I.

STRUCTURAL STEEL

• is steel construction material, a profile, formed with a specific shape or cross section and certain standards of
chemical composition and strength.
• Steel rolled in a variety of shapes (such as beams, angles, bars, plates, sheets, plates, strips, etc.) and
fabricated for use as load-bearing structural members or elements.

COMMON SHAPES

I-BEAMS

• also known as W-beams or double-T esp. in Polish and German.

• beams with an I- or H-shaped cross section.
• horizontal elements are flanges, while the vertical element is the web.
• The cross-section has a reduced capacity in the transverse direction, and is also inefficient in carrying torsion, for
which hollow structural sections are often preferred.

I-BEAMS - STANDARD FORMS

• Rolled I-Beams – formed by hot rolling (the shaping of plate metal by rolling very hot slabs of metal), cold rolling
(rolling at room temperature, usually to obtain improved surface finish or higher tensile strength) or extrusion
(metal shape is produced by forcing a hot metal through an orifice in a die by means of a pressure ram).
• Plate Girder - formed by welding (or occasionally bolting or riveting) plates.
• commonly made of structural steel but may also be formed from aluminum or other materials.
• common type of I-beam is the rolled steel joist (RSJ) - sometimes incorrectly rendered as "reinforced
steel joist".

I-BEAMS - DESIGN CRITERIAS

 Deflection - the stiffness of the I-beam will be chosen to minimize deformation.

 Vibration - the stiffness and mass are chosen to prevent unacceptable vibrations, particularly in settings
sensitive to vibrations, such as offices and libraries.
 Bending failure by yielding - where the stress in the cross section exceeds the yield stress.
 Bending failure by lateral torsional buckling - where a flange in compression tends to buckle sideways or the
entire cross-section buckles torsionally.
 Bending failure by local buckling - where the flange or web is so slender as to buckle locally.
 Local yield - caused by concentrated loads, such as at the beam's point of support.
 Shear failure - where the web fails. Slender webs will fail by buckling, rippling in a phenomenon termed tension
field action, but shear failure is also resisted by the stiffness of the flanges.
 Buckling or yielding of components - for example, of stiffeners used to provide stability to the I-beam's web.
COMMON SHAPES

 Angle Iron – also known as Angle Bar. An L-shaped steel bar or structural steel member.
 Channel Bar – also known as Channel Iron. A rolled iron or steel bar whose U-shape cross section is formed by
a broad central section, called a web, with a flange on both sides.
 Tee - also known as T-beam. A rolled metal shape having a cross section resembling the letter T.
 Rail Profile - a hot rolled steel profile of a specific shape or cross section (an asymmetrical I-beam).

o Bar – A solid metal product having square, rectangular, or other simple symmetrical cross-sectional shape and a
length much greater than its width.
o Plate – A steel girder built up of plates and angles (or other structural shapes), welded or riveted together.
o Rod – A solid metal product that is long in relation to its cross section.
o Open-Web Steel Joists – A steel truss having an open web whose component parts are either hot-rolled
structural shapes or cold-formed light-gauge steel shapes.

STEEL VS. CONCRETE

• During times of lower steel prices, more steel and less concrete is used, and vice versa.
• However, both materials are typically used together. Concrete without steel reinforcement (usually ribbed round
bars called Rebar) crumbles under tensile loads. Steel on its own, without solid concrete floors, is likewise not a
preferred building method.

THERMAL PROPERTIES

• The austenizing temperature - the temperature where a steel transforms to an austenite crystal structure, for
steel starts at 900°C for pure iron, then, as more carbon is added, the temperature falls to a minimum 724°C for
eutectic steel (steel with only .83% by weight of carbon in it). As 2.1% carbon (by mass) is approached, the
austenizing temperature climbs back up, to 1130°C.
• The lowest temperature at which plain carbon steel can begin to melt, is 1130 °C. Steel never turns into a liquid
below this temperature. Pure Iron ('Steel' with 0% Carbon) starts to melt at 1492 °C (2720 °F), and is completely
liquid upon reaching 1539 °C (2802 °F). Steel with 2.1% Carbon by weight begins melting at 1130 °C (2066 °F),
and is completely molten upon reaching 1315 °C (2400 °F). 'Steel' with more than 2.1% Carbon is no longer
steel, but is known as Cast Iron.

FIREPROOFING

 The time it takes for the steel element that is being tested to reach the temperature set by the national standard
determines the duration of the fire-resistance rating.
 Care must be taken to ensure that thermal expansion of structural elements does not damage fire-resistance
rated wall and floor assemblies.
 Penetrants in a firewalls and ferrous cable trays in organic fire stops should be installed in accordance with an
appropriate certification listing that complies with the local building code.
 Open Web Steel Joists (OWSJ) require a great deal of spray fireproofing because they are not very massive and
also because they are so open, that a lot of the sprayed plaster flies right past its constituent parts during the
coating process.
 Structural steel requires external insulation (fireproofing) in order to prevent the steel from weakening in the
event of a fire.
 Common fireproofing methods for structural steel include intumescent, endothermic and plaster coatings as well
as drywall and calcium silicate cladding.
 II. DESIGN OF STEEL MEMBERS
A. BEAMS

Types of Beams According to its Function

Purlin - carries the roof load between trusses or rafters

Rafter - usually a sloping beam carrying the reaction of purlins
Lintel - carries the masonry across the opening made by a door or window
Joist - a closely spaced beams supporting the floor of a building
Stringer - similar to a joist, it carries the flooring of a bridge
Girder - large-sized beams usually carrying the floor beams
Spandrel - spans between columns and support the floors and curtain walls
Grade beam - lowermost spandrel of a building that has no basement.
Shaft - circular beam that transmits power to the machinery. Also carries torsion in addition to
shear and flexure

Steel Sections
are classified as compact, non-compact, and slender element.

Sections

Allowable flexural stress

Compact sections Fb = 0.66Fy
Non-Compact sections Fb = 0.60Fy
Slender sections Fb  0.60Fy
Allowable shear stress Fv = 0.40Fy

SIMULATED BOARD PROBLEM:

A continuous beam is loaded as shown below. Assuming that the section is compact, investigate the
adequacy of the beam if Fy = 248 MPa.

Solve the reaction

For RA, Mc = 0 +

0 = RA (5) – 8(5)(2.5) – 45 (2)

RA = 38 kN

For Rc, Fv = 0 + ↑

0 = RA + Rc – 8(5) – 45
Rc = 47 kN
 Plot the Shear Diagram

VA = RA VA = + 38 kN
VBL = VA – (8)(3) VBL = + 14 kN
VBR = VBL – 45 VBR = - 31 kN
VC = VBR – 8 (2) VC = - 47 kN

Plot the moment diagram

MA = 0 Pinned support
MB = MA + ½ (VA + VBL)(3) MB = 78
MC = MB + ½ (VBR + VC) (2 ) MC = 0

Maximum values

Vmax = Vc = 47 kN
Mmax = MB = 78 kNm

Calculate section capacity from flexure formula, f = M/S

M = fb·S
For Compact Sections
Fb = 0.66 Fy
= 0.66 (248)
= 163.68 MPa
S = section modulus
= I/c
c = distance from NA to extreme fiber in tension / compression

Solving I and c

I =  INA +  Ad2
= 1/12 (150) (10)3 (2) + 1/12 (6) (280)3 + (150) (10) (145)2 (2)
I = 74.07 x 106 mm4
c = 300/2 = 150 mm

74.076 x 106
S= = 493840 mm3
150

Solving the moment capacity

M = (163.68 MPa) (493840 mm3)

M = 80.83 x 106 Nmm
M = 80.83 kNm > 78 kNm ; Therefore, OK!

Check shear capacity

fv = 0.40 Fy

= 0.40 (248)
= 99.20 MPa
Vcap = fv · Aw
=( 99.20 MPa) (300x6)
Vcap = 178560 N
Vcap = 178.56 > 47 kN ; Therefore, OK!

2. A beam having a simple span of 6 m. carries a uniformly distributed load “w” throughout its span,
acting on the plane of the minor axis of the beam section. The beam is laterally supported against lateral buckling
on the top and bottom flanges for the entire span. Use A 36 Steel with Fy = 248 MPa. E = 200 GPa.

Properties of Steel section:

bf = 0.210 m (flange width)
tf = 0.0174 m (flange thickness)
Sx = 0.0023 m3

Solution:
bf

tf
Fb = 066 Fy

6.03 < 10.80

Use Fb = 0.66 (248) = 163.68 MPa

Fb = M
Sx
M
163.68 =
2300 x 103
M = 376464000 N.mm
M = 376.464 kN.m

M= w L2
8
w 62
376.464 = ; w = 83.66 kN/m
8
3. A beam having a span of 3 m. is simply supported at both ends carries a uniform load of 12 kN/m and
a concentrated load P at the center. If the beam is laterally unsupported throughout its span, determine the safe
value of P if Fy = 250 MPa. Neglect weight of beam:

A = 14600 mm2 tw = 11.6 mm

bf = 261 mm Sx = 220 x 103 mm3
tf = 19.33 mm Sy = 439 x 103 mm3

Solution;

Lc = =

Lc = 3301 mm = 3.301 m > L = 3

Use
Fb = 0.66 Fy
Fb = 0.66 (250)
w L2 PL 12 (3)2 P(3)
8 4 8 4
M= + = +

M = (13.5 + 0.75 P) kN.m

M = (13.5 + 0.75 P) x 106 N.mm

Fb = M
S
165 = (13.5 + 0.75P) 10
6

2200 x 10 3

P = 466 kN

B. COLUMNS

Column and Column Design

- A Rigid, relatively slender structural member designated primarily to support axial, comprehensive loads applied
at the member ends.

Pillar
- An upright, relatively slender shaft or structure, usually of brick or stone ,used as a building support or
standing alone as a moment

Post
- A stiff vertical support, esp. a wooden column in timber framing

Pilaster
- A column that is attached to a wall; a shallow rectangular feature projecting from a wall, having a capital and a
base architecturally treated as a column

Canton
- A pilaster, column or similar feature projecting from a corner of a building

 Reinforced Concrete Column

- A concrete designated to act together with vertical and lateral reinforcement in resisting applied forces
reinforced concrete column constituting the principal supports for a floor or roof should have a minimum diameter of 10 in
(254 mm) or if rectangular in section, a minimum thickness of 8 in (203 mm) and a minimum gross area of 96 sq. in
(61935 sq. mm).

Short column

-A column having an unsupported height not greater than 10 times the shortest lateral dimension of the cross
section; a thick column subject to failure by crushing rather than buckling. Failure occurs when direct stress from
an axial load exceeds the comprehensive

Intermediate column

-A column having a mode of failure between that of a short column and a long column, often partly inelastic by
crushing and partly by elastic by buckling.
CATEGORIES OF CONCRETE COLUMNS

1. These Compression Blocks or Pedestals

-These are very short column. If the height of an upright compression member is less than three times its least
lateral dimension it may be considered to be a pedestal. Pedestal may be designated with reinforcement or plain
concrete.

2. Short Reinforced Concrete Columns

-If reinforced concrete column fail due to initial material failure, then such column is categorized as such. The
load it can support is controlled by the dimensions of the cross section and the strength of the materials of which its is
constructed.

3. Long Reinforced Concrete Columns

- If the length of column is increased, the chances that it will fail by buckling will be increased. A column that fails
by buckling is said to be long column. While a column that fails by crushing is generally a short column.

COLUMN TYPES

1. Tied Column

-A concrete column reinforced with vertical bars and individual lateral ties. Lateral ties should have a diameter of
at least 10mm 3/8 in. spaced apart not more than 48 tie diameters, 16 bar diameters or the least dimension of the column
section.

Vertical Reinforcement

-Longitudinal reinforcement placed in concrete column -- to absorb compressive stresses, resist bending
stresses and reduce the effects of creep and shrinkage in the column.

Lateral Reinforcement

-Spiral reinforcement or lateral ties placed in concrete column to laterally restrain the vertical reinforcement and
prevent buckling .

Spiral Reinforcement

- Lateral reinforcement consisting of an evenly spaced continuous spiral held firmly in place by vertical spacers.

Bundled Reinforcement

- Reinforcement employed consisting of two to four bars tied in direct contact with each other to serve or act as
one unit reinforcement placed at the corner at lateral ties.

2. Spiral Column

- A concrete column with spiral reinforcement enclosing a circular core reinforced with vertical bars.

3. Composite Column

- A composite column is a reinforced concrete column that is reinforced longitudinally by structural steel shapes,
which may not be surrounded by structural steel bars, or they may consist of structural steel tubing filled with concrete
commonly called “lally column ‘; a type of column where structural steel is embedded into concrete core of a spiral
column.
 Combined Column
- A column with a structural steel encased in a concrete of at least 7 cm thick reinforced with wire mesh
surrounding the column at a distance of 3 cm inside the outer surface of the correct covering.

Lally column
- A fabricated post made of steel provided with plain flat stell bar or plate which holds girder, girt or beam. The
steel pipe is sometimes filled with concrete for additional strength and protection from rust or corrosion.

Lateral Reinforcement for Compression Members

1. All non-prestressed bars shall be enclosed by lateral ties, at least 10 mm in size for longitudinal bars 32 mm or
smaller, and at least 12 mm in size for 36 mm and bundled longitudinal bars. Deformed wire of welded wire
fabric of equivalent area is allowed.

2. Vertical spacing of ties shall not exceed 16 longitudinal bar diameter, 48 tie diameters, or least dimension of the
compression member.

3. Ties shall be arranged such that every corner and alternate longitudinal bar have lateral support provided by the
corner of a tie with an included angle of not more than 135 degrees and no bar shall be farther than 150 mm
clear on each side along the tie from such a laterally supported bar. Where longitudinal bars are located around
the perimeter of a circle, a complete circular tie is allowed.

4. Ties shall be located vertically not more than ½ a tie spacing above the top of footing or slab in any story, and
shall be spaced as provided herein to not more than ½ a tie spacing below the lowest horizontal reinforcement in
slab or drop panel above.

5. Where beams or brackets frame from four direction into a column, ties may be terminated not more than 75mm
below lowest reinforcement in shallowest of such beams or brackets.

Spiral Reinforcement

1. Spirals shall consist of evenly spaced continuous bar or wire of such size and so assembled to permit handling
and placing without distortion from designed dimensions.

2. For cast-in-place construction, size of spirals shall not be less than 10 mm diameter.

3. Clear spacing between spirals shall not exceed 75 mm nor less than 25 mm.

4. Anchorage of spiral reinforcement shall be provided by 1 ½ extra turns of spiral bar or wire at each end of a spiral
unit.

5. Splices in spiral reinforcement shall be lap splices of 48db but not less than 300 mm or welded.

6. Spirals shall extend from top of footing or slab in any story to level of lowest horizontal reinforcement in members
supported above.

7. Where beams or brackets do not frame into all sides of a column, ties shall extend above termination of spiral to
bottom of slab or drop panel.

8. In columns with capitals, spirals shall extend to a level at which the diameter or width of capital is two times that
of the column.

9. Spirals shall be held firmly in place and true to line.

REINFORCED COLUMN DESIGN

Particulars Remarks
• Min. Cross sectional area of column Ag. 60,000 sq. mm
• Minimum thickness of column
• Minimum covering of ties 200 mm
• Minimum diameter of lateral ties  Not less than 40 mm
 2. Not less than 1.5 times the max. size of
coarse aggregate
• Lateral ties spacing 10 mm diameter

 Not more than 16 bar diameter

 Not more than 48 tie diameter
 Not more than the least dimension of
column.
• Clear distance between horizontal bars

• Minimum number of bars Not less than 1.5 times the bar diameter nor less
than 1.5 times the max. size of coarse
aggregate
• Pg (ratio of gross reinf. Area to gross cross
4-16 mm diameter
sectional area)
0.01-0.04
Source: American Concrete Institute (ACI)

COLUMN FORMULAS (ACI CODE 1963)

A. Tied Column (main long. Reinf.)

P=0.85 Ag (0.25 f’c + fs pg)

P=Pc + Ps
P=fc Ag + fs Ag
fc=0.25 f’c
fs=0.40 fy  to 200 MPa
Pg=As/ Ag-0.01 to 0.08
As=pg As
P=0.25 fc Ag + fs pgAg
P=Ag (0.25 f’c + fs pg)

Lateral Tie Spacing:

S1=16 dbb

S2=48 dt
S3=least dimension of column

Spiral Column
ACI Specification for Axially Loaded Spiral Column
 Particulars
Remarks
Minimum diameter 250 mm
Minimum diameter of spiral ties 10 mm diameter
Spacing of spiral ties
 Not more than 75 mm
 Not less than 25 mm
 Not less than 1.5 times the size of coarse
aggregate
 1/6 core diameter
Minimum number of bars
Clear distance between longitudinal bars 6-16 mm diameter
 Not less than 1.5 times bar diameter
Pg (ration of gross reinf. Area to gross cross sectional
 Not less than 1.5 times max. size of coarse
aggregate
area of column)
0.01-0.08
Source: American Concrete Institute (ACI)

Spiral Column (main long. Reinf.)

P=Ag (0.25 f’c + fs pg)

Spiral Spacing

S=4 Aspiral / Ps Dc

Where:
S-spiral spacing
Aspiral-area of spiral

Ps-ration of vol. Of spiral to volume of concrete

Dc-diameter of core

Ps=0.45 (Ag/Ac-1) f’c/fy

Dc=D-80

Where:
D-diameter of column
Ag-area of concrete column
Dc-diameter of concrete core
Ac-area of concrete core

Prevailing design load is axial and failure may be initiated by

 overstressing of the material
 buckling about the weak axis
For this reason, the equation that determine the allowable stress of the columns is express in terms of the length and
radius of gyration.

Where:

Fa = allowable axial stress

L = height of column
K = effective length factor
r = radius of gyration =
I = moment of inertia
A = cross sectional area

Prevailing design load is axial and failure may be initiated by

 overstressing of the material
 buckling about the weak axis
For this reason, the equation that determine the allowable stress of the columns is express in terms of the length and
radius of gyration.

SIMULATED BOARD PROBLEMS:

Calculate the axial capacity of the column shown if

a) L = 3m
b) L = 6m
Use Fy = 248 MPa, moment if inertia I = 1.20x106 mm4, and cross-sectional area A = 1550 mm2.

Solution

Solve the radius of gyration, r Solve Cc

r = 27.82 mm Cc = 126.17
a) if L = 3.0 m, solve KL/r

= 75.47 < Cc = 126.17 ; Therefore Intermediate Column

Solve the allowable axial stress, Fa

Fa = 109.23 MPa

Solve the axial capacity, P

P = Fa A
= 109.23 MPa (1550 mm2)
P = 169310 N

1. An axially loaded bracing is used as a secondary compression member has a length of 10 m. it has a
cross-sectional area of 14000 mm2 and a moment of inertia of 73.38 x 106 mm4. if E = 200000MPa,
compute its allowable compressive stress: Fy = 200 MPa.

Solution:

r = 72.40 mm
L = 10000 = 138.13 > C
c
r 72.40
= 125.66

12 π2 (200000)
Fa = 23 (138.13)2 = 53.98 MPa
Fa
Fas = ; for secondary members L/r < 200
1.6 – L/200 r

53.98
Fas = = 59.36 MPa
1.6 – 138.13/200

2. Find the capacity of column having slenderness ratio of 169.59 and a cross sectional area of 3200 mm2
using AISC specs. Fy = 250 MPa.

Solution:

= 125.66
L
= 169.59 > c
r

P = 12 π2 E
A 23 (L/r)2
P = 12 π2
3200 23 (169.59)2
P = 114586 N
P = 114.6 kN
 3. A column section has a cross-sectional area of 13379 mm2 , E = 200000 MPa, moment of inertia of 70.3 x
106 mm4. length = 6 m. If Fy = 250 MPa, determine the allowable compressive stress.

Solution:

r = 72.49
L 6000
= = 82.77
r 72.49

Cc = 125.66
L
< Cc
r

F.S. = 5 + (L/r) - (L/r)3

3 2Cc2 8Cc3
F.S. = 1.88

= 104.13 MPa

C. CONNECTIONS

1. Riveted and Bolted Connections

2. Welded Connections
 Classification of weld
Vertical, horizontal, flat, and overhead
 Types of weld
Bead, groove, fillet, plug and slot
 Types of groove weld (used for tee and butt joints)

Types of fillet (used for lap joint splices)

Standard Symbol of Weld

Standard Location of Weld Information

Standard Symbol of Weld

Symbol Application
Method of showing groove location when welds are not shown

III. REINFORCED CONCRETE

A. Definition of Terms

Concrete is a mixture of sand and gravel held together in a rock like mass with a paste of cement and water.
Reinforced Concrete is a combination of concrete and steel wherein the steel reinforcement provides the tensile strength
lacking in the concrete.

CONCRETE – is a conglomerate artificial stone made by mixing a paste of cement and water with sand and crushed
stone ,gravel or other inert materials.

MASS or PLAIN CONCRETE- members with stresses that are entirely compressive.
Example : Dams, piers, or footings.

REINFORCED CONCRETE – concrete with reinforcement other than that provided for shrinkage or temperature changes
embedded in such a manner that the two materials act together in resisting forces. Primarily steel is introduce to withstand
the tensile and shearing stresses.

PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE :

Compressive Stress
Tensile Stress
Shearing Stress
Contraction and extra expansion
Fireproof
Elastic property
Plastic Flow
COMPONENTS :

1.WATER- water containing 5% or more common salt should be avoided.

2.CEMENT- Specifications (ASTM C 150) Portland Cement

(ASTM C 175) Air-entraining Portland Cement
High Early Strength Concrete- 3-7 days periods
Normal Portland Cement - - - 7-28 days periods

3. SAND - materials smaller than 3/8 inch in diameter are called fine aggregates
- No. 4 sieve (4.75mm) – passing not less than 95 – 100%
- No. 50 sieve
- passing greater than 30% less than 10%

4.CRUSHED STONE – materials larger than 3/8 inch in diameter are called coarse aggregates size vary from 1/4 to 3
inch.
- Maximum for Reinforced Concrete 1 or 1 ½
- For close spacing of bars – 1/4 to 3/4 inch

OTHER KINDS OF CONCRETE AGGREGATES :

1.CINDER – for reinforced floor , roof slab and fireproofing, porous material.

2.SLAG - concrete of blast furnace slag makes a suitable lightweight conrete.

3.LIGHTWEIGHT AGGREGATES – example haydite is made by burning shale.

4. ADMIXTURES – substances added to concrete to improve its workability, accelerate its set, harden its surface,
increase its waterproof qualities. Example: calcium chloride and calcium oxychloride

5. AIR –ENTRAINED CONCRETE – air-entrained Portland cement is made by grinding small quantities of soap like,
resinous or fatty materials with normal cement clinker. – increase resistance to frost action.

CURING REQUIRED – time ,favorable temperature, and continued presence of water.

STRENGTH & DURABILITY – to sustain loads imposed and withstand attacks by Disastrous agents.

WORKABILITY – the concrete in its plastic form maybe readily placed in the forms.

SERVICEABILITY – it is important that member performance in normal service be satisfactory, when loads are those
actually expected to act example when load factors are one. The following should be considered in serviceability in the
strength design of concrete:

1. Service load cracking

2. Service load deflection – immediate and long term deflection due to shrinkage “creep” and temperature change

CONCRETE MIXTURES

Cement : Sand : Gravel

Concrete Proportion Specified Allowable

Class min. compressive
compressive strength
strength at fc=0.45 fc
28 days (f’c)
AAA 1:1:2 5,000 2250
AA 1: 1 ½ : 3 4,000 1800
A 1: 2:4 3,000 1350
B 1:2 ½ :5 2,500 1125
C 1:3:6 2,000 900
D 1:3 ½ : 7 1,500 675

PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE

Weight of Concrete = 24 kN/m³

Weight of Cement = 88 pounds/bag
Water –Cement ratio = 6 gallons / sack of cement
= 6-1/2 maximum
Slump(Beam & Slab) = 6 inches maximum
= 3 inches minimum

REINFORCING STEEL BARS:

Common Grade of Reinforcing Steel = 40 and 60

ASTM Specifications :
Billet Steel – A615
Rail Steel - A616
Axle Steel - A617

ALLOWABLE TENSILE STRESS FOR DESIGN

fs = 18,000 psi
fs = 20,000 psi
fs = 24,000 psi

FACTORS FOR COMPUTING CSG

Class Mixture Cement Sand Gravel

“AA” 1: 1 ½ : 3 10.46 bags 0.42 0.84
“A” 1:2:4 7.85 0.42 0.84
“B” 1:2½:5 6.49 0.44 0.87
“C” 1:3:6 5.49 0.44 0.89
“D” 1:3½:7 4.82 0.45 0.91
Special 1:2:3 9.47 0.51 0.76
Mortar 1:2 17.40 0.93 䦋䦋䦋䦋가䦋䦋䦋䦋䦋Ü
1:3 12.98 1.05

PHILIPPINE STANDARD REINFORCING BARS

Philippine Near ASTM Nominal Unit Weight

Standard Designation Section (kg/m)
Designation Area (mm²)

6 mm #2 ( 1/4”) 28.27 0.222

10 mm #3 ( 3/8”) 78.54 0.616
12 mm #4 ( 1/2”) 113.10 0.888
16 mm #5 ( 5/8”) 201.10 1.579
20 mm #6 ( 3/4”) 314.20 2.466
25 mm #8 ( 1” ) 491.90 3.854
28 mm #9 ( 1 1 / 8”) 615.75 4.833
32 mm #10 (1 1 / 4”) 804.25 6.313
36 mm #11 (1 3 / 8”) 1017.90 7.991

Minimum cover for cast in place concrete recommended by ACI Code

If concrete not exposed to the weather.

 For beams and columns 40mm
 For slabs, walls and joists with No. 35 bars or smaller 20mm
 For slabs, walls and joists with No. 45 or No. 55 bars 40mm
 For shells and folded plate members with No. 20 or less than 20mm
 For shells and folded plate members with No 10 or No. 15 bars 15mm

If concrete exposed to the weather:

o If reinforcing bars are No.20 or larger 50mm
o If reinforcing bars are No. 10 or No. 15 40mm

In all concrete cast directly on the earth 75mm

Temp. bars for slabs. ( Area requirements)

As = 0.002 bt for grade 300 bars
As = 0.0018 bt for grade 400 bars

Clear distance between bars.

 Not less than the bar diam nor 25 mm. for beams
 Not less than 1.5 bar diam nor 40 mm for columns
 When bars are placed in several layers, the clear distance between layers must not be less than 25 mm.

Maximum spacing of main reinforcing bars in slab and walls is equal to 3 times the wall or slabs thickness or 450 mm
whichever is smaller.

Spacing of tie wires for columns:

 not more than 16 bar diameter
 not more than 48 tie diameter
 not more than the least dimension of the cross-section
 Modulus of Elasticity of Concrete:

Ec = w 0.043 √fc’ Mpa (for value of Wc between 1500 – 2500 kg/m³)

Ec = 4730 √fc’ (for normal density concrete)

fc = 0.45 fc

fc = 165 MPa for grade 400

fc = 140 MPa for grade 300

The ratio 0.45 gives a factor of safety of 1 / 0.45 = 2.22

Es = 2,040,000 kg/ cm²

Es = 200,000 MPa for all types of steel

PROPERTIES OF REINFORCING BARS :

Reinforcing Bars Designation

Yield Stress and Tensile Stress
Bonding Strength
Minimum concrete protection for reinforcement
Reinforcing bar arrangement

WORKING STRESS & ULTIMATE STRENGTH SPECIFICATION :

ACI- 318-63
ACI- 318-83
ACI- 318-89 latest building code requirement for RC

FACTORS THAT AFFECT COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH :

1.Qualities of cement water & aggregate
2.Water-cement ratio
3.Thoroughness of mixture
4.Care in transporting
5.Placing the concrete mixture & curing condition
6. Concrete Age

A. WORKING STRESS DESIGN (WSD)

Working Stress Design

Applied Load   x Section Capacity   is less than 1

Allowable stresses
Flexural Members
for concrete fc = 0.45f’c
for steel fs = 138 MPa for Grades 276 & 345
fs = 165 MPa for Grades 414 & Higher

Compression/Compression with bending

for concrete fc = 0.34f’c
for steel fs = 0.40fy
NOTE: This value were taken based on 40 percent of strength using ultimate strength design
Where
f’c is the compressive strength of concrete
fy is the yield strength of steel
Es = 200,000 MPa is the modulus of elasticity of steel
Ec = 4700f’c is the modulus of elasticity of concrete

BEAMS

A. Transformed Section Method/Flexure Formula Method

 Where:

I is the moment of inertia

N is the modular ratio = Es/Ec
fc is allowable stress of concrete
fs is allowable stress of steel
Mc is moment for concrete
Ms is moment for steel
Y is the distance of extreme fiber in compression from NA
(d-y) is the location steel from NA]

B. Derivation of Design Formula

Where:

fs is allowable stress of steel

fc is allowable stress of concrete
M I internal moment capacity n is the modular ratio =Es/Ec
y is the distance of extreme fiber in compression from NA

COLUMNS

Three categories of columns:

1. Pedestal or Short Compression Blocks - height is less than three times the least dimension
2. Long or Slender Column - strength of the column is significantly reduced due to slenderness
3. Short Column - failure is initiated by material failure
Types of Columns
1. Tied
2. Spiral
3. Composite
Code Requirements:

1. Steel ratio  = As/Ag may not be less than 1 percent and greater than 8 percent
2. Minimum number of bar is 4 for rectangular, 6 for circular, 3 for triangular. Clear distance of longitudinal bar should not
be less 1.5bd or 40 mm.
3. Minimum dimension may be at least 200 mm to provide enough concrete cover of bars
4. Tie shall be 10mm for longitudinal bar 32mm and smaller, and12mm for longitudinal bar larger than 32mm.
5. Ties shall be spaced not more than 16 times the diameter of longitudinal bar, 48 times the diameter of ties, or the least
lateral dimension of the column.
6. Corner and alternate longitudinal bar must have lateral support provided by the corner of the tie and no bars shall be
located more than 150 mm on either side from such laterally supported bar.
7. Clear spacing of spirals may not be less than 25mm or greater than 75 mm

Formula for axially loaded column

For tied column (Φ = 0.40)

Pcap = 0.80 Φ [ 0.85 f’c (Ag – As) + fy As]

For spiral column (Φ = 0.40)

Pcap = 0.80 Φ [ 0.85 f’c (Ag – As) + fy As]

Where:
Pcap is the axial capacity at service load
f’c is the compressive strength of concrete
fy is the yield strength of steel
Ag is the gross area of column
As is the total area of reinforcing bar
ɸ is the factor to get the equivalent service load

SIMULATED BOARD PROBLEM:

1. Calculate the safe live load and dead load of the beam shown. Use f’c = 25 MPa and fs = 124 MPa.
Assume live load is 50 % of the dead load.

Solution

Allowable stress
fc ≤ 0.45 f’c
fs ≤ 124 MPa
Actual stress

M is the moment
I is the crack moment of inertia
c is the distance from NA to the point in question
At the level of steel, εs = εc

Since,
C = ½ (b) (y) (fc)
T = (As)(fs)
T = (nAs) fc

Therefore, the equivalent area of steel in concrete is nAs

Solve d ; d = 500 – 40 – 10 – ½ (28) = 436 mm

Solve for y, (location of NA)

= 20935.57 mm2

Take summation of moment of areas about the NA, M = 0

300 (y)( ½ y ) = nAs (d-y)
150 (y2) = 20935.57 (436-y)
y2 = 139.57 (436 – y)
y2 + 139.57y – 9127908.52 = 0
y=186.58 ; d – y = 249.42 mm

Solve the moment of Inertia, I

I = lNA +  A y 2
= 1/12 (300) (y)3 + (300) (y) (1/2y)2 + nAs (d-y)2
= 1/12 (300) (186.58)3 + (300)(186.58)[1/2 (186.58)]2 + (20935.57) (249.42)2
I = 1951.93 x 106 mm4

Solve the moment capacity

For concrete

≤ 0.45 f’c = 11.25

c = y = 186.58

11.25 ≥
Mc (186.58)
1951.93x106
Mc ≤ 117.69 x 106 Nmm

Solve for moment capacity

For steel
fs MsC fs
= ≤ = 14.59
n I n
 c = d-y = 249.42
Ms (249.42)
14.59 ≥
1951.93x106
Ms ≤ 114.17 x 106 Nmm < Mc
Therefore; Mcapacity = 114.17 x 106 Nmm

From load diagram solve WTOT,

M = ½ (WTOT) (L)2 ≤ 114.17 kNm
114.17 ≥ ½ (WTOT)(6)2
WTOT = 25.37 kN/m

But WTOT = WDL + WLL

25.37 = WDL + 0.5 WDL
WDL = 16.91 kN/m
WLL = 8.46 kN/m

2. Design the section and number of 20mm bar of a beam carrying 80 KNm moment. Use f’c = 25 MPa,
fs = 124 MPa, and effective depth equal to twice of width.

Allowable stress
fc ≤ 0.45 f’c ≤ 0.45 (25)
≤ 11.25 MPa
fs ≤ 124 MPa
Es = 200000
n= = 8.5
Ec 470025
Solve for y using R & P
y
d =

y=

y = 0.4354 (d)

Solve for d using moment equation

M ≤ C (d – ½ y) M ≤ fc y b (d – ½ y)
80 x 106 ≤ ½ (11.25) (0.4354 d) (1/2 d) [d – ½ (0.4354d)]
80 x 106 ≤ ½ (11.25) (0.4354) (1/2) [1 – ½ (0.4354)] (d3)
d ≥ 424.36 mm b ≥ 212.18 mm
Solve for area of steel As
C=T
½ fcyb = Asfs
b = 212.18 mm
y = 0.4354d
= 184.77 mm

substitute
½ (11.25) (184.77) (212.18) = As (124)
As = 1778.43 mm2
Solve the number of bars using 20 mm ɸ

# of bars = ; say 6 pcs

3. Design a square column using 20mm reinforcing bar if PDL = 240 KN and PLL = 180 KN. Use f’c =
25 MPa, fy = 276 MPa,  = 3%, and 10 mm diameter ties.

Solve the total load PTOT

PTOT = PDL + PLL
= 240 + 180
PTOT = 420 kN

From axial load formula

PTOT ≤ PCAP
PTOT ≤ 0.80ɸ[0.85 f’c (Ag – As) + fy As]
420x103 ≤ (0.8)(0.4)(0.85)(25)(h2-0.03h2)
+(276) [(0.03h2)]
420x103 ≤ (0.32)(21.25)(0.97) + 8.28 h2
h = 213.14 say 225 mm

Solve number of bars, Ag = 225 x 225

PTOT ≤ 0.80Φ[0.85f’c(Ag-As) + fyAs]
420x103 ≤ (0.8)(0.4)[(0.85)(25)(2252-As)+(276)As]
420x103 ≤ (0.32) [21.25 (2252 – As) + 276 As ]
420x103 ≤ 6.80 (2252 –As) + 88.32 As
420x103 ≤ 6.80 (2252) – 6.8As + 88.32 As
As = 929.22 mm2

Solve spacing of ties

s = 16 x diameter of longitudinal bar
= 16 (20)
= 320 mm

s = 48 x diameter of ties
= 48 (10)
= 480 mm

s = least dimension
= 225 mm governs ; Therefore s = 225 mm on center

Check clear spacing of longitudinal bar

Clear spacing = h – clear cover (2)

- Tie diameter (2)
 - bar diameter (2)
Clear spacing = 225 – 40(2) – 10(2) – 20(2)
Clear spacing = 85 mm > 1.5 bd = 30
> 40 mm
< 150 mm
Therefore OK!

B. ULTIMATE STRESS DESIGN (USD)

Ultimate Strength Design

 x Applied Load  Section Capacity
 is greater than 1
Load Factors
U = 1.4D + 1.7L
U = 0.75[1.4D + 1.7L + 1.7W]
U = 0.9D + 1.3W
U = 1.1D + 1.3L + 1.1E
U = 0.9D + 1.1E
U = 1.4D + 1.7L + 1.7H
U = 0.9D + 1.7H (if live/dead load reduces the effect of H)
U = 0.75[ 1.4D + 1.4T + 1.7L ]
U = 1.4[ D + T ]
Material Strength
f’c = strength of concrete at strain of 0.003
fy = is the yield strength of steel

BEAMS

Where:
Mu is the ultimate moment capacity
As = is the area of reinforcing bar
fy = is the yield strength
f’c = is the compressive strength of concrete
d = is the effective depth
b = is the width of the beam
 = is the reduction factor equal to 0.90
To ensure yielding,

act = As ≤ max
bd ≥ min Where

max = 0.75 act = is the actual steel ratio

1 = 0.85 - 0.05(f’c - 30)  f’c is in MPa
min = 1.4 ≤ 0.85
fy ≥ 0.65
f’c
min =
4 fy

Formula for axially loaded column

For tied column ( = 0.70)
Pult = 0.80[0.85f’c(Ag - As) + fyAs]
For spiral column ( = 0.75)
Pult = 0.85[0.85f’c(Ag - As) + fyAs]

Where
Pult is the ultimate axial capacity
f’c is the compressive strength of concrete
fy is the yield strength of steel
Ag is the gross cross sectional area of column
As is the total area of reinforcing bar

SIMULATED BOARD PROBLEM:

1. Calculate the number of 20 mm reinforcing bar needed for the beam loaded as shown below. Use f’c =
25 MPa, fy = 414 MPa, and effective depth d = 350mm.

Solution

Calculate the ultimate load

Pu = 1.4PDL + 1.7PLL = 1.4(20) + 1.7(16) = 55.20 kN

Wu = 26 kN/m

Calculate the maximum moment

Due to uniform load
MUW = ½ WUL2
= ½ (26)(5)2 = 81.25 kNm

Due to concentrated load

MUP = ½ PUL
= ½ (55.2)(5) = 69.0 kNm

Total ultimate load

Mu = 81.25 + 69.0
= 150.25 kNm
Solve As

2. Design a square column using 20mm reinforcing bar if PDL = 240 KN and PLL = 180 KN. Use f’c = 25 MPa,
fy = 276 MPa,  = 3%, and 10 mm diameter ties.

Solution

Solve the ultimate load Pult

Pu = 1.4PDL + 1.7PLL = 1.4(240) + 1.7(180) = 642 kN

From axial load formula

Pult = 0.80[0.85f’c(Ag - As) + fyAs]
642x103 = 0.80(0.7)[0.85(25)(h2 – 0.03h2) + (276)(0.03h2)]
642x103 = (0.56)[(21.25)(0.97) + 8.28] h2
h = 199.20 say 200 mm

Solve number of bars, Ag = 200x200

Pult ≤ 0.80[0.85f’c(Ag - As) + fyAs]

642x103 ≤ 0.80(0.7)[0.85(25)(2002 – As) + (276) As]
642x103 ≤ (0.56)[(21.25)(2002 – As) + (276) As]
642x103 ≤ 11.9(2002 – As) + 154.56 As
642x103 ≤ 11.9(2002) – 11.9 As + 154.56 As
As = 1163.6 mm2
STRUCTURAL DESIGN

A structure is designed to perform a certain function. To perform this function satisfactorily it must have sufficient
strength and rigidity. Economy and good appearance are further objectives of major importance in structural design.

The complete design of a structure is likely to involve the following five stages:
• Establishing the general layout to fit the functional requirements of the structure
• Consideration of the several possible solutions that may satisfy the functional requirements
• Preliminary structural design of the various possible solutions
• Selection of the most satisfactory solution, considering the economics, functions, and aesthetics of the various
possible solutions
• Detailed structural design of the most satisfactory solution

STRUCTURAL LOADINGS

VERTICAL LOADS

• Dead Loads – acting on a structure consists of the weight of the structure itself and of any other immovable
loads that are constant in magnitude and permanently attached to the structure. Thus, for a highway bridge, the
dead load consists of the main supporting trusses or girders, the floor beams and stringers of the floor system,
the roadway slabs, the curbs, sidewalks, fences or railings, lamppost, and other miscellaneous equipment.

• Live Loads – which remains fixed in both magnitude and location it is usually necessary to consider live loads,
that is, loads that vary in position. It is sometimes convenient to classify live loads into movable and moving loads

1. Movable loads – can be move from one position to another on a structure, such as contents of a storage
building. They are usually applied gradually and without impact.

2. Moving loads – that move under their own power, such as a railroad train or a series of trucks. They are
usually applied rather rapidly and therefore exert an impact effect on the structure.

LIVE LOADS FOR HIGHWAY BRIDGES

The live loads for highway bridges consist of the weight of the applied moving load of vehicles and pedestrians.
Actually, the traffic over a highway bridge will consist of a multitude of different types of vehicles. It is designed, however,
for a train of standard trucks, so chosen that the bridge will prove safe and economical in its actual performance.

LIVE LOADS FOR RAILROAD BRIDGES

The live load for railroad bridge consists of the locomotives and cars that cross it. The live load for each track is
usually taken as the live load corresponding to two locomotives followed by a uniform load that represents the weight of
the cars.

LIVE LOADS FOR BUILDINGS

Live loads for buildings are usually considered as movable distributed loads of uniform intensity. The intensity of
the floor loads to be used depends on the purpose for which the building is designed.

• Impact – unless a live load is applied gradually, the deformation of the structure to which the live load is applied
is greater than it would be if the live load were considered as a static load. Since the deformation is greater, the
stresses in the structure are higher. The increase in stress due to a live load over and above the value that this
stress would have if the live load were applied gradually

• Snow and Ice loads – snow would be considered a movable load, for it will not necessarily cover the entire roof,
and some of the members supporting the roof may receive maximum stresses with the snow covering only a
portion of the roof.
 LATERAL LOADS

Wind loads, soil pressures, hydrostatic pressures, forces due to earthquakes, centrifugal forces, and longitudinal
forces usually come under this classification

Wind Loads – are particularly important in the design of large structures, such as tall buildings, radio towers, and long-
span bridges, and for structures, such as mill buildings and hangars, that have large open interiors and walls in which
large openings may occur

Soil Pressure – Under usual conditions, the active pressure at any depth is about ¼ times the vertical pressure, and the
passive pressure is about 4 times the vertical pressure. Since the lateral pressure would equal the vertical pressure if the
material were a fluid, the approximate values of ¼ and 4 are sometimes called hydrostatic pressure ratios for the active
and passive cases, respectively.

Hydrostatic Pressure – Dams, tanks, and so on are subjected to hydrostatic loads that as a rule can be easily computed
in accordance with the elementary principles of hydraulics. Hydrostatic loads should in general be considered as movable
loads, inasmuch as critical stresses in a structure do not necessarily occur when the liquid involved is at highest possible
level.

Earthquake Forces² – Important structure located in regions subject to severe earthquakes are often designed to resist
earthquake effects. During an earthquake, structural damage may result from the fact that the foundation of the structure
undergoes accelerations. Such accelerations are largely horizontal, and vertical components of acceleration are usually

neglected. In activate earthquake zones, the maximum rate of horizontal acceleration of the foundations may reach values
having a magnitude between 0.5 and 1.0 times g, the acceleration due to gravity; that is, between 16 and 32 ft/sec²

Centrifugal Forces – in designing a bridge on which the tracks or roadway are curved, it must be remembered that
vehicles crossing the structure exert centrifugal force that may be of sufficient magnitude to require consideration in
design. Such centrifugal forces are lateral loads and should be considered as moving loads

Longitudinal Forces – for a bridge, horizontal forces acting in the direction of the longitudinal axis of the structure, that is,
in the direction of the roadway, are called longitudinal forces.