1

Role of computers in product

development
1. Introduction

Product design serves an important function in the production system. It helps

determine the eventual commercial success of a product; it determines how the production
system should be created, and what equipment should be bought; and it determines how
easily, and how cheaply, the product can be manufactured. The manufacturing support
system contains procedures and systems used to manage production and solve the technical
and logistical problems associated with designing the products, planning the processes,
ordering the materials, controlling work-in-process as it moves through the plant, and
delivering products to customers. Product design and its associated use of computer-aided
design/computer-aided manufacturing (CAD/CAM) systems, represents one of the most
important aspects of the manufacturing support system. In CAD/CAM , both design and
manufacturing are tightly integrated into a continuum of activities. Continuing the
integration, there is Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM), which includes CAD/CAM,
but also extends to embrace the business functions of a manufacturing firm.

2. Product Design and CAD

Product design is of critical importance to the production system. It contributes more

than any other attribute to the overall design and operation of the production system, and its
success determines whether the production system will be fit for use in making products over
the long term.

2.1 The Design Process:

The general process of design may be seen as an iterative process with six key phases:

1. Recognition of need - this involves the realisation that a problem or need exists that
may be solved by design. This may mean identifying some deficiency in a current
machine design by an engineer, or perceiving some new product opportunity by a
salesperson.
2. Problem definition - this involves a thorough specification of the item to be
designed. Specifications include physical characteristics, function, cost, quality, and
operating performance.
3. Synthesis - closely related with the following step, analysis, synthesis refers to the
bundling of information that occurs after problem definition, and concurrently during
analysis, and after re-analysis.
 2

4. Analysis and optimization - closely related to the previous step, analysis is

concerned with the investigation of design specification information, and the
optimization of this information, as well as a synthesis of new information, as
required.
5. Evaluation - involves measuring the design against the specifications established in
the problem definition phase. This evaluation may require the building and testing of
prototype models to assess operative performance metrics for the proposed design.
This may lead to the re-design of certain or all elements.
6. Presentation - this is the final phase, where the design is documented by means of
drawings, material specifications, assembly lists, and so on. Documentation means
that the design database is created.

CAD

Figure 1. Design Process and Computer Aided Design

2.2 Applications of Computers in Design

CAD is any design activity involves the effective use of computers to create, modify,
analyze, or document an engineering design. It is most commonly associated with the use of
an interactive computer graphics system, referred to as a CAD system. CAD provides the
following benefits:

 Increased design productivity—CAD reduces the time required to conceptualize and

physically draw product designs;
 Increased available geometric forms in the design—CAD allows the design to choose
from a range of geometrical shapes that would normally be outside the manual
drawing process.
 3

 Improved quality of the design—the use of a CAD system with appropriate hardware
and software capabilities permits the designer to do a more complete engineering
analysis and to consider a larger number and variety of design alternatives. The
quality of the resulting design is thereby improved.
 Improved design documentation—the output of a CAD system results in better
documentation of the design than what is usually seen as practical in manual drafting.
 Creation of a manufacturing database—by creating product design documentation,
much of the required database to manufacture the product is also created.
 Design standardization—design rules can be included in CAD software to encourage
the designer to utilize company-specified models for certain design features.

The use of a CAD system creates huge amounts of additional data that is often stored and
managed in a product data management (PDM) system. A PDM system consists of computer
software that provides links between users and a central database, where engineering design
data and related documentation is stored. The PDM system manages the database by tracking
the identities of users, facilitating and documenting engineering changes, recording a history
of the engineering changes on each part and product, and providing documentation
management functions. The CAD system can facilitate four of the design phases depicted in
Figure 1.

Geometric modelling is a special use of CAD data to create a mathematical description of

the geometry of an object. The geometric model, which contains the mathematical
description, is contained in the computer memory; and the CAD system—upon accessing the
computer memory—can display the resultant model as an image on its graphics terminal,
allowing the operator to manipulate certain aspects of the geometric model displayed. The
operator can create new geometric models from basic building blocks available in the system,
can zoom in on certain features of the image on-screen, can move two or more geometric
models into close relation to each other, and so on. These capabilities allow the operator to
interrogate existing product models, and create new variations on existing products to cater
for a wide variety of needs.

There are two types of geometric models used in CAD; these are:

1. Two-dimensional modelling—dating from the late 1960s and early 1970s, when the
first CAD systems began to appear, this is primarily used for design problems, such as
flat objects and layouts of buildings. To enable some degree of three-dimensionality,
these models were often drawn from various viewpoints, so as to capture the
multitude of dimensions on an individual product.
2. Three-dimensional modelling—emerging after two-dimensional modelling, these
systems are capable of modelling an object in three dimensions according to user
instructions, which has been found useful for conceptualising the object, as the three-
dimensional model can be displayed in various views and from different angles.
 4

Geometric models in CAD can also be classified as wire-frame models, or solid

models (Figure 2). Wire-frame models use inter-connecting lines to depict the object
drawn; these inter-connecting lines can sometimes be confusing when used on complex
part geometries, as multiple overlapping lines may occur. Solid models are objects that
have been modelled in solid three dimensions, providing the user with a vision of the
object that is similar to its appearance in reality.

(a) (b)

Figure 2 Wire-frame model (a), and Solid model (b)

2.3 Engineering Analysis:

Once a design has been developed, it must then be subjected to engineering analysis.
This engineering analysis may include various tests, depending on the product, but may
include: stress-strain calculations, heat transfer analysis, or dynamic simulation. These
analyses tend to be quite complex, which has led to the development of computer-aided
engineering (CAE) software packages, so that complicated engineering analysis may be
performed by computer.

CAE packages in common use with CAD systems include:

 Mass properties analysis—involving the computation of features on the solid model,

such as volume, surface area, weight, and centre of gravity;
 Interference checking—this checks to see if multiple components in a product design
would actually interfere with each other in reality;
 Tolerance analysis—this determines how product tolerances would affect product
function and performance, how easy it would be to assemble the product, and how
variations in component dimensions may affect the overall size of the assembly;
 Finite element analysis—this aids in stress-strain, heat transfer, fluid flow, and other
engineering calculations;
 Kinematic and dynamic analysis—this studies the operation of mechanical linkages
and analyzes their motions; and
 Discrete-event simulation—this models complex operational systems where events
occur at discrete moments in time and affect the status and performance of the system

2.4 Design Evaluation and Review

Following comprehensive engineering analysis, the proposed design must be

evaluated and reviewed for consistency. Some CAD features that are helpful in evaluating
and reviewing a proposed design include:
 5

 Automatic dimensioning—upon model completion, the CAD software can

automatically generate the dimensions of the drawn model;
 Error checking—this checks the accuracy and consistency of dimensions and
tolerances, to assess whether the proper design documentation format has been
followed;
 Animation of discrete-event simulation solutions—this displays the result as a
discrete-event simulation, where input parameters, probability distributions, and other
factors can be changed to assess their effect on the performance of the system being
modelled; and
 Plant layout design scores—this provides numerical scores for plant layout designs,
based upon such factors as material flow, and closeness ratings.

In many cases, the geometric model is now used to replace the physical prototype that
would traditionally be built at this stage. Physical prototypes are usually time-consuming to
create, and analyse; and so replacements in the form of rapid prototyping, and virtual
prototyping—both based upon the geometric model, may be used instead.

Rapid prototyping is a term applied to a family of fabrication technologies that allow

engineering prototypes of solid parts to be made in a minimum lead time, based upon the
CAD geometric model. This is done by dividing the solid object into layers, and then
defining the area of each layer. The rapid prototyping process then fabricates the object by
starting at the base layer, and building towards the top layer. The fidelity of the
approximation that is produced by this method is dependent on the layer thickness used at the
start (with greater accuracy achieved with thinner layers used).

Virtual prototyping is based upon virtual reality technology, and uses the CAD geometric
model to construct a digital mock-up of the product. This mock-up allows the designer to
obtain the sensation of the real physical product, without actually building the physical
prototype.

2.5 Automated Drafting:

CAD may also be used as a presentation application, in that the CAD system can
produce highly accurate engineering drawings quickly and conveniently, and also provide
associated documentation as necessary. It is estimated that a CAD system increases
productivity in the drafting function by about fivefold over manual preparation of drawings.

2.6 CAD System Hardware:

Hardware is used in CAD systems is described in Table 1. The relationship between the
components discussed is depicted in Figure 3.
 6

Hardware Description

Design workstations This has the following functions:

(1) communication with the computer’s central processing
unit;
(2) continuously generate a graphic image;
(3) provide digital descriptions of the image;
(4) translate user commands into operating functions; and
(5) facilitate interaction between the user and the system.

CAD workstation design has an important influence on the

convenience, productivity, and quality of user’s output. The
workstation consists of a display terminal and a set of user
input devices, with which the user interacts with geometric
model via: entering alphanumeric data; entering system
commands to perform various graphics operations; and by
controlling cursor position on the display screen
Digital computer This uses a high-speed central processing unit to process CAD
operations. There are several CAD system configurations, such as
host and terminal; engineering workstation; and a CAD system
based upon a personal computer. These are discussed in the
paragraphs below.
Output devices These include plotters and printers, which generate the output from
the CAD system. Plotters include: pen plotters, which are x-y
plotters of various type, used to produce high accuracy line
drawings; and electrostatic plotters, which are based upon the same
principal as photocopying, and produce lower quality drawings.
Printers used include inkjet printers, where drawings are produced
by high-speed jets of ink impacting the paper
Secondary Storage This includes various storage devices attached to the CAD system to
store programmes and data files. The storage mediums used can
include: magnetic discs, magnetic tape, floppy discs, external hard
drives etc

Figure 3: Configuration of a typical CAD system

 7

2.7 CAM, CAD/CAM, and CIM

2.7.1 Computer-Aided Manufacturing

Computer-Aided Manufacturing (CAM) is the effective use of computer technology

in manufacturing planning and control. It is closely associated with certain functions in
manufacturing engineering, such as process planning and numerical control (NC) part
programming. It is applied in two broad categories: manufacturing planning, and
manufacturing control.

Manufacturing planning concerns the use of CAM to support the production unction,
without a direct connection between the computer and the process. Effective planning is
achieved “off-line”; that is, the computer is used to provide information for planning and
managing production activities, without directly accessing the process in real-time.

Important applications of CAM in manufacturing planning are

Application Description
Computer-aided process This is concerned with creation and dissemination of route
planning (CAPP) sheets that list the sequence of operations and work centres
required to produce the product and its components
Computer-aided NC part This application supports the creation of computer-assisted part
programming programmes for numerical control, which represents a more
efficient solution for their creation over traditional manual
methods
Computerized This is concerned with creation and dissemination of part
machinability data programmes that can determine optimal cutting conditions for
systems machine tools in the factory
Computerized work These are computer packages that can be deployed to determine
standards time standards for direct labour jobs in the factory. They
supersede tedious manual time-and-motion studies used to
perform the same task
Cost estimating This is a programme that can estimate the cost of a new product,
by computerizing several of the key steps required to prepare the
estimate (such as the application of labour and overhead rates to
the sequence of planned operations).
Production and Functions here include maintenance of inventory records,
inventory planning automatic re-ordering of stock items when inventory is depleted,
production scheduling, maintaining current priorities for the
different production orders, material requirements planning, and
capacity planning.
Computer-aided line This programme helps to find the best allocation of work elements
balancing among stations on an assembly line. Can be used in situations
where the line balancing problem is particularly complex and
difficult, owing to the number of workstations, and complicating
factors

Manufacturing control uses CAM applications to manage and control the physical operations
of the factory. Here computer systems are developed that can be used to implement the
manufacturing control function. Important applications of CAM in manufacturing control are
 8

Application Description
This is concerned with observing and regulating the
production equipment and manufacturing processes in the
plant. They include the control of transfer lines, assembly
Process monitoring and
control lines, numerical control, robotics, material handling, and
flexible manufacturing systems
This includes a variety of approaches to maintain the
highest possible quality levels in the manufactured
Quality control product. They include the use of quality functional
deployment techniques.
This refers to the use of production management
techniques to collect data from factory operations, and
Shop floor control the deployment of this data to aid the control of
production and inventory in the factory
This is concerned with maintaining the most appropriate
levels of inventory in the face of two opposing
objectives: minimizing the investment and storage costs
Inventory control of holding inventory; and maximizing service to
customers.
Just-in-time (JIT) production systems deliver the right
number of components to downstream workstations, at
Just-in-time production
systems the right time. JIT refers to both production operations
and supplier delivery operations

2.7.2 CAD/CAM

The integration of CAD functions with CAM applications gives us the acronym
CAD/CAM. CAD/CAM is concerned with engineering functions in both design and
manufacturing; it denotes an integration of design and manufacturing activities by means of
computer systems. Since the way a product is manufactured depends upon the specific design
that is supplied, the combining of CAD with CAM in CAD/CAM, creates a direct link
between product design and product manufacture that can be exploited in the production
system. Conventional practices, practiced for many years in industry, saw design and
manufacturing as essentially separate functions: engineering drawings were created by the
design department, and these were later used by manufacturing engineers to develop the
process plan. This two-step procedure was time-consuming and duplicated the efforts of
design and manufacturing personnel. The application of CAD/CAM removed this problem.
In an ideal CAD/CAM system, it is possible to take the design specification of the product as
it resides in the CAD database, and convert it automatically into a process plan for making
the product. As such, therefore, CAD/CAM operates as a system that facilitates concurrent
engineering practices.

2.7.3 Computer-Integrated Manufacturing

Computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM) includes all of the engineering functions

of CAD/CAM, but it also includes the firm’s business functions that are related to
 9

manufacturing. The component geometry developed through the use of CAD systems may be
reused in the generation of manufacturing instructions for numerically controlled production
processes, and in the planning of manufacturing operations through computer aided process
planning (CAPP).

These activities in turn feed information, together with bill of materials information,
from CAD, into an activity called computer aided production management (CAPM). All of
these manufacturing activities are integrated through the use of computer aids and a shared
database. They are collectively known in industry as CIM, and they can be summarised in a
graphical format as shown in Figure 16.8. The computer aids the interface between design
and manufacture through the interaction between CAD and CAM, by developing computer
aided process plans. There are problems with this approach: computer plans are trying to
generate and automate process plans for manufacturing, while the ideal scenario would be to
automate the techniques of design for manufacture and design for assembly in the CAPP
system. Examples are techniques for product/process analysis that gives the manufacturer an
influence or input into the design. CAPP systems constitute both process planning and
product/process analysis with influences from CAD and CAM.

2.7.4 Scope of CAD/CAM and CIM:

The ideal CIM system applies computer and communications technology to all the
operational functions and information processing functions in manufacturing, from order
receipt through design and production, to product shipment. CAD/CAM, on the other hand, is
not so all-embracing, and does not cover what may loosely be termed the ‘business functions’
of the factory. Thus, at higher levels, CIM subsumes CAD/CAM, and adds functions of its
own.
 10

Computerised elements of a CIM system

References:
1. http://www.nuigalway.ie/staffsites/david_osullivan/documents/unit_16_product_desig
n_and_cadcam.pdf
2. https://www.inc.com/encyclopedia/computer-aided-design-cad-and-computer-aided-
cam.html