Federal
TA Luft
Regulation for the control of pollution to air.
Liquid-solid separation process to increase the concentration of a
Thickening suspension by sedimentation, accompanied by the formation of a
clear solid.
Treatment of waste wood, waste oil, waste plastics, waste solvents,
Treatment of waste with
etc. to obtain a fuel or to allow a better recovery of its calorific
calorific value
value.
A part of the plant in which a specific processing operation is
Unit
conducted.
Volatile fluorocarbons: halogenated hydrocarbons which contain
the element fluorine, in particular chlorofluorocarbon (CFC),
VFCs hydrochlorofluorocarbon (HCFC) and hydrofluorocarbon (HFC),
used as refrigerants in cooling systems (e.g. refrigerators, air
conditioners).
Volatile hydrocarbons: hydrocarbon such as ethane, propane, iso-
VHCs butane, cyclopentane, used as refrigerants in cooling systems (e.g.
refrigerators, air conditioners).
The transformation of a substance or a mixture of substances into
Vitrification
glass or an amorphous glassy matrix.
Waste consisting of aqueous liquids, acids/alkali or pumpable
Water-based liquid waste sludges (e.g. emulsions, waste acids, aqueous marine waste) which
is not liquid biodegradable waste.
Waste Waste as defined in Article 3(1) of Directive 2008/98/EC.
Any type of waste or material prepared from waste that is used as
Waste fuel
fuel in any combustion process.
Any gas leaving a process which is not a product (includes exhaust
Waste gas
gas, off-gas and flue-gas).
Priority order in waste prevention and management legislation and
Waste hierarchy
policy as stipulated in Article 4 of Directive 2008/98/EC.
Waste holder Waste holder as defined in Article 3(6) of Directive 2008/98/EC.
Waste input The incoming waste to be treated in the waste treatment plant.
Waste oil Waste oil as defined in Article 3(3) of Directive 2008/98/EC.
Waste treatment Treatment as defined in Article 3(14) of Directive 2008/98/EC.
Microporous, aluminosilicate minerals commonly used as
Zeolites
commercial adsorbents.

806 Waste Treatment

 References

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Waste Treatment 809

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doi:10.2760/407967
ISBN 978-92-79-94038-5

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