ca]TELECOMMUNIGATION SWITCHING SYSTEMS AND NETWORKS by Thiagarajan Viewsnathar @ 1982 by Prentice-Hall of India Private Limited, New Delhi, All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any fora, by mimeograph or any mer means, without permission in writing trom the publisher. 1S8N-01-203-0713-8 ‘The export rights of this book are vested solely with the publisher, ‘Twonty-sixth Printing ne oe September, 2006 Pubiahed By Avoke K. Ghosh, Prenbce-Hall of India Private United, W-97, ‘Connaught Cireus, New Delhi-110001 and Printed by Rajkamal Biacine Press, 8-350, GT. Kamal Road Industrial Area, Deihi-110033.1.2 Simple Telephone Communication 13 Basics ofa Switching System 14 Manual Switching System 135 Major 1 Telecommunication Networks, ae | STROWGER SWITCHING SYSTEMS 21 Rotary Dial Telephone 22 Signalling Toocs 2.3 Strowger Switching Components 24 Step-by-Step Switching 25 Design Parameters x 27 es 1000-line Blocking Exchange 10,000-line Exchange Further Reading Exercises CROSSBAR SWITCHING 31 Principles. of Common Control 3206 Touch Tone: Dial Telephone 33 Principles of Crossbar Switching — » Boe & BREE Ro Z2B 2B BEEERBRERER B63. 64 65 6.6 67 ‘Time Multiplexed Space Switching Time Multiplexed Time Switching ‘Combination Switching Three-Stage Combination Switching #-Stage Combination Switching Further Reading Exercises OPTICAL FIBRE SYSTEMS Ta 72 a3 7A 15 16 Types of Optical Fibres Fibre Optic Transmission Optical Sources Optical Detectors Power Budgel Analysis Telecommunication Applications Further Reading Exercises TRAFFIC ENGINEERING a1 a2 83 BA B85 86 Network Traffic Load and Parameters Grade of Service and Blocking Probability Modelling Switching Systems Incoming Traffic and Service Time Characterisation Blocking Models and Loss Estimates Delay Systems Further Reading Exercises TELEPHONE NETWORKS 91 92 93 94 95 9.6 Subscriber Loop Systems ‘Switching Hierarchy and Routing ‘Transmission Plan ‘Transmission Systems Numbering Plan (Charging Plan BYRRSSRE E RRREERE s 3 BESESERS wo = it ie a 1 BaERRWw tL Contents oF 98 99 9.10 Signalling Techniques Inchannel Signalling ‘Common Channel Signalling Cellular Mobile Telephony Further Reading Exercises, DATA NETWORKS 1.1 10.2 103 m4 105. 106 107 108 10.9 10.10 10.11 10.12 Data Transmission in PSTNs Switching Techniques for Data Transmission Data Communication Architecture Link-to-Link Layers End-to-End Layers Satellite Based Data Networks ‘Local Area Networks Mewopolitan Area Networks Fibre Optic Networks ‘Data Network Standards. Protocol Stacks Intemetworking Further Reading Exercises INTEGRATED SERVICES DIGITAL NETWORK te nz n3 m4 15 116 11,7 118 119 11.10 Wt Motivation for ISDN New Services, Network and Protocol Architecture Transmission Channels ‘User-Network Interfaces Signalling Numbering and Addressing Service Characterisation Interworking, ISDN Standards Expert Systems in ISDN 374 £88 WI 43 431 BSR Saket abe ges 2 S14 BRS 8 Be1112 Broadband ISDN 11.13 Voice Data Integration Further Reading Exercises Epilogue Answers to Selected Exercises IndexForeword For a number of years, if has become the fashion to write books on analytic themes rather than on topics pertaining to practical systems and their synthesis, That hasheenso mainly for two reasons: Firstly, analytic themes lend themselves bo elegant pedagogic presentation while engineering practices do not. Secondly, practical systems change rapidly, and become dated pretty fast while analytical theory remains valid for long periods of time. In any case, there are few books available on the current practice of tckccommunicalion systems. That leads to avicious cirele — jn the absence of books, the topic is not taught im universities, and as it is mot taught in universities, books arc not written. Thiagarajan Viswanathaa has written a book which breaks this vicious circle, and makes a laudable attempt to Gila major gap. Inthe neat twenty years, we may expect to witness revolutionary changes in telecommunications practice. The foundations for such developments have already been laid in the form of ISDN. Hence, a book on telecommunications sysicms based on the newly accepted international practices t timely. Inthe flurry and excitement of new developments, the tendency is to forget ‘the pioncering past, and thercby lose the historical perspective so essential for scholarly study, T am, therefore, particularly pleased that his beok docs pay attention to the historical processes in telecommunication switching, Tam happy to commend this book to all telecommunication engineers, PY. Indiresan President Tive Institution of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineers New Dethi siltPreface Today's telecommunication network is a complex interconnection of a variety of heterogencous switching systems, Electromechanical and clectronic systems, direct and common control systems, and hard-wired and stored program control systems cocxist. In a sense, it isa marvel that these systems work in close cooperation to offer a plethora of complex telecommunication services, often involving ingtantaneous inlermation transfer across the globe. Presently, two important classes of telecomemunication networks, viz, public switched telephone network (PSTN) and public data network (PDN) are in wide use, The newly emerging integrated services digital network (ISDN) is expected to be in place in the next 20 years or 20 as a result of the process of total digitalisation of telecommunication networks. currently under way. This text is a treatment on beth seitching systems and tcelecommunication networks in a singie volume. The motivation for writing this lext came when | taught regular full-seenester and short-term courses on ‘switching systems and networks’ at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore. I keenly felt the abscace of a suitable text for the purpose. This book is meant to All this void and is designed for the final year undergraduate or the first year postgraduate students in electronics and communications engineering and allied subjects. It may be difficult to cover the entire text in one semester. Depending on other courses offered and the emphasis given in a programme, a teacher may like to omit ane or two chapters ina one-semester course. T have attempted to give a balanced blend of theoretical and practical aspects ia the text. Concepts and system level treatment are given emphasis. Analytical or mathematical ircaiment is introduced only to the extent required. Worked-out examples are given where considered necessary. All chapters containexercises, and answers are provided forthe selected exercises at the end ofthe book. For over 40 years, telecommunications has largely been confined to the private domain of network operators, Rescarch, development and even ‘education have been pursued by afew firms and organisations. Itis only recently that a large number of entreprencurs have entered the field of telecom- munications. Such new entrants should find this book to be a valuable asset. The coverage of recent topics fike fibre optic communication systems and networks, time division switching systems, data uctworks, ISDN, and voice data integration schemes should interest the practising professionals, Thave devoted two full chapters to discuss at length, the somewhat outdated Strowger and crossbar systems, for two reasons, The first and most important ‘one is pedagogical. Many fundamental concepts underlying the design ofxvi Preface modern clectronic exchanges have evolved from these systems. Secondly, most of the less developed and developing countries including India have operational ‘Strowger and crossbar systems, often in large numbers. Chapter | introduces the subject. In this chapter, the evolution of the ‘telecommunication networks is briefly traced, starting from the invention of the telephone by Alexander Gralam Bell and ending with the emerging ISDN. A classification scheme for the switching systems is presented. Basic network structures euch as folded, nonfolded, blocking and sonblocking structures are introduced, Chapter 2 deala with pulse dialling and Strowger automatic switching systems. A set ol parameters loevaluate allernative designs of switching systems is introduced in this chapter, These parameters are generic in nature and are used throughout the text to compare different designs. ‘Chapter 3 discusses the dual tone multifrequency (OTMF) telephones and signalling, the commen control concepts, and the crosshar switching systems, ‘Chapter 4 is. devoted to stored program control (SPC) and multistage space division networks. Here, fault tolerant SPC architectures are discussed besides sysiem and application software aspects. The enhanced telecommunication services (hal became possible with the introduction of SPC are then presented. Chapter 5 lays the foundation for digital voice transmission. After covering linear quantisation, companding and CCITT 4-law are discussed, This chapter cads with & presentation on CCITT time division multiplexing hierarchy, Chapler 6 concentrates on lime division switching. First, analog and digital time division switching techniques are discussed, The idea of time multiplexed inpuv/oulput streams and the corresponding time division switching concepts are then presented. At the end, time-space combination configurations are discussed with real life examples. Chapter 7 is devoted to fibre optic communication systems which are emerging as a major alternative to coaxial cable systems. This chapter covers types of optical fibres, optical sources and detectors, and deals with power losses in fibre optic systems giving related power budget calculations. This chapter concludes with a discussion on the practical application of fibre optic communication systems in telecommunication networks, Chapter 4 is on traffic engineering which is the basis for the design and analysis af telecommunication networks. Grade of service (GOS) and blocking probability ideas are placed in proper perspective in this chapter. Basic concepts of modelling switching systems as birth-death stochastic processes arc presented. Loss system and delay system models are discussed Chapters 9-11 deal with the three most important telecommunication nctworks: tclphanc nciworks, data nctworks and integrated serviccs digital networks. Chapter 9 provides a comprehensive coverage of the telephone network aspects discussing subscriber loap systems, switching hierarchy, and transmission, numbering and charging plans. In addition, a bricf description ofPreface xvii the various transmission systems, viz, coaxial cable, ionospheric, lroposcatler, microwave, aad satellite communication systems, is given. Besides, a discussion on inchannet and common channel signalling systems is also included. Finally, this chapter presents the introductory concepts of the newly emerging cellular mobile communications Chapter 10 opens with a discussion on data transmission ower PSTN and. provides a detailed treament on open system interconnection (OS!) reference model. li then goes on to present important aspects of local and metropolitan arca networks, and satellite based data networks. Basics of fibre optic data networks where considerable research interest lies at present arc thea dealt with, Other aspects discussed in this chapter include data network standards and internetworking, To Chapter 11 after briefly discussing the motivation for ISDN, some of the new services that are possible in the context of ISDN are presenied. ISDN architecture, user-network interface and ISDN standards are covered in this chapter, I isemvisioned that artificial intelligence and expert systems would play a significant vole in future telecommuni actworks and beace a brief ireatise on this topicis given. The chapter concludes with a discussion on some of the voice data integration schemes, Lset out to write this text with an aim of giving a broad, yet fairly in-depth, andup-to-dale coverage of lelecommunication swilching systems and networks, How far [ have succeded in this aim is for the readers to judge, 1 would be grateful for comments from the readers, especially students, teachers and practising professionals. T. ViswanathanAcknowledgements Many have contributed to the success[ul preparation of this text. [ would like to place on record my grateful thanks to cach one of them. Thegan writing this text when I was a Professor at the Indian Institute of Science (11Sc), Bangalore, but wrote a major part of & while being the Director of the Indian National Scientific Documentation Centre (INSDOC), a Constituent establishment of the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) of the Government of India. Financial support for the preparation of the manescript came from the Curriculum Develapment Cell at [Se set up by the Ministry of Human Resource Development. The execllent infrastructural facilities of INSDOC and the gracious words of encouragement from Prof. 5 K Joshi, Director General, CSIR hastened the process of completing: the text. Shri Gopal of the Department of Telecommunications put in considerable effort and reviewed the manuscript in a time-bound manner. Shri J M Jose, a rescarch fellow al INSDOC, verified the worked-oul cxamples andmcticulously perused parts of the manuscript. He also rendered very valuable assistance in many other ways. Smt, Chandrika Sridhar at [Se and Sml, Sushma Arora at INSDOC rendered their skillful services in word processing the handwrilten manuscript. Both of them did their job so efficiently and delightfully that [ had no hesitation in revising, modifying and correcting the computerised manuscrip| many times Both of them went out of their way to meet deadlines and schedules. The camera ready copies of the manuscript were prepared at INSDOC using desk top publishing facilities, Shri B Sadananda Rao, Smt, Sarla Du and Shri $ D Barman contributed significantly to this activity. The rich experience, expertise and the maturity of Shri B Sadananda Rao have beca an ase! All my office staff and a few other colleagues at INSDOC have in some way contributed to this process. In particular, S/Shri PR Gupta, Trilek Singh Negi, Durga Dutt Tiwari and Balwant Singh deserve mention, The publishers, Prentice-Hall of India, meticulously processed the manuscript with remarkable speed, both during the editorial and production slages, and made valuable improvements. A number of persons have been well wishers of this activity. Foremost among them are S/Shri N Jayaraman, V Rajaraman, TN Seshan, Dr 8 B Sunde- resan, ¥ § Rajan and N Pant. My wile bas been a mentor in this effort, When J was overjoyed at having, completed some portion, she geatly ecminded me of the work-still left. When I was concerned about not progressing, she took care of even my trivial personal needs, enabling me to devote my full energy on this effort. The text was tried on xixxx Acknowledgements my first daughter, a bright student of mathematics, who studied the text and Jearnt the subject on her own, When she did not understand some concepts, it ‘wus an indication for me to revise the concerned portion. When I was excited about some new activities and talked of some ‘big things’, it was given to my younger daughter to say "Appa, first finish your book, that is the best service you can render’, ss Tam overwhelmed, whea T think of the fact that there are so many who have worked to make this effort a success although there is only one name printed as author in the text. I am indebted to each one of them. Tt is my experience that both science and religion have their roles to play in ‘one’s Life. While science bas helped me to think and reason rationally, religion thas carried me beyond the realm of thought and reasoning, A great seer of India has blessed this effort and I feel that he has takes me owe step nearer to God through this effort. It is with great humilicy that [ offer this text at the feet of the Supreme Being. T. Viswanathan1 Introduction The Geld of telecommunications has evolved from a stage when signs, drum beats and semaphores were used for long distance communication to a stage when electrical, radia and electro-optical signals are being used. Optical signals produced by faser sources and carried by ultra-pure ghiss fibres are recent additions to the field. Telecommunicalion networks carry information signals among entities which are geographically far apart. An entity may be a computer, a human being, a facsimile machine, ateleprinter, a data tereninal, and so on, Billions of cuch entitics the world-over are involved in the process of information transfer which may be in the form of a telephone conversation of a Glo transfer between two computers or a message transfer between two terminals, ete. In telephone conversation, the one who initiates the call is referred to as the calling subscriber and the one for whom the call is destined is the called subscriber. In other cases of information transfer, the communicating entities are known as souree and destination, respectively. The full potential of telecommunicationsis realised only when any ent in one part of the world can communicate with any other entity in anoth part of the world, Modern telecommunicalion networks attempt fo make this idea of ‘universal connectivity’ a reality, Connectivity in telecommunication networks is achicved by the use of seatching systems, This text deals wath the telecommunication switching systems and the networks that use them to provide worldwide connectivity, 1.1 Evolution of Telecommunications Historically, transmission of telegraphic signals over wires was the first technological development in the Geld of modern telecommunications, Tele- graphy was introduced in 1837 in Great Britaia and in 1845 in France, In March 1276, Alexander Graham Bell demonstrated his telephone set and the possibility of telephony, ic. long-distance voice transmission. Graham Bell's invention was one of those rare inventions which was put to practical we almoct immediately, His demonstrations laid the foundation for telephony. Graham Bell demonstrated a point-to-point telephone connection. A network using point-to-point comnections is shown in Fig, 1.1. In such a 12 fatroduction 4 5 Fig. 1.1 A network witk point-to-point links. network, a calling subscriber chooses the appropriate link te establish cone section with the called cubceriber, In order to draw the attention of the called subscriber before information exchange can begin, some form of signalling is required with cach link. If the called subscriber is engaged, a suitable indication should be given to the calling subscriber by means of signalling. In Fig. 1.1, there are five entities and 10 point-to-point links. Ina general case with 1 entities, there are n(n —1)/2 links, Let us consider the 4 entities in some order. In order to connect the first entity to all other entities, we require (a - 1) links. With this, the second entity is already connected te the first. We now need (1 — 2) links to connect the second entity to the others. For the third entity, we need (nm — 3) links, for the fourth (n ~ 4) links, and so om. The total number of links, L, works out as follows: L=(n-1)+(n-44...41 402 a(n —1)2 (1.1) Networks with point-to-peint links among all the cotities are known a3 fully connected metworks, The sumber of links required ina fully connected nctwork becomes very large even with moderate values oft, For example, we require 1225 links for fully interconnecting 50 subscribers. Consequently, practical use of Bell's invention on a large scale of even on a moderate scale demanded not only the telephone scts and the pairs of wires, but also the so- called switching system or the switching office or the exchange. With the introduction of the switching systems, the subscribers are not connected directly to one another, instead, they are connected to the switching systcm ax shown in Fig. 1.2. When a subseriber wants to communicate with ssother,Evaliion of Telecommericationy 3 Switching System 4, 8, 5 & Fig.1.2 Subseriber interconnection using a switching system. a connection is established between the two at the switching system. Figure 1.2 shows a connection between subscriber 42 and 4, — . In this con- figuration, only ong link per subscriber is required between the subseriber and the switching system, and the total number of such links is equal to the number of subscribers connected tothe system. Signalling is aow required to draw the attention of the switching sysiem to establish or release a con- fection. It should also enable the switching system to detect whether a called subscriber is busy and, ifso, indicate the same to the calling subscriber, The functions performed by a switching system in establishing and releasing connections are known as contrel functions, Early switching systems were manual and operator oriented, Limitations af operator manned switching systems were quickly recognised and auto- matic exchanges came into existence. Aulomalic switching syslems can be classified as electromechanical and electroale. Electromechanical switchiag, systems inchide step-by-step and crossbar systems. The step-by-step sys tem is better known as Sirowger switching system after its inventor ALB. Strowger. The control functions in a Slrowger system are performed by cireuits associated with the switching elements in the system. Crossbar systems have hard-wired control subsystems which usc relays and latches. These subsystems have limited capability and it ts virtually impossible to modify them to provide additional functionalities. In electronic awitching systems, the control functions are performed by a computer of a processor. Henee, these systems are called stored program control (SPC) systems. New: facilities can be added to a SPC system by changing the control program, The switching scheme used by electronic switching systems may be either space division switching of time division switching, In space division switching, a dedicated path is established between the calling and the called subscribers for the entire duration of the call. Space division switching is also the tech- nique used in Strowger and crossbar eystems, An electronic exchange may use a crossbar switching matrix for apace division swilching, In other words, acrasshar switching system with SPC qualifies as an electronic exchange. Tn time division switching, sampled values of speech signals are trans- ferred at fixed intervals. Time division switching may be analog or digital. In analog switching, the sampled voltaye levels ure transmitted as they are,40 fatroduction whereas in digital switching, they are binary coded amd transmitted, If the coded values are transferred during the same time interval from input to output, the technique és called space switching, Ef the values are stored and. transferred to the output ata later time interval, the technique is called time switching, A time division digital switch may also be designed by using a combination of space and time switching techniques, Figure 1.3 summarises Switching Systems ——4_| Manual Automatic Electromechanical Electronic | {Stored program control) Strowger or Crossbar Space division Time division slep-by-step switching switching te Digital Analog —+— Space Time Combination switch switch switch Fig. 1.3 Classification of switching systems. the classification of switching systems. In Chapters 2 and 3, we deal with electromechanical switching systems. Electronic space division networks are discussed in Chapter 4. Digitisation of speech, which is a fuedamental requirement for electronic time division switching metworks, is discussed in Chapter 5, and the time division switching techniques in Chapter 6. Subscribers all over the world cannot be connected to a single switching system unless we have a gigantic switching system in the sky and every subseriber has a direct access to the same. Although communication satellite systems covering the entire globe and low cost roof-top antenna present such ascenaric, (he capacity of such systems is limited at present. The major part af the telecommunication networks is still ground based, where subscribers are connected to the switching system via copper wires. Technological and engineering constraints of signal transfer on a pair of wires necessitate that the subscribers be located within a few kilometres from the switching system. By introducing ¢ number of stand-alone switching systems in appropriate geographical locations, communication capability can be established among£votution of Telecornmunications § the subscribers in the same locality, However, for subscribers in different localities t0 communicate, it is necessary that the switching systems are interconnected in the form of a network. Figure 1.4 shows 4 telecommuni- is Subscriber lines Subseriber lines SS = switching system Fig. 1.4 A telecommunication nctwork. cation network. The links that run between the switching systems are called trunks, and those that ram to the subscriber premises are known as subscriber Hnes, The number of trunks may vary between pairs of switching systems and is determined om the basis of traffic between them. As the number of switching systems increases, intercennccting them becomes complex, The problem is tackled by introducing 2 hierarchical structure among the switching systems and using a number of them in series w estab- | lish connection between subscribers. The design and analysis of switching systems and telecommunication networks. are based on the traffic enginees- ing concepts; these are covered in Chapter &. A modern telecommunication network may be viewed as an aggregate of a large number of point-to-paint electrical or optical communication systems shown in Fig. 1.5. While these systems are capable of carrying clectrical or optical signals, as the case may be, the information to be conveyed is sot always in the form of these signals. For example, human speech signals ced to be converted to electrical or optical signals before they can be carried by a communication system. Transducers perform this energy conversion. Present day optical sources require electrical signals as input, and the optical6 Introduction Original Reproduced signal signal Original Reproduced s Noise [oxc] B-EHEEH (b) An optical communication system Ct = channelinterface EOC = electrical to optical converter ES = electrical signal OFC = optical to electrical converter SC = signal conditioner = T = transducer. Fig. Elements of a communication system.Evolution af Telecommunications = 7 detectors produce electrical signals as output. Hence, the original signals arc first converted to electrical signals and then to optical signals at the transmit- ting end of an optical communication system and at the receiving end optical sigaals are converted to electrical signals before the original signal is reproduced, A medium is required to carry the signals. This medium, called the channel, may be the free space, a copper cable, or the free space in conjunction with a satellite in the case of an electrical communication system. An optical communication system may use the line-of-sight free space or fibre optic cables as the channel. Channels, in general, are lossy and prone to external noise that corrupts the information carrying signals, Dif- ferent channels exhibit different loss characteristics and are affected to different degrees by noise. Accordingly, the chosen channel demands that the information signals be properly conditioned before they are transmitted, so that the effect of the lossy nature of the channel and the moisc is kept within limits and the signals reach the destination with acceptable level of intelligibility and fidelity. Signal conditioning may include amplification, filtering, band-limiting, multiplesing and dlemultiplesing. Fibre optic com- munication systems are ¢merging as major transmission systems for tele- communications. Chapter 7 deals with this newly cracrging communication system. The channel and the signal characteristics of individual communication systems in a telecommunication network may vary widely, For example, the communication system between the subscriber and the switching system uses most often a pair of copper wires as the channel, whereas the communication system between the switching systems may use a coaxial cable ov the free space (microwave) as the channel, Similarly, the type of end equipment used at the subscriber premises would decide the electrical characteristics of signals carried berwcen the subscriber end and the switching avatem. For example, ¢lectrical characteristics of teleprinter signals arc completely dif- ferent from those of telephone signals, In fact, such wide variations in signal characteristics have led to the development of different service specific lecommunication networks that operate independently. Examples are: 1, Telegraph networks 2. Telex networks 3. Telephooe networks 4. Data networks. We discuss the telephone networks in Chapter 9 and the data networks in Chapter 10. Management and maintenance of multiple octworks are expensive. The question then arises: [s it possible to design a single network that can carry all the services? The key to the solution of this problem lies in the digitalisation of services. If all the service specific signals can be converted to @ common digital domain, a metwork capable of transporting digital signals can carry the multitude of services. This approach is leading to8 Introduction the evolution of the integrated services digital network (ISDN) which is discussed in Chapter 11. 12 Simple Telephone Communication Inthe simplest form of a telephone circuil, (here is gone way communication involving two entities, ane receiving (listening) and the other transmitting (talking). This form ef one way communication shown in Fig. 1.6is known as Fig. 1.6 A simplex telephone circuit. simplex communication. The microphone and the earphone are the trans- ducer elements of the telephone communication system, Microphone converls speech signals into electrical signals aad the earphone converts electrical signals into audio signals, Most commonly used microphone is a carbon microphone. Carbon microphones do not produce high fidelity ‘signals, but give out strong electrical signals at acceptable quality levels for telephone conversation. In carbon microphones, a certain quantity of small carbon granules is placed in a box. Carbon granules conduct electricity and the resistance offered by them is dependent upon the density with which they are packed. One side of the box cover is flexible and is mechanically attached to a diaphragm. When sound waves impinge on the diaphragm, it vibrates, causing the carbon granules tocompress or expand, thus changing the resisti- vity offered by the granules. If a voltage is applicd to the microphone, the current in the circuit varies according to the vibrations of the diaphragm. The theery of the carbon microphone indicates that the microphone functions like an amplitude modulator, When the sound waves impinge on the div- phragm, the instantaneous resistance of the microphone is given by 4 Sry —rsinad (Lay where fy @ quiescent resistance of the microphone when there is no speech signal y= maximum variation in resistance offered by the carbon granules,r < ry ¥, = instantaneous resistance. The negative sign in Eq. (1.2) indicates that when the carbon granules are compressed the resistance decreases and vice versa. Ignoring impedancesSiniple Telephone Communication = 9 external to the microphone in the circuit given in Fig. 1.6, without loss of generality, the instantaneous current im the microphone is given by 25 Vilvy - sina) = fy =m sino! (13) where J, = Vir, = quiescent current in the microphone merry, ml By binomial theorem, Eq, (1.3) may be expanded as i= ig(1 + m sina +m? sink ot +...) (ay If the value of m is sufficiently small, which is usually the case in practice, higher-order terms can be ignored in Eq. (1.4), giving therehy f= Jo(1 + me sin aot) (1.5) which resembles the amplitude modulation (AM) equation. Thus, the carbon granule microphone acts a5 a modulator of the direct current Jo which is analogous to the carrier wave in AM systema, The quantity m is cquivalent to the modulation index in AM. The higher-order terms in Eq. (1.4) represent higher-order harmonic distortions, and hemce it is essential that the value of am be kept sufficiently low. In Eq. (1.5), the ultcenating current output i is zero il the quiescent current [ois zero, Hence, the flow of this steady current through the microphone is essential, and the current itself is known as energising current. In Fig.1.6, the inductor acts us a high impedance clement for voice frequency signals but permits the cLc. from the battery to flow to the microphone and the receiver. The voice frequency signals generated by the microphone reach the earphone withomt being shunted by the battery arm and are converted ta aucko signals there. ‘The earphone is usually an electromagnet with a magnetic diaphragm which is positioned such that there is an air gap between it and the poles of the electromagnet. When the electromagnet is energised by passing a current, a force is exerted on the diaphragm. The voice frequency current from the microphone causes variation ia tke force exerted by the electro- magnet, thus vibrating the diaphragm and producing sound waves. Faithful reproduction of the signals by the reeciver requires that the magnetic diaphragm be displaced in one direction from its unstressed position, The Quiescent current provides this bias. In some circuits, a permanent magnet is used to provide the necessary displacement instead of the quicscent current. The instantaneous flux linking the poles of the electromagnet and the diaphragm is given by P= oot Paina (6)10° Introduction where tp = constant Mux due to the quiescent current of the permancaot magnet = maximum amplitude of flux variation, ¢ < gy $j ~ instantaneous flux Equation (1.4) assumes that the vibrations of the diaphragm are toa small to affect the length of the air gap and that the reluctance of the magnetic path is constant. The instantaneous force exerted on the diaphragm is proportional to the square of the instantaneous flux linking the path. Therefore, F = K(#g + ¢ sin wn)? (L7) where X is the constant of proportionality. Expanding the right-hand side of Eq. (1.7), we have F = Kigg + 9? sin’ ot + 2gyp sin ot) (1.8) When (@/ 9} << 1, we can ignore the second-order term in Eq.(1.8). We thea have F = Kepi(1 + Kylysin owt} (19) where Jy sin wt is the current flowing through the coil, We thus see that the force expericoced by the diaphragm is in accordance with the signals produced by the microphone, In anormal telephone communication system, information is transferred both ways. An entity is capable of both receiving and sending although these. da mot take place simultancously, An entity is either receiving or sending at any instant of time. When one entity istransmitting, the other is receiving and vice versa. Such a form of communication where the information transfer takes place both ways but not simultaneously is known as half-duplex communication. If the information transfer takes place in both directions simultancously, then it is called full-duplex communication. Figure 1.6 may be modified to achieve half-duples communication by the introduction of a transmitter and receiver at both ends of the circuit as showe in Fig, 1.7, In this circuit, the speech of 4 is heard by 3 as well as in.4's own earphone. This audio signal, heard at the generating end, is called sidetone. A certain amount of sidetone is useful, or even essential, Human speech and bearing system is a feedback system in which the volume of specch is automatically adjusted, based on the sidetone heard by the ear. [fnosidetone is present, a person tends to shout, and if too much of sidetone is present, there is a tendency to reduce the speech to a very low level. In the cireuit of Fig. 1.7, the entire speech intensity is heard as sidetone, which is oot desirable. Figure 1.8 gives a circuit where a small level of sidetone and theSimple Telephone Communication 12 Subseriber.4 Subseriber 8 E = carphone M = microphone Fig.1.7 A half-duplex telephone: circuit, A } i i { i i i i : 1 { I : ‘ i : ' i i i i a Subscriber Fig 1.8 Atelephone circuit with sidetone coupling, full speech signal from the other party are coupled to the receiver. The impedance Z, is chosen to be more or less equal to the impedance sccn by the circuit to the right of section AA’. As a consequence, with proper side- tone coupting the speech signal from the microphone M divides more or less equally in the two windings P and Q. Since the signals in these two windings are in the opposite direction, only a small induced voltage appears in the receiver circuit providing the sidetone. When a signal is received from the other entity, it travels in the same direction in both windings P and Q, inducing a large signal in the receiver circuit,12 Introduction 13 Basics ofa Switching System A major component af a switching syslem or an exchange is the set of input and output circuits called inlets and qutlets, respectively. The primary function of a switching system is to establish an electrical path between a given inlet-outlet pair. The hardware used for establishing swch a connection is called the switching matrix or the switching network. It is important to note that the switching network is a component of the switching system and should not be confused with tclecommunication network, Figure 1.9{a) shows a model of a switching network with NW inlets and M outlets, When = M, the switching nctwork is called a symmetric network. The inlets! outlets may be connected to local subscriber fines or to trunks from/to other exchanges a5 shown in Fig. 1.9(b). When ail the inlets/outlets are connected tothe subscriber lines, the logical connection appears as shown in Fig. 1.9(c). In this case, the output lines are folded back to the input and hence the network is called a folded network. In Fig. 1.9(b), four types of connections may be established: 1, Local cail connection betwren two subscribers in the system 2. Outgoing call commection between a subscriber and an oulgaing, trunk 3. Incoming call connection between an incoming trunk and a local subscriber 4, Transit call connection between an incoming trunk and an outgoing trunk. Ina folded network with N subscribers, there can be a maximum of N/2 simultaneous calls or information interchanges. The switching network may be designed to provide N/2 simultancous switching paths, in which case the network ix said to be sonbloeklag. In a sonblocking network, as long as a called subscriber is free, a calling subscriber will always be able to establish a connection to the called subseri In other words, a subscriber will not be denied a connection fer want of switching resources, Bul, in general, il rarely happens that all the possible conversations take place simultaneously. Itmay, hence, he economical to design a switching network that has as many simultancous switching paths as the average aumber of conversations expected. In this case, it may occasionally happen that when a subscriber Tequests 4 connection, there are no switching paths free in the network, and hence he is denied connection, In such an event, the subscriber is said to be blocked, and the switching network is culled a blocking network. In a block- ing network, the number of simultancous switching paths is less than the maximum number of simultancous conversations that can take place. The probability that a user may get blocked is called blocking probability. Allthe switching exchanges are designed to mect an estimated maximum average simultaneous traffic, usually known as busy hour traffic. Past records of the telephone traffic indicate that even in a busy exchange, notBasics of a Switching System = 13 . ‘. M «= Outlets (a) Model of a switching network Incoming ¥ Outgoing trunks — muniks Subscriber ~ Subscriber inlets = _. = outlets (b) Jolets/outlets connections yo , Switching Sueeriee network (¢} Folded network N Incoming irunks, (a) Nonfolded network Fig. 19 Sivitching network configurations,id Introduction more than 20-30 per cent of the subscribers are active at the same time, Hence, switching systems are designed such that all the resources in a system are treated as common resources and the required resources are allocated to a conversation as long as it lasts. The quantum of common resources is deter- mined based on the estimated busy hour traffic, When the traffic exceeds the limit to which the switching system is designed, a subscriber experiences blocking. A good design generaliy ensures a low blocking probability. The traffic in‘a telecommunication network is measured by an inter- nationally accepted unit of traffic intensity known as erlang (E), named after an illustrious carly contributor to traffic theary. A switching resource is said fo carry one ealang of tralfic if it is continuously occupied throughout # given period of observation. Teletraffic concepts are discussed in Chapter & In a switching network, all the inlet/outlet connections may be used for interexchange transmission. In such a case, the exchange does not support focal subscribers and is called 3 transit exchange. A switching network of this kind is shows in Fig, 1.0(d) and is called amoafelded network. Ina nonfolded network with N inlets and W outlets, N simultaneous information transfers are possible. Consequently, for a nonfolded network to be nonblocking, the network should support VW simuliancous switching paths. ‘While the switching network provides the switching paths, it is the control subsystem of the switching system that actually establishes the path, ‘The switching network docs not distinguish between inlets/outlets that are connected to the subscribers or te the trunks. Tt is the job of the control subsystem to distinguish between these lines and interpret correctly the signalling information received on these lines, I senses the end of infor- mation transfer and releases connections, A connection is catablished, based on the signalling information received on the inkct lincs. The control sub- system sends out signalling information to the subscriber and otker exchanges connected to the outgoing trunks. In addition, signailing is also involved between different subsystems within an exchange. The signalling formats and requirements for the subscriber, the trunks and the subsystems differ significantly. Accordingly, a switching system provides for three dif- ferent forms of signalling: 1, Subscriber lnop signalling 2, Interexchange signalling 3. Intraexchange or register signalling, A swiiching system is composed of clements that perform switching, control and signalling functions. Figure 1.10 shows the different elements of a switching system and their logical interconnections. The subscriber lines are terminated at the subseriber line interface circuits, and trunks at the trunk interface circuits. There are some service lines used for maintenance and testing purposes. Junctor circuits imply a folded connection for the local subscribers and the service cireuits, It is possible that some switching systemsBasics of a Switching System 1s Incoming Ourecing : Trunk thie : interface invertece “aT Subscriber 5 Subscriber . itipe: Switching tine . interface network interlace [-— ; Service ‘ circuit ora ©] imerface a aa o- Subscriber Tusk and circuit }— service line scanning scanning and * - [Genicot] distributor units ‘To incoming trumks Fig. 1.10) Elements of a switching system. provide an internal mechanism for local connections without using the junctor circuits. Line scanning unite sense and obtain signalling information from the respective lines, Distributor units send out signalling information on the respective lines. Operator console permits interaction with the swit system for maintenance and administrative purposes. In some swith syslems, the control subsystem may be an integral part of the switching network itself. Such systems are known as direct control switching systems. Those systems in which the control subsystem is outside the switching nei- work are known as common control switching systems, Strowger exchanges are usually direct control systems, whereas crossbar and electronic eachanges are common control systems, All stored program control systems are common coatrol systems, Common coutrol is also known as iadirect control ar register control.16 Iniroduction 14 Manual Switching System With the advert of automatic switching systems, the manual exchanges have almost gone out of usc, Today, operator assistance is required on a rowtine: basis, only to coanget the incoming call at a private automatic branch exchange (PABX) to the required extension numbers. Even this requirement will cease to exist with the large scale introduction of what ig known as direct inward dialling (DID) faciliry which is described in Chapter 9. However, a discussion of the organisation of manual exchanges would help us to under- stand many of the principles of a telecommunication switching system. As discussed in Section 12, a microphone requires to be energised in order to produce electrical signals corresponding to the speech waveform. In the very carly switching systems the microphone was energised using a battery at the subscriber cud. Later, a battery located at the exchange was used. Accordingly, one may place the early systems in lwo categories: © Local battery (LB) exchanges © Central battery (CB) exchanges. Tn the LB systems, dry cells were used in subscriber sets to power the microphone. These cells have limited power output and cannot be used for signalling over long lines to the exchange, Hence, LB subscriber sets were provided with a magneto generator. In this case, a subscriber needed to rotate a handle to generate the required alternating current to operate indicators at the exchange. The use of magneto generator ted to the alter- native nomenclature mageeto exchange for the LB systems, The necessity to replace dry cells frequently and the cumbersome procedure of rotating the magneto geperator led to the development of CB exchanges, where a subscriber stl i energised from a powerful central battery at the exchange. Almost all the present day telephone exchanges are CB systems, although it is not inconceivable that future systems may resort to LB struc: tures iflow cost reliable power supplies for the subscriber premises become available, A simple CE system operated by a human being is shown in Fig. 1.11. The system consists of one or more switchboards manned by operators. The subscriber lines are terminated on jacks mounted on the switchboard. There is one jack for every subscriber line. Associated with each jack is a light indicatar ta draw the attention of the operator. When a subscriber lifts the hand sct, the off-hook switch is closed, causing a current lo flow through the hand set and the lamp relay coil. The tamp relay operates and the indicator corresponding to the subscriber lights up. The operator establiches contact with the subscriber by connecting the head set to ihe subscriber line via the headset key and a plug-ended cord pair. A plug-ended cord pair has two cords that are connected internally and terminated with a plug cach at the external ends. The plugs mate with the jacks. To establish contact, a cord is plugged into the subscriber jack and the key corresponding to the chosen cord is thrown in position to connect the head set. On beingManual Switehing Systern ay . i i i 1 1 : i ' \ t i t ' : ' : i i : i ' | ‘ i ! i I ' ! i Plug. ‘Of-nook. 1 = ended switch '} Ringing Head ordpaiss 7 current Set Benerator Fig. 1.11 Manned central battery exchange. ‘told the number required by the subscriber, the operator verifies whether the called party is free, and if so, sends out the ringing current to the called subscriber using a plug-ended cord pair, The ringing circuit at the subscriber end is usually a bell shown as B im Fig. 1.11, with a capacitor C, in series. They remain conaccted te the circuit always, The capacitor allows the alternating ringing current from the exchange to pass through the bell but prevents the loop direct current, If the called party is busy, the calling subscriber is told about the same. When the called party answers, his indicator lamp lights up. ‘The operator then establishes a connection between the calling and the called party by plugging in the cord pair to the called party jack. In a manual switching system, the operator has full control of a connection. He enables the signalling systems, performs switching and releases a connection afler a conversation. Tfthere are 200 subscribers terminated on a switchboard, there can be a maximum of 100 simuftancous calls. In order to support all these calls, the switchboard must contain 100 plug-ended cord pairs. But a single operator may not be able to handle 100 calls simultaneously. It is, however, rarely that all the subscribers would want to talk simultaneously, Assuming that only 20 subscribers (10 calls) will use the system simultaneously, the switchboard nzeds to be provided with only 10 plug-ended cord pairs. What happens if more than 20 users want to talk al the same time? The operator will sot have18 Introduction Plug-ended cords for establishing the connection and the users are blocked. ‘Users may also experience blocking, if the operator is not able to handle more than a certain mamber of calls simultancousty, even though free plug- ended cord pairs are available. In general terms, we may say that a user experiences blocking on account of the nonavailability of the switching circuits or the coniral system circuits. When the sumber of subscribers increases, multiple switchbourds and operators are required to handle the traffic. Im this case, the subscriber switchboards at the exchange may be of two types: © Single termination switchboards * Multitermination switchboards, The terms nonmultiple and multiple are sometimes used to denote single termination and raultiterminstion schemes respectively, In the single termi- nation scheme, a subscriber is terminated on only one board, whereas in the multitermination scheme, heis terminated on more than one switchboard, In single termination boards, subscribers are split isto groups and connected to diffcrent switchboards. Each switchboard is handled by a separate operator, When a subscriber wishes to call another in the same group, the operator concerned establishes the call, In order to enable a subscriber belonging to ‘one group to call a subscriber in another group, transfer lines are provided between the switchboards as shown in Fig. 1.12. The number of transfer lines. is determined based on the estimated intergroup traffic. It may be noted that an intergroup call requires the services of two operators manning the two respective groups. The maximum number of simultaneous calls within a group is limited by the number of plug-eaded cord pairs in the group or the number of simulta- Noalocal connection Local epnnection Transfer lines Fig. L.12) Single termination boards with transfer jacks.Manual Switching System = 19 neous calls thal can be handled by the operator, whichever is smaller. The umber of simultancous calls between the groups is limited by the number of transfer lines. Single termination systems suffer from the serious disadvantage that as many operators as there are switchhoards are always required irrespective of the peak or lean traffic period, During lean traffic period, the average mumber of simultaneous calls is much Jess than that during the peak traffic period. Nevertheless, there are likely to be at least a few intergroup calla. Every intergroup call requires two operators to eaablish the call. Consequenily, even a small sumber of intergroup calls among the swilchboards demands that ail boards be manned. The aced for wo operators per call is avoided in the multitermination switebboard scheme, Here, every subscriber is terminated on all the switch- boards as shown in Fig. 1.13. Such an arrangement has the advantage that a Subscriber lines Fig. 1.13 Multitermination boards. single operator can eatablish a call between any two subscribers connected to the system, The number of operators needed om duty al any time is now determined by the number of simultaneous calls estimated during the period. The system, however, has two drawbacks. Firstly, the total sumber of con- nections in the system increases considerably, thereby reducing the reliability of the system, Secondly, terminating all the subscribers ia all the boards, such that the terminations are casily accessible 10 the operators, poses human cngincering problems, The switchboard height becomes large, and the operator does not have easy access to the sumbers at the top of the board, The problem is somewhat reduced by terminating half the number of sub- seribers in alternate switchboards ina jemanner and letting an operater have access to one-half of the adjacent boards on the left and right. The scheme is illustrated in Fig.1.14 for two operator positions, Subscribers are terminated on the boards as per the following order:2 Introdirctien Subscriber Nos. Operator bourd Tbs 0-99 1 left-top 100-199 1 right-bop 200-299 2 lefl-top 399 2 ight-top 4499 1 Seft-bottom s00-599 1 right-bottom. ‘600-699 2 beft-bottom TO-799 2 ight-bottom. — “operator 1 aces - | | operator 2 acces — Fig. 1.14 A practical multitermination board scheme with cyclic assignment of numbers. In addition, the numbers terminated on the right half of operator 2 panel, 300-399 and 700-799, are terminated on the half-panel on the left side of the operator 1, Similarly, the oumbers terminated on the lefi half of operator 1 panel, 0-99 and 400-499, are terminated on the half-panel ow the right side of the operator 2. Operator 1 gets access to numbers WM-399 and 70-799 from the left hand side half-panel and.to numbers 200-299 and 600-099 from the half-panel of the operator 2, Similarly, operator 2 gets access to mutmbers 100-199 and 500=599 from the left and to oumbers 0-99 and 400-499 from the right, It may be noted that we require one unmanned half-panel at cither end of the switchboard row. Thus, in an 8-operator ewitchboard, there are. fine logical switchboards.Major Telecommuication Networks 21 As the number of subscribers increases, typically to a thousand or more, manual switching beeemes more and more difficult and a method of auta- matic switching, signalling and control is inevitable, 1.5 Major Telecommunication Networks Telecommunication networks may be categorised according to their coverage of geographical areas which have distinct 1elecommunication requirements, Towns and cities have high subseriber densities and relatively heavy traffic per stibscriber. They are characterised by many local exchanges and short distances between cxchanges as well as subscribers. Networks which are designed taking these factors into account are known as urban or metropolitan networks, Rural areas are characterised by low subscriber densities, widely dispersed subscribers, lighter traffic per subscriber, jast one or two local exchanges usually far apart, long distances between subscribers and exchanges, and lesa conducive environmental conditions and inadequate infrastructural facilities. These areas are served by rural networks. Long distance or tell or wide area networks act as backbone networks inter- connecting metropolitan and rural networks. They support intracountry, intercountry and intercoatinental communications, Long distances (a few bundred te a few thousand kilometres) involved in such networks call for Special consideration in the design of interexchange transmission and signal- ling systems. In the cowtext of telephone networks, urban and rural networks are sometimes referred to as local networks. But in the context of data networks, the term local network refers to a network within & building or a campus. The most stupendous telecommunication network in existence is the pubiic switched telephone network (PSTN) or sometimes known as plain old telephone system (POTS). There are over 400 million telephones in the world and the length of wiring in the telephone network is estimated ta be over 12 times the distance between the earth and the sun. The growth rate of the telecommunication industry is next only to that of the computer industry. But the growth value in absolute terms far exceeds that of the latter. The present trends seem to indicate that the growth rate may even surpass that of the computer industry in the Ss, Telecommunicalion industry is both in the private and government or public seetor. Ut is largely privatised in the United Siates where there are about 1600 privately owned telephone companies, In most of the other cour the government has a complete monopoly over all forms of eom- munications including mail, telegraph and telephone. Companies in the United States that provide communication services to the public are known as common carriers. In countries where the telecommunication avthority is a nationalised company or a department of the govermment, it is usually known as the post, telegraph and telephone (FET) administration, In India,22 Jareduction a single government department known as Posts and Telegraphs (P&T) department dealt with mail, telegraph and telephone communications until the end of 1984. With effect from January 1985, the responsibility was divided beeween two departments: the Department of Posts dealing with mail and the Department of Telecommaunications (DOT) dealing with telephone, telegraph and data communications, With a number of different agencies involved in provi tele~ communivation services, there is clearly a need to ensure compatibility on a worklwide scale co enable internetworking. This coordination is provided by the International Telecommanications Unien (ITU}, anagency of the United Nations. [TU has three main groups, one of which deals with telephone and data communications. This group is known by the French name: Comité Consaltatif Internationale de Télégraphique et Téléphonique (CCITT) 7 International Consultative Commistee for Telegraph and Telephones. Five classes of members, A,B,C, D, and E constitate the CCITT. A description ofthe members belonging to different classes is presented im Table 1.1. Only class A members have voting rights. Since there is no PTT in the United States, the State Deparinient represents the U.S. government as class A member. In CCITT terminology, a public telephone network is referred to as general switched telephone network (GSTN). In this text, we mostly use the popular term, PSTN; but when discussing sandards, we use dhe CCITT term, GSTN. Table 1.1 CCITT Members Class Meinbers A National PTTs : B Recognised private administrations ec Scientific and industrial organisations D ‘Other international organisations E ‘Organisations whose primary function is im fields other than telecommanications, but have an interest in CCITT activities. Data networks form the second major class of telecommunication net= works. They are of recent atigin (30-35 years old) and have emerged as a result of coming together of computer and communication technologies. These networks coable sharing of hardware, software and data resources of cainputer systems. As a result, they haw come to be known as computer networks. Barly networks imerconnected computer systems of the same family, The network project, ARPANET, supported by the Advanced Research Projects Agency of the Department of Defence, United States, is one of the pinneering ¢flarts in interconnecting heterogeneous systems. In some sense, the ARPANET demonstrated the feasibility of datacomputerMajorTelecommunication Networks 23 networks. TYMNET is another large scale, general purpose data network jatroduced in i970, interconnecting geographically distributed computer systems, users and peripherals. Prompted by the developments in ARPANET and TYMNET, leading computer vendors announced propriclary architectures for interconnecting their own computer systems. These include IBM's System Network Archi- tecture (SNA) and Digital Equipment Corporation's Digital Network Archi- tecture (DNA). By 1980, the cnormous valuc of computer communication networks became obvious, particularly among research communities and special interest user groups. The developers of Unix operating system quickly realised the advantages of networking and wrote a simple program called owep (Unix-to-Unix Copy} for exchanging files and electronic mail among Unix machines, Two networks, UUNET (Unix Users' Network) and USENET have evolved hased on wuep communication program, In addition to file transfer and electronic mail, USENET supports # service called netnews, which essentially provides a bulletin board on which any user may post 4 notice or news item to be seen by all other users of the nctwork. Qn the academic circle, the computer science community in the United States setup a network with the help of the National Science Foundation to serve all the computer scicnee departments of the US. Universitics. This network, known as CSNET, uses the iransenission lacilitics ofother networks but provides a uniform user evel imerface. Another academic network warted by the City University of New York and Yale University, known as BITNET (Because It's Time Network) sims to serve all the departments of the universities. BITNET has now spread to a large number of sites and spans North America, Europe, Ispan and Australia. In Europe, it is called European Academic Research Network (EARN), In the United Kingdom, there is » separate network known as Joint Academic Network (IANET) covering most of the universities and research laboratories. Asin the case of telephone networks, i( is apparent thal various agencies are involved in setting up and operating data networks aod that there is a need for worldwide standards to enable data setworks to interwork, Apart from CCITT, significant contributions to data network standards have come fram the International Standards Organisation (ISO) which is a voluntary, nontrealy organisation, National standards organisations, like American National Standards Institute (ANSI), British Standards Instivulion (BSE), Association Francaise de Normalisation (4PNOR), Deutsches Institut fir Normalische (DIN) and Bureau of Standards (BIS) are members of ISO). The Institute of Ek al and Electronic Engineers (TE! the largest professional organisation in the world also plays.a major role in evolving data network standards. Figure 1.15 presents the organisational structure of the different agencies involved in the coordination of telecommunication net- work activities. Integrated services digital network (ISDN) is now emerging as a major telecommunication ncrwork, ISDN is envisaged as a single common net-ANSI, BSI, DIN, BIS European Telecom agencies manufacturers IEEE Fig. LIS) Organisational structure of telecommunication coordination agencies . work capable of carrying multimedia services like voice, data, video and facsimile. The key to ISDN is the. digitalisation of services, transmission, switching and signalling. The digital domain acts as.2 common substratum for all current and future services. Once digitised, all signals, voice or nonvoice, look alike and a single digital network with adequate speed and signalling capabilities can support a wide range of services, However, meeting a variety of speed and signalling requirements is not easy, This is where the computers ‘come in handy and the [SDN uses them extensively, Recognising that the tclephone actwork is the primary and extensive international communication infrastructure. available today, ISDN is con- ceived to be a redesign of the existing telephone network to provide end-to-end digital connectivity. Obviously, the redesign cannot take place overnight and the ISIDN will have to take an evolutionary path. At present, digital connectivity has been extended to user premises only in some parts of i few countries, Thus, ISDN will have to coexist with the present analog telephone network for some yearsto come. All these imply that the standards for ISDN must emerge well before its implementation, This aspect has beenExercises 25 recognised by CCITT and the first set of key ISDN recommendations were approved in 1984 and further refined in 1988, Unlike telephoae and data networks, one may expect a fairly organised and structured growth in the ease of ISDN, with CCITT spearheading the coordination, Perhaps, ISDN is the single most important example of the contribution of computer technology te telecommunications and it may become the most important development as a result of the ‘communion’ of the computer ard communication technologies. The large scale use of computers in ISDN is leading to the concept of intelligent networks which are preprogrammed to be adaptive, alporitimic, resourceful, responsive and intelligent. As an example of the possible capabilitics of such intelligent networks, onc may cite I muichine translation, A telephone conversation originating in Japa- be heard in English at the receiver end amd vice versa. A telex sent in Hindi in Delhi may be delivered in Kannada in Bangalore, Such examples, although somewhat far fetched new, may become a realityin the 21st century. Telecommunication wetworks have been evolving in the last 150 years and would continue to evolve to provide wider services ina more convenient form in the coming century, The emerging information society depends heavily on the developments in the field of telecommunications. It is esti- mated that millions of dollars will be invested by many countries during the next two decades or so in improving the telecommunication facilities, We seem to be entering an era of ‘sophisticated’ telecommunications. FURTHER READING 1. Atkinson, J, Telephorty Wol, 1, General Principles and Manual Exchange Systems, The New Era Publishing Co., London, 1947 2. Department of Telecommunications, Fary Yeurs of Telecommuanications in Independent India, New Delhi, 1988, 3, Economic Commission for Europe, The United Nations, The Telecomn- munication Industry: Growth and Structural Change, Paris, 4987. 4. Meyers, R.A, fed.), Telecommunications; Encyclopedia of Telecom munications, Academic Press, San Diego, 1989, pp. 435476, §. Schindler, Ir., GE. (ed.),.4 Mistory of Engineering and Science in the Bell Systern: Switching Technology (1925-1975), Bell Telephone Laboratories, 1982, EXERCISES: 1, A fully connected network supports full dupicx communication using unidirectional links, Show that the total number of links in such a network with a modes, is given by 2 x "C3.26 10. 1, 12. 13. 14. 15. 16, Jntroduction How are switching systems classified? In what way is stored program control superiog to hard-wired control? Estimate the bandwidth requirements of a single satellite that is to support 20 million telephone conversations simultaneously. An electrical communication system uses a channel that has 20 dB less. Estimate the received power, if the iransmitted power is one wall, If the signal input to an amplifier is 0 dBm, what is the power output in mW if the gain of the amplifier is 20 dB? The channel interfaces in a point-to-point communication system attenuate the signal by 3 dB each. The channel has a loss of 30 dB. ifthe received signal is to be amplified such that the overall lass is limited to 20 dB, estimate the amplifier gain, Ifthe noise power in a channel is 0.1 dim and the signal power is i mW, what is the (S/N) ratio? ‘What is the significance of (5/!V) ratio being ~3 dB? For a carbon granule microphone, determine a suitable value for m, if the contribution from cach of the bigher order terms is to be less than O01 to, What is the importance of a sicady current Mowing through a carbon microphone? Is the harmonic distortion affected by a change in tl energising current? Why is it necessary to keep the magnetic diaphragm in an earphone displaced from its unstressed position? How is this achieved? What happens if the ratio @/g¢y is not very small in the case of an earphone? What is the significance of sidetone in a telephone conversation? In the circuit of Fig.1.4, it is desired that 10 per cent of the microphone signal is heard as sidetone. if the number of turns in the coil P is 200, determine the number of turns in the coil Q and the secondary winding in the carphone circuit. Assume that Zp is exactly matched to the line impedance on the exchange side. Ing 100-ling folded nctwork, bow many switching clements are required for nonblocking operation? A 1000-line exchange is partly folded and partly nonfelded. Forty per cent of the subseribers are active during peak hour. If the ratio of local lo external traffic is 4:1, estimate (he number of trank lines required,17. & Exercises 27 A central battery exchange is powered with a 49 V battery. The carbon microphone requires 2 minimum of 24 mA as energising current. The battery has a 400 @ resistance in series for short circuit protection. The dc. resistance of the microphone is 500. If the cable used for sub- scriber lines offers a resistance of 50 /km, determine the maximum distance at which a subscriber station can be located. A manual switchboard system needs to support 900 subscribers, numbered 100 —999, Average peak hour tralfic is 250 calls, 130 of which are wilbin the number range 44) -699, 20 of them are between this range and other range of numbers and the remaining are uniformly distributed in the other number ranges. The average lean traffic is 60 calls, of which no call is originated/destined fromvto the number range 400-699 but uniformly distributed otherwise, Ac operator is capable of handling 30 simultaneous calls. Suggest a suitable manual switchboard system design that minimises the total number of terminations at the switchboards and employ the minimum aumber of operators, Estimate the oumber of terminations in your design.2 Strowger Switching Systems Strowger switching system was the first automatic switching system developed by Almoa B, Strowger in 1889. The story goes that Strowger was an undertaker whose business seemed to have suffered om account of a telephone operater in a manual exchange. When subscribers rang up the operator and asked for an undertaker, she always counected them to her awn husband who was also an undertaker and a competitor to A.B. Strowger. Annoyed at ihe amount of business he was losing this way, Strowger decided to make a switching system that would replace the human ogesatar, The switch developed by him is named after him, Functionally, the system is classified as step-by-step switching system as the connections are established in a step-by-step manner, Automatic switching systems have a number of advantages over the manual exchanges. A few important ones are: ® Ina manual exchange, the subscriber needs to communicate with the operator and a common language becomes an important factor. In multilingual areas this aspect may pose problems, On the other hand, the operation of an automatic exchange is language inde- pendent. A greater degree of privacy is obtained in automatic exchanges as no operator is normally iavolved in setting up and monitoring a call, * Establishment and release of calls are faster in automatic exchanges. It is not unusual in a manual exchange, for an operator to take quite a few minutes to notice the end of a conversation and release the eircuils. This could be very annoying particularly to the business subscribers who may like ta make a number of calls in quick auc- cession, ® Inan automatic exchange, the time required to establish and release acall remains more or less of the same order irrespective of the h on the system ov the time of the day, In a manual system, this may mot be true.Rotary Dial Telephone 29 2.1 Rotary Dial Telephone In manual exchanges, a calling subscriber may communicate the identity of the called subscriber in.a natural and informal language to the operator. For example, a called subscriber may be identified by his name or profession or designation. In an automatic exchange, informal communication is not pos- sible and a formal numbering plan or addressing scheme is required to identify the subscribers. Numbering plan, in which a subscriber is identified. by 2 pumber, is more widely used than addressing scheme in which a sub- scriber is identified by alphanumeric strimgs. A mechanism to transmil (he identity of the called subseriber to the exchange is now required at the telephone set, Two methods are prevalent for this purpose: © Pulse dialling © Multifrequency dialling, Multifrequency dialling is discussed in Section 3.2. Pulse dialling origi- nated in 1295 and is used extensively even today. In this form of dialling, a train of pulses is used to represent a digit in the subscriber number, The aumber of pulses in a train is equal to the digit value it represents except in the case of zero which is represented by 10 pulses, Successive digits in a aumber are represented by a series of pulse trains, Two successive trains are distinguished from one another by a pause in between them, known as the inter digit gap. The pulses arc generated by alternately breaking and making the loop circuit between the subscriber and the exchange. The pulsing pat- tern is showa in Fig. 2.1 for digits three and two, The pulse rate is usually 19 bs’ o67T Digit 3 Interdigit gap Digit 2 iz ale Fig. 2.1 Pulse dialling. pulses per second with a 10 per cent tolerance. The interdigit gap is at least 200 ms although in some designs the minimum gap requirement may be as much ag 400-56) ms. Is some modera cleetronic and cressbar exchanges, there exasts an upper limit for the interdigit gap (sce Section 4.1). The duty ratio of the pulse is 33 per cent nominally, In introducing dial pulsing mechanism in the telephone set, the following points have to be considered:30 Strowger Switching Systems 1. Since the pulses are produced by make and break of the subscriber Toop, there is likelihood of sparking inside the telephone instrument, z ‘The transmitter, receiver and the bell citcuils of the telephone set may be damaged if the dialling pulses are passed through them. 3. The dialling habits of the users vary widely und hence all timing aspects should be independent of user action, A rolary dial telephone uses the following for implementing pulse dialing: » Finger plate and spring @ Shaft, gear and pinion wheel * Pawl and ratchet mechanisin ® Impulsing cam and suppressor cam of a trigger mechanism © Impulsing contact * Centrifugal governor and worm gear ® Tranamitter, receiver and bell by-pasa cireuits. ‘The arrangement of the finger plate is shown in Fig. 22fa), The dial is operated by placing a finger in the hole appropriate (o the digit to be dialled, drawing the finger plate round in the clockwise direction to the finger stap position and letting the dial free by withdrawing the finger. The finger plate and the associated mechanism mow return to the reat position under the influence of a spring. The dial pulses are produced during the return travel ofthe finger plate, thus eliminating the human element in pulse timings. fotary dial telephone is classified cither as cam type or trigger type depending oa whether 3 cam mechanism or a trigger mechaniam is used for operating the impulsing contact. The general operating principle of both the types is the same and we explain the operation by considering the cam type. The internal mechanical arrangement of a rotary dial telephone is shown in Fig. 2.2(b). When the dial is in the rest position, the impulsing contacts are kept away from the impulsing cam by the suppressor cam. When the dial is displaced from its rest position, it is said to be in off-normal position. In this position, the impulsing contacts come near the impulsing cam, The rotation of the finger plate cases the rotation of the main shaft, The pawl slips over thy ratchet during clackwise rotation. The ratchet, gear wheel, pinion wheel and the governor are all stationary during the clockwise movement of the dial, When the dial returns, the pawl engages and rotates the ratchet. The gear wheel, pinion wheel and the governor all rotate, The governor helps to maintain a uniform speed of rotation, The impulsing cam which is attached toa pinton shaft now breaks and makes the impulsing contacts which in ture causes the pulses in the circuit. The shape of the impulsing cam is such that the break and make pesiods are in the ratho of 2:1, When the dial is about to reach the rest position, the suppressor cain moves the impulsing contacts away from the impulsing cam. This action provides the required interdigitRotary Dial Telephone 31 gap timing independent of the pause that may occur between two successive: digits, due to human dialling habit. Suppressor cam may aleo be designed Dial holes (b) Impulsing mechanism G=governn GW = gearwheel IC = impulsing cum ICO = impulsing contacts = MS = main shafl = pawl PW + pinion wheel R= racket SC = suppressor cam. W = worm gear Fig.2.2) Rotary dial telephone ports and mechanism.32 Strowger Switching Systems such that the interdigit pause is provided prior to the commencement of the first pulse of a digit. The trigger dial is an improvement over the cam dial. The precision of operation in the cam dial is affected by the weur and tear of the cam elements and other friction members in the mechanism, The trigger dial design eliminates friction members and helps to achieve ® more uniform impulse ratio, © larger interdigit pause, and ® better stabilisation of the return speed of the dial. ‘The trigger mechanism is so arranged thal the trigger is sprung away from the impulse contacts during the clockwise motion of the dial, thus preventing pulsing at this stage. The trigger is sprung back to the operative position during the initial return motion of the dial and thereafter operates the pulse contacts. The time required to bring back the trigger to operative position provides the interdigit gap which is about 240 ms, ‘The impulsing circuit of the rotary dial telephone is shown in Fig. 2.3. When the subscriber lifts his handset (off-hook), the dic. loop between the B= bell BP = by-passawitch ICO = impolsing contact Fig.2.3° Impulsing circuit of a rotary dial telephone. exchange and the subscriber is closed and a steady current flows through the loop. The impulsing contact ([CO), which is normally closed, is in series with the ce. lenp, When operated by the cam or the trigger, it breaks and makes the circuit. Figure 2.3 shows two by-pass switches BP) and BP;. These switches close as soon as the dial is moved from its rest position and hence are known as dial-off-normal contacts, “he switch BP bypasses the micro- phone M, the earphone E, and the bell B, during pulsing. The switch BPy provides a local RC loop with [CO for quenching the spark that is producedSignalling Tones = 33 when the circuit is broken. In the absence of BP;, the sparking voltage developed across 100 may affect adversely the other circuits in the tele- phone set. Once the dialling is complete, the dial is in the rest position, BP, and BP; are open, and the impulsing contact is closed. Thus the transmitter and the receiver are ready for speech conversation, The two wires connecting the telephone te the exchange are known as ring and tip, The central battery voltage of -- 48 Vi connected through arelay to the ring lead and the tiplead is grounded, Ring lead is used to receive signals from the far end and the tip lead is used to transmit the signal. 2.2 Signalling Tones As discussed in Section 1.4, a number of signalling functions are involved in establishing, maintaining and releasing a telephone conversation, These functions are performed by an operator in a manual exchange, In automatic switching systems, the verbal signalling of the operator is replaced by a series af distinctive tones. Five. subscriber related signalling functions are per- formed by the operator: 1, Respond te the calling subscriber to obtain the identification of the called party, 2. Inform the calliag subscriber that the call is being established, 3. Ring the bell of the called party. 4. Inform the calling subscriber, if the called party is busy, 4. Inform the calling subseriber, if the called party line ix unobtainahle for some. reason. Distinctive signalling tones ate provided in all automatic switching sys- tems for functions 1, 3, 4and 5, A signalling tone for faction 2 is usually not available in Strowger exchanges, However, most of the modern exchanges provide a call-in-progress or routing tone for function 2. Although attempts have been made to standardise the (ones for various signals, many variations azein vogue in different parts of the world and even in different parts of the same country. Vatistioas are mainly due to different eapal and techna- logics of the switching syatems used. ‘The signalling function 1 above is fulfilled by sending a dial tame to the calling subscriber, This tone indicates that the exchange is ready to accept dialled digits from the subseriber, The subscriber should start dialling only after hearing the dial tone. Otherwise, initial dial pulses may be missed by the exchange which may result in the call landing on a wrong sumber. Most often, the dial tone is sent out by the exchange even before the handset is brought sear the car. Sometimes, however, a few seconds may elapse before the dial tone ts heard. This happens particularly in common control exchanges which use shared resources for user interfaces. The dial tone is 434 Strowger Switching Systems VV 33 or 0 or 400 Hz continuous (a) Dial tone O4s Outs WP 2s] 2s 400 or 133 Hz tone {b) Ringing tne oO $4, 05 ty WW" —— 400 He (e) Busy tone NWA, 400 Hz continuous (d) Number unobtainable tone ler ae el O58 oss 400 of 800 He (c) Call-in-progress tone Fig. 24 Signalling tones ia automatic exchanges,Signalling Tones 38 33 He or 8) He or 400 He continuous tone ax shown in Pig. 24(2). The 400 He signal is usually modulated with 25 Hz er 50 He, When the called party fine is obgained, the exchange control equipment sends out the ringing current to the telephone cet of the called party. This ringing current has the familiar dovble-ring patern. Simultaneously, the control equipment sends out a ringing done lo the calling subscriber, which has a pattern similar to that of the ringing current as shown in Fig. 2.4{b}. The ‘two rings in the double-ring paticrn are separated by a time gap of 0.2.5 und two double-ring patterns by # gap of 2 «. The cing burst has a duration of 0.44. The frequency of the ringing tone is 133 Hz or 400 He, sometimes modulated with 28 Hz or 34 Hz. It may be noted that the ringing current and the ringing, tone are two independent quantitics. This explains one of the common fault symptoms where a calling subscriber hears the singing tone whereas no ring is heard al the called subscriber end, ‘Busy tone pattern ts shown in Fig. 2.4(c¢). Ii is a bursty 400 He signal wath silence period in berween. The burst and silence durations have the same value of (735 or 03755. A busy tone is sent to the calling subseriber whenever the switching equipment or junction line is not available to put through the call or the called subscriber line is engaged. No distinction is made between these conditions. It is not possible for a calling subscriber to conchede on the basis of the busy bone that the called party was actually engaged in.a conversation, While it is technically feasible to introduce diffe- rent busy tones for different conditions, this would only, perhaps, confuse the subscriber, and not serve any useful purpose, Figure 2.4(d) shows the mumber utobtainuble tone which is a contintous 400 He signal. This tone may be seni to the calling subscriber duc toa variety of reasons such as the called party line is out of order or disconnected, and anerror in dialling feading to the selection of a spare line. In some exchanges the number unobtainable tone is 400 Hz intermittent with 2.5 s on period and 4.5 s off period. The routing tone or call-in-progress tone is a 400 Hz or 800 Hz inter- mittent pattern, In ¢lectromechanical systems, it is usually 800 He with 30 per cent duty ratio and 0.5 s an/off period, in analog cleetronic exchanges it is a 400 Hz pattern with0.5 son period and 2.35. aff period. In digital exchanges, it has 0.1 sen/aff periods at 400 Hz. When a subseriber call is routed through a number of different rypes of exchanges, one hears different call-in progress tones as the call progresses through different cxchanges. Figure 2.4(¢) shows a routing tone pattern, Regular users of telephone in a particular area have lini: difficulty in recognising signalling tones, It is not unusual that 4 subseciber in a new area where frequencies or timings of the tones are different from those in his own arca, confuses signalling tones. Ia order to overcome this problem, recorded ‘voices thal announce messages like “number engaged” or “busy” are used in some modern exchanges, Voice announcement, however, poses problems in multilingual areas.36 Strowger Switching Systems 2.3 Strowger Switching Components In the Strowger system, there are two types of selectors which form the building blocks for the switching system: ® Uniselector * Two-motion selector. These selectors are constructed using clectromechanical rotary switches. The drive mechaniam of a rotary switch is shown in Fig. 2.5ia). Eleciromag Ratchet wheel Contacts (a) Drive mechanism of a rotary switch le—— +————_ — A . _ . * — — a u*——_—— (b) Schematic representation of uniselectors Fig.2.5 Uniselectors.Sérowger Switching Components 37 Whenever the electromagnet is energised, the armature is attracted to if and the pawl falls one position below the present tooth position. The ratchet wheel, however, does nol move and is held ia position by the detent, When the electromagnet is de-cnergised, the armature is released and returns to its rest position duc to the restoring action of the spring. During this motion of the armature, the pawl moves the ratched wheel one po: where it is held in position by the detent, The clearance between the arma- tare and the electromagnet is such that during the forward movement of the armature the pawl slips aver the ratchet exactly by one position, As the ratchet wheel rotates up by one position, the wiper moves across one contact position in the direction indicated, Thus, if the clectromagnet is energised and de-energised five times by applying five pulses, the wiper moves by five contacts. The mechanism shown in Fig. 2.5(a) is known as reverse drive type as the ratchet wheel moves when tbe armature returns lo its rest position. It is possible to arrange the mechanism in such a way that the whoel moves during the forward motion of the armature in which case it is known as forward drive type. Reverse drive type is generally used ip uniselectors and the forward drive type in two-motion selectors, Auniselector is one which has a single rotary switch with a bank of contacts. Typically, (here are four banks of which three are used for switching and the fourth one is used for homing. The three switching banks have 25 oF 11 contacts tach. The first coatact in cach bank is known as the home comtact and the remaining as switching contacts. The homing bank has only two contacts: one at the first position corresponding to the home contacts of the alber banks and the other extending as an arc from ihe scoond position to the last position. This are contact is often referred to as the homing arc. Depend- ing upon the number of switching contacts, uniselectors are identified as 10-outlet or 24-cutlet umisclectors. Figure 25(b) shows a schematic repre- sentation of umiselectors, The wipers associated with the banks of a unisclector, one for cach bank, are rigidly mounted to a wiper assembly whick moves whenever the ratchet wheel rotates. As a consequence, all the wipers move simuliancously and there is no relative motion amongst them, All wipers lic in the same vertical plane such that cach wiper touches the same corresponding bank contact at any instant, There is an interrupt contact associated with the uniselector, This contact remains closed normally and opens whenever the armature is Clase to the end of its forward movement. It breaks the armature energising cireuil to enable the armature to return (0 its rest position, lt may be noted that if the drive cireuit is permanently cnergised, the selector will step continvously owing to the constant breaking and making of the interrupter comtacd. The proper functioning of a uniselector is dependent on a number of factors: = Energising current level @ Inertia of the moving systemBy Strowger Switching Systems © Friction between wipers and bank contacts © Friction in drive assembly © Tension in restoring springs * Adjustment of interrupter contacts. To illustrate the importance of these factors for proper functioning, let us consider the adjustment of interrupter contacts as an example. The inter- Tupter contacts must be adjusted so that they open and close at the correct instants in the stroke of the armature. If they open too soon, the armature may fail io complete its stroke and the pawl may not engage the next ratchet tooth, Oa the other hand, if they chose too soon during the return of the armature, the reverse movement is affected and the stepping of the wiper assembly becomes uncertain, Wear and tear of the selector parts affect the proper functioning adversely and as a resull, the selectors require frequent attention for maintenance. A two-motion selector is capable of horizontal as well as vertical step- ping movement. It has two rotary switches, one providing vertical motion for the wiper assembly, and the other providing horizontal movement for the wipers. Many authors use the term ‘rotary switch’ to mean the switch that causes horizontal movements of the wipers. In this text, the term rotary switch is used im @ generic sense to imply a pawl and ratchet arrangement irrespective of whether such an arrangement is being used to cause vertical or horizontal motion. The horizontal movement rotary switch of a two- mation selector has an interrupter contact as in the case of unisclector. Normally, there are 11 vertical positions and 1] horizontal contacts in each vertical position. The lowest vertical position and the first horizontal comtact in each vertical level are home positions, and the remaining ones are the actual switching positions. Thus, the wiper in a bwo-motion selector has access to 100 switching contacts, Access to any particular contact is obtained by moving the wiper assembly vertically to the required level and then rotating the wipers to the desired contact at that level, The arrangement is shown in Fig. 2.6 (a). At cach level there are three or four banks of contacts. Depending upon the number of hanks, a two-motion selector is sometimes known as a 330-point or 440-point selector. Fer homing the wiper assembly, itis driven beyond the 11th contact position by the horizontal rotary magnet and its interrupter contact. The wiper assembly then falls vertically to the home level and returns to the horizontal home position under the influence of a restoring spring. In some designs, a third magnet, known as release mugnet is used for homing, A set of off-normal contacts are operated by the first vertical and horizontal movements of the wipers and they remain operated until the wiper assembly returns to home position. Figure 2.6(b) shows a schematic representation of a two-motion selector. The vertical and horieontal motions in a two-motion selector may be effected directly by using two impulse trains from subscriber dialling. The firat impulse train corresponding to the first digit operates the vertical mag-Strowger Switching Components 30 (a) Two-motion selector arrangement = {b) Schematic representation Fig. 2.6 Two-motion selectors, net and the second impulse train drives the horizontal rotary switch. In aueh a case, it follows that the bank contacts are so numbered as to correspond to400 Strowger Switching Syatemy the digits necessary to reach cach contact. The numbering of a standard 100-contact bank is shown in Table 2.1, It may be noted that the lowest vertical level commences with 11 and ends with 10, whiist the tenth bevel commences with 01 and ends with 0, This is duc to the fact that digit zero produces 10 pulses when dialled. Table 2.1 Numbering Scheme for Two-Motion Selector Contacts Contacts Level 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 § WW 10 o Of 8 OF OS 06 OF of of oO 9 1 92 «93 SF 9S 96 «(OT (OR 8g 8 a & 8 8 85 8h 87 BR ao BD 1 1 Rn B MW S % T ® TP 1 6 6l 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 6 6 5 SL 2 53) 54 55 SH ST SKS SD 4 42043 44S GD 3 302M HTB 4 u DP B @ 2 2% 7 2 MW Ww 1 uo B 4 1 ih 7 wm om w 2.4 Step-by-Step Switching A step-by-step switching system may be constructed using uniselectors or two-motion selectors or a combination of both, The wiper contacts of these selectors move in direct response to cial pulses or other signals like off-houk from the subscriber telephone, The wiper steps forward by one contact at a time and moves by as many contacts (takes as many steps) as the number of dial pulses received or as required to satisfy certain signalling conditions. Hence the name “step-by-step switching” is given to this method. Most of the necessary control circuits are builtin as an integral part of the selectors, thus enabling them to receive and respond to user signalling directly. The relevant signalling tones are sent out to the stbseriber by the switching elements (selectors) at the appropriate stages of switching. Thus, a step-by-step switching system is a direct comtrol system. A step-by-step switching system hag three major parts as shown in Fig. 2.7. The line equipment part consists of selector hunters or line finders and the other two parts consist of selectors. The selector hunters and line finders represent two fundamental ways in which a subscriber gains access to common switching resources. As the name implics, a selector hunter searches and seizes a selector from the switching matrix part. There is one selector hunter for cach subscriber. Usually, 24-outlet uniselectors are used as selector hunters, The selector hunter ccheme is sometimes called subscriber unisclector scheme as there is a dedicated uniselector for cach subscriber in the system, Line finders are associated with the first set ofStep-by-Step Switching 4 From calling Ta calied subscriber subseriber ' \ Group selector | | Final | t stage ‘ selector : ! 1 Line equipment | Switching network ' Connector pant 1 part i part Fig.2.7 Configuration of a step-by-step switching system, selectora in the witching matrix part and there is owe Eine finder for cach selector in the set, As the mame implies, a line finder searches and finds the Tine of o subscriber te be connected to the first selector associated with it. Line finders are bail using uniselectors or rwo-mation selectors. The line equipment part is also known as preselector stage, The selector hunters and line finders are generically referred to as preseleciors. The switching matrix part consists of one or more sets of two-motion selectors known as first group selector, second group selector, and 29 on, The larger the exchange size, the larger is the sumber of group selector sages. The connector part comprises one set of twoemotion selectors known as final selectors. In small Strowger exchanges, all the parts may not exist. Configurations for different capacity exchanges are discussed in Sections 26-27, ‘The selector bunter and line finder schemes are illustrated in the trunk ing diagrams shown ia Fig. 2.8. In sclector hunter based approach, when a subsciber lifts his hand set, the interrupter mechanism in his selector hunter gets activated and the wiper steps until a free first group selector is found at the outlet, The status of the first group selector, free or busy, is known by a signal in one of the bank contacts of the selector hunter. Once a free first selector is sensed, the interrupter is disabled and the first selector is marked “busy. Then, the first selector sends out a dial tone to the subscriber via the selector hunter which simply provides an electrical path, The first selector is now ready to receive the dialling pulses fram the subscriber. It is possible thal two selector hunters land on the same free first selector simultancously and attempt to scize it. This is resolved by a suitable seizure circuit. In the case of fine finder based-approach, the off-hook signal is sensed. by all the line finders. Then the interrapter mechanism of one of the finders, whose associated first sclector is free, gets activated and the ling finder wiper steps until it reaches the contact on to which the subscriber is terminated. On finding the linc, the concerned first sclector sends out the dial tone to the subscriber in readiness to receive tbe dial pulses. The selection of one of tbe42 Strowger Switching Systerts Tine finders out of many free line finders, is achieved by means of an allotter switch in the start circuit of the line finder as shown in Fig. 2.8 (b). The circuit arrangemcots are such that the wiper of the allottcr switch normally stands ‘Line finder based access FS = fistselector LF = line finder SH = selector huater Fig.2.8 Subscriber access to Strowger switching system.Step-by-Step Switching = 43 on 4 contact coanected to a free line finder and the first selector. When a subscriber lifts his receiver, the start signal from his relay is passed to the particular line finders via the common start circuit and the albotter switch, The line finder then commences to hunt for the calling line. As soon as the calling line is found, the albotter switch steps to the neat free line finder, In effect, the line finder and the associated first selector to be used for the next future call is selected in advance by the allotter circuit. In practical designs, several allotiér switches are provided in the system to serve calls that may otiginate in quick succession or simultaneously. Multiple allotter switches also avoid single-point failures, that might lead to complete breakdown of the system. Tn designing large exchanges, some practical limitations are encountered in both the abave schemes of gaining access to switching resources, Large exchanges are characterised by a large number of subscribers and first group selectors, [tis not possible to provide-a large number of outlets in theselector hunters or line finders such that any first group selector is accessible by any subscriber, Usually, subscribers are connected in groups of 100 to different seta of linc finders which usc two-motion sclectors, Similarly, sets of selector hunters are connected to different groups of 24 first selectors each. Line finder and selector hunter approaches are advantageous for different sizes of the exchanges. If the exchange is small and the volume of traffic fow, line finder approach is economical, For large exchanges with fairly heavy traffic, the selector hunter approach is more cost effective, When the subscriber starts dialling, the first selector cuts. off the dial tone and receives the pulse train corresponding to the first digit dialled by the subscriber, Its wiper assembly steps vertically as many steps as the number of dial pulses. The wipers then move in the horizontal plane across the contacts until they come across a contact to which a free second group selector is connected. This horizontal stepping is completed within the interdigit gap of about 240 ms. Thereafter, the first group selector just provides an electrical path to the second group selector. Each group selector ‘stage functions in a fashion similar to the first group selector by processing cone digit of the number diatled by the subscriber and finding a group selector in the subsequent stage. The last two digits of the dialled number are pro- cessed by the final selector which steps vertically according to the last but one digit and steps horizontally according to the last digit, Since the final selector responds to digits both in the vertical and horizontal directions ualike the grqpp selectors, itis sometimes referred to as numerical selector, If the called subscriber is (ree, as sensed from a signal at the corresponding bank contact, the final selector sends out a ringing curzent to the called subscriber and a ringing tone to the calling subscriber. When the called subscriber lifts his handset, the ringing current and tone are cut off and the call metering circuits are enabled by the control circuits associated with the final selectors. If the called subscriber is busy, the final selector sends out a busy tane to the calling subscriber, Al any-stage of switching, if there is no440 Strowger Switching Systems free selector at the next stage, a busy tone is returned to the calling sub- seriber. The control functions in a Strowger system are performed by circuits associated with the selectors, Control and supervisory sigeals are carried from stage to stage by means of contacts im one of the banks. The wire interconnecting these banks is knqwa as P-wire or private wire. Two other bank contacts are used for currying voice signals and the associated wires are known as negative and positive wires which extend up to the subscriber premises, A selector X is said to have seed another selector ¥ in the next Mage when the negative, positive and private wires of the selector XY have been connected to the negative, positive and private wires respectively of the selector ¥. The complexity and functionality of the control circuits asso- ciated with a selector vary depending on the position of the selector in the switching stage. All the selector control circuits are composed of one or more of the following basic circuits 1. Guarding circuit 2. Impulsing circuit 3. Homing circuit 4. Metering circuit 5, Ring-trip cireuit 6, Alarm cireuit. ‘The guarding circuit is an essential feature of all the selectors. It guards the selector by making it busy as soon as it is seized, lest some other selector involved in setting up another call may also scize it, Once applied, the guarding condition remains set as long as the call is not terminated. The guarding condition is indicated by an carth on the P-wire. An earth is supphed to the P-wire by the home contact and the homing are of the home bank. To avoid any unguarded period during the transition of the wiper from the home contact to the homing are, the wiper is of bridging type, ic. it functions in make-before-break fashion; it touches the homing arc before it leaves the home contact. ‘The impulsing circuil is an essential part of all those selectors which have to respond to dialling pulses. It is used in group and final selectors, but not in ling finders or seleetor hunters. This circuit is usually designed around three relays: one fast acting and the other two slow acting. The fast acting relay faithfully responds to the impulses and passes them on to the P-wire circuit. The fast action is achieved by using only one contact spring assembly and an isthmus armature, One of the slow acting relays serves to maintain guarding conditions on the P-wire of the incoming circuils and provides for the connection of the selector magnet to the impulsing relay. The third relay is used to recognise the end of a pulse train corresponding to a single digit and propane the circuit for the next stage in (he switching process.Step-by-Step Switching 48 When a selector is searching for a free outlet, the condition on the P-wire must be tested to determine whether the outlet is free or not, Mf an owtlet is engaged, the wipers must be allowed to cantinuc the hunting process. Mf the outlet is free, it must be seized immediately and the incoming posilive and negative wires must be switched through te the input of the next stage. At the same time, the hunting process must stop. Once established, the connections moust be beld until the comversation lasts. All these functions are performed by the testing circuit, and bence this circuit is sometimes referred to as hunting, testing, switching and holding circuit. There arc two methods of indicating the free condition on the P-wire: one by means. of a simple disconnection and the other by applying a battery to the P-wire. As mentioned carlics, the busy condition is indicated by an earth connection: Hence, a testing circuit has to distinguish between an earth and a disconnection in one case and between an carth and a battery in the other. Accordingly, the two methods are referred to as earth testing and buttery testing, respectively. Battery Lesting is less prone to false connections than carth testing. In any switching process, particularly clectromechanical switching, momentary disconnections of fines do occur. Therefore, false switching may take place if the carth testing bappens at an insiant when a busy outlet is in the course of some switching or release process which temporarily disconnects te guarding earth from the P-wire. Such a problem does nol occur in the case of battery testing, At the end of a conversation, all the selectors used for the call must be Teleased and returned to their respective home positions, This operation is performed by homing circuils. The two-motion selectors return to their home position by actuating their self-drive mechanism using interrupt contact. In the case of uniselectors, the necessity of homing arises oaly for the calling subscriber uniselector. The called subscriber uniselector is already in the home position, Homing operation requires a finite time, and it must be ensured that a hunting selector may not seize a selector which is in the process of homing, Thus, the provision ef guarding earth during homing isan integral feature of the homing circuit. Metering circuit is a special feature of the final selectors, It registers a call against the calling party as soon as the called party answers. The circuit drives a meter containing a simple rateket-operated counting mechanism with a capacity of 4 to 5 digits, For local calls, the metering is usually independert of the duration of the call and the meter is pulsed only ouce by the final selector. For bong distance calls established using subseriber trunk dialling (STD) facility, the metering is time dependent and the meter is Pulsed at an appropriate cate, In this case, the metering pulses are usually received from a remote exchange, Metering is achieved by connecting the meter to the P-wire of the subscriber uniselector through a rectifier and applying a positive voltage which makes the rectifier conduct and thereby pulse the meter. The use of the rectifier also ensures that P-wire remains guarded during metering.46 Suowger Switching Systeme Ring-trip circuit is a part of the final selectors. The attention of the called subscriber is drawn by ringing the bell of his telephone set. Ar the same time, a ringing tone i sent out from the final selector to the calling subscriber. Both the ringing current and the ringing tone are cut off by the ting-trip circuit as soou as the called party answers the cull, The ringing current in a Strowger system isa 17 He alternating current. The ringing tome and the period of interruptioa of the ringing current are controlled by a relay which is driven by suitable pulsing circuits. To prevent the ringing ke from interfering with the speech eincuil, the electrical power to the eireuit is igolated from the main exchange supply. Assan as the condition at af main power being applied to the circuit is sensed, the ringing current is tripped. A common fault of premature tripping of the ringing current occurs when the main supply battery gels connected to the circuit during ringing without the called subscriber actually lifting the handact. If this happens, the bell at the called subscriber telephone set rings only once or twice, Alarm circuits provide visual and audible indications of any fault or undesirable condition creeping the selector circuits. Three types of faults are usually detected: off-hook condition, called-sobscriber-held, and release beld. In the event of a short-circuit in the subscriber line or the subscriber not having replaced his handset properly on the hook, his dc. loop circuit remains closed and bis unisclector bunts and seizes a first selector unnecessarily, To avoid this undesirable use of power and switching elements, every first selector is provided with a permanent glow alarm cir- uit, This circuit activates an audio and a visual alarm if a selector remains seized for more than six minutes. Called-subseriber-held alarm circuit is necessary in all exchanges where the release off the switching stages is ini- tiated by the calling subscriber replacing his handset. In case the handset is aot properly replaced, all the selectors and the called subscriber line remain held, even though the called subseriber has replaced his handset properly. If this happens, neither the called subscriber is able to make any call himself nor can anybody else call him, Thus, the subscriber's instrument remains paralysed. A miscreant can easily create this situation by calling a number and then not replacing his handset on the hook, To preveet this, all final selectors are provided with called-subscriber-held alarm circuit, If the cnadi- tion of the called subscriber handset having been replaced and the calling subscriber handset not having been replaced lasts for over three minutes, this alarm circait operates, The third type of alarm circuit, Lc. release-beld alarm circuit, senses be failure of a selector to return to home position, LS Design Parameters When considering the design of a switching system, a number of design alternatives and options may be available. For example, a Sirowper switching system may be designed entirely on the basis of uniselectors or two-motion selectors, or a combination of both. It then becomes necessary to compareDesign Parameters 47 and evaluate designs to choose from the alternatives. Design parameters assist us in this process, In this section, we define a set of design parameters that characterise the switching systems, These parameters are generic in nature and hence are applicable to all types of switching systems irrespective af the technology or architecture. The switching network is a major component of any switching system. [t is mainly composed of switching elements and the associated circuits. As a result, the cost of the switching uctwerk is directly proportional to the number af switching elements in the network. Hence, a good design must attempt to minimise the umber of switching clements in the system, When considering the total switching systems, there are other cost elements. For common control systems, the cost of the control subsystem must be taken: into account. There is a cost associated with some fixed common hardware elements like ringing current generator, different tone generators and power supplies. A awitching network may be realised using one or more stages of switching elements. The higher the number of stages, the longer is the time taken to set up a call as switching is involved in every stage. Every switching spitem is designed to support a certain maximum cumber of simultancous calls, which we call as the switching capacity. In most of the designs, the entire switching resources are not utilised cven when the switching capacity is fully wtilzed. Part of the resources remains idle. The fraction of the hardware actually used under full load conditions is an index of the design. Taking these factors into account,we mow enumerate the design parameters: 1. Number af subscriber lines, W 2. Total number of switching elements, 5 3. Cost of the switching system, C CasSxK G++ Cy where Cy = cost per switching clement €; = cost of the common control system Coy = cost of the common hardware Since the control circuits arc associated with switching elements in a Strowger system, Ce is equal to vero. The common hardware is usually a small proportion of the total hardware except for the power supplics and its cost is of the same order in different comparable designs. Hence, we ignore Ces in-most of our calculations. 4, Switching capacity, SC 5, Traffic handling capability, TC _ switching capacity ~ theoretical maxinaum load48 Strawper Switching Systems =78Q) oN 6, Equipment utilisation factor, EUF number of switching elements in operation when the SC EUF = is folly wilised total number ig clemenis im system. 7. Number of switching stages, K 8, Average switching time per stage, Tee 9. Call setup time, Ts Ty = Typ K+ Tp where To is the time required for functions other than switching. To is a significant quantily in common control systems where control functions are separated from switching Functions. In Strowger (direct control) systems, To may be ignored. 10. Cost capacity index, CCF awit capaci NUS} CCI ™ coat per sdeclber ths ae The higher the value of CC¥, the better is the design. Given the traffic handling capability of a switching system, the stochastic behaviowr of the actual traffic and holding time characteristics of a call, itis possible to make reasonable estimates of the blocking probabilities. A detailed treatment of the blocking behaviour of switching systems is presented in Chapter 4, How- ever, simple blocking probability calculations are made when the designs are discussed in the earlier chapters. 11 may be noted that the blocking probabi- lity is more of a performance parameter than a design parameter. However, at the design stage, the traffic handling capability of the switching system must be sized to achieve a low blocking probability in the field. This is done on the basis of estimated traffic, 2.6 100-line Switching System A 100-line switching system can serve up to 100 sobseribers. A 100-line Strowger switching system may be configured in a variety of ways. In this section we discuss five different design alternatives for a L00-line step-by-step switching system, We then compare the designs based on the design parameters discussed in Section 2.5. Simple line diagrams known as trunking diagrams are used to represent the configurations of switching systems. For computing the cost of different designs, we assume that the cost of a uniselector is one wait and that of the two-motion selector is two units,TOidine Switching System 49 2.6.1 Design 1 An clementary configuration for a 10)-line Strowger switching system using 10-quilet aniselectars is shown in Fig. 2.9, The configuration has two stages. Fig. 2.9 10)-line switch using uniselectors In the first stage, there are 100 uniselectars, ane for cach subscriber. The scoond stage has 10 or more uniselectors. The second stage outlets are falded back to the corresponding inlets via suitable control creuitry (not shown in the figure for the sake of simplicity). Usually, cach subscriber line is termi- nated on a relay group at the exchange, The relay group contains all the necessary circuits for the controlof the switching mechanism. Functions like testing, switching and return of the tones are done by the relay groups. Similarly, outlets trom the first stage are terminated on relay groups at the input of the second stage. The four banks of the wniselectors serve to provide positive, negative, P-wire and homing connections. The corresponding out- lets of all the first stage wniselectors are commoncd or multipled. The first Stage responds to the first digit dialled by the user and the second stage to the$0 Strawger Switching Systems second digit. Suppose the subscriber 12 dials the number 56, his uniselector, ic. uniselector 12, steps by five positions and the unigeloctor 3 in the second stige steps by six positions, With 10 uniselectors in the second stage, only 10: call can be established simultaneously. Even this requires that the calls are uniformly distributed one per decade throughout the number range. All calls in a given decade use the same second stage uniselector. For example, the numbers 50-59 are put through wniselector number 5 in the scound stage. As a result, two calls destined for numbers in the range 50-59 cannot be put through simultancously, even though other uniselectors may be free in the second stage, This problem may be overcome by making such an arrange- meat by which the unisclectors in the second stage arc treated as a common resource for all the uniselectors in the first stage, The design parameters for this design are: Ss, SC=1 K=2, TC=02, EUF =018 €=110, CCl = 998. In this desiga, blocking may occur under two conditions: 1. The calls are uniformly distributed, 10 calls are in progress and the Lith one arrives, 2. The calls are not uniformly distributed, a call is in progress and another call arrives, which is destined for a number in the same decade. ‘The blocking probability Py in the first case is dependent upon the traffic statistics. If we assume a random distrilution of calls in the second case, we can calculate Pp as Probability that there isa call ina given decade = 10/100 Probability that another call is destined to the same decade but not tothe same number = 9/98 Therefore, Pp = (1/10)(9/98) = 0.009 2.6.2 Design z An alternative scheme which does not invalve any logic circuit is to employ 10 unisclectors io the second stage for every ane uniselector in the first stage. The total number of uniselectors in the system beeomes L100; 100 in the first stage and 1000 in the second stage. There are 10,000 outlets and 100 inlets. The corresponding outlets associated with every inlet are commoned. For ezample, all outlets numbered 10 are commoned together. Thus, effectively there are only 100 independent outlets from the switch which are folded back to the corresponding inlets. lt may be noted that unlike the previous design, this switching system is nonblocking. The design parameters arc:100ine Switching System $1 $=110, SC-5%, K-32 TC=1, EUF* 00, C= 110, CCie434 Pao. Some observations are in order. Apparently, Design 1 appears to have serious limilations. But the values of design parameters, CC), EUF and Pp indicate that it is more cost effective than Design 2, If the traffic statistics indicate that more than 10 calls eriginate most of the time, the blocking performance of Design 1 becomes unacceptable. In cases where the average sumber of calls exceeds 10 but still a small fraction (say, less than 20} of the theoretical maximum number of calls, a via media configuration with more than one uniselector per decade in the second stage would be a good solu- tion. But this also calls for a mechanism to choose a free selector out of the many available at the second stage. In step-by-alep switching systems, the aclection of ome out af many selectors in the next subscquent stage is done by deploying a usiselector of the horizontal rotary mechanism of a two motion selector in asell-stepping mode using the interrupter contacts. Designs 4 aad 5 diccugsed later in thig section use guch arrangements. 2.6.3 Design 3 Another way of realising a 10}line Strowger switching system is Lo use one two-mation selector for each subscriber, A subscriber is assigned a number in the range 00-99, and the same number is used to identify the bwo-motion aclector assigned to him, The 1) outlels of each two-malion selector are numbered as per the scheme given in Table 2.1. The corresponding outlets in all the 100 two-motion selectors are commoned and folded back to the corresponding inlets. For example, a subscriber with 67 as kis mumber is assigned the two-mation selector 67. The outlet 67 which corresponds vo this subscriber is connected to the 71h contact in the Sth vertical position of all the twoemotion selectors amd folded back to his inlet. The arrangement is shown in Fig, 2.10. If subscriber 23 dials 67, his two motion selector 23 would step vertically 6 times corresponding to the firat digit and would step horizontally 7 times to reach the contact to which the subscriber 67 is connected, This switch is nonblocking and uses oaly one stage of switching elements. The two-molion selector used te establish a call is dependent upon the initiator of the call. For example, when 23 calls 45, the (wo-motion selector 23 is used, whereas when 45 calls 23, the two-motion selector 45 is weed, although the parties in conversation are the same in both the cases. Since the two-motion sclector is activated by the calling party, the call is terminated only when the calling party disconnects the line, If atwo-motion selector goes out of arder, the subscriber connected to it will not be able to make any outgoing calls but can receive incoming calls, The design parameters of this switch are: S= 1, se = 50, Aad re= hb EUF = 0.5, c= 2H, CCT « 25, Fue.$2 Strawger Switching Systems ‘Subscriber lines. ws * . . % = ii Fig. 2.10 100-line exchange with one two-motion selector per subscriber, Clearly, Design 3 is superior to Designs 1 and 2, Further improvements to Design 3 are possible if the switching capability is provided to meet only the estimated peak-hour load rather than the theoretical maximum load. Such a design would demand that the switching clements be treated as a common resource accessible by all the subscribers. An elementary require- ment of such a design is that the cost savings resulting from placing the switching elements in a common pool should be greater than the cost of the equipment required to associate a subscriber line with a selector. Secondly, the time taken to associate a selector to the subscriber line should not be excessive, and the dial tone must be returned to the subscriber without appreciable delay. Finally, the design must not unduly complicate the maintenance of the equipment and must provide a ready means for tracing connections. Designs 4 and Streat switching elements a8 common resource, 264 Design 4 Instead of 100 two-motion selectors as in the case of Design 3, let us consider only 24 two-motion selectors. In this case, 24 simultancous calls can be put through the switch. The 24 two-motion selectors are shared by all the hundred users. The corresponding outlets of the two-motion selectors are cedure as in the case of Design 3. As discussed in Section 2.4, we may adoptJdd-tine Switching Systern $3 either selector hunter or line finder approach. In this design, we use selector hunters and in Design 5 (see section 2.6.5), we use line finders, ‘Typically, a 24-outlet uniselector is used as aselector hunter. Each of ihe 24 outlets is connected to one two-motion selector. Thus, a subscriber has access to all the 24 two-motion selectors in the system, The corresponding outlets of all the selector hunters are commoned and thus, all subscribers have access to all the two-motion selectors. This scheme is shown in Fig. 2.11. = . . . i Fig. 2.11 100-line exchange with selector finders. The call establishment in this scheme takes place in two steps. Firstly, when the subscriber lifis his receiver handset, his uniselector hunts through the contact positions and scizes a free two-motion selector, AL the next step, ‘the bwo-motion selector responds to the dial pulses for appropriate conncc~ tion. The design parameters of this system are: S§ = 100 unisclectors + 24 two-motion selectors sc =m, K=2 TC = 0.48, EUF =058, C=148, CCI =162. The blocking probability would depend on the traffic characteristics. For an exchange with 100 subscribers, the probability of more than 48 subscribers eing active simultaneously is very low. Hence, blocking performance of this design must be satisfactory. This design is clearly superior to Designs I and 2. However, the CC of this design is lower than that of Design 3, But thea ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,56 Smowger Switching Systems ‘The trunking diagram for a 1000cline exchange is given in Fig, 2.15. Asin the case of 10%-line exchange, when a subscriber lifts his receiver, the pre- SUB 21 sUB SUB FS = finalselector GS = groupselector SUB = subseril Fig. 2.13 ‘Trunking diagram of a 100-line exchange. selector hunts for a free group selector, When a free group selector is oblained, the subscriber is given the dial tame. When the subserilber dials the first digit, the group selector steps up in the vertical direction according to the digat dialled, and hunts for a free final selector in one of its 10 outlets. If afree sclector is obtained, it responds to the nex two digits and a connection is extablished, otherwise an engaged tone is sent out to the subscriber. Each final selector, which is a tvo-metion selector, provides 100 outlets, and we need a minimum of 10 final selectors te connect LURK) subscribers With 10 final selectors, onty 10 simultaneous calls can be established, whicha ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,10, 11. 12 13. 14, 15. 16. Siromger Switching Systems How can a suppressor cam be designed such that ibe interdigit gap prececles the dialling pulses? Explain the working of the trigger dial mechanism, How is this superior to cum dial mechanism? A busy tone does not imply that the called party is actually engaged ima conversation. Explain. A regular long-distance caller disconnects one of the cull attempis immediately on hearing the ringing tone with a remark that the call has landed on a wrong number. Can he be right? Why? A long-distance dialler hears four different types of call-in-progress signats while establishing a call, What can he conclude? In an English-speaking country, a long distance caller hears the voice agnguncement ‘Lines in this route are busy. Please try after seme time’, Ts it possible for him to determine which segment is busy? Compare the situation in a multilingual country like India. Describe the working of a rotary switch. Differeatiate between forward acting and reverse acting types. Tn a 100-line Strowger exchange using 100 two-motion selectors, show the trunking diagram whea the subscriber 95 establishes a connection to subscriber 58. How docs the diagram change if the call is initiated hy subscriber 387 Give the relative positions of the number pairs (61, 60) and (05, 35} ina two-motion selector. What are the hasic approaches to the design of subscriber access to Strowger systems? Describe them. Describe bow a wniselector can be used as a selector hunter or line finder. Distinguish between earth testing and battery testing ax applied to hunting operations in Strowger exchanges. Discuss the retative merits of cach method. A 10%-line exchange has 24 group selectors and 20 Gnal selectors. How many simultaneous calls can be put through this exchange? How many simultaneous calls in the number range 200-299 can be put through if final seleetors are wriformly distributed? A 1000-ine exchange bas 24 group selectors and $0 final selectors uniformly distribwied, How many sinvultancous calls can be put through the exchange? How many simultaneous calls in the range 200-299 can be put through?a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,“4 Crossbar Switching ‘Let 1457 be the subscriber to be called in Exchange F. From Exchange, the ealled subscriber can be reached by dialling either of the following number sequemec: For route 4-B-CF 014-001-1457 For rowle 4--4-G-F 02-05-(1-412-1457 ‘The difficulties are now obvious: © Identification number of a subscriber is route dependent. © A user must have knowledge of the topology of the network and outlet assignments in each exchange, * Depending on from which exchange the call originates, the number and its size vary for the same called subscriber. These difficultics can be overcome if the routing is done by the exchange and a uniform numbering scheme is presented as far as the user is concerned. A qumber may now consist of two parts: An exchange identifier and a subscriber line identifier within the exchange. An exchange must have the capability of receiving and storing the dimts dialled, translating the exchange identifier inte routing digits, and transmitting the routing and the subscriber Fine identifier digits to the switching network, This function is performed by the Director subsystem in a Strewger exchange. Some impostant obser- vations are in erder with regard to the Director system: ® Assoon as the translated digits are transmitted, the Director is free to process another call and is not involved in maintaining the cirevit for the conversation. * Call processing takes place independent of the switching network. ® A user is assigned a logical number which is independent of the physical line number used to establish a connection to him. The logical address is translaied to actual physical address for con- nection establishment by an address translation mechanism, All the above are fundamental features of a common contrel system. A functional block diagram of 4 common control switching system is shown in Fig. 3.2. The control functions in a switching system may be placed under four broad categories: 1. Event monitoring 2. Call processing 3, Charging: 4. Opcration and maintenance. Events occurring outside the exchange at the line wnits, trunk junctors and interexchange signalling receiven/sender units arc all monitored by the control subsystem. Typical events include call request and call release signab. ai the line units. The occurrences of the events are signalled by operatimsa ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,6K Crosebar Switching is limited to 10 distinct signals, whereas a higher number would enhance signalling capebility significantly, Finally, a more convenient method of signalling than retary dialling is preferable from the point of view of human factors. These considerations led to the development af touch tone dial telephones in the 1950s, which were introduced first in 1964 after Feld tyials. They are increasingly replacing rotary dial telephones ail over the world. ‘The touch tone dialling scheme is showm in Fig, 3.3. The rotary dial is replaced by a push bution keyboard. “Touching” a button generates a ‘tone’ 1208 136 wit z & 3 770 4 3 - r | t | 2 1 2 asz 7 { 8 9 z 4 oa—) + 1208 1336, Mq7 Upper band frequencies (Hz) Fig.3.3 Touch dial arrangement, which is a combination of two frequencies, one from the lower band and the other from the upper band, For cxample,spressing the push butten ‘transmits 852 Hz and 1477 Hz, An extended design provides fer an additional frequency 1633 Hz in the upper band, and can produce 16 distinct signals. This design is used oaly in military and other special applications, Another design, known as decadic push button type, uses a push button dial in placea ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,m2 Crossbar Switching Attenuation (dB) -——» (Hay) ——> (a) Attenuation characteristics fix) —~> (b) Delay characteristics Fig.3.5 Typical attenuation and delay characteristic of telephone networks. relationships like 1:2 and 2:3 between adjacent two frequencies in the same. band and between pairs of frequencics im the two different bands, res- pectively, Such a selection improves talk-off performance. As mentioned carlicr, scunds composed of a multiplicity of frequencies at comparable levels are not likely to produce talk-off because of the limiter and selector design, Such sounds are produced by consonants, However, vowels are single frequency sounds with a series of harmonic components present in them. Susceptibility to talk-off due to vowels cam be reduced by choosing the specific frequencies appropriately, The adjacent frequencies im the samc band have a fixed ratio of 24:19, ic, only the 2ist and 1th harmonica ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,76 0 Crossbar Switching: connection B-E, the crosspoint BC may lvich and 8 eill be brought into the circuit of A-C. This is prevented by introducing an energising sequence for latehing the crosspoints..d crosspoint latches only if the horizontal bar is energised first and then the vertical bar. (The sequence may well be that the vertical bar is cnergised first and then the horizontal bar}. Hence the crosspoint BC will aot latch even though the vertical bar € is energised as the proper sequence is not maintained. In order to establish the connection 8-£, the vertical bar £ needs to be energised after the horizontal bar is cnergised. In this case, the crosepoint AE may Latch as the horizontal bar 4 has already been energised for establishing the connection A-C, This should also be avoided and is dome by de-cnergising the horizontal bar 4 after the crosspoint is latched and making a suitable arrangement suck that the latch is maintained even though the cnergisation in the horizontal direction is withdrawn, The crosspoint remains latched as long as the vertical bar E remains energised, As the horizontal bar A is de-energised immediately after the crosspoint AC is latched, the crosspoint AE does not latch when the vertical bar £ is energised. This the procedure for establishing a connection in a crossbar switch may be summarised as: energize horizontal bar energice vertical bar energist vertical bar or emergise honzoctal bar de-energise horizontal bar de-cnergise vertical bar 3.4 Crossbar Switch Configurations Inanonblocking crossbar configuration, there are N* awitching elements for N subscribers. When all the subscribers arc cngaged, only N/2 switches are actually used to establish connections. Table 4.1 shows the values of different design parameters (see Section 2.5} for four nonblocking switches, Unit cost is assumed for each crosspoint switching clement. Providing N* crosspoints even for moderate number of users leads to impractical complex circuitry. A 1000-subscriber exchange would require 1 million erasspaint switches. Therefore, ways and means have to be found to reduce the number of switch contacts for a given number of subscribers, Table 3.1 Nonblocking Crosspoint Switch Systems: Design Parameters EUF c cer 2 12.50 tf 05) 16 256 8 3.13 256 05 64 4096 32 0.78 4096 as 128 16384 64 039 16384 05 N= No.of subscribers § = No. of switching elements SC = switching capacity C =total cost EUF =cquipment wilisation factor © CCT = cost capacity indexa ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,80 (Crossbar Switching Es be m & 4 " ‘Transfer lines {a) Locally nonblocking and externally blocking A B c D E F ___s, Transfer lines {___g (b) Blocking both locally and externally Fig.3.10 Crosshar switches oth transfer lines. sealed in a glass tube as shown in Fig. 3.11. The sealing protects the electrical contacts from external coatamination. The displacement involved in making contacts is about 0.2 mm, and this results im fast switching timesa ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a4 10. Crosshar Switching Talley, D., Basic Telephone Switching Systems, 2nd ed, Hayden Inc, New Jersey, 1979. EXERCISES “Numbering plan in a telephone network must be independent of call routing’. Why? Explain, What are the differences between common control and direct control? List six events that may occur in a telephone system and the corres ponding actions that may have to be taken by the common contrel System. Caleulate the time taken to dial a 12-digit number in » DTMF tele- phone whea (a) the exchange is capable of receiving DTMF signals; and (b) the exchange can receive only pulse dialling, Compare the result with a rotary telephone dialling, “Contact bounce’ can be a problem in DTMF telephone, ie, a single press of a push button may be interpreted as more than onc press. How docs the DTMF dial design take this into account? Show that the kurmanie frequencies of any two adjacent base frequen- ‘cies in DTMF telephone cannot match within the first 15 harmonics. Ifthe transmitted power of the low band frequency signal from a DTMF telephone is 1 mW, what should be the power in mW of the high band Frequencies? Atelephone exchange supporting 5000 subscribers uses DTMF dialling and a common control subsystem with 100 digit receivers. Each digit receiver is assigned for a duration of five seconds per subseriber for call processing. If 20 per cemt of the subscribers attempt to call simullancously, what is the worst case wait time for a subscriber before he receives the dial tone? A diagonal crosspoint matrix exchange supports 300 users. On an average 1000 calls are put through everyday. If the crosspoint contacts have a mean life of 10000 breaks and makes, cstimate as to how often a crosspoint may be replaced in this exchange. Estimate the number of crosspoinis required to design an exchange that supports 500 users om a nonblocking basis and 50 transit, outgoing or incoming calls simultancously. Compare the reliabilities of one transistorised crosspoint switch and 8 bipolar chip containing 100 crosspoint switches, (Use known reliability data for the two technologies}.12 13. Exercises 45 “The number of crosshara may be reduced by mounting contacts belonging to two subscribers om one bar”, Can this be applied to bath horizontal and vertical bars simultancously? Explain how the scheme would work, A blocking crosshar switch is to be designed to support 1000 sub- seribers. If the estimated peak traffic is 10 crlangs with average holding times of three minutes per call, catimate the number of crosspoints required.4 Electronic Space Division Switching Early cropsbar systems were slow in call processing as they used clectro- mechanical components for common control subsystems. Efforts to improve the speed of control and signalling between exchanges led to the application of electronics in the design af control and signalting subsystems, In late 1940s and early 1950s, a number of developmental efforts made use of vacuum tubes, transistors, gas diodes, magnetic drums and cathode ray tubes for realising control functions. Circuits using gas tubes were developed and employed for timing, ring translation and selective ringing of party lines. ‘Vacuum tubes were used in single frequency signalling and transistors in line insulation test circuits. Contemporary to these developments was the arrival of modern electronic digital computers. Switching engineers soon realised that, in principle, the registers and translators of the common control systems could be replaced by a single digital computer. 4.1 Stored Program Control Moderna digital computers use the stored program concept. Here, a program: or a set of instructions to the computer is stored in its memory and the instructions are executed automatically one by one by the processor. Carrying out the exchange control functions through programs stored in the memory of a computer led to the somenclature stored program cantrol (SPC). An immediate consequence of program control is the full-scale automation of exchange functions and the introduction of a variety of new services to users, Commion chanel signalling (CCS), centralised mainte- mance and automatic fault diagnosis, and interactive human-machine interface are some of the features that have become posible due vo the application of SPC to telephone switching. Introducing 2 computer to carry out the control functions of a telephone exchange it not as simple as using a computer fer scientific or commercial data processing. A telephone exchange must operate without interruption, 24 howrs a dey, 365 days a year and for say, 30-40 years. This means that the computer controlling the exchange must be highly tolerant to faults. FaultStored Program Control = 87 tolerant features were unknown to early commercial computers and the switching engineers were faced with the task of developing fault tolerant hardware and software systems. In fact, major contributions to fault tolerant computing have come from the field of telecommunication switching. Altempis to introduce electronics and computers in the control sub- system of an exchange were encouraging enough to spur the development of full-Medged electronic switching system, in which the switching network is also electronic, After about 10 years of developmental efforts and field trials, the world's first electronic switching system, known as No.1 ESS, was commissioned by ATAT at Succasunna, New Jerscy,in May 1965, Since then, the history of electronic switching system and stored program control has been one of rapid and continuous growth in versatility and range of services, Today, SPC is a standard feature in all the electronic exchanges. However, altempits to replace the space division electromechanical awitching matrices by semiconductor crosspoint matrices have aot been greatly successful, particularly in large exchanges, and the switching engineers have been forced to return Lo electromechanical miniature crossbars and reed relays, but with a complete electronic environment. As a result, many space division electro- nic ewitching systems use electromechanical switching networks with SPC. Bonctheless, private automatic branch exchanges (PABX) and smailer exchanges do use electronic switching devices. The two types of space division electronic switching systems, ane using clectromechanical switching network and the other using electronic switching network, are depicted in Fig. 4.1. Both the types qualify as electronic switching systems although only one of them is fully electronic, With the evolution of time division switching, which is done in the electronic domain, modern exchanges are fully electro- nic, Principles of time division switched electronic exchanges are discussed in Chapter 6, Electromechanical switching network Electronic switching network Stored program control Stored program contre! (a) Electromechanical switching (b) Electronic switching Fig. 4.1 Electronic space division switching systema.88 Electronic Space Division Switching There are basically two approaches to organising stored program con— teol: centralised and distributed. Early electronic switching systems (ESS) developed during the period 1970-75 almost invariably used centralised control, Although many present day exchange designs continue to use centralised SPC, with the advent of low cost powerful microprocessors and very large scale integration (VLSI) chips such as programmable logic arrays (PLA) and programmable logic controllers (PLC), distributed SPC is gain- ing popularity. 42 Centralised SPC In centralised control, all the control equipment is replaced by a single processer which musi be quite powerful. It must be capable of processing 10 to 100 calls per second, depending on the load on the system, and simulta- neously performing many her ancillary tasks. A typical control configur- ation of an ESS using centralised SPC is shown in Fig. 4.2. A centralised SPC ‘To lines From lines Secondary Maintenance storage: call console recording, program storage etc, Fig. 4.20 Typical centralised SPC organisation. configuration may use more than one processor for redundancy purposes. Each processor has access to all the exchange resources like scanners and distribution points and is capable of executing all the contrel functions. A redundant centralised structure is shown in Fig. 43. Redundancy may also be provided at the level of exchange resources and function programs. In actual implementation, the exchange resources and the memory modules contain-a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,9200 Electronic Space Division Switching ED = exclusion device Fig.46 Load sharing configuration. processors exchange information needed for mutual coordination and verifying the ‘state of health’ of the other, If the exchange of information fails, one of the processors which detects the same takes over the entire load including the calls that are already set wp by the failing processor. However, the calls that were being established by the failing processor are usually lost. Sharing of resources calls for an exclusion mechanism so that both the processors do mot seek the same resource at the same time, The mechanism may be implemented in software or hardware or both, Figure 4.6 shows a hardware exclusion device which, when set by one of the processors, prohi- bits access to a particular resource by the other processor until it is reset by the first processor. Soltware exclusion mechanism is discussed in detail in Section 4.4. Undcr normal eperation, cach processor handles one-half of the calls on a statistical basis. The exchange operators can, however, send commands to split the traffic unevenly between the two processors. This may be done, for example, to test a software modification onone processor al low traffic, while the other handles majority of the calls. Loud sharing configuration gives much better performance in (he presence of traffic overioads as compared to other operating modes, since the capacitics of both the processors arc avail- able to handle overloads, Load sharing configuration increases the effective traffic. capacity by about 30 per cent when compared to synchronous duplex operation, Load sharing is a step towards distributed control. One of the main purposes of redundant configuration is to increase the overall availability of the system. A telephone exchange must show more or less a continuous availability over a period of perhaps 30 or 40 years. We nowa ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,96 0 Electronic Space Division Switching 43 Distributed SPC In distributed control, the control functions are shared by many processors within the exchange itself. This type of structure owes its existence to the low eost microprocessors, This structure offers better availability and reliability than the centralised SPC, Exchange control functions may be decomposed either ‘horizontally’ or ‘wertically’ for distributed processing. In vertical decomposition, the exchange envirotment is divided into several blocks and each block is assigned to a processor that performs all control functions related to that block of equipments. The total control system now consists of several control units coupled together. The processor in each black may be duplicated for redundancy purposes and operates in one of the three dual processor operating modes discussed in Section 4.2. This arrangement is modular so that the control units may be added to handle additional lines as the exchange is expanded. Tn horizontal decomposition, each processor performs only one or some ef the exchange contro] functions. A typical horizontal decomposition is along the lines of the functional groupings shown in Fig, 4.7. A chain of different processors may be used to perform the event monitoring, call processing and QdM functions. The cotire chain may be duplicated as illustrated in Fig. 4.9 for providing redundancy. Similar operating principles as in the case of dual processor structure apply te the dual chain coa- figuration. 43.1 Level 3 Processing Since the processors perform specific functions in distributed control, they ean be specially designed to carry out these functions efficiently. In Fig. 4.9, level 3 processor handles scanning, distribution and marking functions. The processor and the associated devices are located physically close to the switching network, junctors and signalling equipment. Processing operations involved are of simple, specialised and well-defined mature. Generally, pro- cessing al this level results im the setting or sensing of one or more binary conditions in flipflops or registers. It may be necessary to sense and alter a set of binary conditions in a predefined sequence to accomplish a control function. Such simple operations are efficiently performed either by wired logic or microprogrammed devices. A control unit, designed as a collection of Ingic circuits using logic clemenis, electronic of otherwise, is called a ‘hard-wired’ control unit. A hard-wired unit can be exactly tailored to the job is-hand, both in terms of the function and the necessary processing capacity. But it lacks flexibility and cannot be easily adapted to new requirements, A microprogrammed unit is more universal and can be put to many different uscs by simply modifying the microprogram aad the associated data, With the same technology, the micro- Programmed units tend to be more expensive and slower than hard-wireda ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,1s = Elecirenic Space Division Switching 6, It provides unambiguous specifications and descriptions for tender- ing and evaluation of offers. 7. It provides a basis for meaningful comparison of the capabilities of different SPC systems. Cc) State >] Signal reception > Signal generation [_] Save a signal Process. description <> Test | Procedure call Implementation ‘option (a) See See ; i Fig. 443 Standard symbols in SDL, ‘Switching systems basically belong to the class of finite state machines (FSM) which are asynchronous in nature and follow a sequential logic for ibeir operation, They can be modelled by using a combinational part and a memory part as shown in Fig. 4.14. In FSM, the status of the output circuits mot only depends upon the inputs but also upon the current state of the machine, Asynchronous sequential operation gives rise to many problems due to transient variations that may occur in the logic circuits and memory elements. Clocked synchronous operation shown in Fig. 4.15 overcomes such problems. The theory of the operating principles of syachronous finite state machines forms the basis of design of SDL. Both assembly and high level languages are used in producing switching software, Early electronic switching systems uied assembly language programming extensively. The present trend is to use more and more of higha ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,112 Electrode Space Division Switching 4,5 Application Software The application software of a switching system may be divided into three main classea: 1. Call processing soltware 2 Administrative software 3. Maintenance software. A software package is described by its organisation, the data structures it uses and the processing functions it performs. Application software packages of a switching system use a modular organisation. The software packages are divided into program modules, cach dealing with a specific task. The size of a module varies depending on the task. Generally speaking, the modules are not self-contained. They exchange data with other modules, either directly through interfaces or indirectly through data tables. Several modules are grouped together to constitute functional units corresponding to independent functions, A module may be a part of more than one function unit. Usually, a functional unit runs as a separate process in the system. The modules of a process are strung together through special programs or chaining tables. Module chaining through tables is illustrated in Fig. 4.16. Associated with every module is a pointer to a set of entries in the chaining table pertaining to that module, Back entry in the chaining table consists of a key and a module number. Whenever a module completes execution, ils corresponding entries in the chaining table are scanned and the keys are compared to a funetion status key. If a match occurs, the corresponding module in the chaining entry is executed next. This approach provides flexibility for adding mew modules to a function or deleting old modules by simply modifying the chaining dats, Application software accounts for about $0 per cent of the total volume of the software in a switching system. Administration and maintenance Programs together constitute about 65 per cent of the total volume. The total software typically comprises between 400,000 and $00,000 machine instructions, The catire software need not be core resident. Considering the real time constraints, the system software and the call processing application software are usually core resident, The administration and maintenance modules reside on a back up storage and are brought into the main memory as and when required. Depending on the architectural support available from the switching processor, the operating system may use overlay or virtual memory technique for this purpose. Switching system software almost always uses a parameterised design, ‘This enables the same package to be used over a wide range of ex: by adapting the package to specific exchange characteristics. The parameters may be divided into system parameters and office parameters. The system Parameters afford flexibility at the overall system level while the office para- meters define program execution limits at specific exchanges, The systema ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,116 Electronic Space Division Switching Equipment 2 number Third level Called number Pe AD = abbreviated dialling ADD = abbreviated dial directory BA = base address COS = class of service DN = directorynumber PTR = pointer Fig. 4.17 Access to calling line data. to the calling subscriber is obtained, The user request for a service is converted to an offset which is added to the starting address of the entry toa ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,1200 Electronic Space Division Switching flow, uncover traffic sensitive oetwork of terminal problems and gather information for billing. If the traffic load exceeds the capacity af the system, ap overload control process is imitiated which reschedules priorities and frequencies of activities to ensure thal the system continues to process as many calls as practicable. One way of overload control is to restrict the umber of call originations per unit time. This is done by delaying the sending of dial tone for a few seconds lo a subscriber who goes off-hook, Maintenance programs are rum for performing either diagnostic function or preventive maintenance, During periods of normal traffic, there are preventive maintenance programs that take hdvantage of unused real time to run test programs of hardware and to audit system memory contents for correctness and consistency. In periods of high traffic, these programs are deferred, If a fault occurs in the system, the operating system activates unscheduled maintenance programs to recover the system from the fault with minimal mutilation of calls in progress. Sections of the exchange hardware may be isolated and diagnostic program rum to enable maintenance personnel to fix faults. 4.6 Enhanced Services (One of the immediate benefits of stored program control is that a host of new or improved services can be made available to the avhseribers, Over a hundred new services have already been listed by different agencies like CCITT, and the list is growing day by day. In fact, the only limitations in introducing new services seem to be the imagination of the designers and the price the market is prepared to pay for the services. Although there are a large number of services, they may be grouped under four broad categories: 1. Services associated with the calling subscriber and designed to reduce the time spent on dialling and the number of dialling errors 2. Services associated with the cailed subscriber and designed to increase the call completion rate 3. Services involving more than two parties 4. Miscellaneous services, These mew services are known as supplementary services and some of the prominent ones are as follows: ‘Category i: = Abbreviated dialling ® Recorded aumber calls or no dialling calls * Call back when free, ‘Category 2: » Call forwardinga ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,1240 Electronic Space Division Switching Intracity Intercity (c} Charging difficulty Fig.4.20 Difficulties in call forwarding across cachanges. Call walting feature provides an indication to a busy subscriber thar another party is trying to reach him. The indication is given through a short audible tone, lasting typically about three seconds. The subscriber may then ® ignore the incoming call and continve with the present one, ® place the incoming call on bold and continue with the first call, © place the first call on bold and answer the new call, or ® release the first calli and accept the new one, Call-waiting feature requires two switching paths to be set up simultaneously. Both the paths must use the same-signalling scheme. Consultation bold is a facility that enables a subscriber in conversation to place the other subseriber on hold and contact a third sobseriber for consultation, This is like the telephone extension service used im offices where a secretary may Consul the executive while holding an incoming call except that any subscriber aumber can be dialled for consultation. It may bea ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,128) Electronic Space Division Switching Kinputs of the second stage can be connected to any of the N outlets. Asa result, there are. alternative paths for any inlet/outlet pair connection, The network is said to provide full connectivity or full availability, in the sense that any of the AN’ inlets can be connected to any of the N outlets in the network, The term fix connectivity must be distinguished from the term fully connected network defined in Section 11. Each stage of the network bas NK switching ¢lements, Assuming about 10 per cent of the subscribers to be active on an average, K may be set equal to (7/16). In this case, the number of switching elements, 5, in the network is (wg). For N = 1024, we have Keo 64,5 = 131,072. For large M, the switching matrix. x K may still be difficult to realise practically, It is necessary to consider architectures that use amaller sized switching matrices, Let us consider the two-stage realisation of an Af x N switch using a number of smaller switching matrices as shown in Fig. 4.23. Fig. 423) Two-stage network with multiple switching matrices in cach stage. Mf inkets are divided intor blocks of p inlets each such that Af = pr. Similarly, the NV outlets are divided into s blocks of g outlets cach such that N= gs. In order to ensure full availability, there must be at least one outlet from each block in the first stage terminating as inlet on every block of the second stage.a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,132 Electronic Space Division Switching atage 3. Unlike the two-stage metwork discussed ia Section 4.7, here any arbitrary inlet in the first stage has s alternative paths to reach any arbitrary outlet in the third stage. The total number of switching elements is given by Ss rpstar + spr = Ist sr =sQn+ 7) (4.14) Uf we use square matrices in the first and third stages, we have p = ¢ = (Nir) and, therefore, a 415 s= an, Ces Equation (4.15) indicates that there is an optimum value for r that would minimise the value of §. To obtain this value of r, we differentiate Eq. (4.15), ‘set it equal to zero and determine the value of ¢ : ds _ -2N" 8 a eg dr a Therefore, ¢ = VEN. The second derivative, being positive at this value of 7, indicates that the value of § is miniovum, i.e. Sinin ON VEN (4.18) and p= Nir= N72. The optimum ratio of the number of blocks to the number of inputs per block is given by nip = VIN ¥NI2 = 2 17) There are a variety of techniques that can be used to evaluate the blocking probabilities of multistage switching networks. Of these, two are widely used: ome due to C.Y, Lee and the other dus to ©. Jacobaeus (see Further Reading). Both the techniques are approximate techniques and provide reasonably accurate results, particularly when comparisons of alternative structures are more important than absolute mumbors. The model proposed by Jacobseus is somewhat more accurate than the one proposed by Lee. But the greatest value of Lee's approach is in the ease of modelling and the fact that the model and the associated formulac dircetly relate to the underlying network structures. In this book, we use Lee's probability graphs to estimate the blocking probability of multistage networks. A probability graph of a three-stage network is shown in Fig. 4.28, In the graph, the small circles represent the switching stages and the lines represent the interstage links. The network graph shows all possible paths between w given inlet and an outlet. The graph reflects the fact that there are 5 alternative paths for any particular connection, one through cach black in the second stage, Blocking probabilities in the network may be estimated by breaking down a graph into serial and paraliel paths. Let =oa ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,136 Electronic Spoce Division Switching Table 4.4 Switch Advantage Ratio in Three-Stage Networks: Number of switching elements, 5 8197 0.5 million 4million | 16 32 million 64 million 1 billion As the value of V increases, we get relatively better savings in the number of switching elements. Bul the actual number of switching elements still becomes impracticably large for large values of N. For example, a 30,000-line nonblocking exchange needs about 4) million switching elements, The oumber is unmanageable even in blocking exchanges. Further reductions in the number of switching elements are possible by using even higher sumber of stages than three. 49 n-Stage Networks Avvaricty of ways oxist in which switching networks with four or more stages can be constructed. A description of all such networks is beyond the scope of this book, As an illustrative example, we discuss a five-stage network shown in Fig, 4-27, Thit network is formed by replacing each block of the centre stage of the network shown in Fig. 4.24-with a three-stage network. There are # inlets to a block in the centre stage of the network in Fig, 4.24, These are now terminated on the three-stage network in Fig. 4.26 that replaces the block in Fig. 4.24. The r inlets are distributed among the 7) blocks shown its Fig, 4.26 with (rir) inlets per block. In order to compare the requirements of the switching elements in the case of three-stage and five-stage networks, let us assume that the three-stage network is realised with optimum number of square blocks in each stage so that the minimum number of switching elements are used, Taking # specific example of 25 subscribers, for the three-stage nctwork, from Eq(4. 16) we have the relations salex2 pa178, re 256 In order to maintain the same level of blocking performance for the five-stage network as the three-stage network, let ws assume that the centre three stages of the five-stage nctwork are designed to be nonblocking and. estimate the number of switching elements: Switching element in the first stage = 2 x 27 ¢ 2) = 2 ‘Switching elements in the last sage = Pda ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,1400 Electronic Space Division Switching 15. 16. Determioe the design parameters of a three-stage switch with inlet utilisation of 0.1 to achieve a Pp = 0,002 for (a).N = 128, (b) NW = 2043, and (c) W = 8192, Using the Lee graph, show that the blocking probability of a five-stage network is given by Py=[t-(t-ay ft - (1- ede where a) = a(pit), a2 =a) ame is the probability that an input line is active and r, ry and 5, have the came significance ag in Fig.4,27,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,144 Speech Digitisation and Transmission. 0-H Hz to pass. Iff, is less than twice #, portions of FAM signal spectrum will overlap as shown in Fig. §.1(c). This overlapping of the sidebands produces beat frequencies that interfere with the desired signal and such an || interference is referred to as allasing or faldover distortion. It maybe noted that aliasing is a phenomenon common to all sample data systems. As men- tioned earlier, toll quality speech is band limited to 300-3400 Hz to conserve bandwidih while maintaining intelligibility. To digitise this wave-form, the minimum sampling frequency required is6.8 kHz to avoid aliasing effects. In digital telephone networks, speech is sampled at 8 KHz rate, In this context, the filter used for band limiting the input speech waveform is known as | antlallasing Miter. It maybe noted that for a3.4 kHz cut-off frequency, @kHz | sampling results in oversampling. This oversampling provides for the monideal filter characteristics such as lack of sharp cut off. The sampled signal is sufficiently attenuated at the overlap frequency of 4 kHz to ade- quately reduce the energy level of the foldover spectrum, | 5.2 Quantisation and Binary Coding Pulse amplitude modulation systems are not generally useful over long distances, owing to vulnerability of the individual pulse amplitudes to noise, distortion and crosstalk. The amplitude susceptibility may be reduced or eliminated by converting the PAM samples into a digital format, thereby allowing the use of regeuerative repeaters to remove transmission imper- fections before errors result, A finite number of bits are used for coding PAM samples. With n bits, the number of sample values that can be represented is 2". But the FAM sample amplitudes can take on an infinite range of values. It, therefore, becomes necessary to quantise the PAM sample amplitude tn the nearest of a range of discrete amplitude levels, ‘The process of quantisation is depicted in Fig. $.2. Signal F is confined toarange from V to Fy, and this range is divided into. Af (Af = 8 in Fig, 5.2) equal steps. The step size Sis given by S= (i — Kar (3.2) In the centre of cach of these sicps we locate the quantisation levels Mo, MyM. The quantised signal ¥, takes on any one of the quantised || Ievel values. A signal V is quantised 10 its nearest quantisation level. The boundary values between the steps are equidistant from two quantisation levels and a convention may be adepted te quantise them to one of the levels. For example, Way if (Fy =~ $2) 2h < (hy +52) Vas, if(-s2) sv < (+s) ‘Thus, the signal , makes a ‘oftime the quantisation err wantum jump of step size 5 and at any instant V~V, has a magaitude which is equal to.or lessa ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,148 Speech Digitisation and Transmission am fe - ort de =} fre ede 2)" _¢ (8 com ‘Signal to quantisation noise ratio (SQR) is a good measure of performance of a PCM system transmitting speech. If Fy is the rm.s. value of the input ple) ah = 52 a WI e—> Fig. 5.8 Probability distribution of error duc to linear quantisation. signal and if we assume (for convenience) a resistance level of 1 chm, then SQR is given by SOR = 10 log (745719) dB = 10 log (12) + 20 log (4/5) dB = 10.8 + 20 log (H/5) dB (5A) If the input signal is a sinusoidal wave with V,, a the maximum amplitude, SQR may be calculated for the full range sinc wave as SQR= 10log [(¥¥2¥ (S713) dB = Wlog (6) + 2 log (45) dB = 7.78+ 200g (Wq/S) 4B 65) | Expressing S in terms of Vj, and the number of steps, M, we have 2 ia = &B (avg) = iO log(15.0*) dB = log (1.225.M) dB (54) SOR = 10 loga ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,182 Speech Digitization and Thansmission Compression Linear Linear Expansion Fig. §.10 The process of companding. The input signal is first compressed by using a soalinear functional device ‘and then a linear quantiser is used. At the-receiving end, the quantised signal is expanded by a nonuniform device having an invcrec characteristic of the compression at the sending end. The process of first compressing and then expanding is referred to as companding. A variety of nonlinear compression-expansion functions can be chosee to implement a compandor. The obvious one is a logarithmic law. Unfortunately, as is scen from Fig. $.11, the functiony = inx docs not pass > Fig. §.11 Function y= Inx. through the origin. It is therefore necessary to substitute a linear portionto | the curve for lower values ofx. Most of the practical companding systems are based on a law suggested by K.-W. Cattermole. For logarithmic section the law is 14+Inar i "Tyna «fry sesl (59) and for linear section, AX 1 "Thin forOszs a (5.10)a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,156 0 Speech Digitization and Transmission Nonuniform amplitude distributions » Sample-te-sample correlations @ Periodicity or eycle-to-eyele correlations © Pitch interval-to-pitch interval correlations © Speech pauses or inactivity factors. In speech signal, lower amplitude values are more common than the higher amplitude values. The power levels of active specch signals tend to occur at the lower end of the signal range. There is a strong correlation ‘between adjacent & kHz samples and the correlation coefficient is estimated to be 0.85 or higher. Although telephone quality specch signal requires the entire 300-3400 Hz bandwidth, at any instant of time only a few frequencies exist in a sound and the wavedorm tends to exhibit strong correlations over several samples corresponding to cycles of an oscillation, A sizeable fraction of the human speech sounds is produced by the flow of puffs of air from the lungs inte the vocal tract, The interval between these pulls of air is known as the pitch interval. Speech waveforms display repetitive patterns correspond~ ing to the duration of a pitch interval in a given sound. There may be as many as 20 to 40 pitch intervals in a single sound. Analysis of telephone conversations have indicated that a party is typically active for about 40% of a call duration largely on account of listening to the other party's talk. In addition, there are pauses in one's speech. All these properties of speech are useful in designing coding schemes (hat reduce the bandwidth requirements. ofthe channel. In the digital domain significant reductions in bit rates can be achieved, A number of coding schemes exploiting different redundancy propertics have beea evolved and we discuss some of these in this section and in Section 5.6. Delta or differential coding systems are designed to take advantage of the sareple-to-sample redundancies in speech waveforms. Because of the strong correlation between adjacent speech samples, large abrupt changes in ievels do not occur frequently in speech waveforms. In such situations, it is more efficient to transmit or encode and transmit only the signal instead of the absolute value of the samples. Delta modulation (DM) is a scheme that transmits only the signal changes and differential pulse code modulation (DPCM) encodes the differences and transmits them. Acdelta modulator may be implemented by simply cumparing each new signal sample with the previous sample and transmitting the resulting difference signal. At the receiver end, the difference signals are added up to construct the absolute signal by using an integrator. However, such a system, being open loop, suffers from the possibility of the receiver output diverging from the transmitter input duc to system errors or inaccuracies. The system can be converted into.a closed loop system by setting up a feedback path with an integrator at the transmitting end as shown in Fig. 5.14. The integrator must be identical to the one al the receiving end. The difference signal e(b} has only two possible levels. A positive level indicates that the new samplea ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,160 Speech Digitisation and Transmission Noise source representing unvoiced sounds Filter representing the effect of mouth, thraat ete, Synthesised Impulse generator representing voiced sounds Fig. 8.16 Speech model used in voeoder design, Fig. §.16) for the cequized duration. The filter at the receiver end in Fig, 5.16 implements a vocal tract transfer function. It is constructed by using a bank of bandpass filters whose input power levels are the respective sub-band power levels at the transmitting end. Superposing the individual band outputs along with the appropriate switching of the signal source, generates, in a spectral sense, the original signal, Recent advances in digital signal processing (DSP) permit the wse of Fourier transform algorithms to determine the inpul spectrum in lieu of the bank of analog filters. ‘The three er four energy peaks in the short-term specaral density of speech are known as formants, A formant vocoder determines the location and amplitude of these spectral peaks and transmits this information instead of the entire spectrum envelope. In addition to determining the nature of excitation (voiced or unvoiced) and the pitch interval or period, the lincar predictive coders (LPC) also predict parameters for vocal tract. The vocal tract filter (ace Fig. 5.16) is am adjustable one whose parameters are varied based on the prediction. The LPC functions as a feedback system similar to adaptive DM and ADPCM. As a result, quality of speech synthesised by LPC is superior to that of the speech synthesised by the channel or formant vocoders. 5.7 Pulse Transmission In the earlier sections of this chapter, we have been considering how analog signal waveforms ate represented in the form of binary digital signals or pulses, In this section, we consider aspects relating to the communication of such pulse trains in practical transmission channels, Any reasonably behaved periodic function gf) with period T can be represented in the fonm of a Fourier series: sQ=C2+ Fa, sin Qrayy+ Fb, cos (an) (5.13) ear nela ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,164 Speech Digitisation and Transmission Otherwise, the harmonics will not combine in proper amplitude and phase at the receiver with the result that the reconstructed waveform will be distorted. Measurable transmission line parameters corresponding to these two pre- ceding requirements are attenuation constant 4, and phase veloelty P,. Another source of distortion ig the reflection of the transmitted wave by the transmission ling. The related parameter for this is the characteristic impedance Zo of the line, The phase velocity y is a measure of the speed of wave propagation along the transmission lite in meters per second. Ideally, it should be constant for all frequescies to avoid phase distortion. When it is not, certain frequencies may be delayed so much that they interfere with frequencies corresponding to later pulses. This is known as intersymbol Interference. ‘The attenuation constant.4. is a measure of the loss of the signal power per meter of the line length. A constant, value for all frequencies would avoid amplitude distortion, The characteristic impedance Z, is the inhereat impedance that is presented to the sigaal by the transmission line. If the source and load impedances are equal to the characteristic impedanee, there is mo reflection of the wave from the load, and hence there is no distortion, In a transmission line, resistance, inductance and capacitance are distributed along the entire length of the line. For purposes of analysis, the distributed parameters are lumped usually over a distance of one meter and un equivalent circuit formed as shown in Fig. 3.18, A, represents the series Corresponds 10 one loop meter Fig. 5.18 Equivalent circuit of a transmission line. resistance of the conductors, Ry the leakage resistance of the insulation, C the capacitance formed. between the two conductors and L the inductance. A, and L are values coesponding to one loop-meter and 2, and C are values corresponding to onc running meter of the transmission line. Based on the equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 5.18, the general expression for ¥, A, and Zy may be developed, But these ate rather complex functions of R,, Rp, CL and frequency. However, for practical purposes, we may consider threea ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,168 Speech Digitisation and Transmission number of bits 6, that can be transmitted reliably depends on the fi peony tolerances of the clocks. The end of transmission is signalled by 1, Stop bits, The sumber of stop bits depends on the receive side equipment, The stop bits provide the minimum buffer period required by the receive equipment between two successive transmissions. Electromechanical devices require longer buffer periods than the electronic ones, In asynchronous transmission, which is also known as atart-stop transmission fos obvious reasons, the bit stream length is usually eight bits corresponding toa character. Hence, this transmission is often termed as character mode transmission. Two additio: is, Ae start and one stop bit for every cight bits represenis a 25% transmission overhead. Therefore, it is not economical ‘to transmit large volume data using asynchronous mode. Synchranaus transmission cuts down the transmission overhead by using a single clock for both transmission and reception as illustrated in Fig. 5.21. register ‘Clock Fig. §.21 Synchronous transmission. Hore, the transmitter clock is seat to the receiver which uses the same clock to sample the incoming data. Simple but an expensive way of sending the clocking information to the receiver is to use a separate channel for this purpose. Alternatively, synchronous receivers cun be equipped with special tuned circuits that resonate at the desired clock frequency when excited by a received pulse or special phase locked loop (PLL) circuits that are capable. of deriving the clocking information from the data itself, ‘The key to extracting clock from the data is in the signal transitions that eccur in the data, If the signal is a continuous ‘1 or ‘( for a sufficiently long. time, the clock extraction process suffers and the receiver and transmitter may go out of synchronism, A number of techniques have been developed to ensure adcquate density of signal transitions in the data transmitted in synchronous mode: L. Restricting the source code 2. Use of dedicated timing bits.a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,172 Speech Digitisation and Thensmission Frequency x Period {b) Line spectra Fig. 5.24 Walsh codes. components in the spectrum. The low frequency component is also insignificant a3 seen from Fig. 5.25(b), The code has some inherent error detection features. Errors result in AMI rule violation, which ean be recognised at the receiving end, Deliberate vielation of AMI rule can be made to send some control information from the transmitter to the receiver. AMI coding resolves two important problems encountered by many other bipolar codes. Firstly, there is no dc component in the transmitted signal and bence the phenomenon of dc, wander is absent. Secondly, excellent timing information is available for continuous ones along with error detes- tien capability, However, the code fails to provide timing information when a long series of zeros are transmitted,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,176 Speech Digitiration and Transmission In TDM, capacity allocation may be done cither bitwise or wordwise. In bitwise allocation, each source is assigned a time slot corresponding to a single bit and in wordwise allocation, a time slot corresponds to some larger number af bits (often § bits} referred to as a word. The two allocation teckniques give rise to two different TDM frame structures as shown in Fig, 5.27. In ome case, the frame size is equal to the number of channels Frame [- (a) Bit interleaving Frame __ - | [e[s] PePeeP bE Es] (b) 4-bit word interleaving Fig. §.27 Four-channel TOM frame structures, multiplexed and in the other ual to the product of the word sixe and the number of channels. Bitwise isterleaving is natural if delta modulator codendecoders (codecs) are used and wordwise interleaving is natural if PCM codecs are used for digitisation, It may be recalled that in delta modulation, the coder produces a bit-by-bit output representing the slope variation whereas in POM, sampled value it ouput a¢ an 8-bit quantity, The bit rate of a TDM stream should be equal te or greater than the sum of the bit rates of the individual channels. Having formed a frame by bil interleaving or word interleaving, it is necessary to have a mechanism to synchronise the frames at the tramsenigtiog, and the receiving end, ie, the start of the frame rust unambiguously be identified at the receiving end, Frame synchronisation may be done in a aumber of ways. In all the ways, there are one or more framing bits with an identifiable data sequence. Frame bits may be added additionally to data bits or some of the data bits may be used as frame bits. For example, in Bell Systems Ti channel frame, an additional bit is introduced for every frame. which alternates in value. The Tl channel structure multiplexes 24 channels and hence the frame has a length of 193 bits (24 * 6 + 1). In one of the earlya ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,180 10. lL iz, Speech Digitisation and Transmission EXERCISES ‘The threshold of hearing or the reference level for the minimum discernible sound is internationally agreed upon as iw Wim". The threshold of pain is 134) dB above this threshold of hearing. What is the actual power level at the threshold of pain? The huma car has logarithmic response characteristics. How would a person perceive the change in loudness if he moves from a quiet residence which has an intensity level of 30 dB to an office with a level of 60 dB and an airport with a level of 120 dB? List and discuss at least five advantages of digital transmission of speech over analog transmission, What is the minimum sampling frequency required for a signal with a frequency range of dic, -15 kHz if it is (a) band limited between 1 kHz and 10 KHz, (b) passed through a low pass filter which hag a cut off frequency of 5 kez. ‘The tone generated by push button 3 of a DTMF telephone is sampled at 16 kHz and passed through a PAM decoder which has a ‘cut off frequency of 8) Hz. What frequencies will be present at the output of the PAM decoder? How much does the SOR of a uniform PCM encoder improve when one bit is added to the code word? Ifa minimum SOR of 33 dB is desired, how many bits per code word are required in a linearly quantised POM system? A 7-bit uniform PCM system has a bitrate of 56 kbps. Calculate the SOR | when the input is a sing wave covering the full dynamic range of the system, Calculate the dynamic range of the sine wave input if the SOR is to be at least 30 dB. fa lintar PCM system is to have a minimum SOR as in the first segment of 4-law companded PCM, calculate the number of bits required per sample. Assume a dynamic range equal to that obtained between the first and the cighth 4-law segments. ‘What is the dynamic range provided by a uniform PCM encoder with 12-bit code words and a minimum SOR of 40 dB? APCM encoder using A-law has a dynamic range of £2 V. Determine the code word when the input signal is (a) -120 mV, (b)0.5 VY, (c)-1.5 Vi (d) Lav For Problem 11, determine the input signal value if the code ward is (3) ‘0110 1001, and (bk) L001 1011,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,184 Time Division Switching (b) Two-stage equivatent. Fig. 6.1 Simple PAM time division switching. and 1% MN switching matrices for the first and second stages respectively as. shown in Fig. 6.1(b). The network has one link interconnecting the two: stages. Each inlet/outlet is a single speech circuit corresponding to a subscriber line. The speech is carried as PAM analog samples or PCM digital samples, occurring at 125-5 intervals. When PAM samples are switched in 4 time division manner, the switching is known as analog time division switching. If PCM binary samples are switched, then the switching is known as digital time division switching, In Fig. 6.1{a), the interconnecting link is shown as a bus to which a chosen inlet-outhet pair can be connected by a suitable contral mechanism and the speech sample transferred from the inleta ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,188 Time Division Switching ty = lime to read the control memory fg = tire to decode address and select the imlet or outlet as the case may be f, = time to transfer the sample value from inlet to outle: All time values are expressed in microscoonds. Equations (6.1) and (6.2) arc valid for a 8-kHz sampling rate and a nonfolded network. The clock input to the modulo-N counter has arate such that W sample transicrs are organised in 125 microseconds. In other words, Clock rate = BN KE (6.3) The output-controlled switches are capable of supporting broadcast connec- tions, whereas the inpul-controlied ones are not. Broadcast takes place when all the control memory locations contain the same inlet address, in which ease, the data from the specified inlet is transferred to all the outlets, Tn the discussions so far, we have assumed that the speech samples are transferred from inlet to outlet. In practical telephone conversations, speech samples have to be exchanged both ways, For this purpose, two independent buses may be used on which data transfers take place simultaneously in opposite directions. Alternatively, a single bus may be used to organise the two-way data transfer first in one direction and thea in the other. Digital buses, used with PCM samples, usually support parallel data transfer and if the incoming data is in serial form it is passed through a serial-to-parallel converter before being fed to the bus. Similarly, a parallel-to-serial converter is required on the oulput side, ‘The input or output-costrolled configurations can be used to support folded network connections. Interestingly, these configurations, with a single bus, support two way transfers for folded networks. To illustrate this, let us consider a connection between subseriber 4 and subseriber 27 in an input- controlled switch. The control memory location 4 contains the value 27 and the location 27 contains the value 4, When the subscriber line 4 is scanned, ‘by the cyclic control, the input sample from the tip (transmit) line of the subscriber 4 is transfarred to the ning (receive) line of the subscriber 27. When the subscriber line 27 is scanned, the imput from the line 27 is trans- ferred to the ring line of the subscriber 4, Thus, data samples are exchanged both ways in one 12Sys cycle. When the switches are operated in this fashion, the Eqs. (6.1)-(6.3) apply to folded networks as well, The fact that only 4/2 simultancous conversations are possible in a folded network can be used to arrive at another switch configuration with only 4/2. control memory locations. In this case, no cyclic control is possible and both the input and output are memory controlled. But before discussing this configuration, we take a look at the design parameters of a time division space switch and compare the same with that of a space division switch. The definitions of the design parameters of a switch have been given ina ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,192 Time Division Switching 1G MDR MDR OG Data meniary N words of Data in Control memory f=} N words ef Log, A bits cach (a) Switching stracture. (b) Equivalent circuit. Fig.6.5 Basic time division time switching. 1, Sequential write/random read 2, Random write/sequential read 3. Random input/random output. In the first two methods of control, the sequential/random read/write opera- tions refer to the read/write operations associated with the data memory. Ina ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,196 Time Division Switching k-—— Phase 1 *—— Phase 2 —4 DM write DM read See ttt + ++ He CM read —2— 125 pas cycle | Fig. 6.7 Overlapping of data memory write and control memory read operations. nonblocking. If we have a scheme whereby only the active subscribers are scanned, then the total number of subscribers connected to the system can be increased significantly, Random input/random output form of control permits a larger number of subscribers than the switching capacity of the system. The switch in this case is, however, blocking in nature. The random input/random output scheme is illustrated in Fig. 6.8. Functionally, there are two control memary . DM SC words CML CM2 SC words SC words Fig. 6.8 Random input/random output time switch. modules, CM1 and CM2, which bold the addresses of the active inlets and outlets respectively, There is a one-to-one correspondence between the locations of the two control memories. If the address of an active inlet isa ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,200 Tine Division Switching taken out of the occupied list and vice versa. The actions involved in these operations arc: 1, Allocate a location from the free list to the occupied list Location to be alloculed, F == contents of FLP ‘Contents of FLP = pointer in location F Pointer in location F = contents of OLP location F Contents of OLP = location F Figure 6.9(b) shows the status of the lists after the first Location in the free list is moved to the occupied list. The free list now.is $-3-10-5-4-1 and the occupied list is 7-2-11-12-8-6. 2, Free the location X from the occupied list and add to the free List Pointer in the predecessor of ¥ = pointer ia ¥ Pointer in.¥ = contents of FLP Contents of FLP =X Figure 6.9(c) depicts the list status after location 11 is freed from the occu pied list and added to the free list. The new free list is 11-9-3-10-5-4—1 and the occupied list is 72-12-46. 6.3 Time Multiplexed Space Switching In Sections 6.1 and 6.2, we dealt with time division switches where an inlet or an outlet corresponded to a single subscriber line with one speech sample appearing every 1254s on the line, Such switches are used in local exchanges, We now consider switches that are required in transit exchanges. Here, the inlets and outlets are trunks which carry time division multiplexed data streams. We call such switches time multiplexed switches. In this section, we consider time multiplexed space switches and in Section 6.4.we discuss time multiplexed time switches. A time multiplexed time division space switch is shown in Fig. 6.10. There are N incoming trunks and WV outgoing trunks, cach carrying a time division multiplexed stream of M sumples per frame, Each frame is of 125-05 time duration, In one frame time, a total of AN speech samples have to be switched. One sample duration, 125/M microseconds, is usually referred to. asa time slot. In onc time slot, W samples are switched, Figure 6,10 shows an output-controlled switch. The output is cyclically scanned. There is.a 1-to-M relationship between the quilets and the control memory locations, i.e. there are M locations in the control memory corresponding to each outlet. ‘The control memory has MN words. If we view the control memory as. M blocks of W words cach, a location address may be specified in a two dimensional form, (i,j), where /is the block address and is the word within the block, We have 151 Tsr z tase — £44 — ° NaN ha SN oe Pa On + | op 1 i a Ing 4 — Lt Oy Fig, 6.18 Two-stage TS switch, The control memories for the TS! and space switch are not shown in Fig. 6.18. Each time multiplexed inlet/outlet stream carries M channels. A subscriber oo the input side is assigned to ane of the inlets am ee slot i that inlet, An input subscriber assigned to line 4 a1 time slot 7 ntified by the label 247. Similarly, a subscriber connected 10 the outlet 5 and time slot 6 is identified by Oss. The corresponcling time siots are identified as [Sey and Oss, Suppose that a communication is to be established between these reo | subseribers. The input sample from £547 is first moved.to [S46 at the output of TSI switch. During the time slot 6, a connection is established between the inlet 4 and the outlet 5 at the space switch. While this switch configuration ensures full availability, it is not nonblocking, Consider the two connections to be established between 247 and O29, and fig and Oge. Both the samples originate from the same inlet and are destined to the same time slot in different outicts, Both input samples require to be switched to time slot 9, | which is not possible, Only ong of thems can be switched to slot 9. In general, blocking occurs if two inputs Jj and J® are destined to outjuts Opg and Ory. In ather words, i is only possible te set up a single connection between any! of the subscribers on an iniet and amy of the subscribers connected to the same time slot on the output side.a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,22000 Time Division Switching M, Fig.6.21 Probability graph of a TST switch, A space-time-space (STS) architecture consists of an x k space matrix at the input, an array of & TSL switches in middle and a.k x NV space matrix at the output as shown in Fig. 6.22. In this architecture, the choice of input and M slotsframe Mf shots/frame Fig.6.22 A STS switch. owtpat time slots is fixed for a given connection. But the flexibility is provided by the ability to utilise any free TSI switch by space switching on the input and the output side. There are as many alternative paths for a given connection as there are TS] switches. For example, /79 may be connected to Os by passing through TSIs. The sequence is as follows:a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,Time Division Switching iM au A a xguge RCLSRCL sc 8x8 ect" Ws ‘ates ooeds pur oul ssa PON ETA e aun siojs aun ‘a SHS SUNN GTa ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,3280 Time Division Switching 15, A TSSTSST switch supports 1024 trunks cach carrying 128 channels. Determing the basic clock rate of the switch Mf the input channels were to have 4096 alternative paths. The T stages are symmetrical. Is any useful purpose served bythe middle T stage? Explain. 16, In n-stage combination switching a trade-off between blocking pro- bubility and time delay is possible. Explain. 17. Is TS nework nonblocking? Explain.a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,232° Optical Fibre Systems ‘The propagation of light along an optical fibre may be described in terms of a set of guided electromagnetic waves called the modes of the optical fibres, Each guided mode is a pattern of electric and magnetic field Finca which is repeated along the fibre at intervals equal to the wavelength. Only a certain discrete number of modes are capable of propagating along the waveguide (libre), depending upon the geometry of the fibre. The physical dimension and the configuration of tke fibre may be chosen such that only enc mode propagates through the fibre or many modes propagate. Accordingly, fibres are classified as single mode Mbres or multimode fibres. Mode types and refractive index types together give four different types of fibres, as shown in Table 7.1, OF these four, only three are practically Table 7.1 Fibre Types Fibre Single mode Multimode Step index: v Vv Graded index x v realisable, Restricting the propagation to a single mode demands that the core dimension is relatively small. When the core dimension is small, it is difficult to introduce graded refractive index, As a result, the graded index single mode fibres are not practicable as technology stands today. The physical dimensions and the values of the refractive indices for commonly used telecommoanication fibres are shown in Fig. 7.3. The core diameter used for single mode fibres lics in the range of §-12 am, and the diameter of the cladding lies in the range of 100-125 um, A multimode fibre has a core diameter of 50-200 am and a cladding diameter of 125-400 em. ‘The refractive indices of the core and cladding are related by the expression my = ny{1 — A) (Tay where Az = refractive index of the cladding my = refractive index of the core A= a constant known as index difference Beyond the cladding and the sheath, the refractive index is that of the air which has a value 10, From Eq, (7.1) the core-cladding index difference is given as mT 7 As a (2) In the case of a graded index fibre, the most commonly used law for varying the refractive index from the centre to the surface of the core is a power law which is staicd asa ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,234 Opsical Fibre Systerns fibre 4,. For simplicity, we consider only plane waves that are polarised normal to the reflecting surface. Phase change due to reflections is given by n*(cos? dy = yi 3, 2 are tam (7.9) where 4 =Ay/nz. Phase change due to travel along the fibre is given by 3, Saye (Ta) where: A = propagation constant in free space 4 = distance travelled by the wave along the ray In order for a plane wave to propagate along the fibro, the phase of the twice reflected wave must be the sameas that of the incident wave. In Fig. 7.6, the phase must be the same al points.< and C. If this is the case, ihe wave shperimposes constructively with itself, Otherwise, the wave interferes with itself and dies out. Therefore, the phase shift between the points A and C must be an integral multiple of 2 for proper propagation through the fibre. There are two refraction points,.A and 8, and a travel of two distances, AB and BC, between the points 4 and C. The distance AB = BC = disin $y, ‘Therefore, from Eqs. (7.9) and (7.92) the total phase shift is obtained as Inykd 2nM = 28,4 inh (7.10) where M is an integer that determines the allowed ray angles for wave- guiding. In multimode fibres, light rays belonging to different modes take diffe- rent paths for travel and hence take different times to reach the destination end of the fibre. A light ray that propagates straight down the axis of the fibre takes the least amount of time, and a light that strikes the core-cladding interface atthe critical angic takes the longest time toreach the other end of the fibre. As a result, light rays representing a pulse of light energy reack the far end of the fibre at different times and cause spreading out of the pulse energy. This is called modal dispersion or pulse spreading. The difference ‘between the travel times of the fastest and slowest light rays is called pulse spreading constant Af and is usually expressed in nanoseconds per kilometre. Modal dispersion in optical fibres is analogous to phase distortion in copper cables discussed in Section 5.7, and can lead (o intersymbol inter- ference. Pulse spreading also results in amplitude reduction at the far cnd, giving rise to a power Inss. The refractive index of a materialis wavelength dependent. Mf some light nergy consisting of different wavelengths is launched inte a fibre, the diffe- rent wavelength components will travel through the fibre at different speeds,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,242 Optical Fibre Systems of the valence band, The recombination process must conserve both energy and momentum. The energy band diagrams shown in Fig. 7.7 are plotted against momentum. In Fig. 7.7(a), the minimum and the maximum cnergy lewells of the conduetion and valence bands respectively have the same momentum value. Hence, there is a direct recombination between electrons and holes, Semiconductor materials which exhibit energy level characte- ristics as shown in Fig. 7.7(a) are called direct band gap semiconductors. In Fig. 7.7(b), the mazimum and the minimum energy levels occur at different momentum values. Here, a third particle nvast take part in the recombination process in order to conserve momentum since the momentum of a photon is very small. Lattice vibrations in the crystal known as phonons serve this Purpose. Semiconductors that exhibit energy-momentum characteristics similar to the one shown in Fig. 7.7(5) are known as indirect buod gap materials. Optical sources, both LEDs and ILDs, are constructed using direct band gap materials. 7.3.1 Light Emitting Diodes In order to achieve « high radiance and a high quantum efficiency, it ix necessary to confine the charge carriers (electrons and holes) and the optical emission ta the active region of the p-r junction. Carrier confinement achieves a high level of radiative recombination, Optical confinement pre- vents absorption of the emitted radiation by the material surrounding the p-n juaction. A variety of LED configurations have been investigated to achieve carrier and optical confinement. Of these, the most clfective and widely used structure known as double heterostructure is chown in Fig. 7.8. A double heterojunction configuration may be fabricated to emit light through a surface or an edge of the structure, The surface-emit type shown in Fig. 7.8 is called Burrus type LED. The sandwich structure of Burrus LED is capabte of confining both the carriers and the optical emission to the central active region. The differences in the energy band gaps and the refractive indices of adjoining layers confine the charge carriers and the optical field respectively to the recombination layer, ‘The injected carriers in the p-n junction form and recombine in pairs to satisty the requirement of charge neutrality in the semiconductor crystal. As a result, the densities of excess electrons and holes are equal, ic. = p. When carrier injection stops, the carrier density retums ta the equilibri value. In gencral, the excess carrier density decays exponentially with time according to the relation A= ay exp (—17) (7.12) where ig = initial injected excess electron density © = carrier lifetimea ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,146 Optical Fibre Systems ‘The optical bandwidth is cbtained by setting P(w) = Po/2. That is, Poi2= Poll + (age? Le. 1+ (oor)? = 4, or tig = VE (7.188) Tt may be noted that the optical modulation bandwidth is apparently greater than the clectrical bandwidth by a factor V3. In a practical circuit, the lower value determines the performance limit. EXAMPLE 7.3 The minority carrier recombination lifetime for an LED is § os. The cic. optical output power is 320 'W. Determine the 3 dB. optical and electrical bandwidth and the optical power output at 40 MHz. Solution From Eqs, (7.19) and (7.184), we have | 2 a, = txp a) MHz, and aig = V3 w, = 350 MHz. From Eq. (7.174), 320% 10° [\+ Gr x 40x 10% 5x 10-8yp _ 2x 0 (ast) P(40MHa = = 200 aw The transient response of the LED is limited by the carrier lifetime, junction space charge capacitance and the diffusion capacitance. If the amphtude of the step current used to determine the transient response is large, the effects of capacitances became relatively small as compared to the effect due to carries lifetime. In this case, the rise and fall times can be shown ax t=r(in) (7.19) In an LED, the emitted power and the bandwidth of operation arc inversely related. For a given injection level, the power-bandwidth product remains constant. An attempt to increase the bandwidth results in reduced emission. Hence, the power-bandwidth product, PAW. is an important factor and can be shown to be: rh PEW=t by (7:20) where J = current densitya ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,254 Optical Fite Systems ‘As the charge carriers flow through the semiconductor material, some electron-hole pairs recombine and get absorbed. On the average, the charge cartiers travel a certain distance known as diffusion length, before they recombine. The diffusion lengths, Z., for electrons and Ly for holes, are related ta the respective carrier lifetimes by the expressions ! 1 La = (Dats, Ly = (Dptg)? where Dy and Dp arc constants known as cleciron and boie diffasion cocffi- cients respectively. EXAMPLE 74 Inasilicon photodiedc, cstimate the carrier lifetimes of electrons, given that the diffusion length is 1m and the mobility of electrons is 0.15 m’/Vs, Assume an ambient temperature of 27°C, Soktion The diffusion coefficients of carriers are related to the carrier mobilities by the Einstein relation as. aT D=n— “ q (7.29) where w is the mobility of carrier, & is the Boltzmann constant and T is the temperature in degrees Kelvin. Therefore, _ O15 x 1.38% 1073 x 300 | DB 4ax 107} ats " ex 107? From Eq. {7.29}, i az t= ote © Dy aaa 103 Optical radiation is absorbed in the semiconductor material according to the exponential power law Po) = Poe ™ (730) Pig) = Py Pls) = Py (1 F G3) where @ = absorption coefficient at a given wavelength Pp = incident optical power af the starting point Equation (7.30) gives the radiation power density at a distance x and Eq. (7.31) provides the radiation power absorbed in the distance interval x. The absorption coefficient for a given semiconductor material is * function of wavelength and rises sharply for lower wavelengths. Equation (7.26) gives an upper cutoff value for the wavelength. At wavelengths much lower than Ay: the material absorption may become significant and limit the uscfula ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,288 Optical Fibre Systems where é, = permittivity of the semiconductor A= cross-sectional area of the depletion layer w = width of the depletion region It may be noted that if the depletion layer is very thin, the junction capa- citance is excessive. EXAMPLE 7.6 Inap-in photodiode the depiction region has a width of 10 pm and a cross-sectional area of 10 em’, The diode is connected to a resistive load of 1 kQ. If the load resistance and the junction capacitance are the dominating resistive and capacitive values respectively, determine the bandwidth of the diode circuit. Assume that the dielectric constant of the semiconductor is 1,1, Solution tS ek where fq = permittivity of free space = 8.85 x 107? Fim & = diclectric constant of the semiconductor Therefore, 4, = 9.74 1078 pF em 9.74™ 108 x 10 c= SSE Wom + 10 x 10°® ¥ i 3 = ———________. = 16,35 MHz 2% 3.14% 10x 9.74 10 742 Avalanche Photodiode ‘Signal-to-noise ratio is. an important parameter in any receiver system. Nowe. is introduced into a receiver system from external sources as well as by the components of the receiver system. For cxample, the dark current of a photodiode contributes to the noise in the system. In an optical receiver system with a pin photodetector, the electronic nvise introduced by the load resister and the amplifier circuits following the photodetector forms a dominant component of the total noise, It would, therefore, be beneficial to multiply the signal level withia the photodetector itself, Carrier multiplica- tion is a fundamental process in avalanche photodiodes (APDs). A p-in photodiode converts one photon to one electron and has a conversion effi- ciency of less than unity. In contrast, one photon of energy results in multiple carriers in the case of APD. Obviously, there is a gain @ associated with an APD.a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,262 ‘Optical Fibre Systems ‘The carrier multiplication process is not itself free of noiss. While on an average, each photon-generated carrier leads to M carriers at the end of the multiplication process, some carriers may produce more than. Mf carcicrs and others less than M. This statistical asture of the peocess introduces further noise in the system. The result is that while the signal current is multiplied by the factor M, the rms. noise level increases by a factor ME where F is the noise factor. This noise fector is always greater than unily and an increasing function of Af given by Peat" (148) Where the index x lies between 0.2 and 1.0, depending upon the material and tbe type of carricr initiating the avalanche. To conclude, APDs have a distinct advantage over p-i-n photodiodes for the detection of very tow light levels due to ibeir inherent carrier multi- plication property. But they have several drawhacks toa: 1. Their structure is more complex than that of p-i-n photodiodes. 2. The fabrication is difficult amd hence they are more expensive. 3. Carrier multiplication is a random process and hence: introduces additional noise into the system. 4. High reverse-bias voltages required are wavelength dependent. 5. Multiplication factor is temperature dependent. Hence temperature compensation circuits are required for stabilised operation. 75 Power Budget Analysis System performances and cost constraints are important factors in any com- munication system. In Chapter 1, we y described the structure of an optical communication system, In the simplest form, a fibre optic communi- Cation system consists of a source with its associated modulator circuits, an optical fibre, and a detector with its associated receiver circuits. Performance of the system is evaluated by analysing the link power budget of the system and the cost is kept minimum by carefully selecting the system components from a vacicty of available choices. Various sources, detectors and optical fibres have already been discussed in the earlier sections of this chapter, In this section, we consider link power budget calculations. In a fibre optic system, eptical power loss occurs due to 1. souree-to-fibre coupling bosses, 2. connector loss, 4. splice loss, and 4, fibre attenuation. The link power budget should provide for these bosses and an additional power margin to allow for component aging and temperature Muctuations.a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,266 Optical Fibre Systems Lateral misalignment of the axes of the fibre pieces, pap or separation between the fibres, angular misalignment, and imperfect surface finishes. ep These impairments ate illustrated in Fig. 7.19. Loss due to lateral displacement is usually negligible if the fibre axes are aligned to within Lass Gap SO Pat e (a) Lateral displacement (b) Gap loss Loss. / Loss (c) Angular misalignment (@) Poor surface finish Fig. 7.19 Connector and splice losses, five percent of the diameter of the smaller of the two fibres, Otherwise, the loss may rum into several decibels. Splices are usually made by fusion of the two fibres. Hence, there are no gaps in splice joints, But, in the case of eonaector joints, the fibre ends are not made to touch cach other to prevent damage-to them due to rubbing while making and breaking a conection. The loss due to angular displacement is negligible if the misalignment is less than P. The ends of the two joining fibres should be highly polished and should fit together squarely. The imperfection tolerance in this case should be usually Jess than 3° off normal to ensure megligible losses. Fibre attenuation is caused predominantly by the following factors: 1, Absorption loss 2. Scattering loss 3. Radiation loss. Absorption loss is related to the material composition and the fabrication process of the fibre, The absorption loss may be caused by thea ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,24 Traffic Engineering the period during which the reduced tariff applies has been changed to begin later than 12.00 hours and one may expect the domestic call patterns also ta change accordingly. During holidays and festival days the traffic pattern is different from that shown in Fig. 8.1. Generally, there is a peak of calls Nomber of calls in the hour ot 4 7 Ww BB we 1 33 Hour of the day ————-—> Fig. 8.1 Typical telephone traffic pattern on a working day. around 10,00 hours just before people leave their homes on outings and another peak occurs again in the evening. Ina day, the 60-minute interval in which the traffic is the highest is called the busy hour (BH). In Fig. 8.1, the I-hour period between 11.00 and 12.00 hours is the busy hour. The busy hour may vary from exchange to ex- change depending on the location and the community interest of the subscribers. The busy hour may also show seasonal, weekly and in some places even daily variations. In addition to these variations, there are also unpredictable peaks caused by stock market or money market activity, weather, natural disaster, international events, sporting events ete. To take into account such fluctuations while designing switching actworks, three types of busy hours are defined by CCITT in its recommendations E.600: 1. Busy Hour: Continuous 1-bour period lying wholly in the time interval concerned, for which the traffic volume or the number of call attempts is greatest, 2. Peak Busy Hour: The busy hour cach day; it usually varies from day to day, a7 over a number of days, 3, Time Consistent Busy Hour: The 1-hour period starting at the same time each day for which the average traffic volume or the number of call attempts is greatest over the days under consideration.a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,278 Traffic Engineering generated by the subscribers sometimes exceeds the network capacity. There: are two ways in which this overload traffic may be handled: The overload traffic may be rejected without being serviced or held in a queuc until the network facilities become available. In the first case, the calls are lost and in the second case the calls arc delayed. Correspondingly, two types of systems, called loss systems and delay systems are encountered, Conventional automatic telephenc exchanges behave like loss systems, Under overload traffic conditions a user call is blocked and is not serviced unless the user makes a retry. On the other hand, operator-oriented manual exchanges can be considered as delay systems. A good operator registers the uscr request and establishes connection as soon as network facilities become available without the user having to make another request. In data networks, circuit-switched networks behave as loss syslems whereas sore-and-forward (S&F) message or packet networks behave as delay systems. In the limit, delay systems behave as loss systems, For example, in a S&F network if the queue buffers become full, then further requests have to he rejected. The basic performance parameters for a loss system are the grade of service and the blocking probability, and for a delay system, the service delays, Average delays, or probability of delay exceeding a certain limit, or variance of delays may be important under different circumstances, The traffic models used for studying loss systems are known as blocking or congestion models aad the ones used for studying delay systems are called queuing models. 8.2 Grade of Service and Blocking Probability In loss systems, the traffic carried by the network is generally lower tham the actual traffic offered to ibe metwork by the subscribers, The overload traffic is rejected and hence is not carried by the network, The amount of traffic rejected by the network is an index of the quality of the service offered by the network. This is termed grade of service (G03) and is defined as the ratio of lost traffic to offered traffic. Offered traffic is the product of the average number of calls generated by the users and the average holding time per call. This is given by Eq. (8.2). On the other hand, the actual traffic curried by the. network is called the carried traffic and is the average occupancy of the. servers in the network as given by Eg. (4.1). Accordingly, GOS is given by GOs= (83) where A= offered traffic Aq = carried traffic at — Ady = lost traffeea ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,282° Duffic Engineering and the ones obtained using the second method are called ensemble statistical parameters. The word ensemble denotes the collection of sources. Figures £.3(a) and 8.3(b) depict the time and ensemble averages of a stochastic process. These methods of obtaining siatistical parameters of a Time average Ampliiude ————> ' ‘—+ (a) Time average ,f Ensemble average i i > Souree Amaptitude (b) Ensemble average Fig. 83) Time and ensemble averages of stochastic averages.a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,Incoming Traffic and Service Time Characterisation 291 In a system modelled as a B-D process, the termination phenomenon can be characterised as a pure death process, We obtain a pure death process from a B-D process by setting the birth rate equal te zero. We thus obtaia the equations gnverning the dynamics of a pure death process from Eqs. (8.8) and (8.9) as aP, nut = ye Pee i — mPa) fork 21 (8.17) AP, 20) = wPitt) (8.18) ‘We can further simplify the behaviour of the pure death process assuming a constant death rate similar to the assumption we made with regard to the ‘birth rate in the case of Poisson process. We then obtain the governing equations as ee Sia —AP) fork = 1 (a9) Fe = BPC) for k =0 (8.20) The above equations can be solved by assuming suitable boundary conditions, We assume that af time ¢=0 there are NV members in population, We thes ebtain the equations as a = oPey (O—wP) ford sumber of busy subscribers: NV = total number of subscribers A = oumber of servers The offered traffic (arrival rate) when the system is in state & is given by C, < (Nk), forks0=R The mean offered traffic rate is given by R R R C= BW -WAR ANA D PA, DBP, ko kao kao =A, iN -3, ae) (S40) In Eq. (8.40), the quantity £ AP, represents the average number of busy servers, The carried traffic in a network is the average oumber of calls accepted during the meas service time period. This is the same as the average number of busy servers al any given time. Hence, we have C=A,(N — Ag) (Baly ‘The offered traffic is Am Cty eA (N - Ag) (8.42) When the system is in state &, the offered traffic rate is (NM = Ais, but all the arrivals are rejected. Therefore, the logt traffic is obtained as A-Ag @ (N-R)APphy (8.43) ‘The grade of service now works out to be NOR (8.44) GOS = Fa Pe Thus we see for Engest traffic, the blocking probability and the GOS are not the same, i.¢, the time congestion and the call congestion values differ. We now proceed to calculate the blocking probability. For this purpose, we analyse the steady state of the B-D process characterising this model. The arrival process bas been discussed above, The termination process is the same as in the case of LCC model with infinite sources, and the termination rates is given by Bq. (8.33). Substituting the values of birth and desth rates in Eqs. (8.10) and (8.11), we havea ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,306 Traffic Engineering or ' Ollfered traffic Number of servers: Tf this condition is not satisfied, the queue length would become infinite sooner or later, and the system would aever be able to clear the traffic offered to ILA queuing system is characterised by a set of six parameters. A concise é-paramcter notation, duc to D.G. Kendall, is uscd to represent different types of queuing systems. This notation uses letters to identify the parameters, The notation reads as A/Bjc/Kim/2. The parameter specifi- cations are as follows: <1 arrival process specification service time distribution number of servers queue capacity sumber of sources (input population) service discipline NRO oe nouead The value of the parameters X andi may be cither a finite number or an infinite number. Queue discipline is the rule used for choosing the next customer to be serviced from the queue. Commonly used queue disciplines include first-come-first-served (FCFS), random sclection, and priority based selection. The patameters K, m and Z may be omitied from the queue specifications, in which case they assume some default values. For & and mi, the default values are infinity, ic. infinite queue capacity and infinite sources respectively. The default quewe discipline is PCPS. The parameter ¢ is a nonzero positive finite number. The parameters A and 3B may assume any one of the values shown in Table 8.2. As.an example, the queue specification M/D/4 means a queue system with Poisson arrival, deterministic service time distribution, four servers, infinite queue capacily, infinite sources and FCFS queue discipline. It is interesting to mote that Kendall's notation may also be used to represent a logs system where the parameter K has a value zero, When analysing delay systems in this section, we assume that infinite sources cxist, infinite queuing capabilities exist, and the queue is serviced on FCPS basis. We assume a Poisson arrival process and concern ourselves with service limes that are exponentially distributed or are constant, These service time distributions represent the most random and the most deterministic service Limes. Thus, a system ihwt operates with some other distribution of service times has a performance somewhere betwcen thosc produced by these two distributions, In effect, we shall model our telecommunication systems as MIM/R and Af'D/R queuing systems. An important purpose of the analysis is to determine the probability distribution of waiting times and the associated mean values, Often, the probability that waiting time exceeds a specified limit is of interest. In particular, the probability that the waiting time is greater than zero represents the call congestion and hence is of immediate interes.a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,312 W. 11 12 13, 14, 15, 16. Traffic Engineering A traffic load of two crlangs is offered to a full availability group of five trunks. {Fuil availability implies that there is no restriction on the way in which calls are allocated to particular trunks), The average call holding time is three minutes. {s) What is the probability that no calls arrive during a five-minute Period? (b) Determine the value of call congestion. (6) Consider the case when the trunks are numbered 1,2,3,4,5 and a call is allocated to the lowest numbered free trunk always. How much traffic is carried by the firsttrunk? How much traffic is. carried by the last trunk? Assume LCC model. Between two end offices there is an average traffic of 24 erlangs. IF (CCITT standard 32-chaneel PCM link is used between the end offices, what is the probability of blocking? How much of traffic is cicared by other resources if LCC model is assumed? With Poisson arrival of two calls per minute, what is the probability that more than three calls will arrive in two minutes? What is the time during which at least four calls will arrive with a probability of more than 95 per cent? A PABX with five trunks supports 200 extensions, Each extension gene- rates three external calls per B hour working day. Average call duration is two minutes. [f LCR model is assumed, what is the blocking probability? What is the offered load? A PABX which ig designed to be nenblocking internaly serves 100 ‘extensions and has four trunk lines, Busy hour calling rate is two. Thirty per cent of the total traffic is external. Average call holding time is three minutes, What is the probability that am incoming call finds all the four trunk lines busy? A PABX provides queuing and automatic call back facility for outgoing calls. If there arc 20 outgoing call requests per hour and if the average call duration is three minutes, how many trunks are needed to ensure delays less than 3 minutes for 90 per cent of the requests? A traffic arrival stream is formed by merging the input from independent Poisson sources with sourced having an arrival rate af aj for alli ¢i =X. Show that the merged stream is also Poisson with an arrival K rate of = 8 aj int An exchange uses two small call processors, cach capable of serving requests that arrive at the rate of 15 requests per second. The two pro-a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,Subseriber Loap Systems M1 Carrier systems employ muliiplexing techniques and enable all the users to aceess the exchange over a single line, Analog FDM or digital TOM ayelema are used, Signalling and voice transmicsion on the subscriber lines requires that the exchange performs a set of functions, These functions are performed by an interface at the exchange end known as subscriber loop Interface. Some functions are required in analog networks, some in digital networks and ethers in both. The complete sct of functions arc known by an acronym BORSCHT which stands for: battery ford overvoltage protection ringing supervision coding Hn0%r, oR enh eeno Functions B and R are well known, Overvoltage prosection deals with equipment and personnel protection from lightning strikes and power line surges, Detection of aff-hook condition is a supervisory function, Functions C and H are exclusive to digital switch interfaces. As we know, digital switching demands that analog-to-digital (A-D) and digital-to-analog, (D-A} conversions and some form of cading/decoding be done, This aspect has been discussed in Chapter 5, Subseribers are cohnected to the exchange via 2-wire circuits. These circuits use a balanced connection as shown in Fig. 9.5. Balanced connections evercome many drawbacks of unbalanced Exchange | Driver one -§ Receiver) Subscriber Fig.9.8 Balanced circuit connection. circuits, The transmission lincs have cqual impedances to ground and hence do not act asan antenna topick up signals, Since the ground is nat part of the signal path, hum is eliminated. Differential inputs improve noise immunity as any interference affects both lines equally and does nog introduce differential currents, Digital exchanges require receive and transmit signals o separate two-wire crewits. This calls for twoowire Lo four-wire conversion. Such a conversion is normally required for trunk transmissions in analog exchanges. The circuit that performs the 2-wire to 4-wire conversion is called hybrid. A transformer based bybrid cireuit is shown i Fig. 94. The main finction of a hybrid is to entire that there is no coupling of signal from the input to thea ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,3300 Telephone Nenworks Py = incoming power an the 4-wire creuit P; = power reaching the 2-wire circuit Py-P2 = power reflected on to the return path or, in terms of signal voltages, ¥ RL=20 log Reh dB Os) 4 = 20 log + (9.6) fe where +, is the reflection cocfhicient defined as , = follected signal on incident signal If the two networks are perfectly balanced, then Z, = Zz. Therefore, from Eq. (9.3) we have 2zy RL (balanced) = 20log == = & The return loss is infinite, ic. the return signal experiences an infinite attenuation and hence there is no reflected signal. EXAMPLE 93 In 3 national transmission system the characteristic impedances of the 4-wire circuit and tbe 2-wire circuit are 1000 and 1200 O respectively. The average phase velocity of the signal in the circuit is 3% 10° mis Ifthe largest distance of a connection is 4®) km, determine the attermation to be inserted in the circuit, Soliton = From equation (9.3) we have: = 2 RL = Wlog Fog = 20.8dB oo x 10" 3x10 No echo suppressor is required in this case. From Fig, 9.9, for a round trip delay of 10 ms, we need about 7 dB foss to contain the echo. As per CCITT recommendations, the circuits would have been provided with a loss ef 10 dB to control singing, Heace, no additional attenuator nceds to be inserted in the circuit to control echos. Round trip delay for echo = = 10ms 9.4 Transmission Systems Modern long distance transmission systems can be placed under three broad, categories:a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,33 Telephone Networks isotropically radiated power (EIRP), where the gain of an isotropic antcana is taken as | or OdB. Ta distinguish the gain factor specified by Eq(9.4) from power gain, this factor is called directive guia, 1 is important to mote that power gain is more relevant in the case of transmitting antenna and directive ‘gain in the case of receiving antenna. An antenna can be mounted either vertically or horizontally depending upon practical convenience, Accordingly, a radiation pattern is said ta be either vertically polarised or horizontally polarised. Since in skywave communication, the signal reaches the receiver by one or more reflections from the ionosphere, the angle of launch of signal into the ionasphere assumes importance. The path length is determined by this launch angie which is known as the tuke-T angle (TOA) and is defined as the angle between the vertical amd the line of maximum radiation, For a given path length and horizontally polarised antenna, the TOA decreases aa the height of the antenna increases and is given by TOA= sin! (| ony where dis the wavelength of radiation and & is the height of the antenna from the ground. ‘Skywave communication is prone to fading which is of two types: general fading, in which the whole signal fades and selective fading in which only some Of the frequency components of the signal fade. General fading can usually be handled by automatic gain control (AGC) mechanism of ihe receiver, Selective fading occurs when the skywaves reach the destination via two or more paths. Different path lengths lead to phase distortion at the receiving cod. Use of single side band transmission or frequency modulation, or restriction of the propagation to only one mode are the methods by which selective fading effects can be minimised, Selective fading is also known as multipath fading. EX4MPLE 94° An antenna has a directive gain of 12 dBi, a radiation efficiency of 905 and a feeder loss of 3: dB. Determine its power gain. Spell out the significance of the power gain and directive gain values. Sotution Radiation toss = 10 log (0.9) = -0.8 dB Therefore, Power gain = 12-3-(0.5) = 85 dBi ‘The Power gain of this antenna gives an incrcasc in field strength of 85-48 over isotropic antenna and its directive gain yields an improvement of 12 dB in received (S/N) ratio.a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,350 Telephone Networks By introducing processing and switching on board the spacecraft, dynamic time domain switching of traffic between multiple beams can be achieved, thus restoring full connectivity. ‘The cost of a saretlive communication system is appropriated between the space and ground segments. The space segment comprises spacecrafi and the equipment on board the spacecraft, The ground segment consists of the carth stations, antennas, ground control systems, user terminals etc. If the system is to serve a small population of ground terminals as in the: case of intercontinental kinks, less investment can be made in the space segment and more in building large antennas.and powerful ground stations. On the other hand, if the population of terminals to be served is large as in the case of direct broadcast systems, more investment is to be made in the space segment so that the cost of the tertninals can be kept low. The present trend ig to design more and more. of direct-to-user (DTU) systems. This requires that we have satellite terminals that arc affordable by every home. Very small aperture terminals (WSATs) are a step in this direction. Here, the nomenclature ‘aperture’ is used synonymeusly with the dish diameter. VSATs have dishes with apertures in the range of 1-2 mand are designed to be DTU terminals. Small DTU terminals can, however, communicate only with large hubs aod not directly amongst them. Direct VSAT40-VS5AT connectivity is oot feasible. Figure 9.24 shows the communication scheme using a large hub and Fig. 9.24 Two-hop satellite network, DTU terminals. There is a master carth station (MES) in the configuration which forms a vital communication link. The antenna of the MES aets as the large hub (typical size 10-30 m) with a high gain. A DTU terminal can communicate only with the MES antenna. Hence, information from one user to another is sent via the MES. The information hops twice before it reachesa ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,Transmission Systems 355 single coaxial lines are called) are placed in a sheath, The characteristic impedance Zp of coazial lines lies between 50 and 100 ©. It is possible to estimate the line parameters of a coaxial line from its physical dimensions and the dielectric constant of the insulating material betweea the conductors. The line parameters of a transmission line have been discussed in Section 5.7, and we only present the values for a coaxial line here. Referring to Fig. 9.25, we have the following values for capacitance and inductance: C= 24! log(dyd,) pFim L sO Ablog(dyd) wim where ¢ is the dielectric constant of the insulating material. Therefore, the characteristic impedance Z, is given by i Zq= Wot = VE log (aia) 0 (9230) ‘The attenuation constant 4 for a coaxial cable at an operating band- width of P MHz is given by A,r a+b + VF tcF dBi (9.24) where @, 6 and ¢ are constants dependent upan the physical parameters of the cable. For long haul transmission, two standard sizes are used. The dimensions of the standard cables and (he associated values of a, b and ¢ are presented in Table 9.7. The valpes of phase velocities Vp are also indicated for the two cables in Table 9.7 for high frequency (see Section 5.7) assuming, PVC as the insulating material, Table 9.7 Standard Coaxial Cables dimm) d,(um) a b c Fils Size 1 44 0.066 5.15 GOUT LE xT Size 2 95 0.013 2.305 8003) LB x it Coaxial cables are usually buried at » depth of 90-120 cm, depending on frost penetration in a given Incality. Repeaters for coaxial cables are placed at uniform intervals along the routs, To facilitate this, cable lengths arc factory cut so that the splice occurs right at repeater locations. The repeaters are of twa types: scoondary ar dependent repeaters and primary or main repeaters. Main repeaters bave independent power sources and are installed in surface housing. Secondary repeaters derive their power from the cable itself and are usually buried. Power to the dependent repeaters is supplied by the main repeaters. A main repeater supplica power to about 15 secondary repeaters in each direction, The repeater spacing is dependent upon the size of the cable and the frequency of operation. For 2.6/9.5 mm cable at 12 GHz, the dependent repeater spacing is 4.5 km.a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,Numbering Plan 361 Fig, 9.28 Indian telccommunication regions. local, national and international calls. The term ‘local call” here implies a call within a numbering area and the term ‘national call’ a trunk call between two different numbering areas within the same country. Basically, there arc four possible approaches to dialling procedures: 1. Use a single uniform procedure for all calls, viz. local, national and 2. Use two different procedures, one for international calls and the other for local and national calls, 3. Use three different procedures, one for international calls, second for national trunk calls, and the third for local calls.a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,Signalling Techniques 371 limits its capability. The outband signalling suffers from the very limited bandwidth, Both are capable of having only a small signal repertoire. The trend in modera networks is 10 provide enhanced signalling facilities for the subscriber, the switching system and the telephone administration. Such a peed is met by commen channel signalling which may be implemented in tea ways: channel associated mode and channel nonassociated mode. In the former, the common signalling channel closely tracks the trunk groups along the entire length of a connection. In the latter, there is no close of simple assigament af control channels to trunk groups. These modes are illustrated in Fig. 9.30, In the associated mode of operation shown in Fig. 9.30(a), the signalling paths for the speech paths 4-8, A-C:8 and BD area-8, A-C-B and B-D respectively, The term ‘associaicd signalling’ in the ihe OCS should not be confused with inchannel signalling, The signalling in CCS associated mode is still done on a separate signalling channel; only thal the signalling path passes through the same set of switches as does the speceh path, Network topologies of the signalling network and the speech network are the same. The advantages of the scheme are the economic implementation and simple assignment of trunk groups to signalling channels, ACCS network consists of two lypes of nodes: signalling transfer points (TPs) and sigt ing points (SPs). The signalling transfer points (STPs) usually have a connection with the switching centres although this is not essential. Since signalling originates from the contro) subsystems of the switching centres, these subsystems are referred to as SPs from the CCS signalling viewpoint. Signalling point is capable of handling control messages directly addressed to it but is incapable of routing messages. Signalling transfer peint is capable of routing messages and could also perform the functions of a SP. tn the nonassociated mode of operation, the signalling information may follow a route that is different from the one taken by the speech path as shown in Fig. 9.40(b), The signalling paths for the speech paths 4-B and B-C are A-C-D-8 and 8-D-€ respectively. The network topologies for the signalling and the speech networks are different, There is no switching centre at the point 2 and only a STP is present, This approach offers Mexibility as far as the CCS network is concerned, The signal messages may be transferred between the two end switching systems via any available path in the CCS network according to its own routing principles. This, however, demands a more comprehensive scheme for message addressing than is needed for channel associated signaling. ACCS network may use associated signalling in some constituent parts and nonassociated signalling in other paris. The term ‘quasiassociated signalling’ is used to indicate such an operation, For cxample, if a signalling path exists between B and C in Fig. 930b), the segment B-C may use associated signalling, whereas the signalling for the connection A-B is nonassociated, Quasiassociated signalling may also imply simplificd signala ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,376 Telephone Netwarks In SSS, the line signalling comprises cither a compound of the two VF frequencies or a continuous single frequency. Interregister signalling uses out-of MPF code, Initially, the system was jointly developed by UK Post ‘Office and the Bell Laboratories for dialling over time assigned speech interpolation (TASI) equipped transAtlantic cables. This was the first zpplication of intercontinental dialling and of TASI equipment. The system was subsequently specified by the CCITT as a standard in 1964.and has since. found increasing applications in other parts of the world. Most of the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Gocan circuits use SS5 at preacnt. In view of the high cost of transocean cables and the consequent need to utilise the cables. as efficiently as possible, TASI was considered essential for these cables. The design features of S95 were dictated by TAS] requirements. The concept of TASI has been briefly explained in Section 85.4. We elaborate this now a lithe more. The normal speech activity of a subscriber am call is about 34 per cent. As a result, fall duplex 4-wire speech transmission circuits arc less than ball utilised. The TASI technique attempts to improve trunk utilisation by assigaing a circuit (o a speech channel only when there is speech activity. In this way, a given number of circuits can support more than double the number of speech channels. In TASI, cach channel is cquipped with a speech detector which, om detecting speech, arranges for a circuit to be. assigned to that channel. Since this process of speech detection and establishment of trunk-chanoel association takes definite time, the speech burst is clipped for that duration. Typical clip duration is about 14 ms when a channel is available. 11 increases under busy traffic conditions when a free channel may not be available immediately. In order to reduce the extent of interpolation, a cirewit is not disassociated from the channel for short gape of speech. For this purpose, the speech detectors are provided with a short hangover time and a circuit is disconnected only when the speech gap is longer than the detector hangaver time. The digital counterpart of TAS] is known as digital speech interpolation (DSI). As with speech bursts, inchanne! signalling information also experiences clipping in a TASI environment. This calls for special consideration in designing signalling systems for TASI environment. Unicss signals arc of sufficient duration to permit trunk«channel association and reliable recognition at the receiving end, there is the likelihond of the signal being. lost partially or fully, With pulse signalling, it has been determined that a 300-ms duration is required to accent for the extreme trunk-channel association condition, Allowing for reliable recognition, a pulse of 830+ 200 ms duration is considered suitable. Bul, pulse signals of such lengths would slow down the signalling process considerably. The pulse gaps would result in the channel being disassociated, thus leading to unnecessary TASI activity. Moreover, fixed length pulses cannot take advantage of lightly foaded conditions when the channel assignment time is low. For thesea ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,Jnchannel Signalling BL ———— Signalling i [" Speech sample P2S4 5678 Time slot 1 12345678 Time slot 24 Frame 1 Frame 2 Bit 1 unused Frame 3 Bit 1 used for signalling as in frame 1 Frame 4 Bit 1 used for frame synchronisation Fig. 9.33 Bell D2 24-channcl multiframc PCM signalling structure. alignment bits, ic, 19rd bit in each frame, in the odd numbered frames are used for frame synchronisation and the ones inthe even numbered frames for amultiframe synchronisation. The signalling ratc is 650 signals per second with ‘two bits per signal. ‘The bit stealing in frames.6 and 12 in the Bell D2 system denies the full gain of 8-bit speech encoding. The outslot 30-channel PCM signalling system realises the full potential of §-bit cncoding as all the speech samples arc encoded using eight bits. Of the 32 time slots per frame in this system, time slot 0 is used for frame synchronisation and the time slot 16 for signalling. Obviously, one time slot with eight bits cannot support signalling f 30 speech channels in every frame, Hence, a multiframe structure with 16 frames is adopted for signalling purposes. With this structure, time slot 16 in each frame except frame 0, carries signalling information for two speech channels, Thus, LS time slots in frames 1-15 carry signalling information for MO channels in every multiframe, With 15 time slots for 3) channels, four bits are available for signalling information per channel. The signalling rate ‘works out to be Si¢ signals per second with cach signal represented by four bits. The first four bits of time slot 16 in frame G are used for multiframe alignment with the bit pattern O000, with the remaining four bits unused. To enable casy recognition, this all-zero pattern is prohibited as a combination of signalling bits in time slot 16 of other frames. This limits the sumber of Signalling patterns to 15 per channel. Sometimes, this CEPT signalling sebeme és referred to as bunched signalling,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,390 Telephone Networks microprocessor at the base station informs the master processor of this, which checks with the adjoining cell stations to find out which one of them is receiving a good (5/4) ratio at the present carrier frequency of the mobile station. The call is then transferred to this station in the adjoining cell, The transmit and receive Irequencics of the user terminal are automatically changed to the values assigned by the new base station. The telephone exchanges directly associated with the call switch circuits to the mew base station wader instructions from the master station. Although the process of ‘banding over’ a mobile terminal from one cell to another is an involved one, the entire process of switching is completed within a few milliseconds such that a subscriber hardly notices any interruption in the call. There can, however, be difficulties if data is sent over cellular links as even a brief break in the link can affect data transfer. Cellular communication ice is more expensive than regular telephone service. The cellular mobile units are more complex in design than the regular telephone instruments as they need to have automatically tunable transmitters and receivers covering the entire frequency bandwidth, The desiga of the base stations and the master station is also complex. Acar cellular unit has three picecs of equipment: the transmission unit, the control unit and the antenna. The transmission unit is wiually placed in the trunk of the car, the control unit is mounted on the dash board and the antenna is either rool-mounted or wind-shield mounted. The control unit resembles an ordinary telephone in design. Researchers are still looking for technological advancements to reduce the risk attempting to dial while driving a vehicle. Voice-activated dialling appears to be promising. The development currently underway in the field of cordicss phones is likely to further promote ihe cellular communications. The second generation cordless phones, called CT2, use digital technologies and arc capable of working with very many CT2 stations which arc to be established in railway stations and other public places. tt is expected that by mid 199s many CT2 stations will be in operation, variously called phone zone, phone point, telepoint etc. In working, CT2 phones send out their own identi- fication code to the nearest phone point before cach call to enable the exchange to bill the owner for the call, Ia order to reduce the complexity associated with the cellular systems, two restrictions are placed on CT2 systems. Firstly, no incoming calls are permitied to CT2 phones, so that the network docs not have to keep track where « particular subveriber is at any point of time. Secondly, ance a call is established, a subscriber is not permitted to move from one phone zoe to another so that there is no need for the intercell banding over arrangements which complicale the cellular communications. Although research and development in cellular systems have been driven by the urgent need to improve mobile communications, the use of digital radio links on avery large scale with ordinary static telephone systems, replacing local distribution cable networks, may well ture out to be the most significant qutcome of this research in the near future.a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,Bava Trnsmission in PSTN 5 Totercity, intercountry and intercontinental networks are known as WANS. Based on the communication infrastructure used, they may be clacsi- fied as terrestrial data networks (TDNs) or satellite based data networks (SBDNs). In TDNs, data communication is organised using cables, fibre optic lines or radio links. A geostationary or a geosynckronous satellite is used for communication in SHDNs, A metropolitan area network interconnects computers within a metro- politan city. Community antenna (elevision (CATW) cables, owisted pair wires or shielded lines, optical fibres, radio links or line-of-sight (LOS) optical communication links provide the communication medium for MAN. ‘The broadband capability of CATV cables permits carrying voice, data and video simultaneously, Thus MANs are usually multimedia networks. Local area networks are confined to a single building or a group of buildings generally belonging to the same organisation, Optical fibres, twist- ed pair and coaxial cables are used as. the communication media for LANs. Fibre optic netwerks (FONs) are suitable for bath LANs and MANs. Synch- ronous optical networks (SONET) are designed to operate at high speeds, LANs, MANs and WANs are generally interconnected in a hicrarchical manner to form a global nctwork as shown in Fig, 10,1. LAN are often Witke area network { Loval area network rae Fig. 10.1 Data network hierarchy, connected dircetly to WANs, particularly in places where MANs are not installed or have aot developed well. Apart from the different geographical coverages, the range of data rates supported on these networks also differs widely. Figure 10.2 summarises the typical data rates and geographical coverages lor these networks. 10.1 Data Transmission in PSTNs Public switched telephone networks and electronic PAXs are designed io carry analog voice signals, They can, however, be used for data transmission by employing suitable interfaces. As seem from Fig. 10.2, LANs can be designed around PABXs, and MANs around PSTNs. In these cases, the data Tates are usually limited 19 a maximum of 64 kbps. Terrestrial data nctworksa ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,Data Transmission in PSTNs = 399 JUUUL (b)R = Ry 1.li1i10a00%0 ()R = Rpld Fig. 104 Baud rates and bit rates, using additional signal levels, say 16, the effective bit rates may go up to 9.6 kbps. The techniques of using additional signal levels to increase the bit rate are the ones used in the design of modems, 10.1.2 Modems Amplitude, frequency and phase modulation are all used in the design of modems. In amplitude modulation, zeres and ones are represented by two different voltage levels. A signal waveform s(f), called baseband signal, is generaied from the digital data. This is then multiplied by a sinusoidal carrier, say cos (Zafpr), Lo generate a modulated signal mit) =s(¢) cos (2afyt) (10.3) At the receiver end, the modulated signal is again multiplied by cos (24for), yielding a received signala ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,Link-to-ting Layers 421 In addition, AFI also identifies the format and type of address present in the initial domain identifier (ID!) Geld and the domain specific part (DSP). Binary and packed decimal formats are generally supported. [D1 and DSP typea may include PSTN numbering, packet switched network numbering, ISDN numbering, telex numbering and other similar numbering schemes. The full SAP address is of variable length, up vo 40 decimal digits or 20 bytes. An important objective of SAP addressing format is to enable eoavenicat internetworking. OST reference model proposes a general layered conceps, with provision for adding or deleting layers as demanded by factors like service camplenity, technology options etc, Taking into account the functions required of the architecture for organising computer communication in the present day contest, Sub Committee 16 of the Technieal Com ¢ ST {TCOTSCIB) of iSO, bas recommended a 7-layer architectuze, which is shown in Fig, 10.17. In the figure, two end systems that communicate with cach other via two infermediate systems are shown. Only the first three layer functions come into action in an intermediate node, Entitics in these layers always communicate with pecr entitics in the adjacent system. Inother words, in the first three layers, the communication proceeds on a link-by-link basis, In contrast, entities in layers 4-7 communicate with peer cotilics in the end systems. There is mo communication with entities in the intermediate systems. Tn this sense, layers 4-7 are often called end-to-end layers. The 7-layer architecture has been arrived at alter a carclul application of a broad set of layering principles. The important principles are: L. Create layers to bandle functions which are manifestly different in the process performed or technology involved. 2. Collect similar functions into the same layer and create u boundary at a point where the aumber of interactions across the boundary are minimised, Create a layer of easily localised functions so that the layer could be totally redesigned and iis protocels changed in a major way to lake advantage of new advances in architectures, hardware and software. technology without changing the services offered or the interfaces with the adjacent layers, ory Sections 14 and 11.5 describe the functions performed, services alfered, and the protocols used by each of the seven layers. 10.4 Link-io-link Layers The first three layers, viz. physical, data fink and network layers, form the link-to-link layers. of OS] reference model, Entities in an OSI layer perform certain functions to fulfill the stated purpose of the layer, They obtain services from the immediate lower layer and provide services to thea ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,Linketotink Layers 433 any routing or congestion control algorithms and they are left as imple- mentation dependent features. We briefly discuss some of the generic fouling and congestion control strategies here. Routing strategics may be classified as shown in Fig. 10.24. Routing algorithms may be deterministic or, Routing strategies Deterministic Stochastic So ForS AorD F F (CC = centralised control DC = distributed control F = fixed S= static A= adaptive D = dynamic Fig, 1024 Classification of routing algorithms. stochastic in nature. Rowling decisions may be taken centrally by collecting global information from the network or in a distributed fashion based on the local conditions. Finally, cach strategy may use a fixed criterion or adapi itself to varying network traffic conditions. A routing algorithm that uses a Precomputed route from a given node to another is a deterministic, distributed, static algorithm, If the route changes, say with lime ol the day, one may call the algorithm dynamic but still deterministic. If the routing information is computed by a central node based on the knowledge of network topology etc, and distributed to other nodes, then it is centrally controlled. If the route is chosen based on some probability calculation, say arandom number, the algorithm is stochastic in naturc. A number of measures may be used in assessing the performance of a routing algorithm: 1, Minimum delay . Minimum number of intermediate nodes or hops. Processing complexity . Signalling capacity required on the network |. The rate of adaption in the case of adaptive algorithms Fairness to all types of traffic Areasonable response time over a range of traffic intcnsitics Robusiness: the ability to reach the destination even when parts of the network fail |. Stabilisy: the ability to reach the dicstinution quickly without wander- ing. eae o