COMPLEX ANALYSIS

Salim Mortuja

MOB-9874422674
SIRAJAM ACADEMY
5,Surya Sen Street, College Street
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1
COMPLEX ANALYSIS
1.1 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆𝒙 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓: −
We define ℂ the field of complex number to be the set of all ordered pair (𝑎, 𝑏 ). 𝑎, 𝑏 are
real number where addition and multiplication are defined as follows, for two complex
number 𝑧1 = (𝑎1 , 𝑏1 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧2 = (𝑎2 , 𝑏2 )
𝑧1 + 𝑧2 = (𝑎1 + 𝑎2 , 𝑏1 + 𝑏2 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑧1 𝑧2 = (𝑎1 𝑎2 − 𝑏1 𝑏2 , 𝑎1 𝑏2 + 𝑎2 𝑏1 ).
Clearly ℂ is a field where (0,0) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (1,0) are identity element with respect to addition
and multiplication respectively. We say that 𝑧1 = 𝑧2 𝑖𝑓𝑓 𝑎1 = 𝑎2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏1 = 𝑏2 .
We denote a real number ′𝑎′ as the complex number (𝑎, 0). The mapping 𝑎 → (𝑎, 0)
defines a field isomorphism of ℝ into ℂ.
We may consider ℝ as subset of ℂ. If we put 𝑖 = (0,1), then 𝑖𝑏 = (0,1). (𝑏. 0) =
(0, 𝑏 )𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑎, 𝑏 ) = (𝑎, 0) + (𝑜, 𝑏 ).
Thus any complex number (𝑎, 𝑏) is of the form 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏.
Note that 𝑖 2 = (0,1). (0,1) = (−1,0) = −1.
1.2 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆𝒙 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒆: −
With respect to rectangular co-ordinate system in the plane ℝ2 , a complex number 𝑧 =
𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 can be represented by means of the point (𝑎, 𝑏 ).
Thus the set of all complex number can be put one to one correspondence with the set
of points on this plane.
A fundamental difference between the real line ℝ and the complex plane ℂ is that there
is an ordered relation in ℝ i.e., if 𝑎, 𝑏 are any two distinct real number then either 𝑎 >
𝑏 𝑜𝑟 𝑎 < 𝑏, but there is no such relation in ℂ.

1.3
𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒆𝒙𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆𝒙 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒆 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒊𝒕′𝒔 𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒓𝒆𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏: −
1
The function 𝑊 = 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 defines a one-one mapping of the complex plane onto itself
with two notable exception.
The point 𝑧 = 0 has no image and the point 𝑊 = 0 has no pre-image.

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To rectify this situation we extend the complex plane by adjoining a symbol ∞ called
the point of infinity. Its connection with the other complex number is established by
defining
(𝑖) 𝑎 + ∞ = ∞ + 𝑎 = ∞ ∀ 𝑎 ∈ ℂ ∪ {∞}
(𝑖𝑖)𝑎. ∞ = ∞. 𝑎 = ∞ ∀ 𝑎 ∈ ℂ − {0} 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 = ∞
𝑎 𝑎
(𝑖𝑖𝑖) = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = ∞ ∀ 𝑎 ∈ ℂ − {0}.
∞ 0
∞
Note that ∞ − ∞, ∞ , 0. ∞ are not defined. ℂ ∪ {∞} is called the extended complex plane
we assume that in the extended complex plane every straight line passes through ∞.
We denote extended complex plane ℂ ∪ {∞} 𝑎𝑠 ℂ∞ .
1.4 𝑺𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒐𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒑𝒉𝒊𝒄 𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏: −
Complex number can be also be represented by points on a sphere. In fact, we shall
established a one to one correspondence between the points on a sphere and the points
on a plane.
The method for mapping the plane on the sphere is called stereographic projection. For
this mapping, we take a point 𝑉 (called North Pole), on the sphere as vertex of
projection and equatorial plane as the plane of projection.
Then, to any point 𝐴 of the sphere (except the vertex 𝑉), there corresponds a unique
point 𝐴′ of the plane.
Conversely to each point of the plane, there corresponds a unique point of the sphere.

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Analytically , we may proceed as follows: with reference to a system of rectangular Co-

ordinate axes 𝑂𝑋, 𝑂𝑌, 𝑂𝑍, where ′𝑂′ is the centre of the sphere, let the equation of unit
sphere be 𝑋 2 + 𝑌 2 + 𝑍 2 = 1 … … … . . (1)
And let the plane of projection be 𝑧 = 0.So, the vertex 𝑉 of projection has the co-
ordinate (0,0,1). Let (𝑋, 𝑌, 𝑍) be the co-ordinate of any point 𝐴 on the sphere and let
(𝑥, 𝑦, 0) be the co-ordinates of the corresponding point 𝐴′, on the line where 𝑉𝐴 meets
the plane of projection.
Since the three points 𝑉 (0,0,1), 𝐴(𝑋, 𝑌, 𝑍) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴′(𝑥, 𝑦, 0) are in the same straight line.
We can write the equation of St. line as-
𝑋−0 𝑌−0 𝑍−1
= =
𝑥−0 𝑦−0 0−1
𝑋 𝑌 𝑍−1
𝑂𝑟, = = … … … . . (𝐴)
𝑥 𝑦 −1
These give,
𝑋 𝑌
𝑥= ,𝑦 =
1−𝑍 1−𝑍
𝑋 + 𝑖𝑌
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 = … … … . . (2)
1−𝑍
Conversely, we get from above,

2
𝑋 2 + 𝑌2
2
𝑥 +𝑦 = , 𝑠𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡
(1 − 𝑍)2
2 2
𝑋 2 + 𝑌 2 1 + 𝑍 2 + 𝑋 2 + 𝑌 2 − 2𝑍
1+𝑥 +𝑦 = 1+ =
(1 − 𝑍)2 (1 − 𝑍)2
1 + 1 − 2𝑍
= , [𝑏𝑦 (1)]
(1 − 𝑍)2
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2
= , (𝑍 ≠ 1)
1−𝑍
Hence, from (𝐴),
(𝑍 − 1)𝑥 2𝑥 𝑧 + 𝑧̅
𝑋= = =
−1 1 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 1 + |𝑧|2
2𝑦 𝑧 − 𝑧̅
𝑌 = (1 − 𝑍)𝑦 = =
1 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 𝑖(1 + |𝑧|2 )
2 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 1 |𝑧|2 − 1
𝑍 =1− = =
1 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 1 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 1 + |𝑧|2
Thus,
𝑧 + 𝑧̅ 𝑧 − 𝑧̅ |𝑧|2 − 1
𝑋= ,𝑌 = ,𝑍 = , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 … … … (3)
1 + |𝑧|2 𝑖 (1 + |𝑧|2 ) 1 + |𝑧|2
The relation (2) and ( 3) establish a one-one correspondence between the complex
numbers and points on a spherical surface except that no point of the complex plane
corresponds to the vertex 𝑉(0,0,1) of the sphere.
The correspondence is completed by defining the point and infinity and letting the
point at infinity corresponds to 𝑉 (0,0,1).
𝑺𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒔
𝟏−𝒊
Ex 1. Define stereographic projection for the points in the complex plane ℂ find the
√𝟐
𝟏 𝟐 𝟏
corresponding image point on the Riemann sphere 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 + (𝒛 − 𝟐) = 𝟒

Ex 2. If 𝒛 is a point on the complex plane and (𝜺, 𝜼, 𝜺) is its stereographic projection on

𝟏 𝟐 𝟏
the Riemann sphere 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 + (𝒛 − 𝟐) = 𝟒 then prove that

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𝜺 + 𝒊𝜼
𝒛= , (𝒊 = √−𝟏).
𝟏−𝜺

Ex 3. Define a stereographic projection. If 𝑻 ⊂ 𝑪 is a lane, show that the image of the

line 𝑻 under the stereographic projection is a circle minus north pole in the Riemann
spheres.

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𝟏 𝟐 𝟏
Ex 4. Find the point 𝑸 = (𝜶, 𝜷, 𝜸) on the Riemann sphere 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 + (𝒛 − 𝟐) = 𝟒 that
corresponds to the complex number 𝒛 = 𝒙 + 𝒊𝒚 (𝒙 ∈ 𝑹, 𝒚 ∈ 𝑹) under stereographic
projection.

Ex 5. Define Riemann sphere and stereographic projection corresponding to a complex

number 𝒛 = 𝒙 + 𝒊𝒚, 𝒙, 𝒚 ∈ ℝ. If (𝜺, 𝜼, 𝜺) be stereographic projection corresponding to
𝒛 = 𝒙 + 𝒊𝒚 then find 𝜺, 𝜼, 𝜺 in terms of 𝒙, 𝒚.

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Ex 6. Prove that the stereographic image of a circle in the complex plane is a circle in
the Riemann sphere.

2
Complex Functions & Analytic Functions
2.1. Introduction. In this chapter and afterwards, we shall use some terms in dealing
with sets of complex number in Argand Diagram.
Hence it is very much essential to define such mathematical terms and notations.
2.2. Some Basic Definitions
𝟐. 𝟐. 𝟏. Open Ball or Open Disk
Let 𝑧0 ∈ ℂ, Then 𝐵(𝑧0, 𝑟) = {𝑧 ∈ ℂ: |𝑧 − 𝑧0 | < 𝑟} is called an open ball or an open disk
with centre at 𝑧0 and radius 𝑟, this disk is also called a 𝑛𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑟ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑑 of 𝑧0 . It is also
denoted by 𝑆𝑟 (𝑧0 ). The set {𝑧 ∈ ℂ: 0 < |𝑧 − 𝑧0 | < 𝑟} is called deleted neighbourhood of
𝑧0 and it is denoted by 𝐵(𝑧0 , 𝑟) ∖ {𝑧0 }
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2.2.2. Interior point

A point 𝑧0 ∈ D ⊆ ℂ is said to be an interior point of D, if ∃ a r>0 such that 𝐵(𝑧0, 𝑟) ⊆D.
where 𝐵(𝑧0, 𝑟) = {𝑧 ∈ ℂ: |𝑧 − 𝑧0 | < 𝑟}
2.2.3. Open Sets
A subset S of ℂ is said to be an open set if each point of S is an interior point of S

𝟐. 𝟐. 𝟑. 𝐂𝐨𝐧𝐧𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐞𝐝 𝐒𝐞𝐭:
A set 𝑆 ⊆ ℂ is said to be connected set if 𝑆 = 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵; where 𝐴, 𝐵 being any two non
empty disjoint sets implies that at least one of 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 contains a limit point of the
other.
2.2.4. 𝑨𝒓𝒄𝒘𝒊𝒔𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒏𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒔𝒆𝒕:
A set 𝑆 ⊆ ℂ is said to be arc wise connected set 𝑖𝑓𝑓 each pair of points 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑆 can be
joined by a simple arc (i.e., continuous curve) lying in 𝑆.
2.2.5. 𝑫𝒐𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝒐𝒓 𝒓𝒆𝒈𝒊𝒐𝒏:
An open connected set is called a domain. when the domain is a subset of ℂ, we also use
the term “region” to describe it. The closure of a region is called closed region.
2.2.6. 𝑨𝒏𝒏𝒖𝒍𝒂:
Let 0 ≤ 𝑟1 ≤ 𝑟2 ≤ 𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛼 ∈ ℂ be any fixed number. We define the annula as-
𝑎𝑛𝑛(𝛼, 𝑟1 , 𝑟2 ) = {𝑧: 𝑟1 < |𝑧 − 𝛼| < 𝑟2 } is called open annulus,𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑛
̅̅̅̅̅(𝛼, 𝑟1 , 𝑟2 ) =
{𝑧: 𝑟1 ≤ |𝑧 − 𝛼 | ≤ 𝑟2 }is called closed annulus.
2.2.7. 𝑭𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆𝒙 𝒗𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆: −
Let 𝐴 ⊆ ℂ, 𝐵 ⊆ ℂ be non-empty. Then 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is a complex function for each 𝑧 = 𝑥 +
𝑖𝑦 where 𝑧 ∈ 𝐴. Let 𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣, where 𝑢, 𝑣 being real number, if 𝑧 known, 𝑤 is
known. i.e., if 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 are known in advance, then 𝑢 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 are also known. Hence
𝑢 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 are two real functions of two real variables 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦.
𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠, 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦)
If we use polar Co-ordinates, we have-
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢(𝑟, 𝜃) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑟, 𝜃)

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2.2.8 𝑩𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒅 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔: −

A function 𝑓 with domain 𝐷 is said to be bounded on 𝐷 if ∃ a number 𝑀 > 0 such that
|𝑓(𝑧)| ≤ 𝑀 ∀ 𝑧 ∈ 𝐷.
2.2.9. 𝑳𝒊𝒎𝒊𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏: −
Let 𝐷 be an infinite set, 𝑧0 be a limit point of 𝐷 and 𝑓 be defined on 𝐷. Then lim 𝑓(𝑧) =
𝑧→𝑧0
𝑙 if for any given 𝜀 > 0, ∃ 𝑎 𝛿 > 0 depending on 𝜀 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧0 such that |𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑙| < 𝜀 for all
𝑧 ∈ 𝐷 satisfying 0 < |𝑧 − 𝑧0 | < 𝛿 .
Here 𝑧 can approach to 𝑧0 in any manner in the complex point.
𝟐. 𝟐. 𝟗. 𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒎: −
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑤 = 𝑓 (𝑧) 𝑏𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝐷. 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑧0 = 𝑥0 + 𝑖 𝑦0 .
𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣 (𝑥, 𝑦).
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛, lim 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑙 = 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 (𝑠𝑎𝑦) 𝑖𝑓𝑓 𝑥→𝑥
lim 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑎 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥→𝑥
lim 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑏.
𝑧→𝑧0 0 0
𝑦→𝑦0 𝑦→𝑦0

𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒐𝒇: −
Since lim 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑙, then for each 𝜀 > 0, ∃ 𝑎 𝛿 > 0, such that |𝑓 (𝑧) − 𝑙| < 𝜀 ∀ 𝑧 satisfying
𝑧→𝑧0

|𝑧 − 𝑧0 | < 𝛿 … … … … . . (1)
Now,
|𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝑎| ≤ |𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) − (𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 )|
= |𝑓 (𝑧) − 𝑙| … … (2)
𝑎𝑛𝑑 |𝑣 (𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝑏 | ≤ |𝑓(𝑧) − (𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏)|
𝑎𝑛𝑑 |𝑥 − 𝑥0 | ≤ |𝑧 − 𝑧0 |, |𝑦 − 𝑦0 | ≤ |𝑧 − 𝑧0 |
Using (1), the inequality (2) becomes-
|𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝑎| < 𝜀 𝑎𝑛𝑑 |𝑣 (𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝑏 | < 𝜀
Hold for all |𝑥 − 𝑥0 | < 𝛿 𝑎𝑛𝑑 |𝑦 − 𝑦0 | < 𝛿
This shows that
lim 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑎
𝑥→𝑥0
𝑦→𝑦0

𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥→𝑥
lim 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑏
0
𝑦→𝑦0

• Conversely
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𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑥→𝑥
lim 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥→𝑥
lim 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑏 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠.
0 0
𝑦→𝑦0 𝑦→𝑦0

Then for each 𝜀 > 0, ∃ two positive numbers 𝛿1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛿2 such that
𝜀
|𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝑎 | < , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑜 < |(𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) + 𝑖 (𝑦 − 𝑦0 )| < 𝛿1
2
𝜀
𝑎𝑛𝑑 |𝑣 (𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝑏 | < , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟 0 < |(𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) + 𝑖 (𝑦 − 𝑦0 )| < 𝛿2
2
Now,
|𝑓 (𝑧) − 𝑙| = |{𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝑎} + 𝑖{𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝑏 }|
≤ |𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝑎| + |𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝑏 |
𝜀 𝜀
< + 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟 0 < |𝑧 − 𝑧0 | < 𝛿 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝛿 = min{𝛿1 , 𝛿2 }
2 2
Therefore,
𝑓 (𝑧) → 𝑙 𝑎𝑠 𝑧 → 𝑧0 .
𝟐. 𝟐. 𝟏𝟎. 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒊𝒕𝒚: −
Let 𝐷𝑜𝑚 (𝑓) = 𝐷 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧0 ∈ 𝐷 be a limit point of 𝐷′. Then 𝑓 is said to be continuous at 𝑧0
if lim 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑓(𝑧0 ) i.e., if for any given 𝜀 > 0, ∃ 𝑎 𝛿 > 0 such that |𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑓(𝑧0 )| < 𝜀
𝑧→𝑧0
whenever |𝑧 − 𝑧0 | < 𝛿, 𝑧 ∈ 𝐷.
If 𝑓 is continuous at every point of 𝐷. We say 𝑓 is continuous on 𝐷.
𝑹𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒓𝒌: −
(𝑖) If 𝑓 is continuous at 𝑧0 ∈ 𝐷. Then |𝑓| is also continuous at 𝑧0 ∈ 𝐷.
(𝑖𝑖)The function 𝑓(𝑧) = |𝑧|2 is continuous at every point 𝑧0 ∈ ℂ.
In fact, |𝑧|2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 , ∴ 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0 are both continuous
everywhere.
(𝑖𝑖𝑖)Any polynomial of the form 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑧 + ⋯ … … + 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 𝑛 is continuous at every point
𝑧 ∈ ℂ.
𝟐. 𝟐. 𝟏𝟏. 𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒎: −
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦). 𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑧0 = 𝑥0 + 𝑖𝑦0 . 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑧0 𝑖𝑓𝑓 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦)
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑎𝑡 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ).
𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒐𝒇: −
Let 𝑓 is continuous at 𝑧0 = 𝑥0 + 𝑖𝑦0 . Let 𝜀 > 0
Then for all 𝛿 > 0, s.t. |𝑓 (𝑧) − 𝑓(𝑧0 )| < 𝜀 𝑓𝑜𝑟 |𝑧 − 𝑧0 | < 𝛿
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⟹ |𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝑢(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) + 𝑖{𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝑣 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 )}| < 𝜀 𝑓𝑜𝑟 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )2 + (𝑦 − 𝑦0 )2 < 𝛿 2

⟹ |𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝑢(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 | < 𝜀 & |𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝑣(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 )| < 𝜀 𝑓𝑜𝑟 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )2 + (𝑦 − 𝑦0 )2 < 𝛿 2
⟹ 𝑢 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 𝑖𝑠 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑎𝑡 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 )
Conversely:
Let 𝑢 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 be continuous at (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 )
Let,𝜀 > 0
Then ∃ 𝛿 > 0 S.t.
𝜀
|𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝑢(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 )| <
2
𝜀
& |𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝑣(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 )| < 𝑓𝑜𝑟 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )2 + (𝑦 − 𝑦0 )2 < 𝛿 2 .
2
∴ |𝑓 (𝑧) − 𝑓(𝑧0 )|
= |{𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝑢(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 )} + 𝑖{𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝑣(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 )}|
𝜀 𝜀
≤ |𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝑢(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 )| + |𝑣 (𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝑣(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 )| < +
2 2
2 2 2
= 𝜀 𝑓𝑜𝑟 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) + (𝑦 − 𝑦0 ) < 𝛿
∴ |𝑓 (𝑧) − 𝑓(𝑧0 )| < 𝜀 𝑓𝑜𝑟 |𝑧 − 𝑧0 | < 𝛿
⟹ 𝑓 is continuous at 𝑧0 .

𝟐. 𝟐. 𝟏𝟐. 𝑼𝒏𝒊𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒖𝒔: −

A function 𝑓: 𝐷 → ℂ is said to be uniformly continuous on 𝐷 if for any given 𝜀 >
0, ∃ 𝑎 𝛿 > 0 depending only on 𝜀, such that |𝑓 (𝑧1 ) − 𝑓(𝑧2 )| < 𝜀 whenever 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 ∈
𝐷 𝑎𝑛𝑑 |𝑧1 − 𝑧2 | < 𝛿 clearly uniform continuity of 𝑓 𝑜𝑛 𝐷 imply continuity of 𝑓 𝑜𝑛 𝐷, but
converse is not true. Continuity is a local property where as uniform continuity has
global property.
𝟐. 𝟐. 𝟏𝟑. 𝑫𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒃𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚: −
Let 𝑓 be a complex function define in a region 𝐷 = 𝐷𝑜𝑚 (𝑓) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧0 be a complex
number in 𝐷. If
𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑓(𝑧0 )
lim … … . (1)
𝑧→𝑧0 𝑧 − 𝑧0
Exists and finite all approach towards 𝑧0 . We can say that 𝑓 is differentiable at 𝑧0 and
the limit denoted by 𝑓′(𝑧0 ) is called the derivative of 𝑓 𝑎𝑡 𝑧0 . If 𝑧 = 𝑧0 + ℎ, where ℎ is a
complex number then (1) is equivalently written as
𝑓 (𝑧0 + ℎ) − 𝑓 (𝑧0 )
𝑓 ′ (𝑧0 ) = lim .
ℎ→0 ℎ
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If 𝑓 is differentiable at every point of 𝐷 then we can say that 𝑓 is differentiable on 𝐷.

𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒔: −
𝑓
(𝑖)Let 𝑓, 𝑔 be differentiable at 𝑧0 . Then 𝑘𝑓(𝑘 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑚𝑛𝑡 ), 𝑓 ± 𝑔, 𝑓𝑔, 𝑔 where 𝑔(𝑧0 ) ≠
0 are also differentiable at 𝑧0 .
(𝑖𝑖)Let 𝑓: 𝐷1 → ℂ, 𝑔: 𝐷2 → ℂ be such that 𝑓 (𝐷1 ) ⊂ 𝐷2 . If 𝑓 is differentiable at 𝑧0 an d𝑔 is
differentiable at 𝑓 (𝑧0 ) = 𝑊0 , then the composite function 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓 is differentiable at 𝑧0
and
(𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)′ (𝑧0 ) = 𝑔′(𝑤0 ) 𝑓 ′ (𝑧0 ).
(𝑖𝑖𝑖)Derivative of any constant function is zero.
(𝑖𝑣)Let 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑧 𝑛 , 𝑛(≥ 1) is an integer. Then for any fixed 𝑧0 ∈ ℂ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 ≠ 𝑧0 .
𝑓 (𝑧) − 𝑓(𝑧0 ) 𝑧 𝑛 − 𝑧0𝑛
= = 𝑧 𝑛−1 + 𝑧 𝑛−2 . 𝑧0 + ⋯ … . . +𝑧0𝑛−1
𝑧 − 𝑧0 𝑧 − 𝑧0
𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑓(𝑧0 )
∴ lim = 𝑛. 𝑧0𝑛−1
𝑧→𝑧0 𝑧 − 𝑧0
Hence 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 𝑛 (𝑛 ≥ 1) is differentiable in the entire complex plane ℂ and 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) =
𝑛. 𝑧 𝑛−1 .
(𝑣) Result (𝑖𝑣) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑖) show that any polynomial 𝑃(𝑧) = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑧 + ⋯ . +𝑎𝑛 𝑧 𝑛
differentiable on ℂ and at each 𝑧 ∈ ℂ, 𝑃′ (𝑧) = 𝑎1 + 2𝑎2 𝑧 + ⋯ + 𝑛𝑎𝑛 𝑧 𝑛−1 .
𝑬𝒙𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆: −
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧̅ 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: −
𝑓 (𝑧 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑧̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
+ ℎ − 𝑧̅
=
ℎ ℎ
𝑧̅ + ℎ̅ − 𝑧̅
=
ℎ
̅
ℎ
=
ℎ
Let ℎ = ℎ1 + 𝑖ℎ2 . Let ℎ → 0 along the real axis, then ℎ1 → 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ2 = 0.
𝑓 (𝑧 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑧) ℎ1
∴ lim = lim =1
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ1 →0 ℎ1

Let ℎ → 0 along the imaginary axis.

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Then ℎ2 → 0 and ℎ1 = 0.
𝑓 (𝑧 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑧) −𝑖ℎ2
lim = lim = −1
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ2 →0 𝑖ℎ2

𝑓(𝑧+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑧)
Hence lim does not exist at any point 𝑧.
ℎ→0 ℎ

Hence 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧̅ is nowhere differentiable.

𝑬𝒙𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆: −
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑅𝑒 𝑧 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒.
𝑺𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏: −
We have,
𝑓(𝑧 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑥 + ℎ1 − 𝑥
= , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ = ℎ1 + 𝑖ℎ2
ℎ ℎ1 + 𝑖ℎ2
ℎ1
=
ℎ1 + 𝑖ℎ2
𝑓 (𝑧 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑧) ℎ1
∴ lim = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ1 + 𝑖ℎ2

Now let ℎ → 0 along the real axis.

Then ℎ1 → 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ2 = 0.
𝑓 (𝑧 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑧) ℎ1
∴ lim = lim =1
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ1 →0 ℎ1

Again let ℎ → 0 along the imaginary axis. Then ℎ2 → 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ1 = 0.

𝑓(𝑧 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑧) 0
∴ lim = lim =0
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ2 →0 𝑖ℎ2

𝑓 (𝑧+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑧)
𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠, lim does not exist at any point 𝑧.
ℎ→ 0 ℎ

Hence 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑅𝑒 𝑧 is nowhere differentiable.

𝑬𝒙𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆: −
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝐼𝑚 𝑧 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒.
𝑺𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏: −
We have,

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𝑓(𝑧 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑧) (𝑦 + ℎ2 ) − 𝑦
= , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 & ℎ = ℎ1 + 𝑖ℎ2 .
ℎ ℎ1 + 𝑖ℎ2
ℎ2
=
ℎ1 + 𝑖ℎ2
𝑓(𝑧 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑧) ℎ2
𝑁𝑜𝑤, lim = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ1 + 𝑖ℎ2

Now let ℎ → 0 along the real axis. Then ℎ1 → 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ2 = 0.

ℎ2 0
∴ lim = lim =0
ℎ→0 ℎ1 + 𝑖ℎ2 ℎ1 →0 ℎ1

Again let ℎ → 0 along the imaginary axis. Then ℎ2 → 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ1 = 0.

𝑓 (𝑧 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑧) ℎ2 1
∴ lim = lim = = −𝑖
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ2 →0 𝑖ℎ2 𝑖
𝑓(𝑧+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑧)
Thus lim does not exist at any point 𝑧.
ℎ→0 ℎ

Hence 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝐼𝑚 𝑧 is nowhere differentiable.

𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒎: −
𝐼𝑓 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑧, 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡. 𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒.
𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒐𝒇: −
Let 𝑓 be differentiable at 𝑧.
Then,
𝑓 (𝑧 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑧)
lim = 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠
ℎ→0 ℎ
𝑓 (𝑧 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑁𝑜𝑤, 𝑓(𝑧 + ℎ) − 𝑓 (𝑧) = .ℎ
ℎ
Taking limit as ℎ → 0 we have,-
𝑓 (𝑧 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑧)
lim (𝑓(𝑧 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑧)) = lim .ℎ
ℎ→0 ℎ→0 ℎ
= 𝑓 ′ (𝑧). 0
=0
∴ lim 𝑓 (𝑧 + ℎ) = 𝑓(𝑧).
ℎ→0

This shows that 𝑓 is continuous at 𝑧. To show that the converse is not true we take
𝑓 (𝑧) = |𝑧|, then 𝑓 is continuous at 𝑧 = 0.

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Since lim+ 𝑓(𝑧) = lim− 𝑓(𝑧) = lim 𝑓(𝑧) = 0 = 𝑓(0)

𝑧→0 𝑧→0 𝑧→0

But 𝑓 is not differentiable at 𝑧 = 0.

Because if 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦.
𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑓(0) |𝑧 |
lim = lim
𝑧→0 𝑧−0 𝑧→0 𝑧

Let 𝑧 → 0 along the positive part of the real axis, then 𝑧 = 𝑥 > 0.
|𝑧| 𝑥
∴ lim = lim+ = 1
𝑧→0 𝑧 𝑥→0 𝑥

If 𝑧 → 0 along the negative part of the real axis. Then 𝑧 = 𝑥 < 0 and
|𝑧| |𝑥| −𝑥
lim = lim− = lim− = −1
𝑧→0 𝑧 𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥
|𝑧|
Hence lim does not exist and so 𝑓 is not differentiable at the origin.
𝑧→0 𝑧

𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒: − 𝑓 may be differentiableat 𝑧0 but |𝑓| may not be differentiable at 𝑧0 . For this let
𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑧, then 𝑓 is differentiable every where but |𝑓|(𝑧) = |𝑧| is not differentiable at
𝑧 = 0.
• 𝑨𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒚𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏: −
A function 𝑓 is said to be analytic (or regular or homomorphic) at the point 𝑧 = 𝛼.If 𝑓 is
differentiable at every point of some (∃𝑎) 𝑛𝑏𝑑 of 𝛼.
Similarly we say that 𝑓 is analytic on a set 𝐷 if it is analytic at every point of 𝐷. I.e., if 𝑓 is
differentiable at every point of some open set containing 𝐷.
• 𝑶𝒓𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒑𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕 (𝒐𝒓 𝑹𝒆𝒈𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒑𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕): −
If 𝑓 is analytic at a point 𝛼. Then 𝛼 is called on ordinary point of 𝑓.
• 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝒈𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒑𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕: −
If a function 𝑓 is not analytic at a point 𝛼, then 𝛼 is called a singular point or singularity
of 𝑓.
• 𝒁𝒆𝒓𝒐 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏: −
If 𝑓 is analytic at 𝛼 and 𝑓(𝛼) = 0, then 𝛼 is called a zero of a function (𝑓).
• ′𝒂′ 𝒑𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏: −
If 𝑓 is analytic at 𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 (𝛼) = 𝑎. Then 𝛼 is called ′𝑎′ point of 𝑓.
• 𝑬𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒓𝒆 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏(𝒐𝒓 𝑰𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏): −
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A function 𝑓 which is analytic on the entire complex plane ℂ is called an entire function.
Only the point at infinity is a singularity for a non -constant entire function.
• 𝑪𝒂𝒖𝒄𝒉𝒚 − 𝑹𝒊𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒏 𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏(𝑪 − 𝑹 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏): −
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒎: −
𝐴 𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑎 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡
𝑧0 = 𝑥0 + 𝑖𝑦0 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑢𝑥 , 𝑢𝑦 , 𝑣𝑥 , 𝑣𝑦 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦 , 𝑢𝑦 = −𝑣𝑥 𝑎𝑡 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ).

𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒐𝒇: −
Let 𝑓 be differentiable at 𝑧0 = 𝑥0 + 𝑖𝑦0 . Then,
𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑓(𝑧0 )
𝑓 ′ (𝑧0 ) = lim
𝑧→𝑧0 𝑧 − 𝑧0
Exists for all modes of approach of 𝑧 towards 𝑧0 and all the limiting values are equal.
Now,
𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑓(𝑧0 ) {𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝑢(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 )} + 𝑖{𝑣 (𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝑣(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 )}
=
𝑧 − 𝑧0 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) + 𝑖(𝑦 − 𝑦0 )
First we assume that 𝑧 → 𝑧0 along a line parallel to the real axis. Then 𝑦 = 𝑦0 , 𝑥 → 𝑥0 .
𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑓(𝑧0 ) 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑥0 ) − 𝑢(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦0 ) − 𝑣(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 )
lim = lim + 𝑖 lim
𝑧→𝑧0 𝑧 − 𝑧0 𝑥→𝑥0 𝑥 − 𝑥0 𝑥→𝑥0 𝑥 − 𝑥0
Since 𝑓′(𝑧0 ) exists both 𝑢𝑥 , 𝑣𝑥 must exists at (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ). Hence 𝑓 ′ (𝑧0 ) = 𝑢𝑥 + 𝑖𝑣𝑥 at
(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) … … (1)
Next let 𝑧 → 𝑧0 along a line parallel to the imaginary axis. Then 𝑥 = 𝑥0 , 𝑦 → 𝑦0 .
Hence,
𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑓(𝑧0 ) 1 𝑢(𝑥0 , 𝑦) − 𝑢(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) 𝑣(𝑥0 , 𝑦) − 𝑣(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 )
lim = lim + lim
𝑧→𝑧0 𝑧 − 𝑧0 𝑖 𝑦→𝑦0 𝑦 − 𝑦0 𝑦→𝑦0 𝑦 − 𝑦0
Since 𝑓′(𝑧0 ) exists, both 𝑢𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑦 exists at (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ). Hence,
1
𝑓 ′ (𝑧0 ) = 𝑢𝑦 + 𝑣𝑦 𝑎𝑡 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 )
𝑖
= 𝑣𝑦 − 𝑖𝑢𝑦 … … (2)
From (1) and (2), by equating real and imaginary part we have,
Page 16 of 42
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𝑢𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦 , 𝑢𝑦 = −𝑣𝑥 𝑎𝑡 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ).

• 𝑵𝒐𝒕𝒆 𝟏: −
The two equation 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢𝑦 = −𝑣𝑥 are known as Cauchy-Riemann equation or
𝐶 − 𝑅 equation. These equations are necessary for differentiability but not sufficient.
e.g.
𝑥𝑦
, 𝑥≠0
𝑓(𝑧) = {√𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
0, 𝑥=0=𝑦
𝐶 − 𝑅 equation satisfies but not differentiable.

• 𝑵𝒐𝒕𝒆 𝟐. : −
If 𝑓′(𝑧0 ) exists then 𝑓′(𝑧0 ) can be written in any one of the following forms-
𝑓 ′ (𝑧0 ) = 𝑢𝑥 + 𝑖𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦 + 𝑖𝑣𝑥
= 𝑢𝑥 − 𝑖𝑢𝑦 = 𝑣𝑦 − 𝑖𝑢𝑦
Where the partial derivatives are evaluated at (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ).
• 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆𝒙 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝑪 − 𝑹 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏: −
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑏𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑧. 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐶 − 𝑅 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑎𝑠 𝑓𝑥 = −𝑖𝑓𝑦 .
𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒐𝒇: −
𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦)
Differentiating partially w.r.t. 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 respectively, we have-
𝑓𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥 (𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣𝑥 (𝑥, 𝑦)
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 (𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣𝑦 (𝑥, 𝑦).
Now,
𝑖𝑓𝑦 = 𝑖𝑢𝑦 (𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖 2 𝑣𝑦 (𝑥, 𝑦)
= 𝑖𝑢𝑦 (𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝑣𝑦 (𝑥, 𝑦)
= −𝑖𝑣𝑥 (𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝑢𝑥 (𝑥, 𝑦)[𝐵𝑦 𝐶 − 𝑅 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛]
= −[𝑢𝑥 (𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣𝑥 (𝑥, 𝑦)]
= −𝑓𝑥
∴ 𝑓𝑥 = −𝑖𝑓𝑦

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• 𝑪 − 𝑹 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒏 𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒐𝒓𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒆: −

𝜕𝑢 1 𝜕𝑣
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑢(𝑟, 𝜃) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑟, 𝜃)𝑏𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 ≠ 0, 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝜕𝑟 = 𝑟 𝜕𝜃
𝜕𝑣 1 𝜕𝑢 𝑟 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜕𝑟 = − 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 . 𝐹𝑢𝑟𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) = 2 (𝜕𝑟 + 𝑖 𝜕𝑟 ).

𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒐𝒇: −
We have 𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 , 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃, Hence,
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑦
= . + .
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑟
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
= cos 𝜃 + sin 𝜃 … … . (1)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑦
= . + .
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑟
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
= cos 𝜃 + sin 𝜃 … . . (2)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑦
= . + .
𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝜃
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
= (−𝑟 cos 𝜃) + (𝑟 cos 𝜃) … . (3)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑦
= . + .
𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝜃
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
= (−𝑟 sin 𝜃) + 𝑟 cos 𝜃
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
= 𝑟[sin 𝜃 (−𝑣𝑥 ) + cos 𝜃 (𝑣𝑦 )]
= 𝑟(sin 𝜃. 𝑢𝑦 + cos 𝜃 . 𝑣𝑥 )[𝐵𝑦 𝐶 − 𝑅 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛]
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
= 𝑟 [ cos 𝜃 + sin 𝜃]
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢
= 𝑟. [𝐵𝑦 (1)]
𝜕𝑟
From (3),
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
= −𝑟 [sin 𝜃 . − cos 𝜃 . ]
𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
= −𝑟 [sin 𝜃 . + cos 𝜃 . ]
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑣
= −𝑟. [𝐵𝑦 (2)]
𝜕𝑟
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𝜕𝑣 1 𝜕𝑢
∴ =−
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃
2𝑛𝑑 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡: −
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝑟[ +𝑖 ]
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
= 𝑟 [(cos 𝜃 + sin 𝜃 ) + 𝑖 (cos 𝜃 + sin 𝜃 )]
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
= 𝑟 cos 𝜃 ( + 𝑖 ) + 𝑟 sin 𝜃 ( + 𝑖 )
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
= 𝑥 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) + 𝑖𝑦 ( − 𝑖 )
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
= 𝑥𝑓 ′ (𝑧) + 𝑖𝑦(𝑓′(𝑧))
= 𝑓′(𝑧)(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)
= 𝑧 𝑓′(𝑧)
𝑟 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
∴ 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) = ( + 𝑖 )
𝑧 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟
𝑵𝒐𝒕𝒆: −
Let 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣 (𝑥, 𝑦)
Since,
𝑧 + 𝑧̅ 𝑧 − 𝑧̅
𝑥= ,𝑦 =
2 2𝑖
We have,
𝑧 + 𝑧̅ 𝑧 − 𝑧̅ 𝑧 + 𝑧̅ 𝑧 − 𝑧̅
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢 ( , ) + 𝑖𝑣 ( , )
2 2𝑖 2 2
This shows that 𝑓 can be made function of 𝑧 and 𝑧̅ only.
• 𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒎: −
𝐼𝑓 𝑓 (𝑧) 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛. 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐶 − 𝑅 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚
𝜕𝑓
= 0.
𝜕𝑧
𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒐𝒇: −
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑦
= . + .
𝜕𝑧̅ 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧̅ 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧̅
𝜕𝑓 1 𝜕𝑓 1
= . + (− )
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2𝑖
Page 19 of 42
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1 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
= ( +𝑖 )
2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
1 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
= (−𝑖 + 𝑖 ) [∵ = −𝑖 ]
2 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
=0
• 𝑬𝒙𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆: −𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑧̅ 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒.
⟹ 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑧̅ = 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
∴ 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥
𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) = −𝑦
∴ 𝑢𝑥 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 1
𝑢𝑦 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 0
𝑣𝑥 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 0
𝑣𝑦 (𝑥, 𝑦) = −1
Since 𝑢𝑥 ≠ 𝑣𝑦 at any point, 𝐶 − 𝑅 equation are not satisfied.
∴ 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧̅ is nowhere differentiable.
• 𝑬𝒙𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆: −
𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑓 (𝑧) = √𝑥𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑧 = 0, 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑧 = 0.
⟹
lim 𝑓 (𝑧) = lim √𝑥𝑦 = 0 = 𝑓(0)
𝑧→0 𝑥→0
𝑦→0

This implies 𝑓 is continuous at 𝑧 = 0.

𝑁𝑜𝑤, 𝑓(𝑧) = √𝑥𝑦 + 0. 𝑖
∴ 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) = √𝑥𝑦,
𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0
𝑢(ℎ, 0) − 𝑢(0,0) 0
𝑢𝑥 (0,0) = lim = lim = 0
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ

Similarly,
𝑢𝑦 (0,0) = 0, 𝑣𝑥 (0,0) = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑦 (0,0) = 0.
∴ 𝑢 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 satisfies 𝐶 − 𝑅 equation at 𝑧 = 0.

𝑓 (𝑧) − 𝑓(0) √𝑥𝑦

𝑁𝑜𝑤, lim = lim
𝑧→0 𝑧−0 𝑥→0 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
𝑦→0

Page 20 of 42
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Let 𝑧 → 0 along the path 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥.

Thus,

𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑓(0) √|𝑚|𝑥 2

lim = lim
𝑧→0 𝑧−0 𝑥→0 (1 + 𝑖𝑚)𝑥

√|𝑚|
= lim
𝑥→0 (1 + 𝑖𝑚)

√|𝑚|
=
(1 + 𝑖𝑚)
Which are different for different values of 𝑚. Thus 𝑓 (𝑧) = √𝑥𝑦 is not differentiable.

• 𝑵𝒐𝒕𝒆: −
From above two example we can say that 𝐶 − 𝑅 equation is necessary for
differentiability but not sufficient.
• 𝑺𝒖𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒃𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚: −
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒎: −
𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑓(𝑧)
= 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑎 𝑛𝑏𝑑 𝑁(𝑧0 ) 𝑜𝑓 𝑧0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑢𝑥 , 𝑢𝑦
𝑣𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑦 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑧0 = 𝑥0 + 𝑖𝑦0 , 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐶 −
𝑅 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑓𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑧0 .
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓 (𝑧) 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑧0 .
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑓: −
For 𝑧0 = 𝑥0 + 𝑖𝑦0 , let ℎ = ℎ1 + 𝑖ℎ2 (≠ 0) ∈ 𝑁(𝑧0 ). Since 𝑢𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢𝑦 are all continuous at
𝑧0 = 𝑥0 + 𝑖𝑦0 .
So, the increment ∆𝑢, of 𝑢(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) can be written as,
∆𝑢 = 𝑢(𝑥0 + ℎ1 , 𝑦0 + ℎ2 ) − 𝑢(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 )
= ℎ1 𝑢𝑥 (𝑥0 𝑦0 ) + ℎ2 𝑢𝑦 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) + 𝜀1 ℎ1 + 𝜀2 ℎ2
Where 𝜀1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜀2 are functions of ℎ1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ2 and they tends to zero as (ℎ1 , ℎ2 ) → (0,0).
Similarly corresponding to 𝑣(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ). The increment ∆𝑣 𝑜𝑓 𝑣(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) can be written as-
∆𝑣 = 𝑣(𝑥0 + ℎ1 , 𝑦0 + ℎ2 ) − 𝑣 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 )

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= ℎ1 𝑣𝑥 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) + ℎ2 𝑣𝑦 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) + ℎ1 𝜂1 + ℎ2 𝜂2
Where 𝜂1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜂2 are functions of ℎ1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ2 and they tends to zero as (ℎ1 , ℎ2 ) → (0,0)
𝑁𝑜𝑤, ∆𝑢 + 𝑖∆𝑣 = ℎ1 (𝑢𝑥 + 𝑖𝑣𝑥 ) + ℎ2 (𝑢𝑦 + 𝑖𝑣𝑦 ) + ℎ1 (𝜀1 + 𝑖𝜂1 ) + ℎ2 (𝜀2 + 𝑖𝜂2 ) 𝑎𝑡 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ).
∴ 𝑓 (𝑧0 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑧0 ) = ∆𝑢 + 𝑖∆𝑣
= ℎ1 (𝑢𝑥 + 𝑖 𝑣𝑥 ) + 𝑖ℎ2 (𝑣𝑦 − 𝑖𝑢𝑦 ) + ℎ1 (𝜀1 + 𝑖𝜂1 ) + ℎ2 (𝜀2 + 𝑖𝜂2 )
= ℎ1 (𝑢𝑥 + 𝑖𝑣𝑥 ) + 𝑖ℎ2 (𝑢𝑥 + 𝑖𝑣𝑥 ) + ℎ1 (𝜀1 + 𝑖𝜂1 ) + ℎ2 (𝜀2 + 𝑖𝜂2 )[𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐶 − 𝑅 𝑒𝑞𝑛. ]
= (𝑢𝑥 + 𝑖𝑣𝑥 )(ℎ1 + 𝑖ℎ2 ) + ℎ1 (𝜀1 + 𝑖𝜂1 ) + ℎ2 (𝜀2 + 𝑖𝜂2 )
= (𝑢𝑥 + 𝑖𝑣𝑥 )ℎ + ℎ1 (𝜀1 + 𝑖𝜂1 ) + ℎ2 (𝜀2 + 𝑖𝜂2 )
𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠,
𝑓 (𝑧0 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑧0 ) ℎ1 ℎ2
= (𝑢𝑥 + 𝑖𝑣𝑥 ) + [ (𝜀1 + 𝑖𝜂1 ) + (𝜀2 + 𝑖𝜂2 )] … … . (2)
ℎ ℎ ℎ
|ℎ𝑖 |
Here 𝜀1 + 𝑖𝜂1 → 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜀2 + 𝑖𝜂2 → 0 𝑎𝑠 ℎ = ℎ1 + 𝑖ℎ2 → 0 we note that |ℎ|
<
|ℎ2 |
1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 |ℎ|
< 1.

Hence the term with in the square bracket of R.H.S. of (2) approaches to zero as ℎ =
ℎ1 + 𝑖ℎ2 → 0. Taking limit as ℎ → 0 in (2) we obtained-
𝑓(𝑧0 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑧0 )
lim = 𝑢𝑥 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) + 𝑖𝑣𝑥 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 )
ℎ→0 ℎ
𝑓 (𝑧0 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑧0 )
𝑖. 𝑒. , lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
Exists and equal to 𝑢𝑥 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) + 𝑖𝑣𝑥 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 )
∴ 𝑓 is differentiable at 𝑧0 = 𝑥0 + 𝑖𝑦0 .
• 𝑬𝒙𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆: −
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑒 𝑧 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒.
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑛. −
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑒 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑥+𝑖𝑦
= 𝑒 𝑥 (cos 𝑦 + 𝑖 sin 𝑦)
= 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦)(𝑆𝑎𝑦)
∴ 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑦.
Differentiating partially we get,-

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𝑢𝑥 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦
𝑢𝑦 (𝑥, 𝑦) = −𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑦
𝑣𝑥 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑦
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑦 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦
∴ 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢𝑦 = −𝑣𝑥 at any point 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦.
Thus the first order partial derivative of 𝑢 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 satisfy the 𝐶 − 𝑅 equation at every
point. Further 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦), 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) and their 1st order partial derivative are continuous at
every point.
Hence by sufficient condition of differentiability 𝑓 is differentiable at every point of
complex plane.
• 𝑬𝒙𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆: −
𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑓(𝑧) = |𝑧|2 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒
𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑒ℎ 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛.
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑛. : −
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦, 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓 (𝑧) = |𝑧|2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 .
Clearly 𝑓(𝑧) is continuous everywhere as it is polynomial in 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦.
𝑁𝑜𝑤, 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦)
Comparing,
𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0
∴ 𝑢𝑥 = 2𝑥, 𝑢𝑦 = 2𝑦
𝑣𝑥 = 0. 𝑣𝑦 = 0
𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠, 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦 ⟹ 𝑥 = 0
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑦 = −𝑣𝑥 ⟹ 𝑦 = 0
∴ 𝐶 − 𝑅 equation satisfy only at 𝑥 = 0 & 𝑦 = 0 𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑧 = 0.
Further 𝑢, 𝑣 and their first order partial derivative are continuous at 𝑧 = 0.
Hence 𝑓 is differentiable at 𝑧 = 0.
We note that 𝐶 − 𝑅 equation are not satisfied at any point 𝑧 ≠ 0 and hence 𝑓 is not
differentiable at 𝑧 ≠ 0.
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Thus 𝑓 is differentiable only at 𝑧 = 0.

• 𝐸𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑠: − Verify 𝐶 − 𝑅 equation for the function.
(𝑖)𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 3
(𝑖𝑖)𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑎𝑧 + 𝑏
1
(𝑖𝑖𝑖)𝑓(𝑧) =
𝑧
(𝑖𝑣)𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑖𝑧 + 2
(𝑣)𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧𝑒 −𝑧
• 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑚: −
𝐴 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑥 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑒𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠.
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑓: −
Let 𝑓 be a real function of the complex variable 𝑧. Let us assume first that derivative of
𝑓 does not exist, then nothing to prove.
So let 𝑓 is differentiable at 𝑧0 .
Then,
𝑓 (𝑧0 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑧0 )
𝑓 ′ (𝑧0 ) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
Where ℎ = ℎ1 + 𝑐ℎ2 exist for all modes of approach of 𝑧 towards 𝑧0 and all the limiting
values are equal. First we assume ℎ → 0 along the real axis. Then ℎ1 → 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ2 → 0
and -
𝑓 (𝑧0 + ℎ1 ) − 𝑓(𝑧0 )
𝑓 ′ (𝑧0 ) = lim
ℎ1 →0 ℎ1
= 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟(∵ 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛) … … … (1)
Next we assume ℎ → 0 along the imaginary axis. Then ℎ2 → 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ1 → 0 and –
𝑓 (𝑧0 + 𝑖ℎ2 ) − 𝑓(𝑧0 )
𝑓 ′ (𝑧0 ) = lim
ℎ2 →0 𝑖ℎ2
1
= × 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
𝑖
= 𝑎 𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 … … . . (2)
From (1) and (2) we get
𝑓 ′ (𝑧0 ) = 0
Hence either 𝑓 has derivative zero (0) or the derivative does not exist.

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• 𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒: −
If an analytic function of a complex variable in a region 𝐺 assume only imaginary
values. Then 𝑓 is a constant function.
• 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑠: −
Let 𝑓 be analytic in a region.
(𝑖) If 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) = 0 𝑜𝑛 𝐺, then 𝑓 is constant on 𝐺.
(𝑖𝑖)If any one of 𝑅𝑒(𝑓), 𝐼𝑚 (𝑓), |𝑓| is constant on 𝐺, then 𝑓 is constant on 𝐺.
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑓: −(𝑖)
We know that
𝑓 ′ (𝑧) = 𝑢𝑥 + 𝑖𝑣𝑥
= 𝑣𝑦 − 𝑖 𝑢𝑦
Hence
𝑓 ′ (𝑧) = 0 ⟹ 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑢𝑦 = 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦 = 0 ∀ 𝑧 ∈ 𝐺.
𝐵𝑢𝑡, 𝑢𝑥 = 0, 𝑢𝑦 = 0 ⟹ 𝑢 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦.
i.e., 𝑢 is constant on 𝐺. Similarly 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦 = 0
⟹ 𝑣 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦.
⟹ 𝑣 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝐺.
Hence 𝑓 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 is constant on 𝐺.
(𝑖𝑖)
𝑅𝑒 (𝑓) = 𝑢 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑛 𝐺
∴ 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑢𝑦 = 0 𝑜𝑛 𝐺.Since 𝑓 is analytic on 𝐺.
So it satisfy 𝐶 − 𝑅 equation.
𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢𝑦 = −𝑣𝑥
∴ 𝑣𝑥 = −𝑢𝑦 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑦 = 0
𝑁𝑜𝑤 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦 = 0 ⟹ 𝑣 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝐺.
Similarly for 𝐼𝑚 𝑓 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.
Finally let |𝑓(𝑧)| = 𝑘 ∀ 𝑧 ∈ 𝐺, 𝑖𝑓 𝑘 = 0
Evidently 𝑓 = 0 𝑖𝑛 𝐺. 𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑘 ≠ 0, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 = 𝑘 2 … … . . (1)
Differentiating (1) partially w.r.t. 𝑥 & 𝑦 we get
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𝑢𝑣𝑥 + 𝑣𝑣𝑥 = 0 … … . (2)

𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢𝑣𝑦 + 𝑣𝑣𝑦 = 0 … … … (3)
Using 𝐶 − 𝑅 equations (2) and (3) becomes
𝑢𝑢𝑥 − 𝑣𝑢𝑦 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢𝑢𝑦 + 𝑣𝑢𝑥 = 0
Squaring and adding,
0 = (𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 )(𝑢𝑥2 + 𝑣𝑦2 )
⟹ 𝑘 2 |𝑓 ′ (𝑧)|2 = 0
Since 𝑘 ≠ 0 ⟹ |𝑓 ′ (𝑧)| = 0
⟹ 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) = 0
Hence 𝑓 is constant on 𝐺.
• 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡: −
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔 𝑏𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐺 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) = 𝑔′ (𝑧), ∀ 𝑧 ∈ 𝐺, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 (𝑓 − 𝑔) 𝑖𝑠
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 .
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑓: −
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝜙(𝑧) = 𝑓 (𝑧) − 𝑔(𝑧)
⟹ 𝜙 ′ (𝑧) = 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) − 𝑔′ (𝑧) = 0 ∀ 𝑧 ∈ 𝐺.
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝜙 𝑖. 𝑒. , (𝑓 − 𝑔) 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑛 𝐺 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡.
• 𝐴𝑛 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡: −
If a function 𝑓 is analytic in a region 𝐺, then it is infinitely differentiable.
• 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑠: −
If 𝑓 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 is differentiable in a region 𝐺, then 𝑢, 𝑣 possesses both partial derivatives
and 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) = 𝑢𝑥 + 𝑖𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦 − 𝑖𝑢𝑦 .
Since 𝑓′ is also differentiable, it follows that 𝑢𝑥 , 𝑣𝑥 , 𝑢𝑦 , 𝑣𝑦 are continuous.
Replacing the argument we can say 𝑢, 𝑣 have continuous partial derivatives.
• 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡: −
A necessary and sufficient condition for a function 𝑓 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 to be analytic in a region
𝐺 is that 𝑢𝑥 , 𝑢𝑦 , 𝑣𝑥 , 𝑣𝑦 are continuous and they satisfy 𝐶 − 𝑅 equation in 𝐺.
• 𝐸𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑠: −
Page 26 of 42
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𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑛𝑜 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒.

(𝑖)𝑓 (𝑧) = |𝑧|
(𝑖𝑖)𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑦𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
(𝑖𝑖𝑖)𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑧 − 𝑧̅
(𝑖𝑣)𝑓 (𝑧) = 2𝑥 + 𝑖𝑥𝑦 2
1
(𝑣)𝑓 (𝑧) =
𝑧̅
(𝑣𝑖)𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑒 𝑧̅
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: −
(𝑖)
𝑓(𝑧) = |𝑧|
= √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 , 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
= 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦)

Where 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0

Now,
𝑥
𝑢𝑥 = , 𝑣𝑥 = 0
√𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
𝑦
𝑢𝑦 = , 𝑣𝑦 = 0
√𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
Thus 𝑢𝑥 ≠ 𝑣𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢𝑦 ≠ −𝑣𝑥 .
i.e., First order partial derivative of 𝑢 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 does not satisfy 𝐶 − 𝑅 equation.
Hence 𝑓(𝑧) = |𝑧| is nowhere differentiable.
(𝑖𝑖𝑖)
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 − 𝑧̅
= 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 − 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
= 2𝑖𝑦
= 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦)(𝑆𝑎𝑦)
Where 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) = 2𝑦
Now, 𝑢𝑥 = 0 = 𝑢𝑦
And 𝑣𝑥 = 0, 𝑣𝑦 = 2
∴ 𝑣𝑥 ≠ 𝑣𝑦

Page 27 of 42
 28

i.e., the partial (1𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟) derivative of 𝑢 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 does not satisfy 1st 𝐶 − 𝑅 equation.
Thus 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑧 − 𝑧̅ is nowhere differentiable.
(𝑣𝑖)
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑒 𝑧̅
= 𝑒 𝑥 (cos 𝑦 − 𝑖 sin 𝑦), 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
= 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦)(𝑆𝑎𝑦)
Where 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦
𝑣 (𝑥, 𝑦) = −𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑦
Now,
𝑢𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦 , 𝑢𝑦 = −𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑦
𝑣𝑥 = −𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑦 , 𝑣𝑦 = −𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦
Since 𝑢𝑥 ≠ 𝑣𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢𝑦 ≠ −𝑣𝑥 at any point. Hence 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑒 𝑧̅ is nowhere differentiable.

• 𝐸𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒: −
𝑧 𝑅𝑒 𝑧
,𝑧 ≠ 0
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑓(𝑧) = { |𝑧|
0, 𝑧 = 0
𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑧 = 0, 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑧 = 0.
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: −
(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)𝑥
lim 𝑓(𝑧) = lim = 0 = 𝑓(0)
𝑥→0 2
𝑧→0
𝑦→0 √𝑥 + 𝑦2

𝑧 𝑅𝑒 𝑧 (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)𝑥
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓 (𝑧) = = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
|𝑧| √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
∴ 𝑓 is continuous at 𝑧 = 0.
𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑓(0) 𝑥 𝑅𝑒 𝑧
𝑁𝑜𝑤, lim = lim
𝑧→0 𝑧−0 𝑧→0 |𝑧|. 𝑧
𝑅𝑒 𝑧
= lim
𝑧→0 |𝑧|
𝑥
= lim , 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
𝑥→0 2 + 𝑦2
𝑦→0 √𝑥

Let 𝑧 → 0 along the path 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥

Then,
Page 28 of 42
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𝑚𝑥 𝑚
lim = lim
𝑥→0 √𝑥 2 + 𝑚2 𝑥 2 𝑥→0 √1 + 𝑚2
Which is depends on 𝑚. Thus,
𝑓 (𝑧) − 𝑓(0)
lim
𝑧→0 𝑧−0
Does not exist. Hence 𝑓 is not differentiable at 𝑧 = 0.
• 𝐸𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒: −
𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑦 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑓𝑦 𝐶 − 𝑅 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒.
𝑥𝑦 2 (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)
(𝑖)𝑓 (𝑧) = { 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 4 , 𝑧 ≠ 0
0, 𝑧 = 0
𝑥 1 + 𝑖) − 𝑦 3 (1 − 𝑖)
3(

(𝑖𝑖)𝑓 (𝑧) = { ,𝑧 ≠ 0
𝑥 2 + 𝑦2
0, 𝑧 = 0
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: −(𝑖)

𝑥𝑦 2 (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)
𝑓 (𝑧 ) =
𝑥 2 + 𝑦4
𝑥 2𝑦2 𝑥𝑦 3
= 2 +𝑖 2
𝑥 + 𝑦4 𝑥 + 𝑦4
= 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦)
Where
𝑥 2𝑦2 𝑥𝑦 3
𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 (𝑥, 𝑦 ) =
𝑥 2 + 𝑦4 𝑥 2 + 𝑦4
Now,
𝑢(ℎ, 0) − 𝑢(0,0)
𝑢𝑥 (0,0) = lim =0
ℎ→0 ℎ
𝑢(0, 𝑘 ) − 𝑢(0,0)
𝑢𝑦 (0,0) = lim =0
𝑘→0 𝑘
𝑣(ℎ, 0) − 𝑣(0,0)
𝑣𝑥 (0,0) = lim =0
ℎ→0 ℎ
𝑣(0, 𝑘 ) − 𝑣(0,0)
𝑣𝑦 (0,0) = lim =0
𝑘→0 𝑘
Page 29 of 42
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𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑓(0) 𝑥𝑦 2 (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)

𝐵𝑢𝑡 lim = lim 2 , 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
𝑧→0 𝑧−0 𝑧→0 (𝑥 + 𝑦 4 )(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)

𝑥𝑦 2
= lim 2
𝑧→0 𝑥 + 𝑦 4

If 𝑧 → 0 along the curve 𝑦 2 = 𝑚𝑥 we have,

𝑓 (𝑧) − 𝑓(0) 𝑚𝑥 2 𝑚
lim = lim 2 =
𝑧→0 𝑧−0 𝑧→0 𝑥 + 𝑚2 𝑥 2 1 + 𝑚2
Which depends on 𝑚.
𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑓(0)
∴ lim
𝑧→0 𝑧−0
Not exists. Hence it is not differentiable at origin although Cauchy-Riemann equations
are satisfied there.
(𝑖𝑖)
𝑥 3 (1 + 𝑖) − 𝑦 3 (1 − 𝑖)
𝑓 (𝑧) =
𝑥 2 + 𝑦2
(𝑥 3 − 𝑦 3 ) + 𝑖 (𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3 )
=
𝑥 2 + 𝑦2
= 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦)
𝑥 3 − 𝑦3 𝑥 3 + 𝑦3
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) = 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) = 2
𝑥 + 𝑦2 𝑥 + 𝑦2
Now,
𝑢(ℎ, 0) − 𝑢(0,0)
𝑢𝑥 (0,0) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
3
ℎ −0
2 −0
= lim ℎ
ℎ→0 ℎ
ℎ−0
= lim =1
ℎ→0 ℎ
𝑢(0, 𝑘 ) − 𝑢(0,0)
𝑢𝑦 (0,0) = lim
𝑘→0 𝑘
−𝑘 − 0
= lim = −1
𝑘→0 𝑘
𝑣(ℎ, 0) − 𝑣(0,0)
𝑣𝑥 (0,0) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

Page 30 of 42
 31

ℎ−0
= lim =1
ℎ→0 ℎ
𝑣 (0, 𝑘 ) − 𝑣(0,0)
𝑣𝑦 (0,0) = lim
𝑘→0 𝑘
𝑘−0
= lim =1
𝑘→0 𝑘

∴ 𝑢𝑥 (0,0) = 𝑣𝑦 (0,0) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢𝑦 (0,0) = −𝑣𝑥 (0,0)

Hence 𝐶 − 𝑅 equations are satisfied at the origin.
𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑓(0) (𝑥 3 − 𝑦 3 ) + 𝑖(𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3 )
𝐵𝑢𝑡, lim = lim 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
𝑧→0 𝑧−0 𝑧→0 (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)
If 𝑧 → 0 along the line 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 we have,-
𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑓(0) (𝑥 3 − 𝑚3 𝑥 3 ) + 𝑖 (𝑥 3 + 𝑚3 𝑥 3 )
lim = lim
𝑧→0 𝑧−0 𝑥→0 (𝑥 2 + 𝑚2 𝑥 2 )(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑚𝑥)
[(1 − 𝑚3 ) + 𝑖(1 + 𝑚3 )]𝑥 3
= lim
𝑥→0 𝑥 3 (1 + 𝑚2 )(1 + 𝑖𝑚)
(1 − 𝑚3 ) + 𝑖(1 + 𝑚3 )
=
(1 + 𝑚2 )(1 + 𝑖𝑚)
Which is different for different values of 𝑚. Hence 𝑓(𝑧) is not differentiable although it
satisfied 𝐶 − 𝑅 equation in zero.
• 𝐸𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒: −
𝜃 𝜃
𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑓 (𝑧) = √𝑟 (cos + 𝑖 sin ) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑟 > 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 0 < 𝜃 < 2𝜋 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒
2 2
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑓 ′ (𝑧).
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: −
𝜃 𝜃
𝑓 (𝑧) = √𝑟 (cos + 𝑖 sin )
2 2
= 𝑢(𝑟, 𝜃) + 𝑖𝑣 (𝑟, 𝜃)(𝑆𝑎𝑦)
𝜃 𝜃
∴ 𝑢(𝑟, 𝜃) = √𝑟 cos 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣(𝑟, 𝜃) = √𝑟 sin
2 2
𝜕𝑢 1 𝜃 𝜕𝑣 1 𝜃
𝑁𝑜𝑤, = cos , = sin
𝜕𝑟 2√𝑟 2 𝜕𝑟 2√𝑟 2
𝜕𝑢 1 𝜃 𝜕𝑣 √𝑟 𝜃
= − √𝑟 sin , = cos
𝜕𝜃 2 2 𝜕𝜃 2 2
𝜕𝑢 1 𝜃 √𝑟 𝜃 1 𝜕𝑣
∴ = cos = cos =
𝜕𝜃 2√𝑟 2 2𝑟 2 𝑟 𝜕𝜃
Page 31 of 42
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𝜕𝑣 1 𝜃
𝑎𝑛𝑑 = sin
𝜕𝑟 2√𝑟 2
√𝑟 𝜃 1 2
= − sin (− ).
2 2 2 √𝑟 √𝑟
1 𝜕𝑢
=−
𝑟 𝜕𝜃
Thus 𝑢, 𝑣 satisfy 𝐶 − 𝑅 equations in polar form. Further all the partial derivative are
continuous.
Hence 𝑓′(𝑧) exist. i.e., 𝑓 is differentiable. Also
𝑟 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝑓 ′ (𝑧) = ( + 𝑖 )
𝑧 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟
𝑟 1 𝜃 1 𝜃
= ( cos + 𝑖 sin )
𝑧 2 √𝑟 2 2 √𝑟 2
√𝑟 𝜃 𝜃
= (cos + 𝑖 sin )
2𝑧 2 2
(
𝑓 𝑧 )
=
2𝑧
• 𝐸𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒: −
𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑧 3 + 𝑧 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐.
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: −
𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑧 3 + 𝑧
= (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)3 + (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦), 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
= 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 . 𝑖𝑦 − 3𝑥𝑦 2 − 𝑖𝑦 3 + 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
= (𝑥 3 − 3𝑥𝑦 2 + 𝑥) + 𝑖 (3𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑦 2 + 𝑦)
= 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣 (𝑥, 𝑦)(𝑆𝑎𝑦)
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥𝑦 2 + 𝑥
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) = 3𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑦 3 + 𝑦
Now,
𝑢𝑥 = 3𝑥 2 − 3𝑦 2 + 1
𝑣𝑥 = 6𝑥𝑦
𝑢𝑦 = −6𝑥𝑦
𝑣𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 − 3𝑦 2 + 1
Thus 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢𝑦 = −𝑣𝑥 .

Page 32 of 42
 33

i.e., 𝑢, 𝑣 satisfies 𝐶 − 𝑅 equations, also all the partial derivatives 𝑢𝑥 , 𝑢𝑦 , 𝑣𝑥 , 𝑣𝑦 are

continuous.
Hence 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 3 + 𝑧 is analytic.
• 𝐸𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑠: −
𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐.
(𝑖)𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑒 𝑧
(𝑖𝑖)𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑒 𝑧̅
(𝑖𝑖𝑖)𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑒 −𝑥 (cos 𝑦 − 𝑖 sin 𝑦)
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: −
𝐷𝑜 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑓.
• 𝐸𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒: −
𝐼𝑓 𝑓 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐷 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢𝑣 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝐷, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑎
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 ⟹ 𝑣 2 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.
• 𝐻𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: −
𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: − If 𝐷 ⊆ 𝐶 be a region. Then a real valued functions 𝜙: 𝐷 → 𝑅 of two
variables 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 is said to be harmonic in 𝐷 if the partial derivatives
𝜙𝑥 , 𝜙𝑦 , 𝜙𝑦𝑦 , 𝜙𝑥𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜙𝑥𝑦 are all continuous and 𝜙𝑥𝑥 + 𝜙𝑦𝑦 = 0 ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐷.
i.e., 𝜙 satisfies Laplace’s equation on 𝐷 (𝑖. 𝑒. , ∇2 𝜙 = 0). If two harmonic function
𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) satisfies 𝐶 − 𝑅 equations namely 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦 , 𝑢𝑦 = −𝑣𝑥 in a region 𝐷.
Then the function 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) is called the conjugate harmonic function of 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦).
• 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑚: −
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑓: −
Let 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) be an analytic function. Then 𝑢 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 have continuous
partial derivative of first order which satisfies the 𝐶 − 𝑅 equations given by-
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 =−
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
2 2 2
𝜕 𝑢 𝜕 𝑢 𝜕 𝑣 𝜕2𝑣
𝐹𝑢𝑟𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟, = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 =
𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑥
Now,

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𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑢 𝜕 𝜕𝑢 𝜕 𝜕𝑢
+ = ( ) + ( )
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
𝜕 𝜕𝑣 𝜕 𝜕𝑣
= ( )+ (− )
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
2 2
𝜕 𝑣 𝜕 𝑣
= −
𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑥
=0
Therefore 𝑢 is a harmonic function.
Similarly we can prove 𝑣 is a harmonic function.
• 𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑘: −
Laplace equation provides a necessary condition for a function to be real or imaginary
part of an analytic function.
• 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒: −
𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦
𝑢𝑥𝑥 + 𝑢𝑦𝑦 = 2
∴ 𝑢 is not a harmonic function and hence it can be the real part of any analytic
function.
• 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡: −
𝐴𝑛𝑦 𝑡𝑤𝑜 ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑗𝑢𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐷 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑦 𝑎
𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑓: −
Let 𝑢 be a harmonic function. Let 𝑣 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 ∗ be two harmonic conjugates of 𝑢.
∴ 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 ∗ are analytic function in 𝐷.
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 ∗
∴ = =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 ∗
𝑎𝑛𝑑 =− =−
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕 𝜕
∴ (𝑣 − 𝑣 ∗ ) = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑣 − 𝑣 ∗ ) = 0
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
∗
⟹ 𝑣 − 𝑣 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.
⟹ 𝑣 = 𝑣∗ + 𝑐
Hence the result follows.

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• 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑚: −
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑎 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑓 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐.
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: −
𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦
∴ 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦 , 𝑢𝑥𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦
𝑢𝑦 = −𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑦 , 𝑢𝑦𝑦 = −𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦
Thus 𝑢𝑥𝑥 + 𝑢𝑦𝑦 = 0. Moreover 𝑢𝑥 , 𝑢𝑦 , 𝑢𝑥𝑥 , 𝑢𝑦𝑦 are all continuous. Hence 𝑢 is a harmonic
function in ℂ.
If 𝑣 is a conjugate harmonic function of 𝑢.
We have,
𝑢𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢𝑦 = −𝑣𝑥
∴ 𝑣𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦
Integrating w.r.to 𝑦 we get,-
𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑦 + 𝜙(𝑥),
Where 𝜙(𝑥) is a function of 𝑥 alone.
∴ 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑦 + 𝜙′(𝑥)
⟹ 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑦 + 𝜙 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑦
⟹ 𝜙 ′ (𝑥 ) = 0
⟹ 𝜙 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑐 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
∴ 𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑦 + 𝑐
Hence 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦 + 𝑖(𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑦 + 𝑐) is an analytic function.
• 𝐸𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒: −
𝐷𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑎 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑜𝑛 ℂ
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒
(𝑖)𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥 cos ℎ𝑦
(𝑖𝑖)𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥(1 − 𝑦)
(𝑖𝑖𝑖)𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) = 2𝑥 − 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥𝑦 2
• 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑀𝑖𝑙𝑛𝑒 𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑠𝑜𝑛 𝑀𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑑: −
Let 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) be a complex valued function.
Since

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𝑧 + 𝑧̅ 𝑧 − 𝑧̅
𝑥= ,𝑦 =
2 2𝑖
We can write
𝑧 + 𝑧̅ 𝑧 − 𝑧̅ 𝑧 + 𝑧̅ 𝑧 − 𝑧̅
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢 ( , ) + 𝑖𝑣 ( , )
2 2𝑖 2 2𝑖
And it is a function of two independent variables 𝑧 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧̅. On putting, 𝑧̅ = 𝑧, we get,
𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑢(𝑧, 0) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑧, 0)
𝑁𝑜𝑤, 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) = 𝑢𝑥 + 𝑖𝑣𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥 − 𝑖𝑢𝑦 [𝑏𝑦 𝐶 − 𝑅 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛]
𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑢𝑥 = 𝜙1 (𝑥, 𝑦), 𝑢𝑦 = 𝜙2 (𝑥, 𝑦)
Then,
𝑓 ′ (𝑧) = 𝜙1 (𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝑖𝜙2 (𝑥, 𝑦)
= 𝜙1 (𝑧, 0) − 𝑖𝜙2 (𝑧, 0)
Integrating we get,-

𝑓 (𝑧) = ∫ 𝜙1 (𝑧, 0)𝑑𝑧 − 𝑖 ∫ 𝜙2 (𝑧, 0)𝑑𝑧 + 𝐶

Where 𝐶 is an arbitrary constant.

Similarly, if 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) be given, then we have,-

𝑓 (𝑧) = ∫[𝜓1 (𝑧, 0) + 𝑖𝜓2 (𝑧, 0)]𝑑𝑧 + 𝑐′

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑣𝑦 = 𝜓1 (𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑥 = 𝜓2 (𝑥, 𝑦)

• 𝐸𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒: −
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑒 −𝑥 {(𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 ) cos 𝑦 + 2𝑥𝑦 sin 𝑦}
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: −
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑒 −𝑥 {(𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 ) cos 𝑦 + 2𝑥𝑦 sin 𝑦}
𝜕𝑢
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝜙1 = = 𝑒 −𝑥 {2𝑥 cos 𝑦 + 2𝑦 sin 𝑦} − 𝑒 −𝑥 {(𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 ) cos 𝑦 + 2𝑥𝑦 sin 𝑦}
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜙2 = = 𝑒 −𝑥 {−2𝑦 cos 𝑦 − (𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 ) sin 𝑦 + 2𝑥 sin 𝑦 + 2𝑥𝑦 cos 𝑦}
𝜕𝑦
′( )
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝜙1 (𝑧, 0) − 𝑖𝜙2 (𝑧, 0)
= 𝑒 −𝑧 (2𝑧 − 𝑧 2 )
Integrating we have,-

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𝑓(𝑧) = ∫ 𝑒 −𝑧 (2𝑧 − 𝑧 2 )𝑑𝑧 + 𝑐

= −(2𝑧 − 𝑧 2 )𝑒 −𝑧 + ∫(2 − 2𝑧)𝑒 −𝑧 𝑑𝑧 + 𝑐

= −(2𝑧 − 𝑧 2 )𝑒 −𝑧 − (2 − 2𝑧)𝑒 −𝑧 − ∫ 2𝑒 −𝑧 𝑑𝑧 + 𝑐
= 𝑧 2 𝑒 −𝑧 + 𝑐
= (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)2 𝑒 −(𝑥+𝑖𝑦) + 𝑐
= (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)2 𝑒 −𝑥 (cos 𝑦 − 𝑖 sin 𝑦) + 𝑐

COMPLEX ANALYSIS (10 YRS. QUESTIONS)

𝑪. 𝑼. −𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟖
1. Prove that the stereographic image of a circle in the complex plane is a circle in
the Riemann sphere. (3)
2. Let
|𝑧̅|
, 𝑖𝑓 𝑅𝑒(𝑧) ≠ 0.
𝑓 (𝑧) = {𝑅𝑒 (𝑧)
0, 𝑖𝑓 𝑅𝑒(𝑧) = 0.
Prove or disprove that 𝑓 is continuous at 𝑧 = 0. (2)
3. If 𝑢 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 are respectively the real and imaginary parts of 𝑃(𝑧) defined by
(𝑧̅)2
𝑓 (𝑧) = { 𝑧 , 𝑖𝑓 𝑧 ≠ 0
0, 𝑖𝑓 𝑧 = 0
Verify that Cauchy-Riemann equation are satisfied at 𝑧 = 0 although 𝑓′(0) doers
not exist.
4. Let 𝑓 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 be analytic in a region 𝐺 in 𝐶 such that 𝐴𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝐵𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑐 = 0
for all 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 ∈ 𝐺, where 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 are real constant with (𝐴, 𝐵) ≠ (0,0). Prove that 𝑓
is constant on 𝐺. (3)
5. Examine the analytic of the function 𝑓(𝑧) = |𝑧 − 1|2 𝑎𝑡 𝑧 = 1. (2)
6. Define a harmonic function in region 𝐺(⊆ 𝐶). Prove that 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦 is a
harmonic function on 𝑐. Determine its harmonic conjugate and the corresponding
analytic function. (1 + 2 + 2)
7. Prove that a real valued function of a complex variable either has derivative zero
or the derivative does not exist. (3)

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8. Find the points where the function 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) where 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) =
𝑥 2 𝑦 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) = 2𝑥 2 𝑦 2 is differentiable and hence that is nowhere analytic.
(2)

𝑪. 𝑼. −𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕
1. If 𝑉 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑒 −2𝑥𝑦 sin(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ), show that 𝑉 satisfies Laplace’s equation and find
an analytic function of which 𝑉 is its imaginary part. (2+3)
2. If 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic in a domain 𝐷, then show that 𝑓(𝑧) must be constant in 𝐷 if
arg 𝑓(𝑧) is constant. (2)
3. Let 𝑓: 𝐺 → ℂ, where 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) be a function of complex
variable defined on a region 𝐺 𝑖𝑛 ℂ such that ′𝑓′ is differentiable at 𝑧 = (𝛼, 𝛽) ∈ 𝐺.
Prove that 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) are differentiable at (𝛼, 𝛽). (3)
4. Show that function 𝑓: ℂ → ℂ such that
𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) is continuous at 𝑧0 = 𝑥0 + 𝑖𝑦0 if and only if 𝑢 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 are
both continuous at (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ). (5)
5. Let,
𝑥 2 𝑦 5 (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)
𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 { 𝑥 4 + 𝑦10 , 𝑧 ≠ 0, 𝑧 = (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ ℂ
0, 𝑥 = 0
Show that real valued function 𝑢 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 satisfy Cauchy-Riemann equations at the
origin but 𝑓′(0) does not exists. (3+2)
6. Using definition show that the function defined by
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 + 𝑖(𝑧 + 𝑧̅)(𝑧 ∈ ℂ)
Is continuous at 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑖. (3)
√3−𝑖
7. For the point in the complex plane ℂ, find the corresponding image point on
2
the Riemann sphere. (2)
𝑪. 𝑼. −𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟔
1. Define a harmonic function. Show that 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) = log √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 , where (𝑥, 𝑦) ≠
(0,0) is harmonic. Find an analytic function 𝑓(𝑧) with 𝑢 is a real part. (1+1+1)
2. Let 𝑓: 𝐺 → ℂ be analytic on the region 𝐺, if |𝑓| is constant on 𝐺 then prove that 𝑓
is constant on 𝐺. (2)
3. Let 𝑓: 𝐺 → ℂ, where 𝐺 is a region in ℂ. Prove that 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic at 𝑧0 ∈ 𝐺 if and
only if ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑓 (𝑧̅) is analytic at 𝑧0 . (3)
4. Under the condition a function 𝑓: 𝐺 → ℂ, where 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) +
𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦), 𝑢, 𝑣 being real valued, is differentiable at a point 𝑧0 ∈ 𝐺, 𝐺 being a region
in ℂ? Justify your answer. (1+4)

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5. Let 𝑓: ℂ → ℂ be defined by
𝑥𝑦 2 (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)
𝑓 (𝑧 ) = ,𝑧 ≠ 0
𝑥 4 + 𝑦4
= 0, 𝑧 = 0 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
Prove that 𝑓 is continuous at 𝑧 = 0 but not differentiable there. (2+3)
6. Define Riemann sphere and stereographic projection corresponding to a complex
number 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦, 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ. If (𝜀, 𝜂, 𝜀 ) be stereographic projection
corresponding to 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 then find 𝜀, 𝜂, 𝜀 in terms of 𝑥, 𝑦. (2 + 3)
𝑪. 𝑼. −𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟓
1. Define a stereographic projection. If 𝑇 ⊂ 𝐶 is a lane, show that the image of the
line 𝑇 under the stereographic projection is a circle minus north pole in the
Riemann spheres. (2+3)
2. Show that the function 𝑓 (𝑧) = |𝑧|2 is differentiable only at 𝑧 = 0. (3)
3. Let 𝑓 be a real valued function of a complex variable and differentiable at a point
𝛼 ∈ 𝑐. Prove that 𝑓 ′ (𝛼 ) = 0. (2)
4. Show that the function
−𝑧 −4
𝑓 (𝑧) = {𝑒 ,𝑧 ≠ 0
0, 𝑧 = 0
Is not differentiable at ′𝑜′ although 𝑓 satisfies Cauchy-Riemann equation at o.
(3+2)
5. Let 𝑓: 𝐺 → ℂ where 𝑓 (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) be a function of complex
variable define on a region 𝐺, which is differentiable at 𝑧0 = 𝑥0 + 𝑖𝑦0 then prove
that 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) and 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) are differentiable at (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) and
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
= , = 𝑎𝑡 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) (5)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
6. If 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑦. Show that there exists a function 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) such that 𝑓(𝑧) =
𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 is analytic in a finite region. (5)
𝑪. 𝑼. −𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟒
1. Find the constant ′𝑎′ so that 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑎𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 + 𝑥𝑦 is harmonic on ℝ2 . Find the
analytic function 𝑓: ℝ2 → ℂ forwhich ′𝑢′ is the real part. (2+3)
2. Show that the function 𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦) = √|𝑥𝑦| (𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ) is not analytic at the origin. (3)
3. If 𝑓 (𝑧) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑓(𝑧) are both analytic in the region then show that 𝑓(𝑧) is constant in
that region. (2)
4. Let 𝐺 be a region in ℂ and (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) ∈ 𝐺. If 𝑢, 𝑣: 𝐺 → ℝ be differentiable at (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ).
Prove that 𝑢, 𝑣: 𝐺 → ℂ is differentiable at (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) provided 𝑢, 𝑣 satisfy the Cauchy-
Riemann equation at (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ). (5)
5. Prove that

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𝑧 𝑅𝑒 𝑧
, 𝑖𝑓 𝑧 ≠ 0
𝑓(𝑧) = { |𝑧|
0, 𝑖𝑓 𝑧 = 0
Is continuous at 𝑧 = 0 but not differentiable at 𝑧 = 0. (2 + 3)
1 2 1
6. Find the point 𝑄 = (𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾 ) on the Riemann sphere 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + (𝑧 − 2) = 4 that
corresponds to the complex number 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦(𝑥 ∈ 𝑅, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅 ) under
stereographic projection. (5)

𝑪. 𝑼. −𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟑
1. If 𝑧 is a point on the complex plane and (𝜀, 𝜂, 𝜀 ) is its stereographic projection on
1 2 1
the Riemann sphere 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + (𝑧 − 2) = 4 then prove that
𝜀 + 𝑖𝜂
𝑧= (𝑖 = √−1). (5)
1−𝜀
2. Let 𝐺 be open disc in ℝ2 and 𝑢, 𝑣 be real valued functions defined on 𝐺. Prove that
𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 is continuous on 𝐺. 𝑓 and only if 𝑢, 𝑣 are continuous on 𝐺. (5)
3. Prove that function
𝑥 3 (1 + 𝑖) − 𝑦 3 (1 − 𝑖)
, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ≠ 𝑐
𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) = { 2
𝑥 +𝑦 2

0, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑐.
Satisfies Cauchy-Riemann equation at the origin but 𝑓′(0) does not exists
(𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ). (3 + 2)
4. If 𝑓 (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦)[𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ] is given by (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥 2 𝑦 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) =
4𝑥 2 𝑦 2 . find the points in the complex plane where the Cauchy-Riemann
equations are satisfied. Discuss the analytical of 𝑓. (3 + 2)
5. Prove that 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥𝑦 2 [𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ] is a harmonic function on ℝ2 . Find a
harmonic conjugate of 𝑢. (2 + 3)

𝑪. 𝑼. −𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟐
1. Prove that 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑒 𝑥 (𝑥 cos 𝑦 − 𝑦 sin 𝑦) is a Harmonic function on ℝ2 . Find the
harmonic conjugate 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦). (2 + 3)
2. If 𝑓 be an analytic function on a region 𝐷 such that 𝐼𝑚𝑓 = 0. Then show that 𝑓 is
constant. (5)

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1−𝑖
3. Define stereographic projection for the points in the complex plane ℂ find the
√2
1 2
corresponding image point on the Riemann sphere 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + (𝑧 − 2) =
1
(2 + 3)
4
4. Let 𝑓: ℂ → ℂ be defined by
(𝑧̅)2
𝑓 (𝑧) = , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑧 ≠ 0
𝑧
= 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑧 = 0
Show that 𝑓 satisfies Cauchy-Riemann equations at 𝑧 = 0 but the derivative of 𝑓
fails to exist there. (5)
5. Let 𝑓: 𝐺 → ℂ where 𝑓 (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) be a function of complex
variable defined on a region 𝐺 𝑖𝑛 ℂ: 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦), 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) being real valued functions. If
𝑓 is differentiable on 𝐺, prove that 𝑢, 𝑣 are also differentiable on 𝐺 and satisfy 𝐶 −
𝑅 equations at every point of 𝐺. (5)

𝑪. 𝑼. −𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟏
1. If 𝑢 − 𝑣 = (𝑥 − 𝑦)(𝑥 2 + 4𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 is an analytic function of
𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦(𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ) find 𝑓(𝑧) in terms of 𝑧. (5)
2. Prove that the function 𝑓(𝑧) = |𝑧|, 𝑧 ∈ ℂ is not analytic at the origin although it is
differentiable there. (5)
3. Suppose that 𝑓 is an analytic function in a region 𝐷 ⊆ ℂ having constant modulus.
Show that is a constant function.
4. Let 𝑓 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 be defined in some neighborhood 𝑁(𝑧0 )𝑜𝑓 𝑧0 (𝑧0 ∈ ℂ) 𝑢, 𝑣 be real
valued functions of real variable 𝑥, 𝑦 such that 𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑢𝑥 , 𝑢𝑦 , 𝑣𝑥 , 𝑣𝑦 are continuous at
(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) where 𝑧0 = 𝑥0 + 𝑖𝑦0 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ∈ ℝ). If 𝑢, 𝑣 satisfy 𝐶 − 𝑅 equations at (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ),
prove that 𝑓 is differentiable at 𝑧0 .
5. Let 𝑓: 𝐺 → ℂ be a function defined on a region 𝐺 𝑖𝑛 ℂ such that 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) +
𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦). Where 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) are real valued function defined on 𝐺 ∈ 𝑧 =
𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦, 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ except possibly at 𝑧0 = 𝑥0 + 𝑖𝑦0 (𝑥0 , 𝑦𝑜 ∈ ℝ). Prove that
Lt 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 (𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ)
𝑧→𝑧0
If and only if
Lt 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥→𝑥
𝑥→𝑥0
Lt 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑏.
0
𝑦→𝑦0 𝑦→𝑦0

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