PRINCIPLES

OF GEODYNAMICS
BY

ADRIAN E. SCHEIDEGGER
PH. D. (fORONTO); DIPL. PHYS. ETH. (ZIJRICH)
RESEARCH ASSOCIATE IMPERIAL OIL LIMITED
CALGARY,ALBBRTA,CANADA

WITH 86 FIGURES

SPRINGER-VERLAG BERLIN HEIDELBERG GMBH

 ISBN 978-3-662-01534-6 ISBN 978-3-662-01532-2 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-662-01532-2

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 TO
MY WIFE
 Preface
Geodynamics is an old science. Most of the basic theories have been
conceived in principle during the 19th century and not many fundamen-
tal ideas have been added since. Some progress has been made in the
following-up of these concepts and, in some instances, in the deter-
mination of some important facts about the Earth. Nevertheless, geo-
dynamics has been a highly speculative subject for about a hundred
years and it is not likely that this situation will change during the next
hundred. It is also unlikely that many basic new ideas will be added in
that time interval. The reason for this lies in the extreme difficulty of
obtaining really relevant data about the mechanics of the Earth, partly
due to the impossibility of probing into the depths of the Earth by direct
means to any considerable extent and partly due to the fact that the
time intervals in which .. something happens" are of the order of millions
of years, which is much too long for any human being to wait and ex-
periment with.
The situation in geodynamics is, therefore much akin to that which
existed when the ancient Greek philosophers were speculating about the
possibly atomic structure of matter: there was, at that time, absolutely
no hope to either confirm or to reject the hypothesis. The subsequent
historical developments proved indeed that two thousand years of
technological advances were required before the question could be sett-
led. Geodynamics is much in the same position now as the physics of
matter was two millennia ago: the basic ideas that one can think of
have all been thought of, but there seems to be no chance of settling
the fundamental questions for a long time to come.
It seems, therefore, that the time is ripe for an evaluation of the
existing ideas in the light of presently available facts. This, in spite of
the early recognition of the subject, has never been done. All existing
books, monographs and papers (of which there is legion) have been
written to advance one or the other of the hypotheses as the" true" one.
This led, in consequence, to much wishful thinking, to the inadvertent
ignoring of unpleasant facts, and to the straining of others to fit pre-
conceived ideas. The writer admits that he has been guilty of the same
offense, falling in with the general trend and type of geodynamic specu-
lations. It was only after much thought and disappointment that he
arrived, so to speak, at being an .. agnostic" on the subject. It is, how-
ever, his conviction that any real advances can only be expected if
VI Preface

one starts with such a frame of mind. Otherwise, too much energy is
needlessly wasted in the zealous promotion of concepts for which there
can realistically be no hope of "proof" in the foreseeable future.
The present book represents, therefore, the writer's notes and ideas
on the principles of geodynamics. It is not a comprehensive literature
survey, but rather a compilation of the most competent presentations
of each one of the,-usually very old-, basically possible hypotheses.
Much of the material has been taken from the writer's own earlier at-
tempts at struggling for the "proof" of one or the other of the ideas in
which he was inclined to believe at the time, some of it from similar at-
tempts of other geophysicists. He has particularly heavily drawn from
those of his earlier articles which appeared in the Canadian Journal of Phy-
sics, in the Transactions of the American Geophysical Union, in Geo-
fisica Pura e Applicata and in the Bulletin of the Geological Society
of America. Permission to do this has kindly been granted by the
editors of the journals in question and this is here gratefully acknow-
ledged.
The first two chapters of the book give a brief summary of the physi-
cal facts about the Earth as far as they are known, the third puts to-
gether the principles of the theory of deformation of continuous matter
which is the basic mechanical background of geodynamics, and the rest
represents a synoptic view of the subject, much in the same way as one
might present a synoptic view of the world's philosophies, without taking
sides for one or the other.
The writer is indebted to many colleagues and friends for helpful
discussions and stimulating criticism. It was Dr. J. Tuzo WILSON in
Toronto who started him off on the subject of theoretical geophysics
in the first place. Many of the ideas presented here, especially on the
physiography of the Earth, can therefore be backtraced to Dr. WILSON'S
stimulating influence. The writer owes much to Dr. J. A. JACOBS, of
the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, for the discussion of
mathematical matters, and especially to Dr. EGON OROWAN of the Mas-
sachusetts Institute of Technology whose influence on the writer's con-
ception of fracture and failure has been great. The Springer Verlag
has been most cooperative in effecting a speedy publication of the
manuscript. The writer wishes to acknowledge his sincere gratitude to
all these people.
Calgary, Alberta, Canada, February 10,1958
A. E. SCHEIDEGGER
 Contents
Page
I. Physiographic and Geological Data Regarding the Earth. 1
1.1. Introduction . . . .
1.2. Geological Evolution 2
1.21. The Basic Rock Types 2
1.22. Geological Time Scale 3
1.23. Paleoclimatic Data. . 4
1.3. Geography of Continents and Oceans 6
1.31. Geometrical Arrangement. . . 6
1.32. The Hypsometric Curve 9
1.4. Physiography of Orogenetic Systems. 11
1.41. General Features 11
1.42. Mountain Ranges . . . . . 13
1.43. Systems of Mountain Ranges 15
1.44. Mid-Ocean Ridges . . . . . 19
1.45. Shear Patterns . . . . . . 20
1.5. Physiography of Faults and Folds. 21
1.51. Faults . . . . . . . . . 21
1. 52. Folds. . . . . . . . . . 23
1.6. Physiography of Other Features. 24
1.61. Meteor Craters 24
1.62. Boudinage. 25
1.63. Domes . . . . 25
1.64. Volcanoes. . . 27
1.65. The Upheaval of Land in Fennoscandia . 29

II. Geophysical Data Regarding the Earth 30

2.1. Gravity Data . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.11. Gravity and Gravity Anomalies 30
2.12. Distribution of Gravity Anomalies. Isostasy. 31
2.2. Seismological Data . . . . . . . . 33
2.21. Earthquakes and Seismic Waves 33
2.22. Seismicity Studies . 35
2.23. Magnitude Studies . 37
2.24. Fault Plane Studies. 41
2.3. The Layering of the Earth 47
2.31. Crustal Studies 47
2.32. The Interior of the Earth 49
VIII Contents
Page
2.4. Data from Age Determinations . . 51
2.41. Principles . . . . . . . . . 51
2.42. An Extended Geological Time Scale 52
2.5. Thermal Data 55
2.51. Surface Heat Flow Measurements 55
2.52. Temperature in the Earth's Interior 56
2.53. Thermal History of the Earth 57

2.6. Data from Magnetization of Rocks 59

2.61. Principles . . 59
2.62. Results . . . 60
2.7. Geochemical Data. 61
2.71. Geochemistry of the Interior of the Earth 61
2.72. Geochemistry of the Crust . . . . . . 62

III. The Mechanics of Deformation . . . 64

3.1. Finite Strain in Rheological Bodies 64

3.11. The Physics of Deformation . 64
3.12. The Structure of a Finite Strain Theory. 65
3.13. The Possible Schemes of Dynamics 71
3.14. Additional Stress and Strain. 72

3.2. Elasticity and Plasticity . . . . . 73

3.21. Infinitesimal Elasticity Theory. 73
3.22. Dislocations 79
3.23. Plasticity . . . . . . . . 80

3.3. Hydrodynamics of Viscous Fluids 84

3.31. Fluid Kinematics. . . . . 84
3.32. Dynamics of Viscous Fluids 84
3.33. Thermohydrodynamics of Viscous Fluids 86
3.4. Other Types of Rheological Behavior 87
3.41. Principles . . . 87
3.42. Maxwell Liquid 88
3.43. Kelvin Solid. . 88
3.44. Heat Convection in General Rheology 90
3.5. Discontinuous Displacements. . 92
3.51. The Physics of Fracture. . 92
3.52. Phenomenological Theories 92
3.53. Microscopic Theories . . . 97
3.54. Analytical Attempts . . . 101
3.6. Rheology of the Earth: The Basic Problem of Geodynamics 102
3.61. General Considerations . . . . . 102
3.62. Stresses of Short Duration 104
3.63. Stresses of Intermediate Duration 107
3.64. Stresses of Long Duration. 110
3.65. Summary . . . . . . . . . . . 114
 Contents IX
Page
IV. Effects of the Rotation of the Earth 116
4.1. The Figure of the Earth . . . . 116
4.11. The Ellipticity of the Earth 116
4.12. The Equilibrium Figure of the Earth 11 7
4.2. The Polfluchtkraft . . . . . . . 119
4.21. Concept of the Polfluchtkraft 119
4.22. ERTEL'S Theory . . . . . . 120
4.23. Criticisms. . . . . . . . . 123
4.3. The Question of Stability of the Earth's Axis of Rotation 124
4.31. The Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
4.32. Effects of Circulations on a Rigid Earth . 124
4.33. Polar Wandering in a Yielding Earth. 126
4.4. Other Effects of the Earth's Rotation 131
4.41. Tidal Forces. 131
4.42. Coriolis Force 132
V. Continents and Oceans. 134
5.1. Primeval History of the Earth 134
5.11. The Problem of Continents and Oceans 134
5.12. The Origin of the Earth. . . . . . 134
5.13. The Earth's Early Thermal History 137
5.14. The Birth of the Moon . . . . . . 140
5.2. Evolution and Growth of Primeval Continents 141
5.21. The Hypothesis of Laurasia and Gondwanaland 141
5.22. The Notion of Continental Drift 142
5.23. Continental Spreading . . . . 142
5.24. Volcanic Growth of Continents. 143
5.3. Primeval Convection. . . . . . . . 144
5.31. The Formation of Continents by Convection. 144
5.32. Physical Aspects of Convection Currents. 146
5.33. Analytical Theory 148
5.4. Tetrahedral Shrinkage . 153
5.41. Principles. . . . 153
5.42. Criticism . . . . 153
5.5. Formation of Continents by Expansion 154
5.51. Thermal Theories . . . . . . . 154
5.52. Cosmological Speculations. . . . 157
5.6. Evaluation of Theories of Continents and Oceans 157
VI. Orogenesis . . . . . . . . 159
6.1. Fundamentals . . . . 159
6.11. Crustal Shortening 159
6.12. A Basic Geodynamic Relationship 160
6.2. The Contraction Hypothesis . . . . . 162
6.21. Principles . . . . . . . . . . . 162
6.22. The Existence of a Level of No Strain 167
x Contents
Page
6.23. The Thickness of the Earth's Crust and Mountain Building 170
6.24. The Junctions of Island Arcs 172
6.25. The Extension Factor. . . . . . 177
6.26. Compatibility with Seismic Data. 178
6.3. Continental Drift Theory. . . . . . . 179
6·31. Principles . . . . . . . . . . . 179
6.32. Extension Factor. Transcurrent Faulting 182
6.33. Origin of the Forces Causing Drifting. . 183
6.4. Convection Current Hypothesis of Orogenesis. 186
6.41. General Principles . . . . . . . 186
6.42. Steady-State Convection . . . . 187
6.43. Intermittent Convection Currents. 188
6.44. Roller Cell Theory . . . . . 191
6.5. The Hypothesis of Zonal Rotation 192
6.51. Principles . . . . . . . . . 192
6.52. The Origin of the Atlantic Ocean. 193
6.53. Persistence of Zonal Rotation 194
6.6. Undation Theory . . . . . . . . . 196
6.61. Principles . . . . . . . . . . 196
6.62. Forces in the Undation Theory. 198
6.63. Secondary Orogenesis. . . . . 203
6.7. Expansion Hypothesis of Orogenesis. 204
6.71. Principal Outlines : . . . . . 204
6.72. MATSCHINSKI'S Buckling Theory 205
6.73. Expansion by Rock Metamorphism. 206
6.8. Orogenesis and the Rotation of the Earth 206
6.81. The Problem 206
6.82. General Theory . . . 208
6.83. The Elastic Model . . 211
6.84. Model of a Weak Earth 213
6.85. Tectonic Significance . 217
6.9. Evaluation of Theories of Orogenesis. 218
VII. Dynamics of Faulting and Folding 221
7.1. Dynamics of Faulting . . 221
7.11. Principles. . . . . 221
7.12. ANDERSON'S Theory 221
7.13. Analytical Theories. 225
7.2. Theory of Earthquakes . 225
7.21. Requirements of a Theory of Earthquakes. 225
7.22. Mechanism of Stress Creation . , . 226
7.23. Models of Earthquake Foci . . . . 228
7.24. The Friction at an Earthquake Fault 232
7.25. Fracture Theories of Earthquakes 233
7.3. Analytical Theories of Folding 235
7.31. The Problem of Folding. 235
7.32. Buckling . . . . . . . 236
 Contents XI
Page
7.33. Theories Assuming Infinitely Flexible Strata. 237
7.34. General Rheology . . . . . . . 240
7.4. Model Experiments of Faults and Folds 240
7.41. Theory of Scale Models 240
7.42. Faults . . . . . . . 241
7.43. Folds . . . . . . . . 242
7.5. Theory of Systems of Faults and Folds 243
7.51. The Problem . . . . . . . . . 243
7.52. Fracture Systems. . . . . . . . 243
7.53. Folding Systems Originated by Buckling 245
7.54. Plastic Folding 247
7.55. General Rheology . . . . . . . . . 248
7.56. Rift Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . 249
7.6. Evaluation of Theories of Faults and Folds. 249

VIII. Dynamics of Other Features 250

8.1. Meteor Craters . . . . 250
8.11. Physical Principles 250
8.12. Correlations . . . 250
8.13. Liquid-Drop Model of Crater Formation 252
8.14. Analogy with Explosion Craters 255
8.2. Boudinage . . . . . . . . . 256
8.21. Experimental Approach. 256
8.22. Theoretical Approach . 257
8.23. Tectonic Lenses . . . . 258
8.3. Domes 259
8.31. Principles of a Theory of Domes 259
8.32. Analytical Attempts . . 259
8.33. Model Studies of Domes 260
8.4. Volcanism . . . . . . . . . 262
8.41. The Shape of Volcanoes. 262
8.42. Volcanic Heat and Orogenesis 262
8.43. Mechanism . . . 263
8.5. Postglacial Uplift. . . . . 265
8.51. General Remarks 265
8.52. The HASKELL Theory . 266
8.53. Postglacial Uplift Interpreted as a Kelvin Effect. 270
8.6. Conclusion . 271
Author Index 272
Subject Index 275
 I. Physiographic and Geological Data
Regarding the Earth
1.1. Introduction
The science of geodynamics aims at an explanation of the present-
day surface features of the Earth. Geodesy, geology and geophysics
have accumulated a wealth of information about our globe. Since the
Earth is a physical object, it would be quite inconceivable that its
present-day physiography would not be the result of well-defined
physical processes. Since it is one of the most fundamental postulates
of modem science that the laws of physics be universally valid, such
changes of the surface features of the Earth as may have occurred,
must have taken place in strict conformity with these laws.
The Earth is part of the solar system, the solar system is part of
the universe. Ultimately, therefore, the surface features of the Earth
are conditioned by the manner in which the evolution of the universe
took place. Whether there is a mountain in a particular spot on the
Earth's surface depends in the end on how the universe was created.
However, it is quite obvious that a mountain on the Earth's surface
is only a minute detail in the universe as a whole. It stands to reason,
therefore, that processes can be defined which are not too intimately
tied up with the universe as a whole, but which would be sufficient to
explain the Earth's surface features. That these processes do have
some connection with the evolution of the universe, is just one more
instance demonstrating that there is in reality only one single nature.
Geodynamics confines itself to the study of the Earth's crust.
Because of the unity of all nature, reference will have to be made
occasionally to conditions above or below the crust, i.e. to conditions
obtaining in the universe or in the interior of the Earth. However,
we indulge in such diversions only if it is necessary for the understanding
of the mechanics of the Earth's crust.
A serious handicap in the study of geodynamics is connected with
the fact that it is extremely difficult to encompass geological data in
terms of numbers. Traditionally, physical laws can be most easily applied
to such phenomena which can be expressed by numbers. On the other
Scheidegger, Principles of Geodynamics
2 Geological Evolution

hand, geology traditionally has been a descriptive science whose findings

cannot easily be encompassed in numbers. Much space in the present
book is therefore devoted to the discussion of this difficulty and to the
task of abstracting numbers or simple geometrical shapes from the
wealth of physiographic facts.
The principal physical processes governing the evolution of the
Earth's crust are not yet definitely known. The approach is therefore
one of trying out various theories and checking their consequences with
regard to features accessible to observation. Sometimes, much mathe-
matics is needed to follow up a particular hypothesis to its ultimate
conclusions, particularly if reference has to be made to the mechanics
of deformation of continuous matter. It is therefore expected that the
reader is familiar with infinitesimal calculus, and in some sections,
also with tensor calculus. However, pains have been taken to supply
all the necessary physical background in sufficient detail to make the
book, in this regard, self-contained. In general, the writer aimed at
presenting the material in such a fashion that the reader who is interested
in a particular topic can seek out the corresponding chapter, read it
and understand it if he follows up the cross-references. It will be found
that many topics can be understood without the necessity of referring
to all that has been said on previous pages. Some of the theories have
reached only a descriptive stage and can therefore be understood without
any reference to mathematical analysis at all.
It is hoped, therefore, that the book will represent a useful work
of reference for all those who are interested in any aspect of geodynamics.

1.2. Geological Evolution

1.21. The Basic Rock Types. The domain of geology is the
investigation of the origin and evolution of rocks, i.e. of the material
which constitutes the solid surface of the Earth.
First of all, one finds two principal types of rocks: sedimentary
rocks and igneous rocks. Sedimentary rocks are separated into more or
less distinguishable parallel layers, whereas no such structure is evident
in igneous rocks.
The appearance of rocks is the result of their geological past. Lava,
for instance, may be thought to have been exuded from the deeper
parts of the Earth during volcanic activity. Other types of igneous
rocks, such as the granites and granodiorites, were at one time thought!
to have a similar history as lavas, with the difference that the cooling
process had a much longer duration and took place at great depth.
1 NEUMAYR, M.: Erdgeschichte, 3rd ed. by F. E. SUESS. Leipzig: Biblio-
graphisches Institut 1920.
 Geological Time Scale 3

Hence the name "batholiths" (from Greek fJa:{}o~, depth and Ai{}o~,
stone) for masses of such granites found in the interior of mountain
ranges. However, the present-day! view inclines toward assuming that
the batholiths were formed in situ by a process called metamorphose.
In the case of batholiths, this process must have been very complete
as it must have involved melting of the present rocks in order to give
them the igneous appearance. In other metamorphic rocks, it has been
less complete.
The rocks on the surface of the Earth are continuously subject to
detrition by the action of wind and water. Ground down by atmospheric
influences, the debris is carried in rivers to larger bodies of water where
deposition takes place. The accumulation of such debris, under further
consolidation, gives rise to the sedimentary rocks mentioned above.
The process of accumulation itself is called sedimentation. Sedimentary
rocks, in accordance with their mode of formation, are "stratified".
Corresponding types of strata can often be traced to various parts of
the world.
One thus arrives at a cycle of evolution of rocks. Sedimentary rocks
become gradually metamorphosed, possibly even entirely molten, until
they have the appearance of igneous rocks. Then the process of detrition
starts, the debris are deposited somewhere and eventually, new sedimen-
tary rocks are formed.
The Earth is generally assumed to have begun as a hot, molten
body. (For a more detailed discussion of this point, see Sec. 5.13.) If
this be true, all "first" rocks must have been igneous. However, no
such" first" rocks can be found. It appears that even the oldest known
igneous rocks are not "first" rocks, but show signs of having been
metamorphosed from even earlier sedimentary rocks (d. HOLMES!).
The beginning of the evolution of rocks is therefore not known.
1.22. Geological Time Scale. The fact that sedimentary rocks
have been formed by deposition of debris yields a powerful means of
dating them, at least relative to each other. During the process of
deposition, it is inevitable that living and dead organisms become
entrapped which are then preserved as fossils. It is thus possible not
only to obtain an idea of the age of a stratum in which a fossil is found,
but also to obtain a picture of the evolution of life. A drawback of
this method of dating is that it is naturally confined to such times
from which traces of life have been preserved to the present day. The
traditional geological time scale, therefore, begins with that epoch from
which the oldest fossils were found.
1 HOLMES, A.: Principles of Physical Geology. New York: The Ronald Press
Co. 1945.
1*
4 Geological Evolution

The traditional time scale is shown in Table 1. The absolute ages

shown there are after MARBLE 1 who made use of all presently known
means, including radioactive age determinations (d. Sec. 2.4).
1.23. Paleoclimatic Data. From
Table 1. Geological Time Scale
a geological investigation of the
Approx. age
Era Epoch in millions various sedimentary strata it
of years becomes evident that various
parts of the Earth must have
Quaternary Pleistocene 0
undergone large climatological
Pliocene
changes. During the Carbon-

1
Miocene 20
Tertiary
Oligocene 40 iferous epoch, Europe as well as
Eocene 60 part of North America must have

{ lain in a belt of rain forest (as

Cretaceous 130
Mesozoic Jurassic 155
Triassic 185
evidenced by the fossilized tree-
Permian
ferns found in coal seems of that
210
Carboniferous 265 age) whereas South Africa and
Paleozoic
Devonian 320 Brasil appear to have been buried
Silurian 360 beneath ice caps. On the other
1Ordovician
Cambrian
440
520 hand, during the Pleistocene,
Europe and North America ex-
perienced an ice age whereas Patagonia and Northern Siberia were
much warmer than they are to-day. If one combines these (and other)
observations, one is led to assuming as a plausible explanation, that
the geographic position of the North Pole underwent changes during
geologic history 2.
The first to investigate the climatological evidence comprehensively
in this fashion was KREICHGAUER 3 • Later KOPPEN and WEGENER' and
KOPPEN 2 made thorough investigations of paleoclimatic data. This
yielded three attempts at a reconstruction of the polar paths which
are shown in Fig. 1. The trace of the pole runs in all three attempts
from somewhere near Hawaii in the Carboniferous to its present position.
Accordingly, in the Carboniferous, Western Europe and North
America would have lain in an equatorial belt of rain forest. In the
Permian Epoch they belonged to the adjacent dry zones so that the
large deposits of salt found in these regions could be formed. At the
same time, the glaciations of Brasil were replaced by forests giving rise
to the formation of coal seams there. During the Mesozoic, Europe
was in the dry area whereas the pole proceeded through the North East
1MARBLE, J. P.: Rept. Ctee. Measur. Geol. Time 1949/50,18 (1950).
2KOPPEN, W.: Meteor. Z. 57, 106 (1940).
3 KREICHGAUER, D.: Die Aquatorfrage in der Geologie, 1. Aufl. Steyl 1902.
4 KOPPEN, W., A. WEGENER: Die Klimate der geologischen Vorzeit. Berlin:
Gebr. Borntra.ger 1924.
 Paleoclimatic Data 5

Pacific Ocean. In the Oligocene and Eocene the position of the pole
caused the formation of fossil ice in Alaska and Siberia. The large loop
in the polar path during the Pleistocene is suggested by the astonishing

Fig. 1. Path of the North Pole as indicated by paleoclimatology. 1 after KR&ICHGAU&R 1; 2 after KOPPEN and
WEGENER'; 3 after KOPPEN'. (After KOPPEN)·

1 KREICHGAUER, D.: Die Aquatorfrage in der Geobgie, 1. Auf!. Steyl 1902.

2 KOPPEN, W., A. WEGENER: Die Klimate der geologischen Vorzeit. Berlin:
Gebr. Borntrager 1924.
3 KOPPEN, W.: Meteor. Z. 57,106 (1940).
6 Geography of Continents and Oceans

finds of plants on the Seymour-Islands which are now covered with ice
and the Quarternary sediments containing fossil subtropical mollusci
as far south as the Rio Negro in South America. Similarly, the much
more extensive glaciation in North America as compared with that of
Europe during the Pleistocene ice ages is a pointer in the same direction.
It is therefore seen that it is possible to postulate a reasonably
coherent path of the pole to explain various geological and climatological
observations. However, as the dating of strata relative to each other
in different parts of the world is not easy to achieve, it is very difficult
to establish as a certainty that glaciation in one part occurred con-
currently with tropical growth elsewhere. Therefore, the alteration of
glaciations and tropical growth in anyone area can also be explained
by surmising that the climate of the whole Earth underwent such
changes wherein the evidence in other areas might be assumed to have
been obliterated for one reason or another. Nevertheless, the fact that
the path of the pole as postulated by paleoclimatic investigations turns
out to be more or less coherent, certainly lends considerable support
to the hypothesis of polar wandering.

1.3. Geography of Continents and Oceans

1.31. Geometrical Arrangement. A remarkable fact about the
physiographic disturbances of the Earth's crust consists in the distri-
bution of continents and oceans. Though quite irregular, it shows a
few systematic features. The continents are nearly everywhere anti-
podic to oceans, and they are all roughly triangular, touching each
other in the North and pointing suthwards. Four old shields have their
position, roughly speaking, at the comers of a tetrahedron.
However, it may not be correct to simply talk about" oceans", as
the Pacific basin seems to be geologically somewhat different from the
other oceans. The most striking evidence along this line is the fact
that the coasts on the Pacific are obviously different from those on the
Atlantic. Furthermore, eruptive magmas in the true Pacific basin are
predominantly basaltic, in other areas andesitic (d. Sec. 2.72).
A remarkable observation is that the continental structures on the
Earth's surface can be made to fit together rather well like a jigsaw
puzzle. The fit of the western shore of Africa with the eastern shore
of South America is quite obvious, but the rest of the continents can
also be made to fit with more or less ease. This has already been ob-
served as early as 1911 by BAKERl who showed the composition of the
continents reproduced in Fig. 2. However, more recently (d. Du TOIT2)
1 BAKER, H. B.: See Du TOIT2.
2 Du TOlT, A. L.: Our Wandering Continents. Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd 1937.
 Geometrical Arrangement 7

it has been the practice to fit the Earth's continents together into two
groups, called Laurasia and Gondwanaland, rather than into one as
done by BAKER. Laurasia is the complex of Europe, Asia and North
America, which is even at the present time not very widely dispersed;
Gondwanaland is the combination of all the southern continents fitted
together. In this sense, one arrives at the picture shown in Figs. 3 and 4.

SOUTH

AMERICA

Fig. 2. BAKER'S' composition of the continents. After Du TOIT'

From the artificial arrangement of the continents into two big

blocks, it is an easy step to postulating that the continents actually
were formed originally as such blocks and that they subsequently
"broke up" and "drifted" into their present positionS. We shall
discuss the dynamical possibilities for this having occurred later, and
at the present time only mention the physiographic evidence bearing
thereupon as exhibited by the fit of the continents. In addition to this
physiographic indication, many geological data have been collected,
mainly by Du TOlT 2 with the intention to find features common to
the various continents which might indicate whether or not and when
they moved apart from the two original blocks. This evidence is of
1 BAKER, H. B.: See Du TOlT 2 •
2 Du TOlT, A. L.: Our Wandering Continents. Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd 1937.
3 WEGENER, A.: The Origin of Continents and Oceans. Translated from 3rd
German ed. by J. G. A. SKERL. London: Methuen 1924.
8 Geography cf Continents and Oceans

Fig. 3. Laurasia as envisaged by Dv TOIl '

Fig. 4. Gondwanaland as envisaged by Dv TOIT '

course somewhat problematic, but it is possible to state the following

points in favor of the hypothesis of continental drift:
(a) The orogenetic activity in the southern continents is localized
in a belt that can be followed continuously through Gondwanaland as
the "Samjrau" geosyncline (see Fig. 4).
1 Du TOIT, A. L.: Our Wandering Continents. Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd 1937.
 The Hypsometric Curve 9

(b) Glaciation in the Carboniferous and Permian era seems to radiate

from a point corresponding to the position of the South Pole as postulated
by KOPPEN (d. Sec. 1.23) for that apoch, but appears to cover pads
of the southern continents in such a fashion as to suggest that the
latter were close together at that time.
(c) Paleobiological evidence seems to indicate that the southern
continents had, even in comparatively recent times, some land con-
nection between each other. Otherwise the simultaneous occurrence of
e.g. marsupalia in South America and Australia would appear as difficult
to explain. Another example of this kind is the distribution of the
scorpionidae (d. Du TOITI).
kmz
From the arguments given kin ro.. :~
above it appears that, say, the _v.
pieces of Gondwanaland may \ \
have drifted some 14000 km since
the Carboniferous.
\ \
'o~
~
Attempts have been made to
determine by geodetic means \
whether continents are" drifting"
1\
in modern times. Unfortunately,
the evidence is again inconclusive. \
I>
1.32. The Hypsometric Curve. -6 - /I -z 0 Z If km G
An informative way to represent Heighf
the distribution of continents and Fig. 5. The hypsometric curve

oceans is obtained by calculating

the percentage of the Earth's surface above or below a certain height-level.
By differentiation, this leads to a statistical distribution curve of heights
which indicates what percentage of the Earth's surface lies at a certain
level. This distribution curve has been termed hypsometric curve of the
Earth. It is shown in Fig. 5. The data defining the hypsometric curve
(after KOSSINNA2) are shown in Table 2.
With the hypsomenhic curve one can do some statistical analyzing.
From the data of Table 2 it is at once obvious that the distribution of
heights has two maxima, corresponding to the mean levels of the con-
tinents and that of the ocean floors. However, a more exact in-
vestigation of the data by JOKSCH 3 showed that the hypsometric
curve is not the sum of two, but of tliree elementary distributions.
The constituent distributions are logarithmico-normal defined by the
1 Du TOIT, A. L.: Our Wandering Continents. Edinburgh : Oliver & Boyd 1937.
2 KOSSINNA, E .: Handbuch der Geophysik, Bd. 2, S. 875.1933.
3 ]OKSCH, H. C.: Z. Geophys. 21, 109 (1955).
10 Geography of Continents and Oceans

equation
w (x) = _~_~ ~~ exp {___ [log na!J~-=- a)
s(x - a) 2 :n:V 2S2
-inL} . (1·32-1)

Here, a is called the vanishing point of the distribution. Instead of

using the parameters m and s above, it is often convenient to use the
"median" M defined by
M
Jw (x) dx = 0.5 (1.32-2)
a

and a "normal deviation" 5 indicating that interval of x around the

median which contains 90% of all the area underneath the distribution
curve.
Table 2

Level
(km)
I (lO'km')
Area I % I %level
above I % below
level
Level
(km)
I Area
i (10'km')
I % I %level
above I % below
level

00 0.0 100.0 -1 37·6 62.4

0·5 0.1 15·2 3·0
5 0.1 99·9 ~2 40.6 59.4
2.2 0.4 24.4 4.8
4 0·5 99·5 --3 45·4 54.6
5.8 1.1 70.8 13·9
3 1.6 98.4 ~4 59·3 40·7
11.2 2.2 119·1 23·3
2 3.8 96.2 ~5 82.6 17.4
22.6 4·5 83·7 16.4
1 8·3 91.7 ~6 99·9 1.0
105.8 20.8 1.0
I~oo
5·0 I
0 29·1 70·9 100.0 0.0
I
43·7 8·5 I
After E. KOSSINNA: Die ErdoberfHiche. In Handbuch der Geophysik, Bd. 2,
S.875. 1933.

In the above terms, JOKSCH showed that the hypsometric curve can
be represented as follows (all lengths in km):
(a) by a l.ogarithmico-normal distribution of weight 61/100 with
a= ~7.5, M= ~4.5 and 5=3.7
(b) by a logarithmico-normal distribution of weight 23/100 with
a= ~0.5, M =0.2, 5=1.2
(c) by a logarithmico-normal distribution of weight 16/100 with
a = ~ 7.5, M =0.5 and 5 = 3.5.
The tripartite composition of the hypsometric curve suggests that
the three levels might have been created each by an individual process
of the same nature.
Hypsometry refers all measured heights to the datum given by the
"mean sea level", There is much geological evidence that various parts
 General Features 11

of the continents were inundated by the sea at one time or another. It

is not entirely clear whether this was due to the fluctuation of the sea
level itself (i.e. the amount of water in the oceans) or to a change in
elevation of the continents. Both factors have probably been involved.
There is evidence that even at the present time certain parts of the
world are rising and others are sinking with regard to each other (cf.
Sec. 1.65). This might be an indication of the occurrence of small crustal
"undations" .
If the total quantity of water in the hydrosphere is assumed as
constant, then one can try to calculate the change in the Earth's radius
that would have been necessary to cause the inundations mentioned
above. EGYED 1 has done this. Using data compiled by STRAKHOV 2, he
arrived at the result that the total coverage of the Earth's surface by
water is decreasing. This would correspond to an increase of the Earth's
radius during geological time. Using the present-day hypsometric curve
of the Earth, EGYED obtained that an increase of the Earth's radius by
0.5 mm/year would be a satisfactory figure. However, it is by no means
certain that the hypsometric curve stayed constant during geologic time.
This completely obviates EGYED's argument.

1.4. Physiography of Orogenetic Systems

1.41. General Features. The most conspicuous irregularities on the
Earth's surface are undoubtedly mountain ranges. It will of course be
necessary to consider as "mountain ranges" also such occurrences as
island chains in the sea; the latter are nothing but the peaks of sub-
merged mountains.
If one examines the mountains somewhat more closely, a few re-
markable facts become apparent. Thus, we observe that mountains are
not scattered at random over the Earth's surface: Firstly, they occur
in ranges; secondly, the ranges themselves form chains, and thirdly,
the chains of ranges again seem to form world-wide systems. The series
of mountains which belong to one such world-wide system are referred
to as belonging to one orogenetic system.
If the above features of an orogenetic system are real, it will be ne-
cessary to give a physical explanation therefor. However, it is ob-
viously not easy to prove the reality of these features: mountain chains
are never perfectly regular, and therefore the existence of features men-
tioned above is always based to a certain extent on intuition. Never-
theless, mathematical investigation does bear out certain regularities
which will be discussed below.
1 EGYED, L.: Geofis. Pura Appl. 33, 42 (1956).
2 STRAKHOV, N. M.: OCHOBbl HCTopH'IecKoll reOJIOrHH. Moscow 1948.
12 Physiography of Orogenetic Systems

Geological investigation of the rocks on the Earth's surface shows that

orogenesis seems to occur in cycles. Since the Paleozoic, there appear to
have been at least two such cycles, the one referred to as the" Appa-
lachian-Caledonian-Herzynian" cycle which took place at the end of the
Paleozoic, the second called "Alpine-Himalayan-Circum-Pacific" cycle
which started at the end of the Mesozoic and has still not yet come to
an end. Sometimes, the Paleozoic cycle is counted as two but it seems
preferable to count it as one for the present purpose.
In talking about an orogenetic cycle it should be understood that
it is not implied that orogenesis occurred in a manner resembling a cata-
strophe. It seems that orogenetic belts grew at their edges, being active
at different times in different parts of the world, until a new system
started to develop somewhere else. UMBGROVE 1 ,2 was probably one of
the chief proponents of such periodicity and synchronism of orogenetic
activity. However, a more extreme view has been taken by STILLE 3 ,4,
according to whom short, worldwide and synchronous orogenetic phases
would alternate with long periods of acquiescence. This, however, seems
to be open to criticism 5 as it is difficult to establish an exact correlation
in time for orogenetic movements in widely separated regions of the
Earth. Thus, as suggested above, orogenetic activity does not seem to
be confined to single, short diastrophisms, but rather seems to occur
during long periods of general tectonic unrest.
The development of a mountain system in an orogenetic cycle has
usually been thought to be connected with the formation of a geosyncline
or tectogene. By this is meant that first a downwarping would occur in
the Earth's crust in the place where the orogenetic belt would finally
appear. The through thus formed would be then filled-in with sediments
which would eventually be lifted up by some mechanism to form the
mountains. The trough may have been caused in the first place either
by a downbuckling of the crust (it is then called tectogene) owing to
tangential stresses, or else by the weight of sediments that are being
deposited there. In the latter case it is referred to as geosyncline. The
thickness of sediments in present-day geosynclines (e.g. the Ganges valley)
may be enormous.
It is not known how many orogenetic cycles occurred before the
beginning of the traditional geological time scale. With the absence of
1 UMBGROVE, J. H. F.: The Pulse of the Earth. The Hague: M. Nijhoff Pub!. Co.
1947·
2 UMBGROVE, J. H. F.: Amer. J. Sci. 248, 521 (1950).
3 STILLE, H.: Grundfragen der vergleichenden Tektonik. Berlin: Gebr. Born-
trager 1924.
4 STILLE, H.: Einfiihrung in den Bau Amerikas. Berlin: Gebr. Borntrager 1940.
5 RUTTEN, L. M. R: Bull. Geo!. Soc. Amer. 60, 1755 (1949).
 Mountain Ranges 13

fossils it becomes increasingly difficult to trace the various orogenetic

movements. It is certain, however, that numerous cycles did occur
during the last 2 billion years, the order of magnitude of their number is
commonly given as eight. Before 2 billion years ago, indications are
that orogenesis occurred in a different mode than that described above
(cf. Sec. 2.42). A discussion of the means for arriving at the above number
of cycles will be given in Sec. 2.4. In all, it is reasonable to assume that
about 10 orogenetic cycles occurred altogether since the beginning of
present-day type orogenesis 2 billion years ago.
1.42. Mountain Ranges. It is a striking feature l of many ranges of
mountains and islands of our planet that they have the shape of curved
arcs which at first sight appear more or less circulars,a. The most out-
standing examples of this kind are the arcs of the Philippines, Riu Kiu,
Japan, Kuriles and Aleutians. Similar features are equally found in
other places of the world. The curved structure of Persia and the Hima-
layas is obvious, and so is the curved structure of the mountains of the
Pacific Coast of British Columbia, the United States and Mexico.
Let us study somewhat more closely the actual shape of the island
arcs and mountain belts that LAKE S and others have assumed to be
circular. By means of spherical trigonometry it is easy to calculate the
center and radius of a circle determined by 3 points on a sphere. Thus,
we shall take on each island arc 5 or more points and put the circles
through each three subsequent ones. If the arcs are circular, the radii
of those circles should be approximately equal and the centres more or
less in the same geographical region. For getting an average center one
may take the circle through the first, third and fifth points of the five
given ones.
In this manner one can investigate the geographical data for several
island arcs and mountain chains. The results for five such arcs are
tabulated in the attached Tables 3a-e. The geographical data have been
chosen for geological reasons (volcanic regions). In the island arcs there
was little ambiguity as to which points should be taken; islands with
great volcanoes were usually preferred if there were several possibilities.
In Alaska the calculations were made first with another point (Mt.
Russell) which, however, proved to be too much out of the range where
the continuation of the arc 12)4 might have been expected. Therefore,
Mt. Russell may be assumed to belong to another arc.
An inspection of the above Tables 3a-e shows that the radii of the
circles through three subsequent points (which approach the radii of
1 Cf. SCHEIDEGGER, A. E., J. T. WILSON: Proc. Geo!. Ass. Canad. 3, 167 (1950).
2 Cf. LAKE, P.: Geogr. J. 78, 149 (1931).
3 UMBGROVE, J. H. E.: The Pulse of the Earth (2nd. ed.). The Hague 1947.
14 Physiography of Orogenetic Systems

Table 3a. The Southern Andes curvature of the arc in the

No. Points Latitude ILongitude corresponding region) are
increasing quite definitely
1 Maipu 34° 10' S 69° 50'W
2 N. Llayamas 38° 50' S 71° 30' W towards one end of each arc,
3 S. Llayamas 46° 40' S 73° 30' W in a way that they become
4 Mt. Burney 52° 20' S 73° 20' W twice or three times as great
5 Small Island NW of 55° 40' S 67° 40' W
Cape Horn as at the other end. Thus
Centers and radii of the circles through three the island arcs and moun
of the above points tain chains are rather of
the shape of a spiral than
Center Center
Circle I latitude longitude
Radius
that of a circle; if one as-
15° 10' W 44° 20'
sumes them to be circles,
123 \ 35° 30' S
234 I 43° 0' S 43° 20' W 20° 30' one can, of course, reach
345 I 48° 50' S 63° 10' W 7° 20' no well defined locus for
their "centers".
Table 3b. The West Indian Arc
A further interesting
Points I Latitude I Longitude feature of mountain ranges
St. George 1120 0' N 61°40'W is that they appear to be
2 St. Vincent 13° 20' N 61 ° 10'W associated with a signif-
3 Martinique 14° 50'N 61°1O'W
Gouadeloupe 16° 10' N 61°40'W
icant crustal shortening
4
St. Christopher 17° 30' N 62° 50'W taking place in their neigh-
Centers and radii of the circles through three borhood. The amount of
of the above points such crustal shortening can
Center Center
, be estimated simply by a
Circle I Radius
latitude longitude direct measurement of the
123 13° 35' N 62° 55' W 2° 0' strata in the great moun-
234 13° 50' N 65° 50' W 4° 30' tain systems. If one assumes
345 13° 50' N 66° o'W 4° 50' that in a normal cross sec-
135 14° o'N 65° 40' W I 5° 30'
tion of a mountain range
Table 3c. The Aleutian Arc the length of the section
of a stratum (which is a
N°·1 Points I Latitude ! LOI!.6'itudc
curved line) is equal to the
-1- 1
-
Komandorskii 55° 20' N 167°1O'E length of that section before
2 Chugul 52° 0' N 178°1O'E
3 Mt. Unimak 54° 40' N 164° O'W it was folded, i.e. when it
4 Mt. Kukak 58° 30' N 154°20'W was flat on the ground, one
5 Talkeetna Mountains 162° OS' N 148°40'W can determine how much
Centers and radii of circles through three of shortening must have taken
the above points
place. This, of course, as-
Circle
Center Center
Radius sumes that the strata have
latitude longitude
undergone no deformation
123 62° 10' N 177° 40' W 10° 30' of area but only one of
234 66° 50' N 178° 20' E 14° 50'
345 66° 40' N 178°50'E 14 ° 30'
shape. Estimates of short-
135 65° 30' N 177°10'W 12° 40' ening obtained III this
 Systems of Mountain Ranges 15

manner are quoted to be Table 3d. The Riu Kiu Arc

50 to 80 km in the Appal- No·1 Points I Latitude I Longitude
achians, 40 km in the Rocky
1 Yaku Shima 30° 20' N 130° 30' E
mountains of Canada and 2 Amame-o-shima 28° 20' N 129° 20' E
17 km in the Coast Range 3 Sesoke-shima 26° 40' N 128° 0' E
of California l • For the 4 Omoto Dake 24° 30' N 124° to' E
5 Formosa 24° 20' N 121° 10' E
Alps, HElM 2 quotes 240 to Centers and radii of circles through three of
320 km. Compared with the the above points
assumed (unfolded) cross Center Center
circlej Radius
section of a mountain range, latitude longitude
these values represent a 1 toO 20' E 18° 0'
123 \ 36° 30' N
shortening of up to 4: 1. 234 31° 10' N 122° 0' E 6° 50'
31° 20' N 122° O'E 7° 0'
1.43. Systems of Moun- 345
135 1 33° O'N 121°10'E 8° 40'
tain Ranges. An inspection
of any physiographic chart Table 3e. The Kurile Arc
of the world shows that No·1 Points
I Latitude Longitude
mountains not only occur 1 Khrebet Khardimskii 56° 40' N 161° 50' E
in arcuate single ranges, 2 Sopka Koryatskaya 53° 20' N 158°40'E
but quite generally that 3 Onnekotan-to crater 49° 20' N 154°40' E
4 Shimushiru Daka 46° 50' N 151°50'E
orogenetic activity is con- 5 Berutarube Yama 44° 30' N 147° 0' E
centrated in narrow belts. Centers and radii of circles through three of
Each such belt consists of the above points
a string of arcs and reaches Center Center
Circle latitude longitude Radius
almost completely around
the Earth. One of the most 123 56° 40' N 99° 50' E 33° 40'
comprehensive studies of 234 57° o'N t01° O'E 32° 10'
345 53° 20' N 140° 10' E 9° 50'
these orogenetic belts has 135 59° O'N 102° 50' E 31 ° 0'
been made by WILSONs, '.
Accordingly, the geographical" arcs" discussed in the last Section,
belong to several physiographically distinct classes. WILSONs discerns
the following:
(i) Single Island Arcs which are uniformly curved chains of volcanoes
with an oceanic foredeep. The Aleutians and South Sandwich Islands
are examples.
(ii) Double Island Arcs which develop where single island arcs
approach continents. In them an outer chain of islands composed of
folded sedimentary rocks replaces the foredeep. Examples of such islands
are Kodiak, Timor and Trinidad.
1 PIRSON, L. V., C. SCHUCHERT: Textbook of Geology. New York Wiley: 1920.
8 HElM, A.: Geologie der Schweiz. Leipzig 1921-
8 WILSON, J. Tuzo: Proe. Geo!. Ass. Canad. 3, 141 (1950).
, WILSON, J. Tuzo: In: The Earth as a Planet, ed. Kuiper, p. 138. Univ.
Chicago Press 1954.
16 Physiography of Orogenetic Systems

(iii) Single Mountain Ranges which have the same essential features
as single island arcs, but due to interaction of forces and the abundance
of sediments it is the volcanic arc which has grown while the foredeep
has remained. The Andes of northern Chile and of Peru are examples.
(iv) Double Mountain Ranges which correspond to double island arcs
in having a volcanic and predominantly igneous range on the concave
side of a parallel range which is predominantly sedimentary. The Sierra
Nevada and the Coast Range of California provide examples.
(v) Fractured Arcs which are complex features where only some dis-
organized aspects of arcuate structure exist, such as a deep ocean trench
and scattered active volcanoes. If a simple arcuate pattern ever existed,
it has been torn apart by faulting. The Melanesian "arcs" from the
Philippines to New Zealand provide examples.

cop range
-.....
--<~~
copped defleclion
) secondary
arc
\:~/~~eamenf \ fronscum:nf

/It ...................

D "-
B
common deflecfian
i fauliiDne]
--- E
reversed arc
fracfured defleclian
Fig. 6. The five types of junctions of arcs after WILSON 1

In the orogenetic belts the various types of arcs are joined together
and it is a significant fact that there are only five types of junctions which
are called Linkages, Common Deflections, Capped Deflections, Fractured
Deflections and Reversed Arcs (see Fig. 6). WILSON l describes them as
follows.
(i) Linkages are characterized by the extension of one of the arcs
past the junction in a nearly straight line. Examples are found in the
northeast Asian island arcs.
(ii) Common deflections are formed where two mountain arcs meet at
an obtuse angle. Secondary arcs then adjoin them closely. An example
is near Santiago in the Andes.
(iii) Capped deflections are a special case of common deflections which
occur where two arcs meet at an acute angle. The secondary arc then
is much more highly metamorphosed than in common deflections. It
also is generally sharply curved. The Alps are an example.
1 WILSON, J. Tuzo: In : The Earth as a Planet, ed. Kuiper, p. 138. Univ.
Chicago Press 1954.
 Systems of Mountain Ranges 17

(iv) Fractured deflections are fonned where two mountain arcs meet
at an obtuse angle if a secondary arc develops at a distance from the
two arcs in conjunction so that it is separated by a wide medianland.
Two conspicuous lineaments then spring from the junction, cross the

Legmd
Moun/ain & Js/and Arc~
Centres or Apes • ,
()I'eol CirdtJ flifooll9h Cenlrl'''/
061iqllt! Mel'colol' Projeel/on
Pule J5'h .N. 2"E.

I
''','" I •
.1""", ',{
• ',!,)
I
:?- c,OV,,? -......
'--------'-
"'olt,
Fig. 7. The mountain and island arcs of the recent oragenetic system. After WILSON 1

1 WILSON, J. Tuzo: In: The Earth as a Planet, ed. Kuiper, p. 138. Univ.
Chicagc> Press 1954.
Scheidegger, Principles of Geodynamics 2
(')
e-
0>
"'"
~ ~
....
~~0
~ z
CJ) •

~ '-<
'0"
'-">-l
7'" c::
l)
H
::;

>-l
e-
ct>

tIl
....0>
S-
O>
CJ)

III
'"d
PJ
::;
ct>
.M- PRIMARY ARC
ct> secondaty arc
0.
FAULT lONE
:-::
.:: U lip/iff
.;" :-:-:-:-: yOllnger cover
.~ IIlIIIiIIIIIIII volcanic outer OIY:
'? Fig. 8. Palcozoic mountain arcs. After WILSON L
...
w
?"
c::::
::;
~"
 Mid-Ocean Ridges 19

medianland as shear zones and mark the end of the secondary arc. An
example occurs near Seattle in the United States of America.
(v) Reversed arcs are found in certain instances where it appears that
in a chain one arc is suddenly reversed so that it is facing the others. The
ends of the arcs are connected by transcurrent fault zones. The West
Indian Arc is an example.
Finally, if we are looking at the systems of mountain arcs at large,
we note that the belts referred to above reach around the whole Earth.
The Mesozoic-Cenozoic orogenetic systems form two large belts, one
around the Pacific and the other through the Alpine and Himalayan
systems to Oceania (see Fig. 7). These belts can be traced very easily.
They nearly follow two great circles intersecting each other at right angles
It may be suspected that the Paleozoic mountains formed a similar
system, but it is not so easy to trace it owing to subsequent erosion and
recent orogenetic activity. Nevertheless, WILSON l has traced part of
it in North America with the result shown in Fig. 8.
It thus appears that the main orogenetic activity of the Earth has
been concentrated at anyone time in narrow belts. The orogenetic belts
form world-wide systems. The recent ones very nearly follow two great
circles and the contention is that every orogenetic system follows this
pattern; it should be noted, however, that it is very difficult to sub-
stantiate this for the older systems.
1.44. Mid-Ocean Ridges. A further interesting feature which may
be related to the mountain-building process is the existence of mid-ocean
ridges. It has been suggested by EWING and HEEZEN 2 that the system
of mid-ocean ridges is a continuous one, reaching all around the globe.
The mid-Atlantic ridge is continuous from the Arctic to Tristan da
Cunja; there it turns and continues beneath the Southern Ocean south
of Africa and connects with the Carlsberg ridge in the Indian Ocean.
Finally, it continue., south of Australia and connects with the principal
ridges in the Pacific Ocean.
An interesting feature of mid-ocean ridges is that it appears that a
definite rift exists at their crest. Gravity anomalies and topographic
features as revealed by echo sounding suggest that the rifts at the top
of the ridges are very similar to the rifts in African Rift Valleys 3; the
rift at the top of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge has been called Mid-Atlantic
Rift. This seems to indicate that at least parts of the Earth's crust
have been subject to substantial tensional forces.
1 WILSON, J. Tuzo: In: The Earth as a Planet, ed. Kuiper, p. 138. Univ.
Chicago Press 1954.
B EWING, M., B. C. HEEZEN: Amer. Geophys. Un. Mono. No.1, 76 (1956).
8 EWING, M., B. C. HEEZEN, J. HIRSCHMANN: Comm. No. 110bis, Assoc. Seismol.,
Ass. Gen. U.G.G.I, Toronto 1957.
2*
20 Physiography of Orogenetic Systems

The system of mid-ocean ridges is simpler and less active than that
of the circum-Pacific of Alpine-Himalayan mountain belts. It contains
numerous earthquake epicenters and many volcanoes. However, the
depths of the earthquake foci are all shallow and the volcanoes are not
very active, pouring forth mainly basaltic lavas.
It thus appears that mid-ocean ridges are somewhat like oceanic
counterparts of continental orogenetic belts. However, in view of their
low tectonic activity, it is hard to tell whether they are very old features,
like continents, slowly building up in the course of the eons, or whether
they are connected with the relatively frequent orogeneses which took
place at various times during the Earth's history. Owing to their sub-
mersion beneath the sea, it is also difficult to tell whether systems of
mid-ocean ridges have existed in the past that would be different from
that obervable at present.
1.45. Shear Patterns. A view of the geometrical characteristics of
orogenetic systems different from that presented above has been taken
by various people who sought to find some regular linear patterns in
the arrangement of orogenetic elements. Generally, these patterns have
been connected with "shear lines" which would be part of a shear
system encompassing the whole world. Accordingly, all orogenetic
movements would be tangential along straight lines (i.e. great circles)
connected with the overall shear pattern with only minor displacements
occurring vertically. The first to seek such patterns was probably
HOBBS!. The idea has later been taken up by many writers, particularly
by VENING MEINESZ 2 and by MOODY and HILL3. Accordingly, a geo-
syncline would not at all consist of a downwarping of the crust, but of
a break (transcurrent fault, see Sec. 1.51) with a substantial horizontal
and minor vertical movement. This yields, superficially, the appearance
of a trench. Island arcs would fit into such a pattern by regarding them
as appropriate parts of X's rather than as curves.
The assumptions, then, of this type of interpretation are that
there exists a shear pattern common to the entire crust of the Earth.
The major elements of this shear pattern would be large transcurrent
faults which cause a wholesale polygonal segmentation of the outer crust
of the Earth. The basic pattern would have been formed very early
in the history of the Earth.
In this connection, one also might mention some investigations of
BROCK's 4 according to whom the whole Earth is divided into a mosaic-
pattern of stable elements (tesserae). The boundary lines of these ele-
1 HOBBS, W. H.: Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 22,123 (1911).
2 VENING MEINESZ, F. A.: Trans. Amer. Geophys. Un. 28, 1 (1947).
3 MOODY, J. D., M. J. HILL: Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 67, 1207 (1956).
4 BROCK, B. B.: Trans. Geol. Soc. South Afr. 59, 150 (1956).
 Faults 21

ments would correspond to the shear patterns mentioned above, but the
lines would separate blocks which are subject to vertical motions in
opposite directions rather than blocks which are subject to horizontal
motions in opposite directions. The lines, therefore, might be called
hinge lines rather than shear lines. Again, these lines are assumed to
be very old so that, again, the basic pattern of the Earth's physiography
would have been formed very early in its history.
It is not quite clear, however, how the persistence of a primeval line
pattern can be upheld in the light of the known large changes in the
location and geographic arrangement of orogenetic activity that occurred
during the history of the Earth.

1.5. Physiography of Faults and Folds

1.51. Faults. The strata deposited by sedimentation cannot generally
be expected to have persisted in their original position throughout the
ages. The effects of orogenesis have had a profound influence on their
appearance. The most com-
mon deformations of strata
are faults and folds.
Starting with faults, one
can say that these are frac-
ture surfaces along which the
rocks have undergone a rela-
tive displacement. They oc-
cur in parallel or subparallel
systems which have usually Fig. 9. A faul t
a wide lateral distribution.
Physically, a fault is determined by first stating its position on the
Earth (by giving latitude and longitude) and secondly by giving its
" character" by fixing (a) the fault plane and (b) the direction of relative
motion of the two sides of the fault thereon 1. It is thus seen that, in
order to determine the character of a fault, one needs three parameters,
two determining the position of the fault plane, and one determining the
direction of the motion vector. Sometimes more are given, but then
constraints must apply between them.
Most representations of faults aim at fixing (a) the fault surface,
and (b) the direction of motion. The fault surface can be determined
e.g. by giving the direction of strike (i.e. the line of intersection of the
fault surface with a horizontal plane) together with the dip (i.e. the
angle between the fault plane and a horizontal plane) as shown in Fig. 9.
Alternatively, the dip direction and dip can be given. The direction of
1 SCHEIDEGGER, A. E.: Bull. Seism. Soc. Amer. 47, 89 (1957).
22 Physiography of Faults and Folds

motion can be determined e.g. by giving the angle between the motion
vector and the strike direction of the fault. This angle is called "slip
angle". Alternatively, introducing more than three parameters for the
determination of a fault, the direction of the motion vector can be given
by stating its azimuth (referring to the northward direction) and its
inclination to the horizontal. Another way to give the direction of the
motion-vector is by stating strike and dip, or dip direction and dip, of
a plane which is orthogonal to the motion-vector. The latter plane is
commonly called "auxiliary plane" of the fault .
The terminology of faults has been coined by geologists. It is custom-
ary to call a fault transcurrent if the slip angle (that is the angle between
strike and motion vector) is smaller than 45 °. Transcurrent faults may

a b c
Fig. lO a-c. The major types of faults: (a) normal fault; (b) transcurrent fault; (c) reversed fault

be further classified as "dextral" or "sinistral". Imagine oneself stand-

ing on one side of the fault, and looking at the other side. If the other
side appears to have moved to the right, the fault is dextral, if it appears
to have moved to the left, the fault is sinistral. If the slip angle is greater
than 45 one also differentiates between two cases: normal faults, if
0
,

the (over-) hanging wall moves downwards, and reverse faults or thrusts
if the hanging wall moves up.
Fig. 10 will serve to illustrate the geologists' conception of faulting.
Phenomena related to faults are dykes. Dykes are, in the main,
nearly vertical fissures between 3 and 30 metres wide that have been
infilled with some intrusive material. If the dykes have not been filled-in,
they are called faints. The two sides of a dyke appear to have moved
apart in a direction normal to the fissure such that there is neither a
lateral nor a vertical dislocation. Dykes are much less common than
faults and they are also somewhat restricted in distribution.
Patterns of faults have been discovered in many parts of the world.
Some of these patterns have been interpreted in terms of shear lines
(d. Sec. 1.45), others in terms of arrangements of joints. Particularly
 Folds 23

striking patterns of joints have been found by MOLLARDI in geotectoni-

cally quiet regions of the world, such as on the Canadian Prairies, in
Venezuela and in West Pakistan. SONDER 2 created for the process
causing these patterns the term rhegmagenesis.
1.52. Folds. In the formation of mountain ranges, it is evident that
not faulting, but a process properly called folding is of prime importance.
It appears that the strata in such mountain ranges have been contorted
to a fabulous extent 3. It almost looks a<; if some supernatural giant took
originally level strata, pulled them up and folded them over at his will.
Naturally, the action of water and wind will erode some of the folded
materials and the physiographic appearance of a mountain range is there-
fore one of high peaks and deep valleys. Nevertheless, the continuity
of the folded strata can be traced from peak to peak and the original
(i.e. undisturbed by erosion) position of the layers can be reconstructed.
The horizontal distances over which the strata are folded over may be
up to several score kilometers. The Western Alps, in a profile from
Lausanne over the Dent Blanche to the plain of Piemont, give a classical
example.
The nomenclature of folds has again been created by geologists'.
If the strata are bent upwards into an archlike form, the arrangement is
termed anticlinal; if the strata are bent downwards into a through-like
form, the arrangement is termed synclinal. The two sides of a fold
are called its limbs. The bisecting plane of the two limbs is termed the
axial plane of the fold. Finally, the axis of the fold is the intersection
of the axial plane with the uppermost stratum. The angle of the axis
with the horizontal plane is called its pitch.
It would thus appear that, in order to determine a fault, one has to
give strike and pitch of its axis, and the dips of both of its limbs. How-
ever, this is not sufficient. There must be an additional parameter which
is vaguely referred to by geologists as "intensity". It refers to the
radius of curvature at the crest of the fold.
It is therefore seen that one needs the following parameters in order
to fix a fold geometrically: (i) strike and (ii) dip of the axial plane,
(iii) the angle of aperture of the fold, i.e. the angle which the two limbs
form, (iv) the pitch of the axis and (v) the radius of curvature at the
crest. These are altogether five parameters which are needed in addition
to the geographical coordinates of the point of the fold under considera-
tion. Naturally, another equivalent set could equally well be used.
1 MOLLARD, J. R.: Oil in Canada 9, No. 40.26 (1957).
I SONDER. A.: Mechanik der Erde. Stuttgart: E. Schweizerbart 1956.
3 SCHEIDEGGER, A. E.: Handbuch der Physik. Bd.47. S.258. 1956.
4 Cf. e.g. HOLMES. A.: Principles of Physical Geology. New York: The Ronald
Press Co. 1945.
24 Physiography of Other Features

1.6. Physiography of Other Features

1.61. Meteor Craters. Finally, we turn our attention to special phy-
siographic features upon the Earth's surface. One type of such features
are crater-like holes in the ground, caused by the impact of meteors.
Striking examples of such craters have been found in Arizona 1 (Barringer
Crater) and in Northern Quebec 2 (New Quebec Crater). Typical profiles
of these craters are shown in Fig. 11.
It had not always been established that such craters actually were
caused by meteors. One of the hypotheses advanced in earlier times was
that these craters were of volcanic origin. However, it is now established
beyond doubt (by drilling and by other direct means) that these craters
were created by the impact of celestial objects.

Bamager croler
(rIiommr LJ xm )

;\J
New t;.uebec CIYller
(tfiamlfler l~ l<m)
Fig. 11. Crater profiles (after MILLMAN 'j . Vertical scale five times horizontal scale

This result has prompted one to search for other features on the
Earth's surface that might have been caused by meteoritic impact.
One of the characteristics of the craters is that they are almost perfectly
circular. The hypothesis has therefore been advanced that such features
as the Gulf of St. Lawrence 3 or the arc of the Lesser Antilles 4 were
created by the impact of huge meteorites. This is, of course, somewhat
doubtful 5 , but it is certain that many other smaller circular features have
been formed in this fashion. In this instance, one is speaking of "fossil"
craters 6: The Earth has been stricken by meteors in the distant past;
hence a hole resulted in the ground which was subsequently filled-in
with detritus and other foreign material. Further changes may have
1 BARRINGER, D. M.: Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 66, 556 (1914); 76,
275 (1924). - NININGER, H. H.: Arizona's Meteorite Crater; Pub!. Amer. Meteorite
Museum, Sedona, Ariz. (1956).
2 MILLMAN, P. M.: Pub!. Dom. Obs. Ottawa 18, N o.4, 59 (1956).
3 WILLMORE, P. L. , A. E. SCHEIDEGGER: Trans. Roy . Soc. Canad. 50, Ser. III,
Can . Comm. Oceanogr. 21 (1956).
4 SCHULZ-WEIDNER, W.: Umschau 55, No. 23, 713 (1955).
5 In fact, the Gulf of St. Lawrence, e.g., simply seems to be a basin (d.loc. cit. 3).
6 BEALS, C. S., G. M . FERGUSON, A. LANDAU: J. Roy. Astron . Soc. Canad . 50,

203 (1956).
 Domes 25

occurred during glaciation, and at the present time, all that is seen is
perhaps a change in the appearance of the vegetation due to the difference
in soil above the originally shattered and unshattered area.
1.62. Boudinage. A particularly intriguing feature is the occurrence
of boudins. The term "boudinage structure" was introduced by LOHEST 1•
It is French meaning" sausage structure" and refers to a fractured sheet
of rock wedged in between non-fractured rocks, or, in geological terms,
to a fractured competent layer situated between two incompetent
layers. Each fragment of the fractured rock often looks like a sausage,
and the whole array resembles in many cases a chain of sausages. Hence
the name of these structures.
Thus, boudins are oblong bodies; their thickness varies 2 from about
1 cm to approximately 20 meters. The shortest boudins are little longer
than their thickness; the largest are many times longer than thick.
The shape of boudins may be quite varied. Some of them are rect-
angular bodies with sharp corners, others are barrelshaped or lenticular,
and finally some of them have an appearance as if they would have been
twisted around their central axis.
Boudinage structures are quite common in gneissic and regional
metamorphic areas where the rocks are well exposed. They are also
abundant in some low-grade schist regions. Usually, of course, only
a two-dimensional cross-section of the structures is exposed in rock
outcrops so that the three-dimensional arrangement of the boudins is not
always easy to infer.
A physiographic appearance similar to that of boudinage structures
is exhibited by pinch-and-swell structures. In the latter the wedged-in
"compentent" layer is not completely fractured but seems to pinch out
and swell up regularly in a pattern which is also sausage-like. Such
structures are very common in conformable pegmatites and in quartz
veins. From the close physiographic similarity of such pinch-and-swell
structures with boudinage one might expect that the physical explana-
tion of the two phenomena should also be similar.
1.63. Domes. An interesting phenomenon is the existence of domes.
Generally, a dome is a fold which is "anticlinial" in every direction,
viewed from its crest. This can also be stated by saying that the" axis"
of the fault degenerates into a point.
One usually calls domes only such features which are caused by
intrusions from below. The intrusive material may be salt, gypsum or
some other material capable of plastic flow. The strata above the in-
trusive material are pushed upward and represent the "dome".
1 LOHEST, M.: Ann. Soc. Geol. Belg. 36 B, 275 (1909).
S RAMBERG, H.: J. Geol. 63, 512 (1955).
26 Physiography of Other Features

Of particular interest is the case when the intrusive material reaches

the surface of the Earth. One speaks in such cases of "piercement

! !
I if J
sctlle of kilometers

early Creluceous or younger probably Devonian or earlier

EID bllslIll, rlillbosic gabbro []]]]] Christopher formo/i(}(/ ~ onhyrlrile, gypsum,

selen/Ie, limeslone
k}~>~ Hossd formofion f:-:':- ;";! Isuchsen forma/ion
Fig. 12. Geological sketch of the Isachsen Dome in the Canadian Arctic. After HEYWOOD'

domes". The physiographic appearance is then that of a circular

structure (see Fig. 12). A number of such structures have been discovered
in the Canadian Arctic and were described by HEYWOOD l . A particularly
1 HEYWOOD, W. W.: Trans. Can. Inst. Min. Met. 58, 27 (1955).
 Volcanoes 27

beautiful example is the Isachsen dome on Ellef Ringnes Island (see

Fig. 12). In this particular dome, the core rocks are gypsum, anhydrite,
limestone and basalt. The intrusion of this material has upwarped the
overlying sediments and caused faults radial and tangential to the outer
contact of the dome. The sedimentary rocks are even sharply upturned
and overturned in many places. The effects of the doming are not
apparent farther away than 1 to 3 miles from the structure.
1.64. Volcanoes. A different type of circular structure that occurs
on the surface of the Earth is in connection with volcanism. It is well
known that volcanism produces cone-like mountains of lava and ash
which have one or more craters at the summit. Gas and lava is found
to pour out from these craters in various proportions, often in cata-
clysmic spasms.

D tertiary s~di",ents

IlnJlII/iava m basalt ~ and•...-Il' . : : >.:

Fig. 13. Cross-section through Krakatau after its eruption. After NEUMAYR-SOESS'

The best-known volcano is undoubtedly Mount Vesuvius as it has

been observed and investigated since the time of antiquity. Its basis is
circular with a diameter of approximately 16 km. It rises gently up
to an elevation of about 595 meters above sea level and hence abruptly
to the two summits of the mountain. One is Monte Somma, the other
Mount Vesuvius proper. The cone of Vesuvius rises at an inclination
of about 30° to about 1300 m above sea level. It consists mostly of a
loose accumulation of cinders. Throughout history, periods of violent
activity have alternated with periods of acquiescence.
The above picture of Mount Vesuvius is farily typical for an average
volcano. A particularly detailed study of the morphology of volcanoes
has been made by JAGGAR in Hawaii 2. The actual craters are very similar
to explosion pits, except that they are elevated above their surroundings.
In a real grand-style volcanic eruption the resulting crater may be up
to 8 km in diameter. A profile of the crater resulting from the eruption
of Krakatau in 1883 is shown in Fig. 13 1 . Ordinarily, however, volcanic
craters have a diameter of only a few hundred feet.
1NEUMAYR-SUESS, loc o cit.
2 JAGGAR, T. A.:
Origin and Development of Craters. Geol. Soc. Amer. Memoir
No. 21 (508 pp) . 1947.
28 Physiography of Other Features

Volcanoes exist in many parts of the world. There is a general

accumulation of them in orogenetic belts. There are, however, orogenetic
10 II lO

II

Fig. 14. The uplift of Fennoscandia after GUTENBERG'. 1 lines of uplift (in meters); 2 lines of uplift velocity
(in em/century)

belts without any volcanoes (such as the Alps) and there are non-
orogenetic areas with prominent volcanoes (such as the Belgian Congo).
Volcanoes do thus not lack a certain randomness regarding their geo-
graphical distribution.
1 GUTENBERG, B . : Bull . Geol. Soc. Amer. 52,750 (1941).
 The Upheaval of Land in Fennoscandia 29

1.65. The Upheaval of Land in Fennoscandia. There is some conclusive

evidence that Fennoscandia has been rising considerably in recent times.
This evidence is threefold: geologic, mareographic and geodetic.
The geologic evidence is based upon an analysis of the strata in que-
stion. From the existence of fine-grained sediments such as silt, clay
and mud, which commonly occur at the bottom of the sea, it is inferred
that the central part of the area was depressed below sea level at the
end of the Pleistocene ice age. Later on it must have gradually risen,
because remnants of forest and bog vegetation become apparent. It thus
becomes possible to date the time of transition of anyone spot from sea-
bottom to dry land. DE GEER 1 was a pioneer in such studies which were
continued by SAURAM0 2 • From his results, SAURAMO concluded that the
largest uplift took place near the Gulf of Bothnia; and that since 6800B.C.
the land has risen there about 250 metres.
The mareographic evidence is based upon tide-level gauge readings.
From these the change of sea-level and the change in elevation of the
coast can be calculated. The results of such investigations have been
summarized by GUTENBERG 3. From them, GUTENBERG constructed
a map of upheaval of Fennoscandia which is shown in Fig. 14.
Finally, the geodetic evidence 4 corroborates the above findings.
In conclusion, it might be added that vertical motions in blocks of
land are not confined to Fennoscandia. Geodetic precise levelling has
established that similar effects may also occur elsewhere.
1 DE GEER, C. ].: C. R. Int. Geol. Congr. Stockholm 2,849 (1910).
2 SAURAMO, M.: Fennia 66, No.2, 3 (1939).
8 GUTENBERG, B.: Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 52, 750 (1941).
4 KUKKAMAKI, T. ].: Verciff. Finn. Geodiit. lnst. No. 26, 120 (1939).
KAARIAINEN, E.: Verciff. Finn. Geodiit. lnst. No. 42, 106pp. (1953).
 II. Geophysical Data Regarding the Earth
2.1. Gravity Data
2.11. Gravity and Gravity Anomalies. We are turning now our
attention towards some geophysical evidence regarding the Earth. First
of all, we consider the gravity field.
The average value of the Earth's gravity acceleration
g = 980 cm/sec 2 (2.11-1)
yields a means to estimate the Earth's mass and hence its mean density.
The latter turns out to be
emean = 5.5 g/cm3. (2.11-2)
It is very significant that this is much higher than the density of the
rocks in any of the accessible parts of the Earth. The above value,
therefore, gives rise to much speculation about the composition of
the Earth's interior.
It turns out that the gravity value upon the Earth's surface is not
constant, but depends on the geographical location of the point under
consideration. There are two effects which a priori may be assumed to
affect gravity: The Earth's rotation, and the altitude at which gravity
is being measured. The effect of the Earth's rotation will be discussed
more fully in Sec. 4.12 where the theoretical equilibrium figure of the
Earth will be calculated. The gradient of the potential function W given
there yields the theoretical value of gravity at sea level as a function
of the latitude rp. The formula for the "normal" gravity value currently
internationally adopted is the following:
g = 978.049 (1 + 0.005 2884sin2 rp - 0.0000059 sin 2 2rp) cm/sec2. (2.11-3)
The second effect, that of altitude, can be taken care of as follows. For
a spherical mass M, the attraction (neglecting the centrifugal force)
is at a distance a from its center
g = "Mla 2 (2.11-4)
where" is the gravitational constant. Hence the change of g for a change
of altitude is
ogloa = - 2gla = - 0·3086milligal/meter (2.11-5)
where 1 gal equals 1 cm/sec .2
 Distribution of Gravity Anomalies. Isostasy 31

The above formula is valid for a change in altitude if this change

occurs in free air. Hence gravity" anomalies" calculated by means of
(2.11-5) [as referred to the "theoretical" value obtained from (2.11-3)]
are called free..air anomalies.
However, in most cases, if gravity is measured on the surface of the
Earth, it would appear as more logical to make a correction for the
attraction of the rocks between the gravity station and the level of
reference. If these rocks are approximated by an infinite horizontal slab,
the induced gravity change is
LI g = 2:7t" I! h (2.11-6)
where I! is the density of the slab and h its thickness. For an average
value of the density (= 2.67 g/cm 3) one obtains
LI g = 0.1119 milligal/meter. (2.11-7)
Combination of the corrections (2.11-5) and (2.11-7) yields, if applied
to any measured gravity value, the latter's Bouguer reduction. Further
corrections can be applied to account for the topographical shape of the
surrounding terrain 1.
The reduced gravity values, compared with the "normal" values,
can be represented in a map of gravity anomalies. These anomalies
are able to give some indications regarding the mass distribution in the
Earth's crust.
2.12. Distribution of Gravity Anomalies. Isostasy. If the Bouguer
anomalies are calculated for various parts of the world, then it becomes
at once obvious that they tend towards large negative values with
increasing elevations. In fact, it appears that the free air reduction
leads to smaller anomalies than the Bouguer reduction. One can inter-
pret this in terms of isostasy. By this term is meant that the mountain
ranges are supported by "roots" of low density from below, as floating
masses upon a denser substratum. There are two hypotheses by which
this effect could be achieved. According to Pratt (cf. GARLAND 1) , the
assumed mass deficiency would consist of an anomaly in density extend-
ing to constant depth, whereas according to Airy, the density of the
floating matter would be assumed as constant and the latter would
therefore have to extend to a depth varying with surface elevation. It
is now generally the Airy hypothesis which is favored. Based upon it,
HEISKANEN 2 has published tables for isostatic reduction of gravity
values which is supposed to reduce to zero all such values which cor-
respond to proper isostatic adjustment. Gravity anomalies obtained by
isostatic reduction are ~alled isostatic anomalies.
1 GARLAND, G. D.: Handbuch der Physik, Ed. 47, S.202 (1956).
a HEISKANEN, W.: Pub!. Isostatic Inst. 2 (1938).
 32 Gravity Data

It is quite certain that the isostatic theory gives a proper inter-

pretation of many gravity observations. There are, however, notable
exceptions. These show that isostatic adjustment can at best be expected
to be achieved on a broad scale; it certainly does not hold for small-scale
features.
Of large-scale deviations from isostasy one should mention the
Fennoscandian shield. An explanation suggested is that isostatic ad-
justment has not yet been achieved since the melting of the ice cover
.----------------------------------,r-------------~ m~
isostatic +/00

.. ...... - theoretical anomaly --------------~~+-~~~~------~ o

- 100
cross section, venical scale 10 times horizontal scale

A cross section, vertical scale eql/OI frJ horizontal scale B

0 F=====~~~================~:j~~~~------

lOO

300
1f(}0 0

500
km

Fig. 1S. Gravity anomalies and vertical distribution of the foci of deep earthquakes (after GUTENBERG and
R,CHTER')

which was present there during the most recent (Pleistocene) ice age
(d. Sec. 8.5).
Another characteristic pattern of gravity anomalies is connected
with island arcs. A typical gravity profile across an island arc is shown
in Fig. 15. It thus appears that the actual" active" (volcanic) part of an
island arc is connected with positive isostatic anomalies, whereas the
foredeeps show large negative ones. TSUBOI 2 has developed a method
for the direct calculation of the depth of the interface between "crust"
and" mantle" (corresponding to a density difference of 0.4 g(cm3 ) which,
according to the Airy hypothesis, is supposed to cause the gravity ano-
malies. He found that this assumed interface (which may perhaps be
identified with the MohoroviCic discontinuity of Sec. 2.31) must dip
1 GUTENBERG, B., C. F. RICHTER: Seismicity of the Earth and Associated
Phenomena. Princeton : Princeton Univ. Press 1949. [Second ed. 195 4.)
2 TSUBOI, C. : Vening Meinesz Anniversary Volume (pub!, by Kon. Ned . Geolog.-
Mijnbowkundig Genot.)' p . 287 . 1957.
 Earthquakes and Seismic Waves 33

rather sharply at the margin of continents, at an angle e which is

remarkably constant from place to place so that 1
tan e = 0.1. (2.12-1)
Major gravity anomalies have also been discovered over the African
Rift Valleys; this seems to suggest that the latter are indeed rifts in the
Earth's crust. A similar pattern of gravity anomalies exists over mid-
ocean ridges which seems to indicate that the trench-like depression at
their crest (d. Sec. 1.44) is very similar to that present in African Rift
Valleys.
A pattern of negative gravity anomalies similar to that of Fenno-
scandia is present in the interior of India. The explanation of this is
not clear as it is certain that central India was not glaciated. during the
last ice age.

2.2. Seismological Data

2.21. Earthquakes and Seismic Waves. Seismology, the study of
earthquakes, has yielded some very pertinent information about the
structure of the Earth. Earthquakes are shocks that occur within the
Earth. It appears that these shocks originate each in a region which is
small compared with the Earth as a whole; this region can be regarded
as a point for most purposes and is referred to as the locus of the earth-
quake. The point directly above the focus on the Earth's surface is
termed the epicenter of the earthquake.
After an earthquake has occurred, one observes effects at seismic
stations throughout the world. Such stations are equipped with seis-
mographs, instruments designed to amplify and register any tremors
of the Earth's surface in their vicinity. The seismograph writes a seis-
mogram, a line related to the motion of the Earth in anyone chosen
direction. Any change of amplitude or frequency in the seismogram of
an earthquake is called a phase. The principal phases in the seismogram
of an earthquake have been called P, 5 and L and it has been established
that they represent the first onsets of compressional, transverse bodily
and surface waves (d. Sec. 3.21), respectively. A typical seismogram
is shown in Fig. 16.
One of the principal outcomes of observational seismology has been
the recognition that it is possible to regard" phases" as travelling along
"rays". It is thus possible to construct travel-time tables for the various
phases and to trace their paths through the interior of the Earth. The
travel-time of a phase does not depend appreciably on the location of the
epicenter and the station, but only on the epicentral distance and the
1 TSUBOI, C.: Comm. No. 95, Assoc. Seis., Ass. Gen. U.G.G.!., Toronto 1957.
Scheidegger, Principles of Geodynamics 3
 t.N
oj>.

Ul
(1)
Vi·
~h Z3m Z~m g
I ! a~
~~
[
iP ~
I"

Fig. 16. Typical seismogram, showing P, 5 and L phases (earthquake of 28. Dec. 1908. epicenter near Messina; record written on a Wiechert seismograph at Hamburg, Germany) .
After NEUMAYR.SUESS 1

1 loCo cit.
 Seismicity Studies 35

depth of the focus. This has given a means to obtain infonnation about
the Earth's interior which we shall discuss later.
Apart from results regarding the interior of the Earth, seismological
studies have yielded infonnation as to the seismicity of the Earth,
presumably reflecting the condition of present-day orogenetic activity;
furthennore infonnation regarding the magnitude of the strain accu-
mulation within the Earth; and finally infonnation regarding the me-
chanism of faulting at the focus. We shall discuss these topics one by
one below.
2.22. Seismicity Studies. Seismicity studies have as their objective
a definition of the geographical distribution of earthquakes. In order
to achieve this aim, it is necessary to make epicenter detenninations of as
many shocks as is possible and to plot the latter on a map. It is obvious
that this can be done only for such shocks which have occurred since
the introduction of reasonably accurate instrumentation, i.e. since about
1904. One of the most accurate collections of data bearing upon this
subject has been compiled by GUTENBERG and RICHTERl.
One of the outcomes of seismicity studies is that the foci of earth-
quakes may occur at various levels, to a depth of about 700 km. It is
therefore convenient to separate earthquakes according to their depth
of focus; a common classification of erathquakes is into shallow ones
(depth of focus less than 65 km), intermediate ones (depth of focus be-
tween 65 and 300 km) and deep ones (depth of focus more than 300 km).
A distribution map of the large shallow and deep shocks as compiled by
HIERSEMANN 2 from data by GUTENBERG and RICHTER is shown in
Fig. 17. An inspection of this map makes it at once obvious that the
earthquakes are distributed mainly in the zones of recent orogenetic
activity. GUTENBERG and RICHTER postulated that the distribution
of foci beneath orogenetic (mountain and island) arcs is characteristic
of the latter. Accordingly, earthquakes would occur in localized zones
which are almost planar, dipping at some intennediate angle (30 to 60°)
into the Earth (see Fig. 15). However, this view has recently been
challenged by some Russian scientists who claim that the pattern of
distribution of earthquake foci beneath an orogenetically active island
arc is not as simple as had been envisaged by GUTENBERG and RICHTER.
It thus appears that the" plane" postulated by GUTENBERG and RICH-
TER is the lower boundary of earthquake foci beneath an island arc, but
that the whole sector above it is more or less filled-in with foci. Fig. 18
shows the results of KOGAN'S3 investigations in this regard.
1 GUTENBERG, B., and C. F. RICHTER: Seismicity of the Earth and Associated
Phenomena. Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press 1949. [Second edition 1954.J
B HIERSEMANN, L.: Freiberger Forschungshefte C 24 (1956).
3 KOGAN, S. D.: Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR. 101, 63 (1955).

3*
 Vol
0\

.
o
• • ., •
.
~ 0
0 0 l. 0

30

(fJ
~.
S
o
5"
aq
o ;;.
e:.
lof--
F - - -- - - ' -- - - ~ tJ
~
• shallow earlhquakes (h < &l"km) Il'
o •
• intermediate eorfhquakes (&l"< h<3OQk~) o
. o· •
• deep eorlfrquakes (bJQO km) • •
wi I ~o
0
1 0

1811" 135 !IO 45 45 90 ~s

Fig. t7. Distribution of large earthquakes in the world, as compiled by HmRSE>lANN' from data of GUTENBERG and R, CHTER'

HIERSEMANN,
L.: Freiberger Forschungshefte C 24 (1956).
GUTENBERG,
B., and C. F. RICHTER: Seismicity of the Earth and Associated Phenomena. Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press 1949.
[Second edition 1954].
 Magnitude Studies 37

A further remark concerns the observation that there seems to be

a lack of earthquake foci at a depth of 475 km. GUTENBERG 1 has in-
vestigated this question from the energy-standpoint and found that there
is a minimum of energy-release at that depth. The question, however,
does not yet seem to be entirely settled.
O'J~ I~Q N~ l~ooE o't~ 130 IJS /'1() ,q; IsooE
0 0 0 0 o"SolJ8tfl o!l:e<gr ~
0 0 0 o 0 8 tofJ
ZfKJ 0 0
0

g000 B
0
o 0 w- o 0 oS OV .;P 0
0
0

if(J{J - e 600 - o 8S 0
0
8 0 0 8fJ(J
6lKJ 11m
11m a b
t
o(JJ(l ~(j(j 'I(J() 3(}() lIlJ 1«1
~
~ 100 11m ,u ,
55 GOoN

:~
<90<1>0 ~6'°0 & 09 0
0
I
ZtJO 0 o 8 8 0

¥OO 0 0 0
0 0
'l>0 0
0

6U(J ~Cb
11m c 11m d
Fig. 18 a-d. Vertical cross sections through epicentral zones of the northern Pacific Coast: (a) Mariana
Islands area; (b) Japan area ; (c) Kurile Islands area ; (d) Aleutian Islands area. After KOGAN '

2.23. Magnitude Studies. After an earthquake occurs, it is a natural

desire to try to ascribe to it a certain value representative of its intensity.
The original intensity scales were set up by investigating the destruc-
tiveness of earthquakes upon human structures. It is obvious, however,
that a classification achieved in this manner depends not only on the
intrinsic severity of the earthquake, but also on the type and number of
man-made structures that happen to be in the epicentral area. Modi-
fications of the scale have been attempted by specifying more exactly
the type of structures affected, the type of ground they stand on etc.
In spite of these efforts, intensity scales arrived at in this manner remain
at best mostly descriptive.
Any serious attempts to assign a value to the severity of an earth-
quake, therefore, must be based upon an analysis of instrumental re-
cords. Such a value, called magnitude, has been defined empirically by
RICHTER 3. Accordingly, the relation between magnitude M of two
earthquakes at a standard epicentral distance of 100 km, and for the
maximum recorder trace amplitude B is
(2.23-1)
where the seismogram is supposed to have been written on a standard tor-
sion seismometer of free period 0.8 sec, static instrumental magnification
1 GUTENBERG, B. : Vening Meinesz Anniversary Volume (pub!. by Kon . Ned.
Geolog.-Mijnbowkundig Genot.), p. 165· 1957.
2 KOGAN, S. D.: Dok!. Akad. Nauk SSSR. 101. 63 (1955).
3 RICHTER, C. F . : Bull. Seism. Soc. Amer. 25, 1 (1935) .
38 Seismological Data

of 2800 and a damping ratio of 50: 1. The zero of the scale is defined
by setting M = 3 for B = 1 mm.
The above definition of earthquake magnitude was devised for. the
analysis of local shocks in southern California. In order to assign
magnitudes to more distant shocks and to shocks observed elsewhere,
various different scales have been devised, all based upon measurements
of certain" standard" amplitudes in seismograms, in conjunction with
an equation of the type showu in (2.23-1). The possibilities have been
summarized by GUTENBERG and RrcHTERl. Accordingly, a magnitude M
can be determined, in addition to the Richter-magnitude outlined
above, from the amplitudes of surface waves for shallow teleseisms, and
from the amplitude-to-period ratio of body waves for teleseisms, shallow
and deep-focus. The scales, which are all based on Eq. (2.23-1), were
originally adjusted to coincide at a magnitude of 7, but it was subsequent-
ly found impossible to have them coincide everywhere. It has therefore
been suggested 1 to use as a final "unified" magnitude m a certain
average of these various magnitudes. This ambiguity, of course, is
a reflection of the fact that analogous parts of the seismograms of two
earthquakes are not proportional, not even on identical instruments. In
view of this it must be conceded that the term "magnitude" does not
yield an absolute characterization of an earthquake; rather it indicates
the amplitude of a particular part of a seismogram which that earth-
quake has produced on a particular instrument.
An unambiguous indication of the intensity of an earthquake would
be obtained if it were possible to give the amount of energy released by
it. Unfortunately, it is very difficult to do this. In fact, the only indi-
cation of the energy released in an earthquake is obtained by an in-
ference from the abovementioned, incompletely defined magnitude
scales.
Attempts to correlate magnitude with earthquake energy E started
in 1942 when GUTENBERG and RrcHTER 2 correlated the amplitude
expectable in a particular part of a seismogram with the total energy
released as estimated from the total energy flux going through one station,
calculated from the seismic trace by using elasticity theory. The ori-
ginally proposed connection between magnitude and energy has since
been modified several times 3, and the relationship at present3 suggested is
logE = 9.4 + 2.14M - 0.054M2 (2.23-2)
where E is the energy in ergs and M the magnitude.
1 GUTENBERG, B., C. F. RICHTER: Annali di Geofisica (Roma) 9, 1 (1956).
2 GUTENBERG, B., C. F. RICHTER: Bull. Seism. Soc. Amer. 32, 163 (1942)'
3 GUTENBERG, B., C. F. RICHTER: Bull. Seism. Soc. Amer. 46, 105 (1956)'
 Magnitude Studies 39

Eq. (2.23-2) is a quadratic relationship between log E and M. It

may be seen, however, that a linear relationship is a sufficient approxi-
mation in a significant range. In particular, if the "unified" magnitude
m mentioned above (which is a particularly weighted mean of the other
magnitudes) is used, one can express the energy relationship a'S follows
log E = 5.8 + 204m. (2.23-3)
With regard to the various magnitudes mentioned in the course of the
present discussion, the corresponding relationships with energy have
been compiled by GUTENBERG and RICHTER 1 and are shown in Table 4.

Table 4. Comparison of Various Earthquake Magnitude Scales and their Relationship

with Energy. (After GUTENBERG and RICHTER 1)

Richter magnitude M . 3·0 4.0 5·0 6.0 7·0 8.0 9·0

Teleseismic magnitude M
(mean from surface and
body waves) . 2.4 3.6 4·7 5.8 6.8 7·9 8·9
"Unified" magnitude m . 4.0 4·7 5·4 6.1 6.8 7.5 8.1
log energy (ergs) 15.4 17·2 18.9 20·5 22.1 23·7 25·2

In view of the ambiguity of defining a magnitude in the first place,

the various postulated relationships are presumably equally ambiguous.
At any rate, it is possible to obtain a rough idea of the order of magnitude
(within a factor of 10 or so) of the energy released in a given earthquake,
by studying the amplitudes produced in certain parts of its seismograms.
It is doubtful indeed whether more can be hoped for. Obviously, it
must be expected that the frequency-spectrum of energy release is
highly characteristic of individual earthquakes. It is therefore very
questionable whether a comparison of the energy released, by, say, two
earthquakes could be obtained simply by comparing analogous parts
of the corresponding seismograms, which is the procedure inherent in
using magnitudes for energy-determination. A better procedure would
be to calculate the energy directly from the total seismic trace which
an earthquake produces at a station.
In a strained elastic body, the strain is proportional to the square
root of the elastic energy stored. It is therefore possible to interpret the
energy released in an earthquake in terms of a corresponding strain
release. If the cumulative strain release of all earthquakes of the world
is plotted, it may thus be possible to obtain an idea of the corresponding
total strain-build-up in the world. This has been done by BENIOFF 2 for
1 GUTENBERG, B., C. F. RICHTER: Annali di Geofisica (Roma) 9, 1 (1956).
2 BENIOFF, H.: Geol. Soc. Amer. Spec. Pap. 62, 61 (1955).
 .
40 Seismological Data

X,tY1 (er 9S)fI1 I

¥
I ~

J
JIZ - H+a9M

!
-'
,- .....
r--
J
J
~

,
I • .-1
I
I
I
.-~
r r-

r.:
:
t lWg -8.6
rnog.-8.J
"mog.-1.0
o19/Xl I
1910 19i!/} 19](}
I
19;0
I
Year _
a

r
8(J
I, .1,
x 101f(ergs)Vi -
'70 .T
If
~
I
~
1fS;0 .J
,L.-"
J
]() I
gs I
to
... .t'
'"
10
;
o1!Jt()
...
....
I ~ mQg: - 8.o
. .mug. - u
I
_ l1II1g. - 7.0
I
1910 19M 1939 19'10 19;0
Year
b
Fig. 19 a and b. Strain r elease (a) in the world's shallow earthquakes and (b) in tbe world's deep eartbquakes.
After BENIOFF 1

1 BENIOFF, H . : Geol. Soc. Amer. Spec. P a p. 62, 61 (1955).

 Fault Plane Studies 41

shallow and deep earthquakes separately (see Figs. 19a and 19b). In
viewing BENIOFF'S figures it should be recalled that the constants in
the magnitude-energy relationship are not very well established; in fact,
BENIOFF used an older form of that relationship rather than that given
in (2.23-3). Thus, only the general shape of the curves, and not the
particular values represented by them, is of significance. It is seen that
there appears to be a more or less continuous creation of strain in deep
and shallow earthquakes alike. However, the release of this strain in the
upper layers appears to occur in periods of high activity which alternate
with periods of relative acquiescence, whereas in the deep layers the
release of strain is more or less steady.
2.24. Fault Plane Studies. Investigations into the mechanism at
the focus of an earthquake resulted into what is called fault plane studies.
Such investigations were initiated some thirty years ago, but it has been
only recently that they have been made on a sufficient number of earth-
quakes to permit world-wide effects to become recognized.
We have already stated that the cause of a seismic disturbance is
confined to a relatively small region within the Earth which is termed
the "focus" of the earthquake. Within the focus, a mechanical event
must take place such as the sudden occurrence of failure of the material.
Such a phenomenon would of necessity be connected with displace-
ments within the focal region which, in turn, would cause seismic waves.
The nature of the seismic waves originating from the focal region, there-
fore, sould be an indication of the displacements occurring therein. In
this instance, it cannot be expected that it will be possible to infer every
detail of the focal mechanism from seismic waves, but rather the general
behavior of the focal region as a whole. As a first approximation,
therefore, it seems reasonable to enclose the focal region within a sphere
(termed" focal sphere ")1 and to study the motion of the surface of this
sphere as it may be inferred from seismic evidence. The size of the
focal sphere must be such that it encloses the whole region of the focus
in which mechanical deformation may have taken place during the earth-
quake, but that it is still small compared with the size of the whole
Earth.
The various phases of a seismic disturbance, as has also already been
pointed out, may be thought to have travelled along curved paths. The
direction by which these phases leave the focal region can be calculated
from travel-time tables. Thus, to each phase observed at anyone seismic
station corresponds a point on the focal sphere, viz. the point where the
direction which the phase travelled when starting out from the focus
intersects the focal sphere. If the motion near the focal sphere correspond-
1 SCHEIDEGGER, A. E.: Trans. Roy. Soc. Canad. 49, Ser. 3, Sec. 4,65 (1955).
42 Seismological Data

ing to each phase can be calculated from the observed motion at the
station, the geometrical change of the surface of the focal sphere during
the occurrence of the earthquake considered can be inferred. Finally, it
is a problem of mechanics to determine the possible failure patterns inside
the focal sphere that might produce the observed displacements on the
surface.
The problem is thus to determine, from seismic evidence, the dis-
placement pattern on the focal sphere. This can be achieved by means
of the hypothesi., of conservation of phase signs 1 . This hypothesis can

fop point rJf focal sphere

direction of
ruy lflrough 8' lroce of plane containing roy through 8'
Fig. 20. The 10<:.1 \ sphere

best be demonstrated by referring the reader to Fig. 20 representing the

focal sphere. The vector of dislocation at each point of the surface of the
focal sphere can be split into its radial and tangential (to the surface of
the sphere) component. It is easy to see that these components, if the
mode of dislocation of the focal sphere is assumed to correspond to that
of an orange which is sliced down the middle with one part being shifted
over the other, are as depicted in Fig. 20. In this figure, a radial com-
ponent "out" from the center of the focal sphere is denoted by 0,
a radial component" in" by Lt. The tangential components are shown
as arrows. The tangential components may further be split into a com-
ponent lying in the plane of the ray through the point in question (called
SV) and another one at right angles to it (called SH). The hypothesis

1 SCHEIDEGGER, A. E . : Bull. Seismol. Soc. Amer. 47, 89 (1957).

 Fault Plane Studies 43

of conservation of phase signs can then be stated as follows: "the

directions (signs) of the phases P, SH and SV arriving at a seismo-
logical observatory, are identical to the directions of the corresponding
components of the dislocation vector on the surface of the focal sphere
in that point through which the ray has passed".
It is thus evident that the radial displacements of the focal sphere
can be determined from P phases, whereas for the tangential displace-
ments an analysis of S waves is necessary. It so happens that it is much
easier to read P phases from seismograms than S phases, and therefore
the direction of the radial displacement of the focal sphere can be
obtained for many more points than the direction of the tangential
displacement. In general, one has thus to be content with the knowledge
of radial displacements only. From these, however, it cannot be decided
which of the solidly drawn two planes (in Fig. 20) is the true "fault"
plane, and which is the plane orthogonal to it (the latter is often termed
"auxiliary plane" of the fault). "Fault plane solutions" obtained from
P-phases only, are therefore ambiguous to this extent.
The technique of obtaining fault plane solutions from seismic data
has been developed by Japanese workers on the subject!. It has later
been perfected by BYERLY 2 and by KEILIS-BoROK 3 • Solutions have been
produced by many researchers, mostly Japanese, Canadian and Russian 4.
At the beginning of 1957, fault plane solutions of a total of 225 earth-
quakes have been available and the result of these investigations is
summarized in Tables 5 to 7". For this purpose, the world has been divid-
ed into 8 regions as shown in Fig. 21. Table 5 give.. for the 8 regions, as
well as for the world as a whole, the percentage of tensional and com-
pressional earthquakes and the ratio of the two; the percentage of trans-
current and dipslip earthquakes, and the ratio of the two; the average
slip angle (i.e. the angle of the motion vector with the horizontal) and
the average horizontal and vertical component of the displacement.
For a comparison of the values of horizontal and vertical adjustments,
one should observe that there is only one vertical dimension, but that
there are two horizontal ones. It is pure chance what angle the particular
horizontal direction of adjustment in anyone earthquake makes with
a fixed horizontal direction. Since only that component of the horizontal
1 Cf. KAWASUMI, H.: Pub. Bur. Cent. S6is. Int. A 15 (pt. 2), 258 (1937) for a
summary
2 BYERLY, P.: GeoI. Soc. Amer. Spec. Pap. 62, 75 (1955).
3 Cf. KEILIS-BoROK, V. I.: Trav. Sci. Assoc. Int. S6ismoI., V.G.G.I. 19 (1956);
for a summary in English.
4 A summary of the fault plane solutions available in the literature up to 1957
has been given by the writer in Trans. Roy. Soc. Can., I.c.; in Pub. Dom. Obs.
Ottawa 18, No.3 (1957), and in Geofis. Pura AppI. 38 (1957).
6 After SCHEIDEGGER, Geofis. Pura AppI. loco cit. '.
44 Seismological Data

'"
~ -----
""'i:
~
'~~~r----------~~-4~~---+~~~~----~-~-----------4~~ ~"

~~4-~-------~------~~--------~--1~ '"~
~

GeoCis. Pura Appl. loco cit.

 Fault Plane Studies 45

motion of the earthquake is significant which falls into the considered

horizontal direction, one has to multiply the value for the earthquake-
displacement by the cosine of the angle between the latter and the
corresponding horizontal direction. This angle, however, may be any-
thing between 0° and 90° and therefore, on the average, the horizontal
earthquake motion values must be multiplied by the mean of the cosine
between 0° and 90°, i.e. by 2/n. In Table 5, we give therefore the ratio
of total average horizontal displacement and the average vertical dis-
placement as calculated in this manner.
The earthquakes analyzed in Table 5 have then been split into
" shallow" and "deep" ones. Therein, an earthquake was deemed
" shallow" if the depth of focus was less or equal to 70 km, all others
were deemed "deep". The results for "shallow" earthquakes are shown
in Table 6, the results for the" deep" earthquakes are shown in Table 7.
It may be remarked that the calculation of the various averages in
the Tables is in fact, somewhat crude. The earthquakes that have been
analyzed in the literature contain shocks of many different magnitudes,
and it would appear that in the calculation of averages one should weight
the earthquakes accordingly. Much as this would have been desirable,
such a weighting procedure is quite impracticable. The whole question
of magnitude is still not yet quite settled; and of many shocks implicit in
our Tables, magnitude determinations have never even been attempted.
The only thing that could be done, therefore, was to give equal weight
to every possible fault plane solution; double weight, of course, has been
attached to fault plane solutions where S analysis has been carried out
and it is therefore known which is fault- and which is auxiliary plane,
so that every earthquake has the same weight.
The gist of the information contained in Tables 5 to 7 may now be
summarized as follows:
(i) The usual case is that in which earthquakes represent transcurrent
(strikeslip) faulting 1 •
(ii) There are exceptions to the usual case where, in rather small and
well-defined regions, the faulting in earthquake foci is normal or reversed
rather than transcurrent. One such area is the Pamir Knot, the other
Micronesia and Indonesia. These regions appear rather small on a world-
wide scale.
(iii) Regarding the dip-slip component of the faults, there is no
evidence of a level of no strain. Thrust and tension features seem to
balance each other at the surface; at depth thrust is preponderant.
In conclusion one should perhaps remark that there is the possibility
that the interpretation of first-motion data from seismic observations
1 This seems to have been noted first by J. H. HODGSON: Geofis. Pura Appl. 32,
31 (1955).
46 Seismological Data

Table 5. All Earthquakes

Per cent Per cent Ii

....i1l ~ ~ S
e"> ""
0
,,';'
·a= "" ..~.....;"
-------
:§;@"
" 0
:§~ I
'0'
0",
Z1i " 1>1" .9"
.e- "il "...,. bL
"> "...
~ ~
:>::" .~ 1>11i
'S"
5 '"oS" i!l
~ '"oS ~
<.e- <..t
~
'"
u Vi

'"
$
I '"
1 12 50 8 42 6.3 96 4 0 24 15 2·52
2 21 48 28 24 1.7 52 48 0 1.1 48 0·92
3 51 39 57 4 0.68 37 59 4 0.63 74 0·91
4 23 48 26 26 1.8 26 70 4 0·38 58 0.68
5 63 17 17 66 1.0 80 18 2 4·3 22 2.15
6 20 60 40 0 1.5 79 21 0 3·9 30 1.64
7 5 20 40 40 0·5 80 10 10 8.0 20 3.46
8 30 20 73 7 0.27 95 3 2 28 12 3·16
World 225 34 38 28 0·91 65 33 2 2.0 38 1.44

Table 6. Shallow Earthquakes. (Depth of focus less than 100 km)

..: Ii
~

...." Per cent Per cent .e- ~ §

S' Vi ,,-0

.~ '0'
"" ._----- 00 ------- o.~ .."'bO" .....
"'~
,,~

:;:l~ ~~
" j
0",
I Ii "" g ~§
" Zt:
.~
'">-<"" = "' 1>11i ~~
'"oS"
i>i ~.~ <0.
b"
"" EI
$" "
>0.
"
0
u ~ ~ <S
'"
'S Q
8

1 11 55 0 45 00 100 0 0 00 12 2·93
2 21 48 28 24 1.7 52 i 48 0 1.1 48 0.92
3 41 46 49 5 0·93 44 56 0 0·79 74 0·91
!
4 3 67 33 0 2.0 33 67 0 0·50 51 0.84
5 37 8 8 84 1.0 84 15 1 5.6 13 3·39
6 20 60 40 0 1.5 79 21 0 3·9 30 1.64
7 4 25 50 25 0·5 75 12 13 6.0 26 2.56
8 19 11 79 10 0.13 97 3 0 37 13 2.79
World 156 35 35 , 30 1.0 70 I
29 I 1 2.4 37 1.54

Table 7. Deep Earthquakes. (Depth of focus more than 100 km)

Ii
Ii
..
....~ Per cent Per cent .e-
o §
Vi ,,- 0 EI
= ""
,----, -'-_.-.---
" ----------
~~ " .. "
,,0

.~ '0' .~
"...,. ~~ ~i
'i I
~-S... ..:0. ~? g .e-
:>::" 1>11i 1;:" >"
'"" '"" =
Vi
" S 1>1) ~ 0. <0. <..t
'S" oS is oS II
0
~ ~
'"
~ u
'"
1 1 0 100 0 0 50 50 0 1.0 48 0.66
2 0 - - - - - - - - - -
2 10 10 90 0 0.11 10 70 20 0.14 74 -
2 20 45 25 30 1.8 25 70 5 0·36 60 0.62
5 26 31 31 38 1.0 75 23 2 3·2 34 1.39
6 0 - - - - - - - - - -
7 1 0 0 100 - 100 0 0 00 0 00
8 11 36 64 0 0·57 91 5 4 20 9 4.23
World 69 32 43 25 0·73 54 41 5 1.3 42 1.20
 Crustal Studies 47

as given above is incorrect. It is particularly the principle of conser-

vation of phase signs which is nothing but a hypothesis. It is not at
all certain, particularly with regard to S-waves, that a tangential
displacement in a "fault" will be shown again as a similar displacement
at the seismic observatory!. Nevertheless, the intrinsic consistency
of most "fault plane solutions" seems to be an indication that the
interpretation of the focal mechanism as simple faulting is perhaps not
as far fetched as it might appear at first glance. The Russian school of
investigators always left the type of focal mechanism open and found
that the latter can be described as a "dipole force with moment" in
the vast majority of cases 2. A dipole force with moment is kinematically
equivalent to a simple fault. It thus appears that some confidence may
be had in the results of fault plane studies, although the latter cannot
yet be accepted entirely without reservations.

2.3. The Layering of the Earth

2.31. Crustal Studies. Seismological data can be used to obtain spe-
cific information regarding the structure of the Earth. This can be done
by studying the possible reflections and refractions of the ray-paths
corresponding to the various seismic phases. If one is chiefly interested
in the structure of the crust, it is usually easier to obtain pertinent ob-
servations in field experiments by setting off man-made explosions
rather than by waiting for naturally occurring earthquakes.
A peculiar discontinuity has been recognized in this manner, at which
the seismic wave-velocity jumps from some low value to 8.1 km/sec.
It has been termed (after its discoverer) "Mohorovicic Discontinuity"
and is considered to define the lower boundary of the/crust proper. It
is a most significant result of seismic investigations to have established
that the crust thus defined is about 5 km thick beneath oceans and about
35 km thick beneath continents. The boundary of continents is thereby
taken as the 1000 meter line.
Since the ratio of surface occupied by oceans to that occupied by
continents is roughly like 2: 1, the mean thickness of the crust comes out
to 15 km.
A confirmation of the broad structure of the Earth's crust as out-
lined above has been obtained by an analysis of the dispersion of seismic
1 Dcubts have particularly been raised by a recent experiment of PRESS [PRESS,
F.: Comm. No. 115, Assoc. Seis., Ass. Gen. U.G.G.I., Toronto, 1957J who investi-
gated the elastic wave radiation from faults in ultrasonic models. The displacement
pattern for S does not correspond to that corresponding to an "orange being sliced".
2 It should be noted, however, that HONDA [HONDA, H.: Sci. Rep. Tohoku
Univ. Ser. V, Geophysics 9, Supp!. (1957)J finds that a quadrupole mechanism
fits data from Japanese carthquakes better than a dipole mechanism.
48 The Layering of the Earth

surface waves originating from earthquakes. This dispersion depends

on the thickness (and other parameters) of the surface layer, and hence
the latter can be inferred from empirically determined dispersion-curves.
The values obtained in this fashion are entirely in line with those quoted
above.
Although it appears that the MohoroviCic discontinuity is approxi-
mately at the same depth (5 km) beneath all oceans, there is in fact a
marked difference between the Atlantic (including the Indian) and Pacific
Ocean bottoms. The crust beneath the Atlantic and Indian Oceans has
elastic properties similar to that beneath continents. The crust beneath
the Pacific Ocean is different. It thus appears that the Pacific is composed
of the "naked substratum" right up to the surface, whereas in the
Atlantic and Indian Oceans the material is the same as that beneath
continents. The transition from the continents to the Atlantic Ocean
is gradual and continuous, whereas at the boundaries of the Pacific
Ocean there is an abrupt change.
Seismic exploration of the Earth's crust has led to some rather
startling difficulties if its results are compared with those from other,
particularly gravity, observations and inferences.
According to the theory of isostasy, mountains are supposed to have
"roots" in order to explain the observed gravity anomalies. One would
expect that the bottom of these" roots", i.e. the level of isostatic com-
pensation, would be identical with the Mohorovicic discontinuity,
simply because it is natural to assume that a discontinuity of density
also entices a discontinuity in seismic wave-velocity. MINTROpl has
made a study of all the seismic evidence available regarding the possi-
bility of a depression of the Mohorovicic discontinuity (i.e. of the existence
of roots) beneath the Alps and beneath the Sierra Nevada. He maintains
that such roots do, in fact, not exist and that earlier results 2 to the
contrary are based on a faulty interpretation of seismic data. However,
MINTROP introduces some high velocity layers below the Mohorovicic
discontinuity and his visualization of the structure of the Earth's crust
is not all in accordance with the commonly accepted view.
A further interesting observation concerns the level of the Mohorovicic
discontinuity beneath ocean trenches. It is natural to suppose that the
Mohorovi<:ic discontinuity would be depressed beneath such trenches,
i.e. that the latter would represent a down-buckling fold (a tectogene or
geosyncline). However, a recent discussion of gravity and seismic
observations regarding that problem3 again seems to indicate that this

1 MINTROP, L.: Ann. Geofisica 5,163 (1952). I

2 E.g. GUTENBERG, B.: Bul!. Geo!. Soc. Amer. 54, 473 (1943).
3 WORZEL, ]. L., G. L. SHURBET: Geo!. Soc. Amer. Spec. Pap. 62, 87 (1953).
 The Interior of the Earth 49

is not the case and thus that ocean trenches simply represent giant
chasms in the oceanic crust.
Some of the above difficulties may be resolved by noting that, in
addition to the Mohorovicic discontinuity, there are other seismic dis-
continuities in the Earth's crust. The most important of these is the
Conrad discontinuity where the seismic velocity jumps from 6.1 to
6.4-6.7 km/sec. It exists as varying depths in continental areas and
is supposed to separate a "granitic" from a "basaltic" (or intermediate)
layer; not too much chemical significance, however, should be attached
to these designations. In the light of the existence of such a Conrad
discontinuity, the problem of mountain roots takes on a different slant.
It is conceivable that isostatic compensation of mountains may take
place by a bulge in the Conrad discontinuity rather than by a bulge in
the Mohorovicic discontinuity. Instances where this has been claimed
to be the case have been reported from Central Asia l and from Cali-
fornia 2. The isostatically required" mountain roots" may therefore be
possibly roots in the "granitic" layer, roots in the "basaltic" layer, or
may in certain instances not exist at all. In the latter case, it must
be assumed that isostatic compensation is achieved by density vari-
ations, i.e. by a mechanism corresponding to the hypothesis of Pratt
rather than to that of Airy (cf. Sec. 2.12).
2.32. The Interior of the Earth. The interior of the Earth can be
investigated in a manner similar to the crust by an analysis of travel-
time curves of various phases observed in the seismograms of earth-
quakes. The investigations have to be conducted in a very meticulous
manner and the results accordingly have been evolving only very
slowly during the years. The two types of waves (compressional and
dilatational) that can be transmitted through the Earth, can be reflected,
refracted and transformed into each other at various discontinuities.
The aim of seismological investigations is, then, to give the dependence
on depth of the two fundamental wave-velocities; this, automatically,
shows the position within the Earth of the discontinuities.
The investigations bearing upon this problem have been made by
various people. JEFFREYS obtained a graph 3 showing the dependence
of the two fundamental wave velocities on depth; it is presented (solid
line) in Fig. 22. From JEFFREYS' graph it is taken that there is a major
discontinuity at a depth of 2900 km, characterized by the fact that no
1 VEITSMAN, P. S., I. P. KOSMINSKAYA, Yu. V. RIZNICHENKO: Tez. Dokl.
XI Gen. Ass. Mezhd. Geodez. Geofiz. Soyuza, p. 31. Moscow 1957.
2 GUTENBERG, B.: Comm. No. 17, Assoc. Seismol. Ass. Gen. U.G.G.!., Toronto
1957. Also from Alps: LABROUSTE, H., J. P. ROTHE, ibidem No. 25.
8 Cf. e.g. BULLEN, K. E.: An Introduction to the Theory of Seismology. 2nd. Ed.
London: Cambridge University Press 1953.
Scheidegger, Principles of Geodynamics 4
50 The Layering of the Earth

shear waves can be transmitted across it. This has given rise to the
assumption that this discontinuity defines the boundary of a liquid core
of the Earth. A further discontinuity in the neighborhood of 5000 km
depth suggests the existence of an inner core within the core. Speculations
have been that this inner core is again solid. This is, however, not yet
very certain.
An alternative curve of P and 5 velocities has been deduced by
GUTENBERG!. It is also shown in Fig. 22 (dotted line). It will be ob-
served that in most essential points, JEFFREYS' and GUTENBERG'S
curve are in substantial a_greement.
Inner
Hun/Ie Ol/Iercure core
I I

V
/
V-
J. .". -..I. .
I /.

L
/'.-.
V·
1'1

-/
/'
~ --- --Jeffreys
......... fill/enberg

1000 2000 JOOO 11000 f()(JO km. 6000

lJeplh
Fig. 22. P and S velocity distributions in the Earth's interior. Solid line after JEFFREYS, dotted line after
GUTENBERG

The existence of a further discontinuity at a depth of about 900 km

has been postulated by BIRCH upon chemical grounds. It will be dis-
cussed more fully in Sec. 2.71.
JEFFREYS' values for the P and 5 velocities shown in Fig. 22 can be
used to estimate the density distribution within the Earth 2. The equa-
tion of equilibrium at distance r from the center of the Earth postulates
(after BULLEN 2)
dp/dr = - g e = - xme(r 2 (2·32-1)

where p is the pressure, g the local gravitational pull, e the density,

m the mass of the matter inside a sphere of radius r and x the gravi-

GUTENBERG, B.: Trans. Amer. Geophys. Un. 32, 373 (1951).

1
Cf. e .g . BULLEN, K. E.: An Introduction to the Theory of Seismology. 2nd Ed.
2
London: Cambridge U niversity Press 1953 .
 Principles 51

tational constant. Assuming adiabatic conditions, we have

-k = -dp =cp_·
2
-4 c2 (2·32-2)
(! de 3 s

where k is the (adiabatic) incompressibility and cp' c8 denote the local P

and 5 velocities, respectively. This result is a consequence of infini-
tesimal elasticity theory [d. Eq. IJ

0.21-17/18) and 0.21-6c)]. '2

Hence I
./
V
'D
de _
a:;- 9

--
8
7
This equation can be evalu- G
ated numerically, but there is S
~
some difficulty in determining the f /'

analytical continuation across the Jr'

surfaces of discontinuity. Fortu- 2
'0 /5'0'0 20'0'0 .JO(J{J II!W 500'0 $Of)(}
nately, it turns out that various LepIMkm)- -
reasonable assumptions that can Fig. 23 . Density distribution in the Earth's interior
After BULLEN'
be made do not influence the
result very much; thus, the density variation is probably pretty close
to that shown in Fig. 23, as calculated by BULLEN l .

2.4. Data from Age Determinations

2.41. Principles. The geological time scale discussed in Sec. 1.22 begins
with the Cambrian, owing to the absence of fossils in earlier strata. It
is, however, inconceivable that the Earth would not have existed for
a very long time before the advent of animals that could be fossilized.
It is thus fortunate that the physics of radioactive decay has enabled
one to extend the geological time scale backwards to almost 3 billion
years.
Radioactive decay of fissionable material occurs spontaneously. The
number of atoms decaying in anyone (short) time interval is thus pro-
portional to the total number of atoms present and to a decay constant A.
Thus the decay of e.g., rubidium can be written as follows:
- ~ Rb87 = ARb87 (2.41-1)
dt
where Rb87 indicates the number of atoms of rubidium-87 present in
any quantity under consideration. Integrating, one obtains
(2.41-2)
1Cf. e.g. BULLEN, K. E.: An Introduction to the Theory of Seismology. 2nd Ed.
London: Cambridge University Press 1953.
4*
52 Data from Age Determinations

Rubidium-87 decays into strontium-87; the number of radiogenic

strontium-87 atoms contained in, say, a rubidium crystal must be equal
to the number of rubidium atoms that have decayed (barring any losses)
since the formation of that crystal. Thus

(2.41-3)
or
Sr87 = Rb87 (eAt - 1). (2.41-4)

Thus, by measuring the ratio of Sr87/Rb87 it is possible to determine the

time of formation of the crystal. This is the basis of radioactive age
determinations. The actual technique of carrying out the measurements
is rather involved; the required
Table 8. Radioactive Decay Schemes isotope-ratios are obtained by
usuable for Age Determinations
means of mass-spectrometry. The
Isotope I End product I Half life
materials, therefore, have to be
changed chemically into such a
K40 Ca40 and A40 1. 3 X 109 years
RbB7 SrB 7 6.1 X 10 years
10 state that they can be introduced
Th 282 Pb20B 1.4 X 1010 years into a mass spectrometer which,
U 236 Pb207 7.1 X lOB years
U238 Pb206 4.5 X 109 years
in itself, is not a simple piece of
equipment.
The strontium decay scheme mentioned above is only one of several
nuclear decay-reactions occurring in nature which are suitable for radio-
active age determinations. For a naturally decaying material to be
suitable for such age determinations it is necessary that its half-life be
comparable with the age of the Earth, and 5econdly, that the material be
reasonably abundant in rocks. The decay schemes which are thus usable
for the present purpose are shown in Table 8. A detailed discussion
of the techniques involved in using these schemes may be found in an
article by WILSON et aU.
2.42. An Extended Geological Time Scale. One of the outcomes of
radioactive age determinations was the possibility of extending the geo-
logical time scale, as well as to assign more certain absolute ages to strata
whose relative age had been determined earlier by means of index fossils.
The scale thus found by WILSON is shown in Table 9 1 .
A most interesting observation in considering this scale is that the
so-called" Precambrian" time takes up about 5/6 of the Earth's history,
the rest only 1/6. Thus, conventional geology usually is concerned with
only the latter sixth of the life of the Earth. This has only recently been
recognized.

1 WILSON, J. T., R. D. RUSSELL, R. M. FARQUHAR: Handbuch der Physik

Bd.47, S. 288. 1956.
 An Extended Geological Time Scale 53

Table 9. Extended Geological Time Scale

Time
Events (in billion Rock types
years)

Present day 0
Cenozoic group
0.07
Mesozoic group
0.2
Paleozoic group
First index fossil 0·5
1.0 Grenville-Huronian types
Change in orogenesis 2.0
Keewatin-Temiskaming types
Oldest known rocks 3·0
No rocks preserved
4.0
Origin of Earth 4.2

Concurrently with the extension of the geological time scale, attempts

have been made to elucidate the tectonic history of the Precambrian
time. It is known that old shields have the appearance of worn-down
mountain roots rather than that of homogeneous blocks. It may thus
be conjectured that orogenetic activity has been going on for a long time
before the appearance of the first fossilizable animals upon Earth.
Originally, the Precambrian areas had been divided into only two
"ages", Proterozoic and Archean, the fonner being assumed as the
younger. This division came about because of the presence of two types
of Precambrian rocks, a sedimentary type resting upon a highly altered
type. The fonner was simply called Proterozoic, the latter Archean. It
was observed, however, soon after radioactive age detenninations had
been undertaken, that the classification into Proterozoic and Archean
rocks is not a chronological one at all. Although in anyone region
Proterozoic rocks rest upon and are younger than Archean type of rocks,
Proterozoic rocks are not at all of the same age and may be older in one
area than the Archean type rocks in another.
In fact, the arrangement of ages in the Canadian Shield (which has
been most thoroughly investigated) seems to suggest a phenomenon of
continental growth (see Fig. 24). The Canadian Shield may be divided
into "provinces", i.e. regions of roughly unifonn ages. The oldest
province is found around James Bay, younger ones progressively follow-
ing on its side l .
Accordingly, the oldest province in a shield would form a continental
nucleus. There are indications that orogenesis in the continental nuclei
1 WILSON, ]. T., R. D. RUSSELL, R. M. FARQUHAR: Canad. Min. Met. Bull. 49,
550 (1956).
 \ en

\ *'"
\ - - - province boundaries approx.
\ assumed
\ age of pegmatites and veins
\ + 0 800 my.
o 800 - 1200 •
I • IlOO - 1600 -
• /600 - Z000
I ZOOO ••
I
\ t!
ordilleran\
p.
Atliabascll.
~
Il>
::t
\ o
.~ S
\ ~
(I)
\
t!
\ ~
' '"',- J
.-.. . . -; " §.
'-... ............... , [
o·
::1
<J>

o lIlO '100 6IXJ km

! ! ! !

Fig. 24. Geological basement provinces in the Canadian Shield, as inferred from radioactive age determinations. After WILSON ct aLl

1 WILSON, J. T., R. D . RUSSELL, R. M. FARQUHAR: Handbuch der Physik Bd.47, S. 288. 1956.
 Surface Heat Flow Measurements 55

occurred in a manner different from that occurring to-day: Mountain

building processes taking place in continental nuclei produced many small
sinuous belts characterized by poorly differentiated sediments and by
a high proportion of basic volcanic materials. The change-over to pre-
sent-day type of orogenesis (as described in Sec. 1.4) occurred about
2000 million years ago. An analysis of rock ages and tectonic patterns
recognizable since that time yields that about 10 "modern-type" oro-
genetic cycles occurred up to the present (as mentioned already earlier;
d. Sec. 1.41).

2.5. Thermal Data

2.51. Surface Heat Flow Measurements. It has been postulated for
some time that the Earth may essentially be a heat engine. This means
that the energy causing geodynamic effects may stem from thermal
phenomena. Unfortu-
nately, the thermal his- Table 10. Heat Flow Measurements. (After ALLAN l )
tory of the Earth is only
No. of I
very imperfectly known Region
I vations
obser- Mean value
as it is closely linked with
problems of the origin of Africa . . 7 1.10 X 10- 8 calfcm 2 sec
the Earth and with the Canada . . 8 0.96
chemistry of the Earth's United States 9 1.46
Great Britain 12 1.15
interior. These topics are Pacific Ocean 6 1.18
beyond the scope of the Atlantic Ocean. i 5 0·98
present study, and we
shall, therefore, only present here a survey of those investigations and
speculations that are of importance with regard to problems of geody-
namics.
The most tangible information regarding thermal properties of the
Earth is obtained from surface heat flow measurements. Such measure-
ments require the determination of the thermal gradient in a mine, bore
hole or such like, and a determination of the thermal conductivity of
the rock strata. The results from such measurements are remarkably
uniform over the whole world. The average heat flow is found to be
about
H = 1.2 X 10-6 cal cm- 2 sec -1 (2.51-1)

with very little variation from one place to another. The results have been
summarized e.g. by ALLAN 1 and by BIRCH 2. The data compiled by
ALLAN are shown in Table 10.

1 ALLAN, D. W.: Endeavour 1954, 89.

B BIRCH, F.: Geophysics 19, 645 (1954).
56 Thermal Data

Most significant is the observation that there is no difference between

continental and oceanic heat flows. This suggests that each square
kilometer of the Earth's surface is underlain by the same amount of
heat-generating radioactivity. This is very surprising in view of the fact
that it is known that the continental rocks contain much more radio-
active material than the oceanic rocks. Somehow, this difference must
be compensated in the deeper layers of the Earth.
In view of the total heat flow taking place through the Earth's
surface, the additional amount of heat released by volcanic activity is
quite insignificant: it is probably only about 1/100 of the total in any
one time interval!, 2. The energy lost to the Earth through heat flow is
also very much greater than the energy lost by earthquake activity. How-
ever, in particularly seismic areas (such as Japan) the energy lost by
earthquakes may perphaps equal that lost by heat flow 3 •
2.52. Temperature in the Earth's interior. In order to estimate the
temperature distribution in the Earth's interior, it is necessary to make
a hypothesis regarding the dependence of the volume coefficient of ther-
mal expansion IX on the pressure p:

:-=~-...l-bP.
IX 1X0 I
(2.52-1)

This assumption is suggested by analogy with the compressibility-

pressure relationship which is of the same form, and has been confirmed
by results of the theory of solids 4. The values of the constants 1/lXo
and b are as follows

(2.52-2)

(2.52-3)

It is now possible to make an estimate of the temperature distri-

bution in the Earth 4,5. The adiabatic temperature gradient satisfies the
equation
dT IXT
(2.52-4)
d"P - eCp

1VERHOOGEN, J.: Amer. J. Sci. 244, 744 (1946).

2ROBSON, G. R., P. L. WILLMORE: Bull. Volc. Ser. II 17, 13 (1955).
3 BULLARD, E. C.: In: The Earth as a Planet, ed. Kuiper, p. 120. 1954. -
GUTENBERG, B.: Quart. J. Geolog. Soc. London 112, 1 (1956). - TSUBOI, C.:
J. Physics of the Earth 5, 1 (1957).
• JACOBS J. A.: Canad. J. Phys. 31, 370 (1953).
S JACOBS, J. A.: Nature, Lond. 170, 838 (1952); also Adv. in Geophysics 3,
183 (1956).
 Thermal History of the Earth 57

Here, T is the temperature, (} the density, and Cp is the specific heat at

constant pressure. Inserting the hypothesis formulated in Eq. (2.52-1)
into (2.52-4), one obtains
dT __ dp
(2.52-5)
T - -ecp(:o + b~)
If one further assumes that Cp is a constant, the above relationship

J-;(:otl:
can be integrated to yield:

log nat T = ~p b
P) . (2.52-6)

This can be evaluated numerically, since the dependence of the density (}

on depth (and hence on pressure) is approximately known (cf. Sec. 2.32).
The result is the temperature distribution shown in Fig. 25 (after JACOBS)!.
JACOBS' curve estimates the temperature in the Earth only below
1000 km depth. Information regarding the upper layers must be sought
HfJ{} from different sources. Various

-
OK authors have made estimates,
!lW

~- d~
~ ~.
¥6IA7 km 6'3711(1n
i
Y-I
J9aJlI..,
II
-ml1Tlflc I CIJf'e-
HaJ
favlun
I
o faJ Z/J(J J()(J 'IaJ sall<m 6aJ
Oep/h
Fig. 25. Temperature distribution in the interior of Fig. 26. Temperature distribution in the crust and
the Earth. After JACOBS' upper mantle of the Earth according to
GUTENBERG and JEFFREYS

mostly based upon specific assumptions, which have been collected by

GUTENBERG 3. A series of estimates is shown in Fig. 26.

2.53. Thermal History of the Earth. It is usually assumed that the

Earth was at one time of its life a hot celestial body. The reason for this
assumption will be explained more fully in Sec. 5.13; for the present we
shall accept it as a hypothesis which will enable us to follow the custom-
ary discussions of the Earth's thermal history as referring to geological
time.
1 VERHOOGEN [VERHOOGEN, J.: Trans. Amer. Geophys. Un. 35, 85 (1945)J
disagrees with this as he assumes that the temperature at the core boundary
fluctuates, in space as well as in time, between a lower limit of about 1500° C
and an upper limit of 2500° C.
2 JACOBS, J. A.: Canad. J. Phys. 31, 370 (1953) .
3 In: "Internal Constitution of the Earth" (l.c.) p . 162.
58 Thermal Data

If the Earth was a hot body, it follows that its present condition was
reached by cooling. The manner in which this occurred, however, is
not at all clear. One of the most commonly accepted ideas is that if the
Earth was first completely liquid, the heavy materials would have sunk
to the center to form the core. The mantle would have solidified outwards
from its base at the top of the liquid core and would have been cooling
ever since. The statement that the solidification of the mantle would
have started at the bottom follows from a comparison of the increase
with depth of the melting point with the increase of the adiabatic
temperature: ADAMS! has shown that of the two the melting point in-
crease'S faster; hence solidification must have started from the bottom up.
The temperature at the Earth's surface is determined by the balance
between solar radiation and heat loss into space; the heat supply from
the Earth's interior is in this connection probably quite insignificant.
It has been only relatively recently realized that there is a significant
source of heat within the Earth, viz. that represented by the radioactive
materials contained in most common rocks. SLICHTER 2 analyzed the
available data in the light of the existence of radioactivity, but un-
fortunately neglecting the change of the latter with time. Since the
decay constants of most radioactive materials are at most comparable,
and never much greater than the total life of the Earth, the change of
the amount of radioactivity within the Earth must have been ap-
preciable.
The problem can be tackled by trying to solve FOURIER'S heat con-
ductivity equation (in spherical coordinates)

(!
aT =
C ----at
1 a( aT) + H (r, t)
-,;2 a:; K r2 8r- (2.53-1)

where H(r, t) is the rate of production of heat by radioactivity per unit

time and volume, C is the specific heat, K is the thermal conductivity
and T is the temperature. The solution of this heat conductivity equation
is quite difficult to achieve and can only be attempted numerically by
means of high-speed electronic digital computers. This has been done
by ALLAN 3 for two particular models which may be considered as reason·
able. We present the results obtained by ALLAN in Table 11.
It may be pointed out that both of ALLAN'S models have as character-
i"tic features that the greater part of the mantle is and has been heating
up during most of the geological time. This is in contrast to what had
been believed until very recently and is of great consequence with
regard to orogenetic thinking.
ADAMS, L. H.: J. Wash. Acad. Sci. 14, 459 (1924).
1
SLICHTER, L. B.: Bull. GeoI. Soc. Amer. 52, 561 (1941).
2
3 ALLAN: I.c.; also JACOBS, J. A.: Trav. Sci. Ass. Int. SeismoI., D.G.G.I. 19 (A),
151 (1956) and Adv. in Geophysics 3,183.
 Principles 59

Table 11. Temperatures (oG) in ALLAN'S Models

Depth (km)
Time
(10' years) I
SO 100 500 1000 2000 2900
I
Modell
0 666 1220 2310 2856 3615 3958
025 905 1216 2339 2894 3656 3992
o5 861 1166 2361 2930 3693 4024
1· 763 1056 2382 2988 3753 4077
2 606 892 2358 3072 3844 4162
3 521 785 2308 3124 3913 4225
4 461 714 2248 3163 3970 4282

Model 2
0 666 1220 2310 2856 3615 3958
0.25 1447 1520 2330 2885 3643 3985
0·5 1424 1576 2346 2910 3667 4010
1 1267 1481 2369 2960 3705 4052
2 997 1245 2383 3017 3763 4117
3 825 1073 2347 3057 3808 4168
4 712 934 2298 3086 3841 4209

The basic assumption of the heat-conductivity equation as funda-

mental to the thermal history of the Earth makes no provision for the
possible existence of thermal convection currents in the mantle. It is
demonstrated, however, that the observed heat flows (which can be
compared with those resulting from ALLAN'S models) can well be ex-
plained by the assumption of conduction alone.

2.6. Data from Magnetization of Rocks

2.61. Principles. Although the existence of the Earth's magnetic
field has been known for a long time, it still has some puzzling aspects.
The main part of the field can be described as that of a magnetic dipole
whose axis is somewhat offset with regard to the present axis of the
Earth's rotation. Short term disturbances of the magnetic field are
known to be caused by stray currents in the ionosphere, presumably
induced by cosmic radiation. Other characteristic disturbances of the
magnetic field are called secular variations. These appear to be regional
phenomena; they also include the westward drift of non-axial charac-
teristics.
The origin of the magnetic field of the Earth and of its characteristic
disturbances are not properly understood. At present it is usually held
that some magneto-hydrodynamic phenomenon in the core of the Earth
is responsible for the magnetic field. If this is true, then there is reason
to believe that the axis of the dipole field approximating the Earth's
magnetic field should always more or less coincide with the axis of rotation.
60 D ata from Magnetization of Rocks

It is observed that, in sediments containing iron oxide minerals, the

magnetized grains are oriented in a definite direction. It must therefore
be postulated that an orienting magnetic field was present during the
deposition of the sediments, and the contention 1 is that, under suffi-
ciently quiet conditions, the Earth's magnetic field is strong enough to

Fig. 27. Migration of the North Pole as indicated by paleomagnetic evidence. After RUNCOR N 2, Triangles:
Pole position obtained from rocks in North America; Circles: pole positions obtained from rocks in Europe.
M -~Hocene, E-Eocene, K - Cretaceons, X;- Triassic, P-Permian, C--Carboniferons, D - Devonian,
S-Silurian, €-Cambrian , Ab- Algonkian, PC M-Precambrian

effect this. It is therefore reasonable to expect that an analysis of the

remnant magnetization of rocks would yield information regarding the
magnetic field of the Earth in times past.
2.62. Results. If suitable rocks from various parts of the world are
analyzed regarding their remnant magnetization, it may be hoped that
the results can be interpreted in terms of a path of wandering of the
1 RUN CORN, S. K.: Handbuch der Physik Bd. 47, S.470. 1957.
2 R UNCORN, S. K.: Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 67, 301 (1956) .
 Geochemistry of the Interior of the Earth 61

Earth's magnetic pole. By implication, this, then, would also indicate

the path of the pole of rotation.
It is indeed found that the various positions of the pole can be joined
by a fairly smooth curve. This, however, is possible only if no distinction
is made between North and South Pole. It must be assumed that either
the magnetic field of the Earth can undergo a spontaneous reversal, or
that a self-reversal of the remnant magnetization of the rocks can occur
during consolidation. Only if this be assumed can one define a coherent
path of "polar wandering". The polar path determined in this fashion
turns out to be fairly reasonable and more or less in agreement with
that inferred from paleoclimatic evidence. The path shown in Fig. 27
has been determined by RUNCORN 1 from the analysis of North American
rocks. Other data from rocks collected by RUNCORN 2 ,3 and by GRA-
HAM4 in Britain and Iceland seem to be consistent with this pattern.
The paleoclimatic evidence for polar wandering suggests, as was out-
lined earlier, not only that a shift of the poles took place, but also that
large continental drifts occurred, particularly in view of the simultaneous
glaciation of several southern continents which are now widely separated.
It is interesting to observe that similar conclusions are suggested by
paleomagnetic work. CLEGG et al. 5 made a very careful study of this
question, using rock samples collected in India. They arrived at a sugg-
ested position of the North Pole for the Eocene at 28° N, 85° W. This
is widely different from the position of 75° N, 120° E which is given in
Fig. 27 for that same epoch. The discrepancy can be resolved if a drift
of India is assumed with regard to Europe and North America. The
postulated drift of India would be northward 6, which is in the same direc-
tion as that suggested by paleoclimatic evidence. However, because of
the relative newness of paleomagnetic studies, the results quoted in this
section should perhaps still be regarded with some caution.

2.7. Geochemical Data 7

2.71. Geochemistry of the Interior of the Earth. A further body of
information regarding the Earth may be obtained by chemical investiga-
tions. From spectroscopic analysis of celestial bodies it has been inferred
that the chemical composition of the universe is quite uniform. The latter
consists throughout of the same elements and their relative abundances
1 RUNCORN, S. K: Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 67, 301 (1956).
2 RUNCORN, S. K: Nature 176, 505 (1955).
3 RUNCORN, S. K: Adv. in Physics 4, 244 (1955).
4 GRAHAM, J. W.: J. Geophys. Res. 60, 329 (1955).
5 CLEGG, J. A., E. R. DEUTSCH, D. H. GRIFFITHS: Phil. Mag. (8) 1,419 (1956).
6 About 6000 km towards North America since the Eocene epoch (60 million
years ago).
7 The fundamental treatise on this subject is by K. RANKAMA and T. G.
SAHAMA: Geochemistry, 912 pp. University of Chicago Press 1950.
62 Geochemical Data

are everywhere more or less identical. Such differences as exist can

usually be explained by the prevailing local conditions such as high
temperatures which permit certain elements to be used up in thermo-
nuclear reactions!.
If the knowledge of cosmic abundances of elements is carried over
to the Earth, then it is possible to make some inferences regarding the
chemical composition of its interior. Combining this information with
the knowledge of density, pressure and seismic velocity distribution with
depth, leads to the following conclusions.
The mantle, which reaches from below the Mohorovicic discontinuity
to a depth of 2900km probably consists of dunite, peridotite or eclogite,
as these are the only materials that have elastic constants of the right
order of magnitude to yield the high seismic velocities observed at that
depth. Within the mantle, at a depth of about 900 km, there is probably
a further discontinuity (Birch discontinuity). involving a change of
phase, or a chemical change or both 2. This follows from the observation
that the variation of the observed compressibility with depth cannot be
accounted for by the compression of a homogeneous material between
200 and 800 km depth, but that compression alone can account very
well for the observed compressibility between 900 and 2900 km depth.
Hence, there must be a discontinuity at between 800 and 900 km depth.
The core which reaches from 2900 km to the center of the Earth,
presumably consists of a mixture of iron and nickel. The latter hypo-
thesis is supported by the abundance of iron in meteoritic material;
meteorites being thought of as debris from a planet of similar constitution
as the Earth which for some reason disintegrated. However, all that is
really known about the core of the Earth is that it must have a high
density and that it probably has a high electrical conductivity. The latter
follows from the customary explanation of the Earth's magnetic field
in terms of magneto-hydrodynamic convection currents. Both these pro-
perties conceivably could also be exhibited by a metallic phase of ma-
gnesium-iron silicates (RAMSEY'S hypothesis 3) which would be stable at
the high pressure prevailing at the depth in question. It is not quite
clear, though, whether such a hypothesis can be maintained in the light
of quantum mechanical estimates of the density to be expected in such
a metallic silicate phase. It seems, therefore, that the assumption of
a core consisting of an iron-nickel alloy is still the most satisfactory one
in the light of present knowledge.
2.72. Geochemistry of the Crust. The crust is the only part of our
globe which is directly accessible. Because of the strict differentiation
1 MASON, B.: Principles of Geochemistry. New York: J. WILEY & Sons 1952.
2 BIRCH, F.: Trans. Amer. Geophys. Un. 32, 533 (1951).
3 RAMSEY, W. H.: Month. Not. Roy. Astron. Soc. 108,404 (1948).
 Geochemistry of the Crust 63

of the material of the Earth into several layers, it is possible to treat the
crust as a separate chemical unit.
The materials found in the crust show an extreme variety. How-
ever, there seem to be only two basic types which have been called
andesitic and basaltic.
Most of the continental material can be classified as andesitic.
Andesite is a volcanic lava containing about 60% silica, the remainder
being Al 20 s , CaO and other constituents. When it becomes worn-down,
it causes various types of sedimentary rocks to be formed; finally upon
subsequent metamorphosis it yields granite and grano-diorite. Thus,
the evolution of continental rocks can be considered as a geochemical
cycle. Starting from andesitic lava, one has first crystallization, then
weathering and transportation which produce sediments. The sedi-
ments become consolidated to form sedimentary rocks; thence meta-
morphism takes over and produces metamorphic rocks, and finally
anatexis (remelting) may take place and recreate the lava. The passage
of any particular chemical element through its "geochemical cycle II

can be followed and it is found that the picture created in this fashion
is essentially consistent.
In contrast to the andesitic rocks of the continents, there are the
basaltic ones of the ocean bottoms. The basalt-cycle is similar to the
andesite cycle. Starting out with basaltic lava, one has crystallization,
sedimentation. However, upon metamorphosis one obtains gabbro
and not granite. If anatexis takes place, one obtains again the lava.
As mentioned above, basalt seems to be the material of the ocean
bottom. Basaltic type rocks are mostly found in oceanic islands. Vol-
canoes at the margins of continents seem to spew out mostly andesitic
lava, whereas the lava found on mid-oceanic islands is mostly basaltic.
The reason for the difference in chemical composition of the continental
crust and the oceanic crust is not clear; it seems to run parallel with
the marked differences in physiographic and geophysical properties.
The boundary between basaltic and andesitic rocks and lavas in the
Pacific ocean has been called the "Andesite Line ".
It is a great puzzle why the material of the crust (i.e. basalt and ande-
site) should be of such rare abundance in the Earth as a whole; the mantle,
according to Sec. 2.71, is assumed to consist of dunite, peridotite and
eclogite. In order to get around this difficulty, it has been suggested by
LEESl that the MohoroviCic discontinuity is a phase-discontinuity and
not a chemical discontinuity at all. Accordingly, the mantle would
consist of a high-pressure phase of basalt and andesite. Unfortunately,
the whole mechanism of phase-transitions is not yet sufficiently well
known to come to any definite conclusion about this point.
1 LEES, G. M.: Quart. J. Geol. Soc. Lond. 109, 217 (1953).
 III. The Mechanics of Deformation
3.1. Finite Strain in Rheological Bodies
3.11. The Physics of Deformation. The basic problem in the study
of the Earth's crust is to understand its deformations. Unfortunately,
the general physics of deformations is not as well understood as one might
desire.
Deformations can occur in two fundamentally different ways: viz.
continuously or discontinuously. Under continuous deformation we
understand a condition where neighboring points in a material always
remain neighboring points, whereas in discontinuous displacements this
is not the case.
Several branches of the theory of continuous deformation have been
very intensively developed. It is well known that the theory of elasticity
has been carried to a high degree of refinement; the same is true for the
hydrodynamics of viscous fluids. Unfortunately, the materials of which
the Earth's crust is composed, are very unlikely to fit either of these
theories. Of those branches @f the continuous displacement theory that
are more or less well developed, the theory of plasticity has the most
bearing upon the displacements observed in the Earth's crust. However,
the theory of plasticity has been developed for the description of the
behavior of a metal during cold working, and it cannot be expected,
therefore, that its application to the Earth's crust will lead to entirely
satisfactory results. The material in the Earth's crust shows a very
complicated behavior, possibly of the types discussed in the various
theories of "rheology". However, these theories all appear to be more
or less heuristic and therefore incomplete.
Very important is the discussion of discontinuous displacements.
There are many instances where ruptures, fissures, fractures and such
like occur in the Earth's crust. Although humans have been breaking
things since the inception of civilization, it is an unfortunate fact that
the whole subject of fracture is only very incompletely understood.
There are quite a number of rule-of-thumb criteria of fracture or better:
of when a structure is supposed to be safe so as not to fracture,-but
the basic problem of describing the progress of a fracture surface in
a given body under given external stresses, has not yet been solved.
 The Structure of a Finite Strain Theory 65

We shall, in the following sections, consider the various aspects of

the theory of deformation one by one.
3.12. The Structure of a Finite Strain Theory. In order to obtain a de-
scription of the dynamics of continuous media, there are various steps
that must be observed 1 • In the first place, one must decide upon a de-
scription of the deformation. Once this has been achieved, one must
express various physical laws: the condition of continuity, the law of
motion, and boundary conditions. We shall discuss these steps one by
one.
a) Measure of Displacement. Let us assume that a certain volume W
(which may be infinite) of space is filled with matter. The volume W,
and the way in which it is filled, changes with time t.
The points of space may be specified by giving three Cartesian co-
ordinates x. such that the line element is defined as follows:
(3·12-1)
In this formula, the summation convention has been used, which sti-
pulates that one has to sum over all indices that occur twice.
The above scheme characterizes the geometrical space (ft coordinate
space ") occupied or potentially occupied by the continuous medium.
The next task is to characterize the medium. It is well known 2 that this
can be done by introducing three parameters ~(1.. The whole medium is
characterized if the parameters run through all points of a volume lJI
in "parameter space", i.e. the space of the ~'s.
We shall assume that the space lJI of the parameters is endowed with
a Cartesian metric, such that a line element da can be defined:
(3. 12- 2)
It is always possible to make such a parameter transformation that the
parameters are equal to the coordinates of all the particles at a particular
time, say to. It is often convenient to do this.
With the above characterization of a continuous medium and the
geometrical space occupied by it, one can proceed to describe motions.
The complete motion is obviously given if the geometrical coordinates
of each particle of the medium are known for all times:

Thus, the specification of three fUnctions of the three parameters plus

time determines the motion. This type of description is often called the
material form of the description of motion.
1 The following is after A. E. SCHEIDEGGER: Canad. ]. Phys. 34, 498 (1956).
a TRUESDELL, C.: J. Rat. Mech. Anal. 1, 125 (1952).
Scbeidegger, Principles of Geodynamics 5
66 Finite Strain in Rheological Bodies

One also could have provided a description of the motion in another

way, viz. by solving Eqs. (3.12-3) for the ~'s:
(3.12-4)
Physically, this means that one states which "particle" is at a given
time at any given spot. This is called the spatial form of the description
of motion.
Although the specification of the functions in Eqs. (3.12-3) completely
describes the motion, it is often convenient to introduce various other
quantities. This is so because it is cumbersome to express the equations
of motion directly in terms of the quantities introduced heretofore.
An important kinematical notion is the concept of strain. Strain,
in the finite theory, is defined by the difference of the squared distance
between neighboring points in two states, one of which is arbitrarily
called" state of zero strain". The element of distance between neighbor-
ing particles is:
(3·12-5)
where
(3·12-6)

Thus, the element of distance between two particles defines a symmetric

tensor 'X11.{J in parameter space. If we denote the (time independent)
tensor of the state of zero strain by Cl1.iJ' we can define the "material
strains" as follows:
EI1.{J
1
= 2" ('Xl1.fJ - CI1.{J) = 2"1 (8X' 8x·
8;~ 8;; -
,.)
"11.{J •
(
3·12-7)

Eq. (3.12-5) permits a different interpretation of strain from that

given above. For, this Eq. (3.12-5) can be taken as a fundamental
metric form in a certain space 1::(t) which has been called the "material
strain space". In this instance, one should note that the dfs are contra-
variant vectors and could be expressed by using superscripts instead of
subscripts (employing the notation of Riemannian geometry):
ds 2 = 'X11.{J d~11. d~{J. (3.12-8)

The elements (points) of this strain space are the parameters; the line
element is ds, which is the line element of the coordinates. The metric
in strain space is a function of time. In the strain space 1:: (t), the tensor
'X11.{J can be used to raise and lower indices, if the contravariant metric
tensor is defined as follows:
(3·12-9)
where !5~ signifies the Kronecker symbol.
 The Structure of a Finite Strain Theory 67

Because of Eq. (3.12-5), the metric in strain space must be flat. This
means that the contracted Riemann-Christoffel curvature tensor in E
must be zero. This imposes six conditions upon the ,,'s and hence upon
the strains. These conditions are very well known in the theory of elasti-
city where they are called "compatibility conditions".
Henceforth, we shall consider "a.{J (and therewith 8a.{J) as a tensor
in parameter space, and not as a metric. The problem, therefore, will
be to determine the components of a tensor "field" 8a.{J as a function
of time.
As a final kinematical notion, one can introduce the concept of
density. Postulating the medium as homogeneously of density eo in
the unstrained state, we define, in accordance with the principle of
continuity:
V
e(~a.' t) = eo det CI ~ } (3·12-10)
V V
= eo det Ca.{J I det (2 8a.{J + Ca.{J) •
The above definition of strain was termed" material" because it gives
the line element ds at time t in terms of the parameters. It is customary
in hydrodynamics to term all description of motion in terms of the para-
meters (which are identifiable with the coordinates at to) as "material"
and this terminology is being retained here.
Since parameter and coordinate space are entirely homologous,
it is obviously possible to reverse the r6les played by the two 1 ,2. Thus,
let the line element dCT of parameter space (i.e. the line element of the
material at time t = to) be expressed in terms of the coordinates at the
time t. One obtains:
(3.12-11)
where
k- . = o~a. o~a. (3.12-12)
11 OX, oXi·

This means that the distance dCT, which was taken up at to by two points
of the medium differing at time t by d x" is specified by a symmetric
tensor k'i in coordinate space.
It is fairly easy to calculate the connection between spatial and
material (as defmed above) distances. One obtains:
(3·12-13)

In particular, the state of zero strain is characterized by the following

tensor:
(3·12-t4)

1 DEUKER, E. A.: Deut. Math. 5, 546 (1941).

B ECKART, C.: Phys. Rev. 73, 373 (1948).
5*
68 Finite Strain in Rheological Bodies

Thus, one can define the" spatial strain" as follows:

e.. =~(k .. -z.-}=~(O~~ o~~ -z ..). (3.12-15)

'I 2 " 'I 2 OXi ox; .,
In the above formulas, it should be noted that the tensor Zi; characteriz-
ing the state of zero strain is no longer time-independent. The spatial
density becomes:

e(Xi' t) = eo (V det Z I Vdetk ) }

(3·12-16)
= eo lfdet Zi; I (clet (2ei; + Zit)
which is the same as the material density. The latter statement is
easy to check as the expression for Z as well as k can be written as the
product of the matrix Cor ", respectively, with the same matrices. Upon
the formation of the determinants, the determinants of these matrices
can be factorized out and cancel as they are the same in numerator and
denominator.
It will be noted that the tensor kil also, if taken as a metric tensor,
describes a flat metric. Hence it must satisfy the condition that the
Riemann-Christoffel curvature tensor, formed with k,;, must be the zero
tensor. This leads to six compatibility relations for k i ;, and hence for
eii' as was the case for the material strains.
Finally, one may make a few remarks regarding" convected coordina-
tes". We have seen above that the tensors "a.fJ and k,;, being symmetric
tensors, can be thought of as metric tensors in certain spaces. This is
the approach to finite displacement rheology which has been taken by
OLDROYD l . The tensor "a.fJ' in fact, can be regarded as describing the
metric in a "convected" coordinate system, viz. in a system whose co-
ordinate lines are given at t = to as Cartesian coordinate lines, and are
moving along with the medium. If the motion is expressed in terms of
such" convected coordinates", one has to introduce the whole formalism
of Riemannian geometry, which is actually quite unnecessary in view
of the fact that, after all, the medium is moving in an ordinary Euclidean
space. "Convected" coordinates, therefore, appear as rather clumsy
means of describing the dynamics of continuous matter.
b) Continuity Condition. In order to further expand the theory, it
is necessary to define time derivatives of the various quantities intro-
duced above.
Owing to the occurrence of parameters and of coordinates, time
differentiation of any function can be performed either with the para-
meters held constant, or with the coordinates held constant. Although
the complete reciprocity between parameter space and coordinate space
1 OLDROYD, J. G.: Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond., Ser. A 200, 523 (1950).
 The Structure of a Finite Strain Theory 69

has already· been demonstrated by DEUKER1, this fact is not commonly

borne to light in the customary presentation of rheological theories
We shall denote the time derivative of a scalar function of the para-
meters or coordinates, for constant parameters, by DIDt:

~/(~
Dt'
t) =!L/ot constanH
(3·12-17)

and the time derivative with the coordinates held constant, by

LI
-/(x of /
t)=- . (3·12-18)
LIt ' ot constant"
With the definition of time derivatives, one is now in a position to
formulate the continuity condition. It is
~ + ~_ (
LIt ox,~ e DXi)
Dt
= o. (3·12-19)

In this presentation of the continuity equation, care has been taken to

indicate the various types of time derivatives, according to our notation.
It becomes then apparent that the usual form of the continuity equation
is somewhat cumbersome since it contains functions which have x as
well as ~ as arguments.
c) The Equations 01 Motion. A similar situation occurs in the equa-
tions of motion which are usually written as follows:

~;: + e(Ii - Z;;;i) = O. (3·12-20)

The equations of motion contain several important concepts. The
quantity Til. is callEd the stress tensor, Ii the specific volume force; eis
as usual the density of the material. It is customary to define the stress
tensor as a function of Xi' The stress tensor Tik is postulated in such
a fashion that, upon any imagined closed surface within a body, there
exists a distribution of stress vectors (tractions) P(n)i whose resultant
and moment are equivalent to those of the actual forces of material
cohesion exerted by the material outside upon that insideS, and that
these stress vectors can be written as follows
(3.12-21)
where ni is the normal unit vector to any surface element under con-
sideration. It is customary to represent the normal component of the
stress vector upon a given surface by (I, the tangential one by T, and
to call them tension and shear, respectively.
1 DEUKER, E. A.: Deut. Math. 5, 546 (1941); see also A. E. GREEN and
W. ZERNA: Phil. Mag. (7) 41, 313 (1950).
I TRUESDELL, C.: J. Rat. Mech. Anal. 1, 125 (1952).
 70 Finite Strain in Rheological Bodies

A much used representation of the stress tensor has been devised

by MOHRI. In a two-dimensional stress state, one can represent the
stress tensor by the locus of all the corresponding points in a (J - 'l'

'r 11'- t1I+O! + "i- OJ cos t(n,iJ

t t

~ -rTz
"t'--z- sin ern,!)

Fig. 28. Mohr circle for a two-dimensional stress state

- - -- - <18 - - - . . ,
'-- - - -- - - - -- - - 1Ji
Fig. 29. Mohr diagram for a three-dimensional stress state

diagram. This locus turns out to be a circle (MOHR'S circle, see Fig. 28),
for one has:
(J
1 + a2
= -a- 2-- + -a -2- a-
1 - 2
cos 2 (n, 1) , (3 ·12-22)

'l' = (-) a1 ~ a2 sin 2(n, 1) (3·12-23)

where (Jl and (J2 denote the principal 2 stresses. In the three-dimensional
case, one can accordingly represent a stress tensor by three limiting cir-
cles, each corresponding to the plane defined by each pair of dimensions.
1 MOHR, 0.: Abhandlungen aus dem Gebiete der technischen Mechanik, 3. Aufl.
Berlin: Wilh.. Ernst & Sohn 1928.
2 i.e. the tractions for those orientations of the surface in the point under
consideration for which the shear is zero_
 The Possible Schemes of Dynamics 71

Each point in the area between these three circles defines a possible
orientation of a surface element, and the corresponding values for (1, T
read from the diagram are then the normal and tangential components
of the stress vector acting upon that surface, respectively (d. Fig. 29).
d) Rheological Condition. The relations noted heretofore are not
sufficient to determine the behavior of continuous matter. What is
needed is a connection between the kinematical quantities and the dy-
namical quantities. Such relations are commonly termed "rheological
conditions", often also called "constitutive equations".
The rheological condition, being an equation of state, must be in-
dependent of the motion of the medium as a whole. It, therefore,
appears as natural to use as kinematical variables the strains Ba.fJ or
the components of the tensor ua./J describing the state of the medium
in parameter space.
Many types of rheological equations have been postulated (see
Sec. 3.3), but it is to the credit of OLDROYD l to have made a satis-
factory enumeration of possible variables and the form in which they
may enter the rheological condition. OLDROYD states that, in its general
form, the rheological condition can be written as a set of integrodifferen-
tial equations in parameter space, of which six are independent, relating
the stresses Til" the finite strains Ba.fJ (or else the components of the tensor
ua.fJ), the temperature T(~, t) and such physical constants as may pertain
to the medium.
The quantities T.,.. Ba.fJ' and T are functions of time. The fact that
it is permissible for the rheological condition to contain integrations of
time (with fixed ~) allows for the possibility of occurrence of effects which
depend on the total previous strain-history at a certain point of the
medium. In simple cases, the integrodifferential equations can be
reduced to differential equations by the processes of rearrangement and
differentiation.
3.13. The Possible Schemes of Dynamics. In order to solve a concrete
dynamical problem, it is necessary to express all the equations of the
last section in one type of independent variable. The necessary equations,
as outlined above, are (i) the continuity equation, (ii) the equations of
motion, (iii) the rheological condition, and (iv) boundary and initial
conditions. The functions sought after will be either x t (~a.' t) or ~a. (Xi' t).
According to which set of the unknowns is chosen, one obtains two
different schemes of dynamics that are possible.
It is observed that the equations of motion and the boundary con-
ditions (in most cases) can be more easily expressed in coordinate space
than in parameter space. For the rheological condition, and in some
1 OLDROYD, ]. G.: Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond., Ser. A 200,523 (1950).
72 Finite Strain in Rheological Bodies

cases for the boundary conditions (if there are free surfaces), the reverse
is true. Before proceeding to a solution of a certain problem, one will
therefore have to decide at this point whether it will be preferable to
work in parameter space or in coordinate space.
The transformation schemes to pass from one set of variables to the
other are rather involved!. Fortunately, in many applications it is not
required to deal with them in full generality and it is therefore not
necessary to reproduce them here in detail. For most practical appli-
cations the passage from one set of unknowns to the other can be ac-
complished easily owing to the special assumptions which are introduced
in the respective theories.
3.14. Additional Stress and Strain. It is evident from the above
exposition that the problem of determining the displacement from a set
of boundary conditions and from the knowledge of the appropriate
rheological condition is, in its full generality, a very difficult one. It is
therefore often necessary to make certain simplifications.
A device which is often used is the restriction that all that one attempts
to calculate, is the deviation from a certain "standard" stress- (and
therefore also strain-) state. Thus, assuming a certain stress state, one
aims at determining the "additional" stress and the corresponding
" additional" strains. It is in this instance often possible to assume that
the "additional strains" are small.
A justification of the above-indicated procedure lies in the fact that
the tensor of zero strain is, in reality, a badly defined quantity;-at
least in the manner as it was introduced in Eq. (3.12-7). One can there-
fore argue that one could have just as well taken any other tensor and
called it "zero strain tensor", -thus, for instance, the tensor of the state
from which one wants to calculate the deviation. It should be men-
tioned, however, that there is really a physical way conceivable in which
the zero strain state can be defined. This is as follows: Imagine that one
cuts a small volume element surrounding the point in which the zero
strain state is to be defined. Assume further that all the tractions across
its surface be removed. The material, then, presumably, will reach (at
least after a long time) an equilibrium state; the latter may be taken
as the zero strain state. It is evident that the zero strain state defined
in this manner may not be integrable; i.e. it is quite possible that no
position of the body exists in which all the strains (and therewith the
stresses after infinite time) are removed.
The above physical definition of a zero strain state introduces certain
complications. First of all, with the loss of integrability, one also loses
the ordinary compatibility relations for the strains;-i.e. the latter have
1 See SCHEIDEGGER: l.e.
 Infinitesimal Elasticity Theory 73

to be replaced by some different relations expressing that the additional

displacements starting from a real state must take place in Euclidean
space. It is therefore logically much more satisfactory to admit as zero
strain states only actually possible states of the body although the latter
may not be zero strain states physically.
Under the above conditions it seems logical to define the chosen zero
strain state also as a zero stress state;-i.e. one concerns oneself only
with the stresses additional to those present in the zero strain state.
However, if this be done, it is evident that the rheological condition be-
comes, in general, a function of the zero strain state. The only instance
where the rheological condition does not depend on the zero strain state
is when the latter is a linear relationship between stress and strain: for
only then is the additional displacement the same function of the
additional stress, regardless of the amount of pre-strain. This is the
case only in infinitesimal elasticity theory (see Sec. 3.21 infra).
The device of using additional stress and strain is very common in
geodynamics. The" standard" state is the hydrostatic state of the geoid;
all stresses and strains of interest are deviations therefrom.

3.2. Elasticity and Plasticity.

3.21. Infinitesimal Elasticity Theory. Infinitesimal elasticity theory
is obtained from. the general scheme of rheological dynamics if it is as-
sumed that
(a) the displacements are always small
(b) the rheological condition is as expressed by HOOKE'S law.
These two assumptions completely define a mathematical theory
of deformation.
Assumption (a) permits one to express the coordinates as follows
[ef. (3.12-3)J
(3·21-1)
where u. is called displacement. As indicated above, the displacements
are assumed as small so that their squares can be neglected. It is also
customary to identify the parameters with the coordinates at time
t=O so that
(3·21-2)
Under these assumptions, the expression for the (material) strains
(3.12-7) reduces to
(3·21-3)

Consequently, the compatibility relations for the strains (i.e. the

condition that the Riemann-Christoffel curvature tensor of the metric
74 Elasticity and Plasticity

8 ik + ()ik is zero) turns out to be

02f(;) I;) + 02f(j)(i) = 2 _~2f;i
(3·21-4a)
ox; oxl oXi oXi '

02f(i)(;) = _0_ (_ ofik + _Of;k + Of;i).

(3· 21-4b)
oXi oXk OX(i) ox; oXi OXk

In the above scheme the strain eik as defined in (3.21-3) represents

actually a tensor as is indicated by the notation. Care should be taken
in referring to the literature since the definition of "strain" is not always
that given here. Notably it will often be found that the" shear" strains
are taken as twice the corresponding components as defined here. This,
however, effects that the strain is no longer representable as a tensor.
Assumption (b) (i.e. HOOKE'S law) can be stated as follows (see e.g.
JEFFREYS!)
(3·21-5)
which expresses that there is proportionality of the isotropic and devia-
toric components of stress and strain tensors separately. The constants A.
and.u are called" LAME'S constants ". The quantity.u is also often referred
to as "rigidity". The rheological Eq. (3.21-5) refers to isotropic bodies
only. Modifications have to be made for crystals.
The elasticity constants introduced in (3.21-5) are not the only ones
that are possible. In principle, any two constants that are linearly
independent functions of A. and .u could be used. Thus, the following
constants have been employed (d. LOVE 2) :
YOUNG'S modulus E

(3·21-6a)
POISSON'S ratio m
A.
m=---- (3· 21 - 6b)
2 (A. + It)
bulk modulus k (incompressibility)
k=A.+t.u. (3·21-6c)
In the present study, we will be chiefly concerned with equilibrium
problems. In this connection, the introduction of stress functions (Airy
functions) has been proven to be very convenient. This is particularly
true for two limiting cases: the plane strain state and the plane stress
state 3.
JEFFREYS, H.: Cartesian Tensors. London: Cambridge University Press 1931.
1
LOVE, A. E. H.: A Treatise on the Mathematical Theory of Elasticity. 4th
2
Ed. London: Cambridge University Press 1927.
3 Cf. e.g. JAEGER, J. C.: Elasticity, Fracture and Flow. London: Methuen & Co.
Ltd. 1956.
 Infinitesimal Elasticity Theory 75

In the plane strain state one assumes that

E33 = E23 = E31 = 0 }
(3·21-7)
En, E22, E12 =l= O.
It can easily be verified that the conditions of equilibrium are satisfied
if the following assumption is made
T11 = 62 rp/oxt (3.21-8a)
Tn = 02 rp/oxt (3.21-8b)
T12 = - (;2 rp/OX 1 0X2 (3.21-8c)
where rp is a stress function. It must satisfy the following differential
equation (the Laplacians to be taken in two dimensions)
lap lap rp = o. (3.21-9)
Any solution of (3.21-9) generates a solution of the plane strain
equilibrium problem.
A similar situation holds for the plane stress state. We suppose
(3.21-10)
whereupon it can be shown that a solution of the problem is again ob-
tained if one sets
Tn = 02rp/o x~, (3.21-11 a)
Tn = 02 rp/o xt (3.21-11 b)
T12 = - 02rp/OX1 0X2 (3.21-11 c)
where rp is again a stress function that must satisfy the followingdifferen-
tial equation
lap lap rp = o. (3.21-12)
An important special case of elasticity theory concerns the existence
of body waves. We note that the equations of motion can be written in
terms of the displacements as follows, provided external forces are
absent:
02 Ut _ (' + ) O[oui/oxi] + 1 (3.21-13)
(} ----;Ji2 - " ft 0 Xi. ft ap U i •
If the divergence is formed of both sides of (3.21-13), one obtains

= (A + 2ft) lap e
02e
(}----;Ji2 (3.21-14)
with
e= oUi/oxi' (3. 21 - 1 5)
and, similarly, if the curl of (3.21-13) is formed, one obtains
(} ot0 2 [curl (Ui)] = ftlap [curl (Uj)].
2
(3. 21 - 16)
76 Elasticity and Plasticity

Eqs. (3.21-14) and (3.21-16) have the form of wave equations. They
e
imply that a dilatational distrubance may be transmitted with a phase
velocity cp of
Cp = V
(A + 2p,)!e (3.21-17)
whereas a rotational disturbance may be transmitted with a phase
velocity Cs of
(3. 21-18)
Both types of body waves are found in the Earth (d. Sec. 2.21) where
they have been called P and 5 waves, respectively. Dispersion is usually
absent so that the above phase velocities are equal to the speed with
which a disturbance travels through the Earth.
The above discussion can be extended and it can then be shown that,
in addition to body waves, surface waves may also exist. The surface
waves ate usually subject to dispersion so that a distinction has to be
made between group velocity and phase velocity. However, we shall
not concern ourselves here with the detailed discussion of elastic waves
which belongs into a treatise on elasticity theory. In that connection,
it is standard text-book material l .
A further interesting application of the equation of elasticity theory
is INGLIS' 2 determination of the stresses in a plate which has an elliptic
hole. INGLIS employed curvilinear coordinates 0(, f3 which are connected
with a Cartesian system as follows:
x = c cosh 0( cos f3 }
(3.21-19)
y = c sinh 0( sin f3 .
The stress determination of INGLIS using the methods of general elasticity
theory is quite straightforward although it is somewhat tedious. INGLIS
considered several cases to which we shall have to refer later.
In detail, the Inglis solution proceeds as follows. Introducing the
above curvilinear coordinates, we denote the displacements at any point
by u""' ufJ. The corresponding strains are 8(1.(1., 8(1.fJ and 8fJfJ. The kine-
matic conditions for the strains are

(3.21-20)

1 Cf. e.g. EWING, M., W. S. ]ARDETZKY, F. PRESS: Elastic Waves in Layered

Media. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co. 1957.
2 INGLIS, C. E.: Trans. Inst. Naval Architects 55, Part 1,219 (1913).
 Infinitesimal Elasticity Theory 77

where
h~ = (8!X./8x)2 + (8!X./8y)2, }
(3·21-21)
h~ = (8{3/8x)2 + (8{3/8y)2.
The volume dilatation is given by
(3·21-22)

(3·21-23)

In our curvilinear coordinates, the stress-strain relations take the follow-

ing form:
(1-m) oe
o(x _ (1--2m)~=0,
0(3
)
(3·21-24)
oe ow
(1 - m) 7ij3 + (1 - 2m) -i,iCi" = 0

where m is, as usual, POISSON'S ratio. The above two equations state
that (1-m)8+i{1-2m)w is a function of !X. i{3. Taking for instance +
• e-n(ot+i,B)
(1-m)8+~(1-2m)w=const . h( (3·21-25)
sm (X + ~.(3)
one obtains
F(1 -. m) 8 } (3. 21 - 26)
= const {-e- (n-l)ot cos (n+1) fl+e- (n+l)ot cos (n-1) fl},
F(1-2m)w
} (3. 21 - 27)
= const {e- (n-l)ot sin (n+1) fl-e- (n+l)", sin (n-1) fl}
with
(3·21-28)
and
F == cosh 2!X. - cos 2fl; h2 = 2/[F c2 ]. (3.21-29)
Now, u and v can be determined from the two partial differential
equations. One obtains
u = An + Q) e- (n-l)ot cos (n + 1) (3 )
[en
+ (n - Q) e-(n+l)otcos (n -1) flJ + cp, I
v = An [en - Q) e- (n-l)ot.sin (n + 1) {3
+ (n - Q) e- (n+1)O< sm (n - 1) flJ +"1p
I (3·21-30)

where Qsignifies 3 - 4m and cp, "1p are conjugate functions satisfying the
Laplace equation; they may be chosen as equal to
cp = const. e- not cos nfl, }
(3.21-31)
"1p = const e- n ", sin n fl.
 78 Elasticity and Plasticity

The solutions are valid for any integer n; the coefficients An' Bn must
be determined from boundary conditions. The values of the strains
can be deduced from (3.21-31) by means of Eq. 0.21-24); the stresses,
then, are obtained from the stress-strain relations

To;",=-~(8",,,,+
1+m 1 -2m
m e)~ ,

Tpp = 1!m (8pp + 1 -

e)
m2m ~ , 0·21-32)
E
T",p = 1+ m 8",p'
The final result is
P T",,,, =An {(n+1) e- (n-l)", cos (n+3) .8+(n-1) e- (n+1)<X cos (n-3).8
- [4 e- (n+l)", + (n + 3) e- (n-3)"'J cos (n + 1).8
+ [4 e- (n-l)", - (n - 3) e- (n+3)"'J cos (n - 1).8} (3·21-33<
+ Bn {n e- (n+l)", cos (n + 3) .8 + (n + 2) e- (n+l)", cos (n-1).8
- [(n + 2) e- (n-l)", + n e- (n+3)"'J cos (n + 1).8},
PTpp =An {-(n-3) e- (n-1)<Xcos (n+3) .8-(n+3) e- (n+1)<Xcos (n-3).8
+ [(n - 1) e- (n-3)'" - 4e- (n+1)<XJ cos (n + 1).8
+ [(n + 1) e- (n+3)", + 4e- (n-l)"'J cos (n - 1).8} (3.21-33 1
- Bn {n e- (n+l)o; cos (n + 3).8 + (n + 2) e- (n+l)", cos (n -1).8
- [(n + 2) e- (n-l)o; + n e- (n+3)"'J cos (n + 1).8},
F2 To;p = An {(n-1) e- (n-l)", sin .(n+ 3) .8+(n+1) e- (n+l)o; sin. (n-3).8 1
-(n+1) e- (n-3)'" SIll (n+1) .8-(n-1) e- (n+3) "'SIll (n-1).8}
+ Bn {n e- (n+1)<X sin (n + 3).8 + (n + 2) e- (n+1)<X sin (n - 1).8 (3·21-33
- [(n + 2) e- (n-l) + n e-
0; (n+3) "'] sin (n + 1) .8}.
As indicated above, these solutions 0.21-33) are valid for any integer n;
the most general solution of the problem is therefore obtained by making
a superposition for all possible n. Then, the values for the coefficients
An' Bn have to be chosen in such a manner as to satisfy the prescribed
boundary conditions. In many instances, this is a very simple matter;
INGLIS, in fact, discussed a variety of solutions. The cases which will
be of specific interest to us in connection with geodynamics will be
discussed later in their proper context (d. Sees. 3.53 and 7.52).
Finally, we may note that the basic equations of elasticity allow
solutions to exist which are unstable. This means that, in addition to
the" straightforward" solution, there also exist solutions in which the
 Dislocations 79

deformations exceed all bounds. Such occurrences are referred to as

buckling. A simple case where this takes place may be visualized by
imagining a thin rod being compressed. The .. straightforward"
solution simply represents a shortening of the rod lengthwise, but this
becomes unstable as soon as the compression exceeds a certain value.
The rod then buckles sideways.
3.22. Dislocations. The infinitesimal theory of elasticity leads to the
notion of dislocation by the observation that the displacement u, cor-
responding to a given strain 8,,,
in a multiply-connected body may not
be single-valued. In order to restore one-valuedness of the displacement,
one has to introduce surfaces of discontinuity which make the body
once again singly-connected. Such discontinuities are called dislocations.
It is thus evident that dislocations require the existence of non-evanes-
cible circuits in the body. In the limit, the multiple connection of the
body can be achieved by the assumption of singular lines upon which
the strains are not continuous. These singular lines must either be closed
in themselves or else begin and end on the external surface of the
body. They are the rims of the surfaces of discontinuity restoring the
single-connectedness referred to above.
The existence of dislocations has first been proven by CESARO.
Let the strain field 8.,.
be given and calculate the displacement u.
at a point x~ proceeding from a point x~. The displacement is given
by the line integral 1 x'

u,(x,) = f ;;; dX k (3·22-1)

x'
taken along any path from x;O to Xl. CESARO has shown that the value
u, (x,) is not independent of the path.
Owing to the definition of strain, one has in general
au·
ox: = 8,k - Wik (3.22-2)
with
2w." = - - -
oUi au"
+ --. (3. 22-3)
OXk ox,
Hence .%1 Zl

u} - u~ = J 8i"dXk - J w,,,dx,,. (3·22-4)

I
SO ZO

The second integral can be written as follows

- j Wik dXk = -
o
Jw'kd(x" - ~)
0 (3.22-5)

-----
= + W~" (x2 - ~) + J (x" - x~) dWik
0
1 See e.g. LOVE: I.e., p.221.
80 Elasticity and Plasticity

where
OW'k
dW'k = -'-dx/. (3.22-6)
• oXl
We now have the identity
OWik _ OEik OEii
aX; - OXi - OXk
(3.22-7)

as one may easily verify by differentiation. Hence we have

1
ut = u? + W?k (xg - x~) + of Aikdxk (3.22-8)
with
(3·22-9)

It is observed that the Aik satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann differential

equations
oAik _ OAil
~-ax,;
(3·22-10)

so that the integral in (3.22-8) is the same for all reconcileable paths.
Thus, in any singly-connected body, the displacements must be single-
valued, because along any circuit that returns to any point under con-
sideration, Aik satisfies the Cauchy-Riemann equations in the expression
(3.22-8), and because all circuits are "evanescible", i.e. can be con-
tracted into a point. By the same token, it is obvious that Aik in a multi-
ply connected body can be chosen such that the line integral in (3.22-8)
around a non-evanescible circuit is not zero. This proves the existence
of dislocations.
3.23. Plasticity. Mathematical elasticity theory finds a natural ex-
tension in what is called the mathematical theory of plasticityl. For,
it has been noted that bodies strained to a certain point (called the" elas-
tic limit") often show a behavior which can be described with good
success fairly simply without having to go into the intrinsecacies of
general finite-strain rheology.
Thus, most metals and many other substances begin to yield in
a very special way when they are strained beyond the elastic limit. The
best known "yield criterion" is that of MISES 2; it can be written as
follows:
(1:'11-1:'22)2+ (1:'22-1:'33)2+ (1:'33-1:'11)2+ 6 (1:'~2+ 1:'~3+ 1:'~l) = 6k 2 • (3.23-1)
Here, k is a parameter which depends on the amount of pre-strain. Thus,
if a body of the type considered here be stressed beyond its elastic limit,
1 HILL, R.: The Mathematical Theory of Plasticity. Oxford: Clarendon Press
1950, 356 pp.
2 MISES, R. v.: Gottinger Nachr., math.-physik. Kl. 1913, 582.
 Plasticity 81

then the stress state is such in each point of the "plastic" region, that
Eq. (3.23-1) is satisfied. The assumed variability of the coefficient k
automatically takes into account the experimentally-observed phenome-
non of "strain-hardening": the coefficient is found to increase with the
amount of work up that has been put into the plastic deformation:

6k 2 = f(UP)· (3·23-2)
The increment of plastic work d up in a plastic-elastic body may be
written
d TlfT
frp' = T" ( de,· - -'-'
dT" = )T'.. ( de" - _'_I
dT' ') (3·23-3)
'I 'I 21-' 'I 'I 21-'

where the dash (') indicates the deviatoric component of a tensor:

(3·23-4)

and where use has been made of the (experimentally indicated) assump-
tion that all volume changes during plastic deformation are elastic.
A remark should perhaps be made concerning the strain increment de
occurring in the last formulas. In Eq. (3.23-3), the strain increment
indicates the increment of the total material strain, the latter as defined
by (3.12-7). However, since the plasticity formulas only refer to the
strain increment it is customary to think of the plastic strains in terms
of an infinitesimal theory.
It is thus seen that the phenomenon of plasticity can best be de-
scribed by saying that there are two" regions" of behavior of the body:
an elastic one and a plastic one. In the elastic region. HOOKE'S law is
satisfied, and in the plastic region, the stresses satisfy the yield condition
(3.23-1). The yield condition itself depends on the strain history of the
body.
Within the plastic region, the strain increment deii can be split at
any instant into an elastic component d eii and into a plastic component
def(
(3·23-5)
The rheological equation for the elastic part of the strain increment
can be obtained from HOOKE'S law, but for the plastic part one has, so
far, only the yield condition, which is not sufficient to make the displace-
ment determined. An additional assumption is therefore necessary for
which REUSS l has proposed:

(3·23-6)

1 REUSS, A.: Z. ang. Math. Mech. 10, 266 (1930).

Scheidegger, Principles of Geodynamics 6
82 Elasticity and Plasticity

where d)' is a scalar factor of proportionality which has to be determined

experimentally. It expresses the amount of strain-hardening that the
body exhibits.
Exact solutions of the problem of finding the displacement pattern
in a plastic-elastic material in its full generality are very difficult to
achieve. Only few such solutions are available.
It is somewhat easier to obtain solutions if the elasticity of the ma-
terial is disregarded, i.e. if one concerns oneself with a plastic-rigid
material. Naturally, this can constitute only an approximation to
reality. A further simplification is reached if one confines oneself
to conditions of plane strain. This implies (a) that the (plastic) flow
is everywhere parallel to a given plane (e.g. the x, y plane) and (b)
that the motion is independent of z, the direction orthogonal to that
plane.
In this case, the conditions for the determination of a problem
reduce to
(a) the yield condition
(3.23-7)
(b) the equilibrium conditions (d. 3.12-20)

oax/ox + OTxy/OY = 0, (3.23-8a)

OTxy/OX + oay/oy = 0 (3.23-8b)
(c) the condition of zero volume change
oux /8x + oV /8y =
y 0 (3.23-9)
(d) the rheological (stress-strain) equation

~)'_ = {OU x + OV y } / {OU x _ ~VL}. (3·23-10)

ax - a y oy ox ox oy
Here, U x and Vy are the velocity-components along the x and y axes. The
Eqs. (3.23-7/10) are sufficient to determine the unknowns ax, ay, Txy,U x ,
vy; since they are homogeneous in the velocities, they do, however, not
really involve the time-element. The "velocities", therefore, may be
replaced by any monotonous functions of displacement.
It turns out that the above set of Eqs. (3.23-7/10) is hyperbolic.
The characteristics are called" slip lines" . It is possible to derive several
theorems regarding the geometry of such slip lines. This permits one
to calculate the slip lines for a variety of boundary conditions. Of the
many cases where slip line fields have been determined, we show here
two examples. In Fig. 30, we show the slip lines resulting from a sym-
 Plasticity 83

metrical stress state around a point as calculated by NADAll. The region

of plastic deformation is separated by a circle from that which remains
rigid. Second, in Fig. 31 we show the plastic slip lines undemath a cy-
lindrical stamp as determined by HENCKy 2 •
The slip lines are not just mathematical inventions, but do have
physical reality. Characteristics allow for certain differential quotients
to be discontinuous across them
which permits actual physical dis-
continuities to exist.
Another type of simplification
of the general plasticity theory is
obtained if the principles of plasti-
city are applied to the failure of thin
steel plates under tension. This has
been done by BlJLAARD 3 who made
the assumption that, in a thin plate,
plastic flow by preference must occur
in bands in whose length-direction
the dimensions of the material do not Fig. 30. Slip lines in the form of logarithmic
change during flow. This assump- spirals in a symmetrical stress state. After NADAl'
tion immediately yields that at any
point in an elastic-plastic plate there are two directions along which the
above condition is fulfilled. Thus, in a homogeneous stress state, BlJ-
LAARD expects two sets of plastic bands to develop; the angle which

Fig. 31. Plastic slip lines underneath a cylindrical stamp. After HENCKY 2

they enclose is of the order of 110°. Correspondingly, the angle of the

bands with the principal direction of stress (minimum pressure) is 55°.
Confirmation of BlJLAARD'S theory has been obtained by experiments
with thin steel plates under tension.
An extension of the above concepts immediately leads to a visuali-
zation of the possibility of failure of a material by plastic necking:
Imagine a rod under tension. In any cross-section that is slightly
1 A.: Z. Physik 30, 106 (1924).
NADAl,
2 HENCKY, H.: Z. ang. Math. Meeh. 3, 241 (1923).
3 BIJLAARD, P. P . : RapFort Ass. Gen. Ass. Geol., V.G.G. LEdinburgh 1936.
23 pp.
6*
84 Hydrodynamics of Viscous Fluids

smaller than the rest of the rod (owing to ever-present small inhomogenei-
ties) there is a stress-concentration. This will have the effect that plastic
flow will first occur in this particular cross-section which will thereby
become even narrower. This, in turn, increases the stress concentration,
a neck will develop and the rod will finally faiL

3.3. Hydrodynamics of Viscous Fluids

3.31. Fluids Kinematics. It seems useful to review first some of the
basic facts about fluid kinematics. The theorems ensuing from that
theory hold for any kind of flow.
If the velocity vector is drawn at every point of a moving fluid, a vector
field is obtained. If this vector field is independent of time, the flow is
" steady". If the curl of the velocity field is formed, a second vector
field is obtained, the vorticity field. Finally, one can define a vortex tube by
drawing all the vortex lines through every point of a small closed curve.
The strength of such a vortex tube is obtained by integrating the scalar
product of the vorticity vector with the unit vector normal to and of the
magnitude of the element of area over any cross section of the tube. It
is a fundamental theorem of fluid kinematics that this strength is con-
stant all along the tube. Because of this property, vortex tubes (and
therefore also vortex lines) cannot begin or end in the fluid: they must
be closed curves, or extend to the boundaries of the fluid.
A further important concept is that of circulation. Mathematically,
the circulation C around a closed circuit lying entirely within the fluid
is defined as follows
(3-31-1 )
where Vs is the component of the fluid velocity tangent to the element ds
of the circuit. The integral is to be taken once completely around the
circuit. In virtue of STOKES' theorem, the circulation is equal to the
total strength of all the vortex tubes going through the circuit. The
circulation around any given vortex tube is therefore also constant
all along the tube.
The definitions of vorticity, vortex lines, vortex tubes and circulation,
together with the theorems concerning the strength of a vortex tube and
the connection of circulation therewith, are purely kinematic or geo-
metrical matters, completely independent of the presence or absence
of stress. They hold, therefore, for any kind of flow.
3.32. Dynamics of Viscous Fluids. The rheological condition for a
viscous fluid (with rJ a constant of the medium called its viscosity), is
for the deviatoric components

(3·32-1 )
 Dynamics of Viscous Fluids 85

and for the isotropic components (provided there is no bulk viscosity)

oe/op = eP, (3·32-2)

where p is the pressure (P = - t T;;), e the density of the fluid and P;
another constant-the compressibility. The above rheological conditions,
together with the continuity conditions etc. applying in any general
medium, completely define the dynamics of viscous (Newtonian) fluids.
The set of conditions outlined above can be combined to yield various
differential equations which are applicable under various conditions.
The best known of these equations is that of NAVIER and STOKES 1. It
is applicable to incompressible fluids. Because of its fundamental im-
portance it is re-stated here:

v grad v + ov/ot = F - (1/e) grad p - (1)/e) curl curl v. (3.32-3)

Here, v is the local velocity vector of a point of the fluid, t is time, and
F the volume force per unit mass.
Theory and experiment show that for high flow velocities the flow
pattern becomes transient although the boundary conditions remain
steady: eddies are formed which proceed into the fluid at intervals. For
anyone system, there seems to be a "transition point" below which
steady flow is stable. Above the "transition point" the steady flow
becomes unstable and forms eddies. The steady flow is often termed
"laminar", the unstable flow "turbulent".
Although the transition point has been calculated from the Navier-
Stokes equation for certain simple systems, it is obvious that such a cal-
culation is a very difficult undertaking. One has therefore to recur to
experiments to determine when turbulence will set in. If some systems
can be shown to be dynamically similar, then the transition point in one
system will have a corresponding point in the dynamically similar system
which can be calculated.
It has been shown by REYNOLDS that flow systems which are geo-
metrically similar, are also dynamically similar if the following" REY-
NOLDS' number" (denoted by Re) is the same in both systems
Re = ev d/'YJ (3.3 2-4)
where all the constants have the same meaning as before and d is a
characteristic diameter of the system.
It has been observed that in straight circular tubes (which are
naturally all geometrically similar), turbulence will set in if Re = 2000.
This value, however, is tied up with the assumption that what is under
consideration, is a straight tube. In other systems (for instance curved
1 See LAMB, H.: Hydrodynamics. London: Cambridge University Press 1932.
86 Hydrodynamics of Viscous Fluids

tubes), the" critical" Reynolds number (at which turbulence sets in)
may be quite different.
A further important case is that of a viscous fluid flowing in laminar,
parallel flow past a sphere of radius a. The resistance R offered by the
sphere has been calculated by STOKES; it is

R=6na'YJv (3·32-5)
where v is the flow-velocity at infinity.
3.33. Thermohydrodynamics of Viscous Fluids. We shall turn now
our attention to the problem of the free thermal convection currents in
various materials between two surfaces of different temperatures, sub-
ject to a gravitational field. Heat transfer by liquids of the Newtonian
type l has been investigated because of the importance of heat transmis-
sion in engineering problems. Some results are thus available in text-
books 2. These results have been obtained with particular reference to
water and air for which the viscosity is very small.
Dimensional analysis shows that the motion depends only on two
dimensionless numbers: on the Reynolds number mentioned above and
on the product of Grashoff and Prandtl numbers. Let c denote the
specific heat per unit mass of the material, D a characteristic diameter,
g the gravity acceleration, k the thermal conductivity, L1 T the tempera-
ture difference, v a characteristic velocity of the fluid in motion, {J the
coefficient of thermal expansion (per 0c), 'YJ the viscosity and (! the den-
sity, then the Grashoff number G is given by the equation

G = D3 (!2 g {J L1 T/'YJ 2 (3·33-1)

and the Prandtl number P by
P = c'YJ/k. (3·33-2)
For laminar motion, the product A. of Grashoff and Prandtl numbers
governs the thermal convection. ]EFFREYS 3 • 4 has deduced theoretically
that no stable thermal convection should occur unless A. is at least 1709.
In his papers, the direction of the thermal gradient is supposed to
coIncide with the gradient of gravity; the two surfaces are horizontal.
The convective motion between the two surfaces is pictured as occurring
in the form of convection cells. A convection cell contains a vortex tube
1 For a summary see e.g. SCHEIDEGGER. A. E.: Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 64. 127
(1953).
B See e.g. McADAMS, W. H.: Heat Transmission, 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-
Hill 1942.
3 JEFFREYS. H.: Phil. Mag. (7) 2, 833 (1926).
, JEFFREYS, H.: Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond., Ser. A 118, 195 (1928).
 Principles 87

which is closed within the cell. The picture is thus agreement with the
kinematical properties of vorticity.
This theory has been tested experimentally. SCHMIDT and othersl,2
have employed an optical method to study the mechanism of heat trans-
fer by natural convection above a horizontal plate. The photographs do
indeed show a cell-like pattern under certain conditions. When A is
above 2000, alternate portions of the fluid circulate upward and down-
ward in streams of substantial width. As the characteristic product
increases, the rate of fluid circulation increases, until finally turbulence
ensues.
JEFFREYS' results have been reviewed and extended by LowS.
PELLEW and SOUTHWELL' extended the results of JEFFREYS and Low,
and made investigations under different sets of boundary conditions
Qualitatively, the previous results are confirmed, but it is shown that
any oscillatory convective motion must of necessity decay.

3.4. Other Types of Rheological Behavior

3.41. Principles. The "ideal bodies" discussed so far (excluding the
plastic body) constitute the system of "classical" bodies. According
to the general remarks made earlier, it is obvious that it cannot be hoped
that these classical bodies will provide anything but a crude classification
of all rheological behavior that can be envisaged. The most general
rheological condition that can be thought of is a very complicated affair.
In order to obtain a physical picture of some of the possibilites, the
system of classical bodies must be enlarged.
An extension of the classical bodies to approximate some of the more
commonly found natural bodies is usually done by, first of all, restricting
oneself to infinitesimal strains. This, of course, is a severe limitation of
generality and, in fact, usually quite an inconsistent procedure as, if any
type of true rheological effects occur at all, the displacements become
large, at least after the elapse of sufficient time. Nevertheless, a very
approximate idea of the physical possibilities may be obtained by assum-
ing the strains as infinitesimal. At any rate, it is customary to do this
in most engineering literature, whether it be justified or not. A convenient
summary of this type of treatment has been given by REINER 6. We shall
present here a discussion of the more important cases.

1 SCHMIDT, RJ., S.W.MILVERTON: Proc.Roy. Soc. Lond., Ser. A 152, 586 (1935).
B SCHMIDT, R J.,O.A. SAUNDERS: Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond., Ser. A 165, 216 (1938).
8 Low, A. R: Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond., Ser. A 125,180 (1929).
<I PELLEW, A., R V. SOUTHWELL: Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond., Ser. A. 176,312 (1940).
5 REINER, M.: Twelve Lectures on Theoretical Rheology. Amsterdam: North-
Holland Publishing Co. 1949.
88 Other Types of Rheological Behavior

3.42. Maxwell Liquid. In tenns of infinitesimal strain tenninology,

the part of the rheological equation referring to the deviatoric com-
ponents for the HOOKE (elastic) solid can be written as follows
7:ik = 2f-t 8ik (i =l= k) (3.42-1 )
and for the viscous (Newtonian) liquid as follows
7:ik = 2'YJ Bik (i =l= k) . (3.42-2)
Combination of both gives (after REINERl)
eik = Tik/(2f-tM) + 7:ik /(2'YJM) (i =l= k). (3.42-3)
A similar combination with appropriate constants can be set up for the
isotropic components. The quantities f-tM and 'YJM are constants of the
body; they are often referred· to as (Maxwell-) rigidity and viscosity.
However, it should be noted that the names "rigidity" and "viscosity"
are not very good ones. The ordinary viscous fluid is obtained if, in
(3.42-3) f-tM-+ 00 in which case 'YJM becomes the fluid viscosity. Similarly,
for 'YJM-+ 00 one obtains an elastic solid with rigidity f-tM. It is for this
reason that the two constants f-tM and 'YJM have been called" rigidity" and
"viscosity". However, "Maxwell constants" would be a better name.
The rheological Eq. (3.42-3) describes a liquid which shows stress-
relaxation. That the latter occurs can be seen immediately if it is assumed
that the defonnation is kept constant (i.e. B= 0). Then the stress di-
minishes exponentially with a time constant 7:
(3.42-4)
Furthennore, if a constant stress is applied, it is seen that deformation
occurs at a constant rate. This phenomenon is called creep.
Stress relaxation phenomena have been studied extensively by
MAXWELL. Hence the name "Maxwell liquid" for the material at
present under consideration.
3.43. Kelvin Solid. The equation of the Hooke solid and of the viscous
liquid in their infinitesimal-strain form as displayed in (3.42-1/2) can
also be combined in a different manner, viz.
(3.43-1)
where again a similar combination with appropriate constants could be
written down for the diagonal components (i = k). Again, the quantities
f-tK and 'YJK are constants of the body which are again often referred to
as "rigidity" and "viscosity", respectively. Again, these names are
not very good. One notes that a "Kelvin solid" becomes an elastic
solid if 'YJK-+O and a viscous fluid if f-tK-+O. These are the opposite limits
1 REINER, M.: loco cit.
 Kelvin solid 89

to those required to yield the same classical bodies in the case of Max-
well liquids. The use of the terms "rigidity" and "viscosity" indis-
criminately in the case of Maxwell liquids and Kelvin bodies has given
rise to much confusion. Correspondingly, we should prefer to call #K
and rJK "Kelvin constants".
The Kelvin solid is characterized by an elastic after-effect: if a stress
change is performed, the body will eventually reach that state which
would correspond to HOOKE'S ~
law,-but only exponentially. .. _
The time constant is again .~ looa removerJ
rJKI#K' A loading - unloading ~
diagram has therefore the char- lomJed •
acteristics shown in Fig. 32. Time t
The elastic after _ effect Fig. 32. Loading·unloading diagram of a Kelvin body.
After REINER 1
characteristic of a Kelvin body
also causes free oscillations to be damped. The damping constant can
be calculated simply as follows. The equation of motion of a Kelvin
body is
(3.43-2)
where c is some constant of the system. Trying for a solution
x = exp [(~ + i w) tJ (3.43-3)
one obtains
# + rJ(~ + iw) = - C(~2 -w 2 + 2~iw). (3.43-4)
Equating real and imaginary parts yields
# + rJ ~ = - C (~2 - w 2) , (3.43-5)
wrJ=-c2or.w (3.43-6)
and hence one obtains
~ = - rJl(2c) , (3.43-7)

w = V~ -- 411c: . (3.43-8)

Finally, eliminating the constant c yields

~2+ 2ftIX +w2=0.
11
The last equation can be used to determine #lrJ if ~ and ware measured
in a given system.
Finally, it may be remarked that more generalized bodies are obtain-
ed if one introduces a yield stress {}ik into Eq. (3·43-1). Setting #=0
to avoid further complication, one then has
(3.43-10)
1 REINER, M.: loco cit.
90 Other Types of Rheological Behavior

which is the constitutive equation of a "Bingham solid". Here, 'YJ is

called the "plastic viscosity". Further complications can be achieved
by including in the constitutive equations more and more terms. How-
ever, the basic shortcomings outlined in Sec. 3.41 of this type of theory
are thereby not overcome.

3.44. Heat Convection in General Rheology. It must be expected that

convection currents, as discussed in Sec. 3.33 can also occur in "rheo-
logical" materials other than viscous fluids l . Unfortunately, very little
has yet been done in solving specific problems which might have a bear-
SJ ing upon heat convection in general
bodies. REINER 2 calculated the plastic
flow between two rotating cylinders.
1--- -/'/, - ---1
If the inner cylinder rotates and the
outer one is fixed, then that gives a
very rough picture for part of a con-
K
vection tube.
'if REINER made his calculations un-
No
der the assumption of the Bingham
I----<,,:;.--+---T---....;H~ law of motion, for a fixed inner and
rotating outer cylinder (a rotation
viscosimeter). The material between
Fig. 33. Connection between torque and the two cylinders will not flow if the
angular momentum in REINER'S rotation torque M acting between the cylinders
viscosimeter
is smaller than a certain value Mo.
If M exceeds the value Mo, the material will start to flow where
the stress is largest, i.e. at the surface of the inner cylinder. As
long, however, as the stress on the inner surface of the outer cylinder
is below the yield stress {}, there will be a shell of solid material adjacent
to the outer cylinder. When the torque becomes greater than another
definite value M 1 , all the material between the cylinders will flow.
The connection between the torque M transmitted between the two
cylinders and the relative angular velocity Q is shown in Fig. 33. K is
a certain geometrical constant. The velocity distribution between the
cylinders was also calculated. It takes the form of a rather complicated
expression with little bearing upon the problem here under consider-
ation.
In order to obtain a better idea about the mechanics of plastic flow,
more qualitative arguments have to be used. An interesting study of
possible analogies between plastic and viscous flow has been made by

1 SCHEIDEGGER, A. E.: Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 64, 127 (1953).

2 REINER, M.: J. Rheo!' 1, 5 (1930).
 Heat Convection in General Rheology 91

OLDROYD 1. The plasticity equations are solved "in the large" for
cylinders of various shapes moving through each other. The plastic
lines of flow are compared with the viscous lines of flow (see Fig. 34).
The difference is not very great, apart from the fact that in plastic
flow one finds a solid kernel in those regions where in viscous flow there
is a small velocity gradient.
It is now our task to obtain an idea of what may happen when a plas-
tic material is heated from below. For vanishing yield stress, the Bing-
ham body is a Newtonian liquid. The presence of a yield stress will
affect the formation of convection cells to such an extent that it will need
greater temperature differences
to start the motion than that
corresponding to a characteristic
product of Grashoff and Prandtl
numbers equal to 1709. Moreover,
in view of OLDROYD'S results, it
is very likely that the center of
the vortex tube in the cell will
rotate as a solid. The velocity dis-
tribution and the transmission of
torques in the plastic region would
be similar to that in REINER'S
rotation viscosimeter.
If the yield stress is assumed
to be rather large, however, the
Fig. 34. Comparison of plastic and viscous flow lines
above arguments are question a- in a special case. After OLDROYD'
ble. A new phenomenon may take
place whose nature may not be revealed by such simple analogies. For large
velocity gradients, a phenomenon might be found in the study of plastic
flow which would be analogous to turbulence in a Newtonian liquid: the
flow should become unstable instead of being steady and laminar. Phe-
nomena of this sort are important in the pipe-line transportation of certain
materials and therefore attempts have been made to find criteria for
the onset of turbulence in plastic flow. HERSEy 2 used the method of
dimensional analysis to find such criteria. His investigations were made
for a general law of motion of REINER and his equations contain many
unknown functions. Even if his equations are reduced to BINGHAM'S
law, some unknown functions are still left so that HERSEY'S criteria are
of little practical use, except that for vanishing yield stress his equations
reduce to REYNOLD'S criterion which is thereby confirmed.

1 OLDROYD, J. G.: Proc. Cambr. Phil. Soc. 53, 396 and 521 (1947).
2 HERSEY, M. D.: J. Rheol. 3, 23 (1932).
92 Discontinuous Displacements

Thus, it must be expected that, under very great temperature differ-

ences, vortices would be formed at the boundaries which would dissipate
into the plastic medium, as this was the case with viscous liquids. The
flow is then no longer steady.

3.5. Discontinuous Displacements

3.51. The Physics of Fracture. As outlined earlier, the analysis of
discontinuous displacements has a very important bearing upon the
physics of the Earth's crust, since fissures, faults and related phenomena
are very common occurrences.
The basic problem of describing the dynamics of fracture processes
has not yet been solved. Although man has been very much concerned
with fracture and related phenomena, most of his interest has been direct-
ed towards establishing criteri<;t for the safety of structures rather than
towards a detailed analysis of how a collapse occurs. One is therefore
faced with the situation that there is a multitude of fracture criteria
which in conjunction with assumed "safety factors", can be used to
build safe structures, but that there are not many investigations into
the detailed mechanism of fracture that could be used to explain ob-
served conditions in the Earth's crust.
The existing investigations into the theory of fracture can be sepa-
rated into various sections. Firstly, there are the heuristic descriptions,
encompassing all the engineering theories and fracture criteria; secondly,
there are the "microscopic theories" which try to explain the observed
values of " strength" (i.e. the resistance to fracture) of materials in terms
of their known molecular forces, and thirdly, there are a few attempts
to give a proper analytical expression to the heuristic investigations
mentioned above;-in such a fashion that the stresses are indeed com-
ponents of a tensor and the displacements are defined as vector fields.
It is this last group of investigations which has the most direct bearing
upon the physics of the Earth's crust.
However, since the last group of investigations has not been carried
to a high degree of refinement, it is necessary to extract as much in-
formation as possible from the "engineering" theories. We shall there-
fore discuss all the aspects of fracture theories that might prove rele-
vant in connection with a study of the Earth's crust.
3.52. Phenomenological Theories. A great number of heuristic in-
vestigations into fracture and fracture criteria have been made; -as
outlined above, principally in order to establish when a structure is safe.
When discussing fracture criteria, one must take care not to con-
found with "fracture" other phenomena of failure. For the engineer
it usually matters little whether a structure collapses because of con-
 Phenomenological Theories 93

centra ted plastic deformation by necking, or whether it collapses because

of fracture of some of its members: the end result is, for him, the same.
The engineering literature, therefore, often simply speaks of "failure"
without specifying whether a fracture mechanism or some other process
is meant. We have dealt with failure by (elastic) buckling and by plastic
instability (necking) earlier, and we shall concern ourselves here only
with fracture in the proper sense.
A survey of the types of fracture that can occur in a material has
been made by OROWAN 1 who distinguishes between the following cases:
(a) brittle fracture, (b) fibrous fracture, (c) shear fracture, (d) fatigue
fracture, (e) intergranular fracture, and (f) fracture by molecular sliding.
We shall discuss these cases in their proper order.
a) Brittle Fracture. Brittle fracture is the only type of fracture that
occurs in completely brittle substances. It is that type of fracture which
is theoretically best understood. It is characterized by a high velocity
of propagation, producing a bright, smooth fracture surface.
Under an uniaxial stress state, brittle fracture occurs in an iso-
tropic medium if the tension reaches a (for the material) critical value
(called brittle strength of the material); the fracture surface is normal
to the direction of the tensile stress.
In a triaxial stress state, the condition for brittle fracture is not so
simple and thus, several criteria have been proposed. Mostly used is
still the time-honored hypothesis of COULOMB, later modified by MOHRl
which states: "For an isotropic medium fracturing under the action of
three unequal principal stresses, the surface of fracture is parallel to the
direction of the intermediate principal stress and inclined at an angle
cp:;:::' 45° (30° is a good average) toward the maximum principal pressure."
The originators of this statement arrived at it by modifying the hypo-
thesis that the maximum shear surface would be the fracture surface,
until reasonable agreement with observations was obtained.
The value of the stress at which fracture occurs, e.g. in terms of the
"tensile strength" (as defined above) of the material must be inferred
from microscopic considerations and will be discussed later. However,
it may be said that corresponding to the idea that the maximum shear
surface would be the fracture surface, it also had been thought originally
that the fracture condition would be one of critical shear stress. This
was not found to correspond to observation and therefore was also
modified by MOHR 2 to yield his famous heuristic fracture criterion. Each
possible stress state is represented in the (J - T diagram by a family of
circles (MOHR'S diagram, d. Fig. 29). Those stress states, one of whose
1 OROWAN, E.: Rep. Progr. Phys. 12, 186 (1949).
2MOHR, 0.: Abhandlungen aus dem Gebiete der technischen Mechanik. 3.Aufl.
Berlin: Wilh. Ernst & Sohn 1928.
94 Discontinuous Displacements

circles touches an empirically determined enveloppe, are thought to

produce fracture. When referring to MOHR'S criterion, it should be noted
that it has been applied to any type of failure, and not only to brittle
fracture.
The high velocity of the spread of a crack in brittle fracture can be
explained by noting that the only work required for the latter is that
necessary to overcome the cohesion between the atoms of either side of an
existing crack. This work is so small that it can be supplied by the elastic
energy stored in the material just prior to its disintegration.
b) Ductile Fracture. Ductile fracture is characterized by a very slow
propagation of existing cracks. The fracture process can be stopped at
any instant simply by stopping the continuation of external deformations.
It thus appears that ductile fracture is a non-elastic type of fracture in
which plastic deformation and related phenomena play an essential
role. In ductile fracture, the energy expended against the cohesive
forces of the material is negligible compared with the energy of plastic
deformation that has to be expended in order to extend an existing crack.
The crack can therefore spread only if the external forces continue to do
work.
The typical fracture of cylindrical specimens under tension is the
cup-and-cone pattern. The bottom of the" cup appears velvety to the
II

naked eye, and deeply jagged if it is viewed through a microscope

(d. OROWAN 1); this has been called the "fibrous" type of fracture. The
fracture "surface" (if it can be called such) is roughly perpendicular to
the greatest tension. The cup-and-cone fracture always begins with the
fibrous fracture at the bottom of the cup, in the center of the specimen.
The sides of the cup-and-cone fracture are usually very smooth;
they represent the" shear" type of fracture. This fracture follows a sur-
face of maximum shear strain.
Since the cup-and-cone fracture always starts at the bottom of the
cup, the criterion for its occurrence must be one for the occurrence of
fibrous fracture. The fact that the fibrous fracture starts first has often
been thought due to the fact that the axial tension is highest in the center
of the specimen. This suggests that a criterion assuming a critical tensile
strength would be appropriate. However, matters are not quite so
simple.
Ductile materials, under certain conditions (especially around notches)
often break in a fashion that is very typically brittle (notch brittleness).
Ductile fracture, thus, cannot be described separately from notch brittle
fracture. In order to describe properly the fracture possibilities of a duc-
tile material, one has therefore to assume two fracture conditions. The

1 OROWAN, E.: Rep. Progr. Phys. 12, 186 (1949).

 Phenomenological Theories 95

most recent version of this idea is due to OROWANI. In a cylindrical

specimen under tension, in the absence of a notch or crack, the plastic
strain is given by the yield stress curve Y(e). In the presence of a notch,
however, the axial stress Yn rises from the value Y of the yield stress
at the tip of the notch to a maximum in the center of the specimen. The
amount R by which it rises depends on the notch. The fracture condition
can then be represented in graphical form as shown in Fig. 35. In con-
nection with this figure, OROWAN 2 then states the fracture condition as
follows: " In the absence of a
notch or crack, the Yn curves end
by ductile fracture in points the
locus of which is not a curve.
With a sufficiently sharp crack,

flosffc sfroin a
Fig. 35. Diagram representing the condition for Fig. 36 a and b. Possible mechanism of crack propa·
brittle fracture. After OROWAN' gation in the neck of a tensile specimen under ductile
fracture. After OROWAN'

the Yn curve may intersect the curve B and then brittle fracture occurs."
The shape and position of the critical curve B, of course, must be
found empirically.
It thus appears that fibrous fracture represents a crack propagation
process which is largely governed by the laws of plastic deformation in
the neighborhood of the crack. The fact that molecular cohesion is being
overcome plays, in the pattern of the deformation, only an incidental
role. This general statement can, for instance, be illustrated by the con-
sideration of the possible special mechanism shown in Fig. 36 3 • Herein,
the dotted lines indicate slip planes, the center square indicates a small
quadrangular crack extending across the neck. Slipping along the slip
lines (by plastic deformation) produces an elongation of the crack.
c) Fatigue. A peculiar type of fracture that may occur under cyclic
stressing in a material, especially in metals, is fatigue fracture. Although
1 OROWAN, E .: Trans. Inst. Eng. Shipbuild. Scotl. 1945, 165 (1945).
2 OROWAN, E.: Rep. Progr. Phys. 12, 209 (1949).
3 OROWAN, E .: Rep. Progr. Phys. 12,220 (1949).
96 Discontinuous Displacements

it does not appear that fatigue fractures play any major role in processes
taking place in the Earth's crust, a brief summary thereof will be given
here for the sake of completeness.
The most important facts about fatigue have been stated by OROWAN 1
as follows: (i) fatigue fracture may occur after a certain critical number
of applications of a given stress cycle is exceeded; (ii) sometimes there
exists a critical amplitude of an alternating stress cycle below which the
material can undergo any number of applications of the stress without
breaking, but above which fatigue fracture occurs after a certain number
of applications.
It appears that fatigue fracture is due to ductile fracture in weak
inclusions in an otherwise elastic material, i.e. in plastic intrusions in
an elastic matrix. During the repeated application of the stress cycle,
the plastic intrusions get worked plastically until a ductile crack may
appear therein. Once this has happened, stress concentrations at the
tip of the crack may induce brittle fracture (or possibly notch brittle
fracture) in the rest of the material.
With this model, OROWAN 1 was also able to explain the curious fact,
mentioned above, of the existence, in certain cases, of a "safe" stress
amplitude below which no fatigue fracture occurs in any number of
stress cycles.
d) Intergranular Fracture. Materials consisting of polycrystalline
aggregates contain 2 two different components, viz. the crystal grains and
the grain boundaries. The same is true for any type of heterogeneous
agglomerate. The grains and the boundaries exhibit entirely different
mechanical behavior. The grain boundaries show characteristics of
viscosity. If the temperature is less than a certain critical value, they
are rigid; but if the critical temperature is exceeded, they behave like
a viscous liquid 2. They have no definite yield stress, so that the rate of
sliding would presumably be proportional to the prevailing shear stress
if the grain boundaries were smooth enough to allow uninhibited sliding.
Owing to the intermittent interlocking of the grains, sliding, if the stresses
are continuously increased, also occurs intermittently. Once the stresses
are large enough to overcome the largest geometrical non-conformity
at the grain boundaries, slow continuous sliding occurs during which
cavities open up between the grains and, eventually, fracture may
occur. This type of fracture has also been called "creep fracture".
A similar mechanism may occur in a somewhat related fashion in
any material that contains two or more structural elements of different
mechanical properties. Assume that a "surface of weakness" (e.g. an
1 OROWAN, E.: Rep. Progr. Phys. 12, 221 (1949).
2 OROWAN, E.: Rep. Progr. Phys. 12,228 (1949).
 Microscopic Theories 97

old fracture surface) representing one type of structural element, exists

in an otherwise homogeneous material representing the second type.
The surface may be very "bumpy" and therefore geometrically inter-
locked. If an external strain is applied at a constant time rate, the mate-
rial may give along the surface of weakness whenever the stresses have
become big enough to overcome the largest geometrical nonconformity
by deforming the material itself in certain spots. Once this has happened,
sliding may occur along the surface (by some viscous slip-mechanism)
until a new interlocking occurs.
3.53. Microscopic Theories. a) The Problem. The fact that materials
fracture under sufficiently high stresses must have its ultimate explana-
tion in molecular considerations. In order to obtain such explanations,
microscopic theories of fracture have been devised. In particular, the
aim is to explain the experimentally observed strength of materials.
It has been recognized very early that the strength of a material
as calculated from the physics of molecular cohesion in a homogeneous
material is much higher than the actually observed fracture strength
of common materials. The order of magnitude of molecular cohesion,
or molecular strength, can be estimated as follows 1 • If a solid is strained
uniformly, (brittle) fracture must occur if the elastic energy in the solid
can provide the surface energy necessary to produce a crack. The latter
is 25 for a specimen of unit thickness if 5 is the specific surface energy;
we shall consider only the two dimensional case. Thus, a large portion
(let us assume: one-half) of the energy 2 S must be present just prior to
the instant of fracture in the molecules in the immediate neighborhood
of the (future) surface of fracture. On the other hand, if am denotes the
fracture stress, the elastic energy density prior to fracture is d!/2E
(E being YOUNG'S modulus), and the strain energy e (per unit thickness)
present between the two atomic planes which will be separated by the
ensuing fracture process, is
e=aa!/2E, (3·53-1)
if the planes are originally at the atomic distance a from each other.
Thus, we obtain:

am = V 2SE •
a (3.53-2)

Using typical values for most common brittle materials, it turns out
that the "molecular" fracture strength am is 10 to 1000 times greater
than that stress at which fracture actually occurs.

1 OROWAN, E.: Rep. Progr. Phys. 12, 192 (1949).

Scheidegger, Principles of Geodynamics 7
98 Discontinuous Displacements

b) The Griffith Theory 0/ Brittle Fracture. To overcome this dis-

crepancy, GRIFFITH 1,2,3,' made the assumption that the observed values
of strength were due to the presence of very small cracks inherent in
every material, at which there is a stress concentration sufficient to
evercome the molecular strength. Thus, during fracture, it would be
actually the molecular cohesion which would be overcome; the stress
causing this, however, would not be the overall-average stress in the
material, but the local stress at the tips of existing cracks.
In order to calculate the magnitude of the stress concentration at
the end of a very small elliptical crack, GRIFFITH made use of the so-
lution by INGLIS (cf. Sec. 3.21) for the stresses at the ends of an elliptical
cavity in a two-dimensional case under a given tension G. INGLIS obtained
for the strain energy e(J (per unit thickness) in this case
(3·53-3)
where 2c is the length of the crack (i.e. c is the major axis of the ellipse)
and E is, as before, YOUNG'S modulus. The corresponding surface
energy es represented by the crack, according to earlier remarks, is
es = 4c 5 (3·53-4)
where 5 is again the specific surface energy. The crack will spread if,
for increasing length of the crack, the decrease in strain energy is greater
than the increase in surface energy'. Thus the equilibrium size of the
crack is given by
(3·53-5)
or
G=V2ES.
nc
(3·53-6)
In view of the above remarks, it is obvious that the crack can ex-
pand only if the stress given by (3.53-6) is exceeded; hence this stress
is the fracture stress in the presence of the crack.
The solution given above for the fracture stress can be recalculated
for a penny-shaped crack. The resulting expression differs from that
above only by a numerical factor; it is

G-
2ES
V n(1-mB)c (3·53-7)
-

where m is POISSON'S ratio.

1 GRIFFITH, A. A.: Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. Lond. A 221, 163 (1920).
S GRIFFITH, A. A.: 1st Intern. Conf. Appl. Mech. Delft A 55 (1924).
3 OROWAN, E.: Rep. Progr. Phys. 12, 192 (1949).
4 PETCH, N. J.: Progr. Metal Phys. 5, 1 (1954).
 Microscopic Theories 99

c) Griffith Fracture Criterion. The above theory can be extended

to yield a fracture criterion for brittle material. Assuming that iso-
tropic materials contain cracks of all orientations, GRIFFITH1,2 used
the solution by INGLIS 3 for obtaining the maximum tensile stress at the
tip of the crack of the most dangerous orientation, again in the two-
dimensional case. Assummg that (h and a2 are the principal stresses,
with a1 >a2 , GRIFFTIH stated his criterion as follows: Fracture occurs

(i) if 3a1 + a 2> 0 when al = K } (3.53-8)

(ii) if 3a1 + a2 < 0 when (h - as)2 + 8K (a1 + as) = 0
where K is the tensile strength for uniaxial stressing.
One of the consequences of the Griffith criterion is that, in uniaxial
compression, the most dangerous cracks would be those at 45° to the
stress, and they should propagate in their own planes. However, ORO-
WAN 2 states that, "although fracture surfaces at about 45° are common
in compressive tests, failure by cracking parallel to the direction of
compression is almost equally often observed with glasses and stones".
On the other hand, OROWAN' found that recent high pressure measure-
ments can be correlated satisfactorily by GRIFFITH'S criterion.
d) The Crack Propagation Velocity. The Griffith theory gives a cri-
terion for the stress at wich a crack begins, i.e. is nucleated. However,
it has been noted by GILMAN° that the brittle fracture of a material
takes place in two stages: nucleation at the atomic level, and then pro-
pagation through the material in which the crack had been nucleated.
(A third stage is the spread to neighboring pieces of material if the latter
is inhomogeneous.)
The Griffith theory deals only with the nucleation of a crack. In
addition, it ignores the fact that at the tip of the crack where stress-
concentration takes place, the principal stresses are not equal so that
high shear stresses are present which should cause plastic flow. This
plastic flow should prevent the crack from propagating because it would
relieve the stress concentration. The difficulty can be resolved by noting
a remark of MOTT' stating that it may be necessary for stresses to
persist for some time in order to cause plastic flow. Thus, if a crack
propagates fast enough, plastic flow would not have time to become
established and hence the crack could indeed propagate.
1 GRIFFITH, A. A.: Ist Intern. Conf. Appl. Mech. Delft A 55 (1924).
2 OROWAN, E.: Rep. Progr. Phys. 12, 192 (1949).
3 See Sec. 3.21.
4 OROWAN, E.: Rep. Progr. Phys. 12, 200 (1949).
5 GILMAN, J. J.: J. Appl. Phys. 27, 1262 (1956).
6 MOTT, N. F.: Proc. Roy. Soc., Lond., Ser. A 220, 1 (1953).
7*
100 Discontinuous Displacements

The crack propagation velocity in an elastic body is determined by

three factors. The driving force is the elastic energy HE which is released
during the propagation. This is balanced by the surface energy Hs
necessary to separate the two sides of the crack and by the kinetic energy
HK associated with the rapid sideways motion of the material during
crack formation. The latter can be written as follows:

(3·53-9)

where B is a constant, Vc is the crack velocity, and Vo is the velocity

of sound in the material. Solving this for the crack velocity! yields

Vc = B Vo Vi - ;; . (3·53-10)

This relation implies that the crack cannot propagate unless the
Griffith criterion (HE> Hs) is satisfied, and that the velocity of crack
propagation can never be larger than the velocity of sound in the ma-
terial. ROBERTS and WELLS 2 calculated the constant B for an internal
crack in a plate; they found B approximately equal to 0.38. Comparison
of observed elastic crack velocities with theory shows that the experi-
mental values approach the theoretical ones quite closely. This indicates
that the propagation of cracks in elastic materials is quite satisfactorily
understood.
For materials that are not ideally elastic, one must assume that the
stress difference at the top of the crack will cause plastic flow. Thus,
the driving energy HE is not only balanced by the sum of kinetic and
surface energy required in producing the crack, but in addition there is
energy dissipation. This dissipation results from the plastic deformation
The energy balance equation thus reads as follows

(3·53-11)
where Hp is the energy dissipated in plastic deformation. GILMAN! has
shown that the work of plastic deformation can be written as follows

(3·53-12)

where W is a constant that depends on the stress-strain rate relation

and on the size of material. The equation for the crack velocity is thus
modified to read as follows:
Vc = B Vo Vi _~ ~ _
HE VC
Hs.
HE
(3·53-13)

1 GILMAN, J. J.: J.Appl. Phys. 27, 1262 (1956).

2 ROBERTS, D. K., A. A. WELLS: Engineering 178, 820 (1954).
 Analytical Attempts 101

This equation demonstrates that a crack must have a certain critical

velocity Vc
(3·53-14)
before it can propagate spontaneously in a brittle fashion. This is the
result anticipated by MOTT. If the intrinsic crack velocity is less than
the critical velocity, then the crack can not spread by itself at all and it
can only open up in accordance with work performed by external forces.
3.54. Analytical Attempts. As mentioned above, not many actually
analytical attempts to describe fractures are available. The geometry
of a fracture can be represented by the introduction of discontinuous
functions into the general pattern of finite strain theories. Describing
the displacements again in terms of coordinates and parameters as in
Sec. 3.12:
(3·54-1)
x.
one can represent a discontinuity in the body if the are discontinuous
functions of the ~a.' It appears from physical experience that discon-
tinuities are distributed in sheets through the material. Thus, let
F(~~, ~~, ~~, t) = 0 (3·54-2)
describe a surface of discontinuity S. Eq. (3.54-2) implies that the
surface S may change its position with the passing of time. As indicated
in Eq. (3.54-2), an arbitrary point on the surface S is denoted by ~~.
The rim of the surface is a line that must obviously be closed in itself
or begin and end on the boundary of the body. The discontinuity at the
surface S can be described by giving the vector X. of "jump" in Xi if
one passes from one side to the other. The discontinuity is thus given
as a vector field, defined on the surface S:
(3·54-3)
The vector of jump can be calculated if a circuit around the edge of the
discontinuity is drawn, as follows:

(3·54-4)

For physical reasons, only such displacement fields are allowed where
this integral does not depend on the circuit (but it will naturally depend
on ~~). It is seen that a proper choice of the discontinuity will physically
represent a fracture sheet.
A formulation of the dynamics of the above-introduced discontinuities
has not yet been achieved. Such attempts as have been made introduce
102 Rheology of the Earth: The Basic Problem of Geodynamics

dislocations (as the simplest type of discontinuity) to describe fractures.

One has thus a sheet of dislocations, the rim of the sheet representing
the edge of the fracture, and the jump vector at every point describing
the relative slip. If the fracture extends, the rim sweeps further through
the body and the jump vectors change their size with time. Of particular
interest is the case where one has a fracture with fixed rim, and where at
a certain instant some of the jump vectors increase suddenly, i.e. some
of the dislocations" snap". This can be thought of as a process sweeping
at a finite velocity across the whole fracture sheet. However, such" laws"
as have been postulated to describe the process, are entirely heuristic.
The above mechanism has been advanced as a possible description of
earthquake phenomena and will be referred to again in the appropriate
section (7.25).

3.6. Rheology of the Earth: The Basic Problem of Geodynamics!

3.61. General Considerations. The chief problem of the science of
geodynamics is to determine deformations within the Earth and upon
its surface. On the surface, the present-day deformations are known and
the task is to explain the latter in terms of stresses that could be con-
sidered as reasonable. In any properly defined deformation theory, it is
a matter of mathematical analysis to determine the stresses from the
boundary conditions. Thus, if the "deformation theory" applying to
the Earth were properly defined, it would be, in principle, a straight-
forward (though not necessarily easy) matter to calculate the stresses
from the (known) strains and then to look for causes of the latter. Un-
fortunately, it is a fact that the" deformation theory" applying to the
Earth is not known, thus leaving the matter of finding the causes of its
present-day appearance wide open to speculation.
It is thus evident that the basic problem of geodynamics is to de-
termine the proper rheological conditions in the Earth. The explanation
of the present-day physiography would then follow more or less auto-
matically. This statement is in contrast to the prevalent custom as
most investigators have accepted one or the other rheological condition
as "obvious" and then proceeded to calculate the consequences regarding
the physiographic appearance of our planet therefrom in minute detail.
Since the stresses and the causes of the latter are not known either, the
latter can be invented at will for every possible rheological assumption
to fit any desired set of data. One thus duly arrives in every case at
a flawless "explanation" of any physiographic facts. Much effort has
been misdirected in this manner; lengthy calculations have been made
to explain" everything". However, from the above remarks it appears
1 The following in after SCHEIDEGGER, A. E.: Canad. ]. Phys. 34, 383 (1957).
 General Considerations 103

that it would be much more promising to direct one's attention toward

the possible rheological conditions and fracture criteria that might apply
to the Earth. In most instances, the general significance with regard
to the Earth can be deduced rather simply, and it is usually not necessary
to perform more than" twiddle calculations" to obtain a general idea
of the consequences that are implied in any particular hypothesis. The
attention to too much detail is, under the conditions of the present state
of knowledge, nothing but a waste of time.
As stated above, it is quite clear that the principal difficulty is the
problem of determining the proper rheological condition for the various
layers of the Earth, including the criteria applicable for possible fracture.
The difficulties inherent in finding the proper rheological conditions
applicable to the Earth arise from two causes. First, the state of the
material in all but the uppermost few kilometers of the Earth's crust is
not easy to envisage. Pressures and temperatures are such that it is
unlikely that they can be duplicated in the laboratory in the near future,
leaving only theoretical guessing to determine the behavior of the
material under consideration. Second, the time elements involved are
for the greater part such that, even if experiments involving the correct
temperatures and pressures could be performed, the human life span
would be millions of times too short to obtain the desired answers. This,
again, forces on to speculate.
The time element in the rheological equations is a concept which,
in general, has not been sufficiently noted. Terms like "rigid" and
"fluid "have a meaning only if it is stated what the time intervals are over
which the stresses in question are applied. In order to survey what can
be said about the rheology of the material within the Earth, it is there-
fore necessary to make a distinction between various typical duration-
intervals for the stresses. It is convenient to classify stresses according
to whether their duration is "short", "intermediate", or "long".
We shall consider stresses as short if they have a typical duration of the
order of 3 seconds, as intermediate if their typical duriation is of the
order of 3 years, and as long if their typical duration is of the order
of 100 million years. It will be noted that the ratio of subsequent typical
stress durations is approximately 3 X 107 • As limits for the interval for
which stresses may be considered as short, intermediate or IODg, one'
may take the geometric mean between the "typical" durations (i.e.
about 4 hours and 15 000 years).
The ratio of subsequent "typical" durations, being 3 X 107 , is very
large. It can therefore not be expected that the rheological behavior
deduced for one typical duration can be extrapolated for another. The
various typical durations have to be studied separately.
104 Rheology of the Earth: The Basic Problem of Geodynamics

3.62. Stresses of Short Duration. According to the above, we consider

stresses as of short duration if the typical times involved are of the order
of 3 seconds; -or, if the upper limit of their duration is about 4 hours.
As might well be expected, the rheological behavior of the various layers
of the Earth is best known for this time range. It is found that (infini-
tesimal) elasticity theory gives a good description of the phenomena for
small displacements and it is therefore natural to classify the findings
as to whether they apply to the material being stressed below or beyond
the elastic limit.
a) Stresses Below the Elastic Limit. Stresses of short duration (in
the above sense) below the elastic limit occur in the Earth during the

Table 12. Bullen's Values for the Elasticity Constants

(Units for A, ft, k, E in 1012 dynes/cm 2 ; m is a number)

,; m=POISSON'S

"
Depth kIn k E ratio
I I I
M 0·74 0.63 1.16 1.60 0.269
100 0.80 0.67 1.24 1.70 0.272
200 0.90 I 0·74 1.38 1.89 0.275
300 1.01 0.81 1.54 2.07 0.277
413 1.14 I 0·90 1.73 2·30 0.280
500 1.42 1.10 2.15 2.82 0.283
600 1.69 1.32 2·57 3·38 0.282
800 2.06 II 1.69 3·19 4·31 0.275
1000 2·33 1.89 3·59 4.82 0.276
1400 2·76
I 2.15 4.20 5·51 0.281
1800 3·27 I 2·39 4.87 6.16 0.288
2200 3·81 2.63 5·57 6.81 0.295
2600 4·32 2.88 6.23 7.49 0·300
2898 4.49 3·03 6·51 7.87 0·300
2898 6.2 6.2 0·5
3000 6·5 6·5 0·5
3500 8.1 8.1 0·5
4000 9·7 9·7 0.5
4500 11.1 11.1 0.5
4982 12.6 12.6 0·5

passing of earthquake waves. Seismology, therefore, yields important

information bearing upon the question under consideration. It is found
that the upper layers of the Earth, to a depth of 2900 km, behave as an
elastic solid, below as an elastic fluid.
Seismology, directly, yields only the variation of seismic velocity
with depth (d. Fig. 22). In order to determine the elastic parameters
therefrom, one has to make certain assumptions regarding the density
variation within the Earth. BULLEN! studied various possibilities

1 BULLEN, K. E.: An Introduction to the Theory of Seismology. 2nd ed. Lon-

don: Cambridge University Press 1953.
 Stresses of Short Duration 105

and found that they all yield a remarkably uniform result to a depth of
about 413 km. The corresponding values for the elasticity constants are
therefore quite definite down to that depth. Below 413 km, the values
obtained are somewhat more doubtful; BULLEN'S estimates are given in
Table 12, these estimates have been plotted in Fig. 37.
BULLEN'S table starts at a depth designated by "M" which indicates
the layer just below the Mohorovicic discontinuity. Above this discon-
tinuity the crust is very heterogeneous. The elastic constants of the
various type of rocks for short-duration stresses can be measured in
the laboratory. Typical values are If
YOUNG's modulus E = 4 X 1011 1J
c.g.s., and POISSON'sratio m = 0.25. - .
/
12
11
b) Stresses Above the Elastic
Limit. (i) Crust. A significant 1.1'
~ 10

number of experiments have been 18 f

made .to determine the modes of ~ 7
~V
disintegration of various types of ~G -
r<Y )
--
rock samples. The first experiments ~s ,/
along these lines have been done ~ ¥ /
early in the century to determine B c;;; J
11~
the modes of failure of such rocks
W
2 j(l

as can be used as building ma-

terials. After BRIDGMAN 1 initiated o I fOOD I I
!QIJI1 JUDO gfK)J SQ{}(}
the development of high pressure' Ol'plh(km)
Fig. 37. Variation of elastic parameters in the
techniques, GRIGGS and others2 Earth's interior. After BULLEN
investigated the deformation of
many rock samples under extreme conditions. All these experiments
must be taken as investigations belonging in to the present category
of "short" -duration stresses.
From these investigations it appears that most crustal rocks fracture
in a manner as ' postulated by MOHR'S theory ; i.e. one observes two
preferred failure planes inclined at an angle of 9'<45° toward the direc-
tion of maximum pressure and parallel to the intermediate principal
stress. The value of the stress under which the samples break would be
expected to be given by an enveloppe in MOHR'S diagram. As this is
rather difficult to tabulate, an idea of the magnitude of the stresses
involved can be obtained by listing the maximum stress differences
1 BRIDGMAN, P. W.: The physics of High Pressure; New Impression with
Supplement. London: G. Bell 1949.
2 GRIGGS, D . et a!.: Bull. Geo!. Soc. Amer. 62, 853, 1385 (1951) . - HANDlN, J.:
Trans. A. S.M.E. 1953, 315 (1953) . - TURNER, F . J. et al. : Bull. Geo!. Soc. Amer.
65, 883 (1 954). - HANDlN, J., H . W. FAIRBAIRN: Bull. Geo!. Soc. Amer. 66, 1257
(t955) . - ROBERTSON, E . C. : Bull. Geo!. Soc. Amer . 66, 1275 (1955).
106 Rheology of the Earth: The Basic Problem of Geodynamics

(i.e. the strength) that the material can support in a state of pure shear.
This has been done in Table 13.
A different mode of fracture is observed under pure tension. The
tensile strength is much below the compressive strength of rocks,
presumably owing to the presence of Griffith cracks. It is unlikely,
however, that such a state
Table 13. Strength of Materials* exists in the Earth any-
Strength
where but on the very sur-
Confining
Material dressure
(egs)
(order of
face.
(atm.)
magnitude) (ii) Mantle. Stress-chan-
ges of short duration above
Marble. . 1 the elastic limit occur in the
Marble . . 10000
Sandstone 1000 mantle at the focus of an
Granite . 2000 earthquake during the ac-
Solenhofen limestone 1
Solenhofen limestone 10000
tual shock. The fact that
Quartz . . . . . . . 1 the phenomenon of an
Quartz . . . . . . . 20000 earthquake is at all possi-
* After BENIOFF and GUTENBERG: In: The ble, indicates that the
Internal Constitution of the Earth, ed. GUTEN- materials of the mantle
BERG. New York: Dover Publications 1951. has some resemblance to
an "ordinary" solid. The
earthquakes seem to correspond to sudden shear fractures (like an orange
being sliced) wherein it is very characteristic that most of the displace-
ments along the fracture surfaces are essentially parallel to the surface
of the Earth.
There are indications that modes of sudden displacement different
from shear fracture may occur in the mantle. The seismic waves emanat-
ing from the focus of an earthquake do not always permit an inter-
pretation in terms of "an orange being sliced". Thus, there are indica-
tions that, in certain cases, the distribution of waves is that as would
correspond to a multipole of higher order (d. Sec. 2.24). The physical
significance of this in terms of an envisageable fracture pattern is not
yet quite clear.
Finally, because it has often been thought that the dissipation of
energy in seismic waves might be an indication of an anelastic behavior
of the Earth in the short time range, a remark might be added here
regarding this possibility. The case, in fact, has been satisfactorily
dealt with by JEFFREYSl who stated: The damping of seismic waves
increases with frequency. Hence it must be due to scattering. If it were
due to anelasticity, it would have to increase with period, and this is
not the case.

1 JEFFREYS, H.: The Earth (1952 ed.), p. 107.

 Stresses of Intermediate Duration 107

3.63. Stresses of Intermediate Duration. The next task is to in-

vestigate the rheological behavior of the Earth under stresses of inter-
mediate duration. As outlined above, we assume "intermediate dura-
tion" to mean from 4 hours to 15000 years, the" typical" duration being
about 3 years. As might be expected, it is much more difficult to obtain
an idea of the rheological behavior of the Earth in this time range than
for" short" stresses. The information which we do have, thus, comes
only from two sources: (a) the damping of the variation of latitude, and
(b) from the release of stresses in earthquake sequences.
a) The Damping 0/ the Variation 0/ Latitude. An analysis of the ob-
servations on latitude variation yields that, after an annual term (prob-
ably due to the movement of air masses) has been taken out, a period
of approximately 420 days exists (Chandler wobble). On the assumption
that this motion is due to random exciting impulses of unknown origin,
it is possible to say that the damping causes the motion to decrease to
a value of 1/e of the original in between 31 and 13 2 periods 3 • It had ori-
ginally been thought that this damping would be caused by motions in
the core of the Earth (JEFFREYS1). However, in a renewed discussion
of the problem, BONDI and GOLD' claim that the motion of the core
cannot account for the observed damping. The damping would therefore
have to be due to a Kelvin effect in the mantle of the Earth. Under this
assumption, it is possible to obtain an estimate for the value of n/I-'
occurring in the constitutive equation of a Kelvin body. Indeed, assum-
ing
T = 2n/w = 420 days
and the damping as of the order of 10 periods
1/a. = - 4200 days
yields for the ratio of the Kelvin constants according to (3.43-9)
(3·63-3)
From the above considerations, the two" Kelvin constants" cannot
be obtained separately. One may be tempted to use for I-'K the" rigidity"
for the mantle as deduced from seismology and confirmed by a discussion
of the Earth's bodily tides (JEFFREYS1), viz. (from Table 12)
I-'K """ 2 X 1012 cgs (3.63-4)
1 JEFFREYS, H.: The Earth, 3d ed.
B WALKER, A. M., A. YOUNG: Month. Not. Roy. Astron. Soc. 115,443 (1955).
8 A recent investigation by RUDNICK [RUDNICK, P.: Trans. Amer. Geophys.
Un. 37, 137 (1956)] puts the period of the Chandler wobble as equal to 432 ± 2.6
days and the decay time equal to 9.5 years.
'BONDI, H., T. GOLD: Month. Not. Roy. Astron. Soc. 115, 41 (1955).
108 Rheology of the Earth: The Basic Problem of Geodynamics

which would yield

'YJK""" 3 X 1017cgs (3·63-5)
and then to say that the" rigidity" and the" viscosity" of the Earth's
mantle has the" values" shown in (3.63-4/5). However, this leads to
a fallacy. The names "viscosity" and "rigidity" have no properly de-
fined meaning per se, unless it is specified to which rheological equation
they refer. There might be some justification to use the elastic fJ for the
time range presently under consideration, particularly as the discussion
of the Earth's tides gave the same result, but then the viscosity 'YJK obtain-
ed above in (3.63-5) is a "Kelvin constant" and has nothing whatever
to do with the creep Viscosity occurring in the rheological equation of
a Maxwell body.
The above result that the Earth behaves as a Kelvin body with the
constants (3.63-4/5) in the time range under consideration depends, as
inditated, on the assumption that the motion 'in the core cannot account
for the damping. This, however, is by no means established 1.
b) Earthquake sequences. After an earthquake occurs in some part
of the world, if often happens that the first, "principal" shock is followed
by a series of aftershocks of diminishing magnitude. BENIOFF 2 has studied
a series of such aftershock sequences regarding the time dependence of
their magnitudes. The "magnitude" as defined by GUTENBERG and
RICHTER 3 permits an interpretation in terms of "strain release". The
total energy of an (elastically) strained body is proportional to the
square of the strain, hence the strain release in a sudden shock should
be proportional to the square root of the energy release]. The energy
release] (in ergs) was originally thought to be connected with the
earthquake magnitude M by the equation 3
log] = 12.0 + 1.8M. (3.63-6)
BENIOFF 1 used the "old" equation of GUTENBERG and RICHTER 3 as
given above for his studies; if a newer equation 4 is used the essence
of the results is not changed, as the interest lies solely with the relaxation
times involved. If the magnitude of each shock of an aftershock
sequence is known, it is therefore possible to plot a quantity
(3.63-7)
1 In this instance it may for instance be noted that MELCHIOR [MELCHIOR, P. J.:
Rend. Accad. Naz. Lincei; Cl. fis. mat. nat. Ser. VII, 19, 137 (1955)J doubts entirely
the validity of the usual analyses of the variation of latitude. He questions the
applicability of the basic equations of motion.
2 BENIOFF, H.: Bull. Seism. Soc. Amer. 41,31 (1951.)
3 GUTENBERG, B., C. F. RICHTER: Bull. Seism. Soc. Amer. 32, 163 (1942).

4 See the discussion in Sec. 2.23.

 Stresses of Intermediate Duration 109

which is proportional to the cumulative strain release. If this be done,

one obtains graphs of the type shown in Fig. 38.
Such graphs suggest the following interpretation. The principal
shock occurs when the strain accumulation has reached a critical value.
This starts a break along an existing or a new fault . As soon as this
has happened, the fault will be" greased" so that any strain accumulating
can be released, apart for "bumps" that cause the motion to be some-
fI
XI';I(ergs)~
I I LIIII I I I 11111 11 r
to rtZlJ)
88- [i.SU+7.I/Q{! - exp (-lI. >(IU"
T-t-aIJS

.. -
9

./
8
.{,
7

~
3
;

~ .....
.- ~
~ -[i.07+l8a loglj >tf(JU
• 11-3.9 - '1.3
• I1-H - '1.8

Iii!" -j i£j
9
o aDt I IU days t«J
t -
Fig. 38. Accumulated elastic strain rebound increments (times a constant) of the Long Beach aftershock
sequence. After BENIOFF'

what discontinuous. One can thus picture an earthquake aftershock se-

quence to be the expression of the strain release of a body in which,
after loading, the stress has been suddenly removed.
The resemblance of curves of the type shown in Fig. 38 with the
strain-release curves of a Kelvin-body is rather striking and would be
even more so of the aftershock sequence would not have been plotted
on semilogarithmic paper. The maximum 5 reached in Fig. 38 corre-
sponds to the unstrained position of the Kelvin body, the zero value of 5
to the loaded position. Naturally, the curve of Fig. 38 cannot be expected
to come to a complete levelling-off as, in addition to the strain release,
it must be expected that a constant build-up of stress occurs at a slow
rate which, presumably, never comes to a stop. Thus, after a few years,
one would expect the same pattern to repeat itself.

1 BENIOFF, H. : Bull. Seism. Soc. Amer. 41. 31 (1951) .

110 Rheology of the Earth: The Basic Problem of Geodynamics

The study of strain-release in earthquake aftershock sequences thus

yields that the latter occurs in a fashion that can be explained in terms
of elastic afterworking of a Kelvin body. Moreover, the relaxation time
(i.e. the time in which the strain drops to 1/e times the initial value)
turns out to be of the order of 2 days. This, however, is equal to the
ratio 'YJ/f-l of the Kelvin constants. It thus turns out that the interpreta-
tion of earthquake sequences in the above fashion leads to the same value
for 'YJ/f-l as that obtained from the damping of the variation of latitude.
It would be strange indeed if this coincidence would be accidental.
We can thus summarize the findings of this paragraph as follows:
Under stress of intermediate duration, indications are that the mantle
behaves like a Kelvin body with the Kelvin constants of the order of
magnitude indicated above.
A final remark should be made regarding the possibility of fractures.
The occurrence of earthquakes makes it evident that the Kelvin-type
behavior subsists only up to a certain limit of stress. If this limit is
exceeded, a fracture type process (an earthquake) occurs. What the
limiting stress is and what the mode of fracture is (i.e. whether it is,
e.g. governed by MOHR'S criterion), no-one can say. Caution, however,
should be used in applying to the Earth strength values from short-
duration experiments with rocks or such like. In other words, one can
not just take over the results from laboratory experiments to draw
conclusions regarding the mode of fracture expectable in the Earth under
intermediate-duration stresses. One direct piece of evidence is that most
earthquakes show displacements essentially parallel to the surface, as
was mentioned in Sec. 2.24. However, since the stress state producing
the earthquakes is not known either, the field is wide open for specu-
lation. MOHR'S criterion is just one of many that could be valid.
Finally, a remark should be added explaining why we did not take
into consideration any evidence resulting from tidal friction, which,
at first glance, would fall into the time interval at present under con-
sideration. JEFFREYSl has shown that the damping of the Chandler
wobble and the tidal friction cannot be due to the same cause. If the
time constant obtained from tidal friction is applied to the Chandler
wobble, assuming the two effects as being due to the same cause, the
wobble should be damped out in a few days instead of in some 12 years.
Since JEFFREYS has also shown that friction in shallow seas can very
well account for tidal friction, it is not necessary to try to resolve the
discrepancy in time constants by assuming some rheological peculiarities.
3.64. Stresses of Long Duration. We finally come to the crucial
problem of trying to elucidate the rheological behavior of the material
1 JEFFREYS, H.: The Earth, 3d ed., p.227.
 Stresses of Long Duration 111

in the Earth's crust and mantle under stresses of long duration. By

"long" duration we mean, as stated above, from 15000 years upwards,
with a "characteristic" duration of 100 million years. Needless to say,
the behavior in such time intervals is only very vaguely known.
At the lower limit of this time interval is the rise of some ancient
shields since the melting of the overlying ice caps which were present
during the last ice age. It is generally assumed that the ice melted
approximately 20000 years ago and that, e.g. Fennoscandia, has been
(and still is) rising since that time owing to the principle of isostasy,
buoyancy providing the driving force (cf. Sec. 8.5).
A discussion of the postglacial uplift of Fennoscandia with regard
to its possible significance regarding the viscosity in the Earth's mantle
and crust, has been given by GUTENBERG l and by VENING MEINESZ 2 •
The results are summarized in an article by BENIOFF and GUTENBERG 3 •
Accordingly, the uplift of Fennoscandia proceeds at a rate of the order
of centimeters per century; "viscosities" calculated therefrom are of the
order of
'YJM = 1022 cgs. (3·64-1)
(Note that the "Maxwell"-viscosity has no relation to the "Kelvin"-
viscosity mentioned in the last section).
A similar value for 'YJM was obtained by HASKELL' who gave a formal
solution for the motion of a highly viscous fluid if a cylindrical body
lighter than the fluid is rising in it, and comparing the latter to the Earth.
The particular manner in which the above values for 'YJM were arrived
at, will be presented in detail in Sec. 8.5. No value can be given for
the other Maxwell constant (f-lM), since all the processes that can be
investigated, are steady-state processes (i=O). The term containing f-lM
may therefore possibly be neglected; i.e. f-lM may possibly be set equal
to 00.
The above interpretation of the uplift of Fennoscandia has been
criticized by LYUSTIKH 5 who claims that the figure of viscosity calculated
in this manner has no physical meaning. This is because, according to
LYUSTIKH, the uplift of Fennoscandia took place also before the last
glaciation and therefore cannot be caused by isostatic forces.
However, if we accept that the uplift of Fennoscandia is an expression
of creep during the past 20000 years, then it is more likely that there will
be even more creep in longer time intervals. It is a general experience
1 GUTENBERG, B.: Bull. Geo!. Soc. Amer. 52, 721 (1941).
S VENING MEINESZ, F. A.: Proe. K. Akad. Wet. Amsterdam 40, 654 (1937).
3 BENIOFF, H., B. GUTENBERG: In: Internal Constitution of the Earth, p. 382.
New York: Dover Pub!. Co. 1951.
, HASKELL, N. W.: Physics 6, 265 (1935).
6 LVUSTIKH, E. N.: Izv. Akad. Nauk SSSR., Ser. Geofiz. 1956, 360.
112 Rheology of the Earth: The Basic Problem of Geodynamics

that creep becomes more pronounced the longer the stresses apply.
Thus, we may assume that the Earth's mantle and crust show creep
effects with a relaxation time of the order of 20000 years. However,
this cannot possibly be the whole story. It is well known that mountain
ranges can persist over several millions of years, in fact the eventual
disappearance of the mountains is not at all due to a creep effect, but to
the gradual wearing down by the action of wind and water. This implies
that the material, to a certain depth at least, also must have a non-
vanishing yield stress. Introduction of a yield stress into the equation
10 of a Maxwell body produces that of a
II 8.3$
Bingham material. Noting that in all pro-
cesses that are at present amenable to dis-
V cussion, no indication as to the prevailing
v ~ :- Maxwell-rigidity PM can be obtained, it
V
. . . .V ~ may thus be permissible to neglect the
185 term containing the latter and therefore
to use the Bingham equation as shown in
(3.43-10) .
o It remains to attempt to give an esti-
lO" 'l{}0
90" 8Il" _70 0 60"Slope J(f' zrf' /00 0
ongle fJ mate f or t h e Yle . k) oc-
. ld strength {}i k (z:::j=

Fig. 39. Graph of stability factor versus

curring in the Bingham equation. Since the
slope angle. After TERZAGHI' presence of a yield stress comes obviously
from the existence of mountains, it may
be expected that it is possible to extract some information regarding
its value from the same source.
The stability of mounds of various materials has been discussed
extensively by TERZAGHI 1 who postulated the following formula (Terz-
aghi equation):
H=~N . (3 ·64-2)
eg
Here, {} is the yield stress (to shear), H the critical height of a mound
which can just support its own weight, g as usual the gravity acceleration
and N is a function of the angle {J of the slope of the mound. This func-
tion is shown graphically in Fig. 39.
If we assume, as a crude approximation, that mountains also satisfy
Eq. (3.64-2), then we obtain an estimate for the yield stress by putting
H = 8 km, e = 3, g = 980 cm/sec and N = 6 (corresponding to a slope
angle of about 45 °). This yields:
(3.64-3)
This value is estimated for the surface of the Earth. It is an upper limit
if it is assumed that mountains would be higher if they could support
1 TERZAGHI, K . : Theoretical Soil Mechanics. London: Chapman & Hall 1943.
 Stresses of Long Duration 113

themselves. At depth, the yield stress may possibly be lower, in con-

formity with the trend of most materials to become weaker if the pressure
and the temperature increase. It is very significant that the value
arrived at in (3.64-3) is of the same order of magnitude as the apparent
yield stress of rocks as found in short-duration experiments in the labo-
ratory.
Thus, combining the phenomenology of the uplift with that of the
persistence of mountains suggests that, under stresses of long duration,
a rheological equation similar to that of a Bingham body should apply.
However, there is a further puzzling factor. This is that the orogenetic
phenomena occur in bands of rather narrow width. In these bands,
stresses of intermediate time duration are created so that the well-known
tectonic effects of folding, faulting and earthquakes occur. The direction
of the displacements in these bands seems to be in no simple relation to
the boundaries of the bands (d. Sec. 2.24), but is generally parallel to the
surface of the Earth. For the explanation of this, one can think of the
following possibilities:
(i) The bands occur because the crust of the Earth is built up of
"stable masses", viz. the continents and ocean blocks, which are in
"collision" owing to contraction of the Earth's interior, continental
drift or due to some other cause. It would naturally be the boundaries
of the blocks that would be subject to the greatest deformations. A dif-
ficulty with this explanation is that the orogenetic bands are known
to extend to great depths as evidenced by deep focus earthquakes,
whereas it is generally assumed that the" stable blocks" do not extend
much below the Mohorovicic discontinuity. It thus appears that the
" collisions" could have no more than a triggering effect for the stress
concentration, but could not be its actual cause.
(ii) The bands occur because the material is thixotropic: At the edges
of the stable blocks a stress concentration is created in the upper regions,
which causes motions in the intermediate time intervals. These, in turn,
change the rheological equation so as to make the material more yielding.
However, this "explanation" is actually nothing but an ad hoc hypo-
thesis and therefore just a re-statement of the observations. It explains
nothing and is merely a tautology.
(iii) The bands occur because the rheological equation for long-term
stresses allows this type of instability to occur. It is quite possible that
the Bingham equation has integrals in which the deformation in narrow
bands exceeds all bounds so that the solutions become unstable. The
actual position of the bands could be triggered by the "stable masses"
as indicated under (i). Unfortunately, nobody has investigated the Bing-
ham equation regarding this possibility, but there is an analogy with
BIJLAARD'S bands of plastic instability (d. Sec. 3.23). These bands of
Scheidegger, Principles of Geodynamics 8
114 Rheology of the Earth: The Basic Problem of Geodynamics

plastic instability occur in thin plates under tension; this has been
experimentally demonstrated on thin steel plates. However, although
the superficial appearance of the plastic bands bears some resemblance
to features on the Earth, the reader should be warned not to carry this
facile analogy too far. The mechanical conditions in thin steel plates
under tension have almost certainly no relation to conditions in the
Earth's crust and mantle. At best, it might be possible to make similar
intuitive arguments in the two cases and, perhaps, to arrive at similar
results. The underlying physical processes, however, will almost certainly
be fundamentally different. At any rate, it is our contention that some
kind of "rheological instability" will provide the best explanation for
the tectonic bands and the movements observed therein.
3.65. Summary. It thus appears that the behavior of the material
in the Earth's crust and mantle is substantially different in the three time
ranges which we have been considering.
a) In the short range (up to 4 hours) the material behaves as an elastic
solid with a rigidity 2 X 1012 cgs and a modulus of elasticity E of about
5 X 1012 cgs. If the elastic limit is exceeded, the material undergoes
brittle fracture.
b) In the intermediate time range (4 hours to 15000 years) the
material still behaves as an elastic solid with similar elastic constants,
but with a significant after-effect. The relaxation time is about 2 days,
the "viscosity" (Kelvin constant) 'YJK about 3 X 1017 cgs. It appears
that there is a critical stress which, if exceeded, causes a fracture-type
process. The limits of strength referring to this fracture-type process
are not known. The process itself is probably very similar to that dis-
cussed under (a) as, once a fracture starts to move, this occurs in a time
interval characteristic of (a).
e) In long duration stresses, creep is the significant phenomenon;
i.e. the material yields indefinitely at a constant rate if the stresses stay
constant. The relaxation time appears to be of the order from 20000
years upward. The "viscosity" (Maxwell-constant) 'YJM is probably
about 1022 cgs. From the relative persistence of mountain chains it may
also be assumed that a low yield stress is present so that the rheological
equation is essentially that of a Bingham body.
For the convenience of the reader, the results regarding the rheology
of the Earth are summarized in Table 14.
Any investigation of geodynamic problems should take the above
facts into consideration. In general, the creation of an orogenetic system
will take place during millions of years; it is therefore not permissible
to apply" rigidities", "viscosities" etc. calculated from short- and inter-
mediate-duration data to global considerations concerned with the dis-
 Summary 115

Table 14
Time interval Applicable to Behavior Constants

Up to 4 hours Seismic wave Elastic solid I' (rigidity) 2 X 1()11 cgs.

("short") transmission with strength E (YOUNG'S modulus)
limit 5 X 1018 cgs.
Strength limit 1010 cgs.
4 hours to Chandler wobble Kelvin body PK ("rigidity") 2 X 1018 cgs.
15000 years Earthquake with strength 'YJK ("viscosity")
(" intermediate ") aftershocks limit 3 X 1017 cgs.
Faulting Strength limit: present,
Earth's tides value unknown
Longer than Large scale Bingham body PM ("rigidity") term con-
15000 years orogenesis taining it may possibly be
("long") Uplift of neglected
Fennoscandia 'YJM ("viscosity") WSS cgs.
Polar () (yield stress)
I wandering 4 X 109 cgs. at surface

tribution of orogenetic elements. Much unsatisfactory work has had its

origin in this fundamental mistake.
On the other hand, the local tectonics is governed by the laws of the
intermediate time-range: During the overall orogenetic process, the
local stresses may be assumed to reach large values in periods substanti-
ally less than 15000 years. If a certain critical stress-difference is ex-
ceeded, a fracture-like process occurs which is felt as an earthquake
and can possibly be recognized physiographically as a fault.
The laws of the short time range seem to have no application to
geodynamics. They seem to be of importance solely in the propagation
of elastic waves through the Earth.

8*
 IV. Effects of the Rotation of the Earth
4.1. The Figure of the Earth
4.11. The Ellipticity of the Earth. The Earth is a celestial body and
is as such subject to gravitation. If all other forces were absent, the Earth
would exhibit the form of a sphere and its surface would be perfectly
smooth. We have already discussed some of the surface irregularities,
but the principal departure from spherical shape is due to the rotation
of the Earth.
The rotation of the Earth, owing to the centrifugal force it creates
upon any body connected with the Earth, effects that the equilibrium
figure (such as is represented by the surface of the oceans) is that of
a spheroid of rotation rather than that of a sphere. It is customary to
approximate that spheroid by an ellipsoid. The difference between an
ellipsoid, properly chosen, and the true equilibrium spheroid is so small
that it can usually be neglected. The data for the approximating
ellipsoid are determined from geodesyl. The values obtained and accepted
for further calculations are listed in Table 15.

Table 15. The Earth *. (International ellipsoid)

Radius of Equator a . 6378388 m

Ellipticity" . . . 1/297
Polar radius c. . . . 6356911.946m
f length of equator . 10019148.441 m
t length of meridian . 10002288.299 m
Average radius . . . 6371229.315 m
Radius of sphere with same surface 6371227.709 m
Radius of sphere with same volume 6371221.266m
Surface . . . . . 510100933.5 km2
Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1083319780000 km8
* After JUNG l •

A further consequence of the ellipticity of the Earth is that the geo-

graphic latitude gJ and the geocentric latitude gJ' are not identical.
The two are connected by the formula 2
tan (gJ - gJ') = v sin 2gJ' + 0 (v 2) (4.1-1)
where v is the ellipticity.
1 JUNG, K.: Handbuch der Physik, Bd.47, S.543. 1956.
2 JEFFREYS, H.: The Earth. 3ded., p.130. London: Cambridge Univ. Press 1952.
 The Equilibrium Figure of the Earth H7

The fact that the equilibrium figure of the Earth is not a sphere
permits one to draw certain conclusions regarding the density distri-
bution in its interior. However, such considerations are beyond the
scope of the present study. The calculation of the equilibrium figure of
the Earth, however, will be sketched below.
4.12. The Equilibrium Figure of the Earth. If it be assumed 1 that
a liquid celestical body is rotating, then it is possible to determine its
shape from the fundamental hydrodynamical equation
dv/dt = 1- (1fe) grad p, (4.12-1)
where v is the velocity-vector, I the specific mass-force due to gravity,
p the pressure and t time. In case that the liquid is assumed as highly
viscous (as must be the case with the Earth), it is to be expected that,
through the interaction of neighboring particles, an eqUilibrium figure will
develop which rotates "en bloc" like a solid body at a uniform angular
velocity w. It is then possible to describe the body by using a system of
axes represented by the principal axes of inertia (X, Y, Z; moments of
inertia A, B, C). For the dynamical calculation, the body may be con-
sidered as being at rest if the centrifugal force F per unit mass
(4.12-2)
is added to the corresponding gravitational force I, R being a vector in
a direction normal to the axis of rotation and of a magnitude equal to
the distance of the particle under consideration from that axis. Eq.
(4.12-1) can thus be written (for equilibrium)

I+F=~gradP·
(!
(4.12-3)

The gravitational force can be expressed as the gradient of a po-

tential U
1= grad U (4.12-4)
where U can be found by a straigthforward integration over the body;
assuming symmetry of rotation, i.e. A = B, which may be expected to
be true for the Earth, yields (ct. MILANKOVITCH, p.115):

U = ,,~
r
+ ~r.
2
x a + Y2 -
,0
2Z1l (C - A) (4.12-5)

where r. is the gravitational constant, M the total mass of the body, r the
distance of the point under consideration from the center of the body
1 MILANKOVITCH, M.: Kanon der Erdbestrahlung und seine Anwendung auf das
Eiszeitenproblem. Ed. spec. Acad. Roy. Serbe Tome 133. Sec. Sci. Math. et
Nat., Tome 33. 633 pp. Belgrade 1941.
118 The Figure of the Earth

and X, Y, Z the coordinates of that point in the system of principal axes

of inertia (see above). Similarly, the centrifugal force can be expressed
as the gradient of the following potential
F = grad U' = grad (ic.o 2R2) (4.12-6)
(R being the magnitude of R). Finally, setting
W=U+U' (4.12-7)
permits (4.12-1) to be written as follows:
gradp = egrad W. (4.12-8)
According to earlier remarks, the equilibrium figure of the Earth
must be a surface of constant W = Wo:

W=Wo· (4.12-9)
Introducing polar coordinates (tp = longitude, qJ = geocentric latitude)
yields for W
W = "r + 21'8 (C - A) (1 - 3 sin2qJ) + -2-cOS2cp. (4.12-10)
M ~ ~~

At the surface of the Earth, one can replace r by the equatorial radius
a and one obtains (to the first order of approximation)

r="~[1+ ~;~ (1-3sin2qJ)+::~cos2qJl. (4.12-11)

For qJ = 0, one must obtain r = a, which yields
W 2 aB ]
a=--1+--+--
UM[
WO
C-A
2a 2 M 2uM
(4.12-12)

and for qJ = n12, r = c if c denotes the polar radius. Thus

c=a [ 1 - ( --+----
W2 a 3 C - A )]
.
3
(4.12-13)
2uM 2 a2 M
If we set
(4.12-14)
we obtain
a-c
'V=-- (4.12-15)
a
and
(4.12-16)
which shows that the equilibrium figure of the Earth is (to the first order
of approximation) indeed an ellipsoid with ellipticity 'V as given by
(4.12-14).
 Concept of the Polfluchtkraft 119

Finally, it may be remarked that the derivative of the potential

function W at anyone point gives the value of gravity at that point.

4.2. The Polfluchtkraft

4.21. Concept of the Polfluchtkraft. Another consequence of rotation
of the Earth has been the concept of a "polfluchtkraft". This concept
has been developed by a combination of the theory of the Earth's
rotation with the notion of isostasy.
If the Earth is assumed to be an essentially viscous, deformable
body, then any masses (such as continents according to the theory of
isostasy) whose density is less than that of the mantle, would float upon
it. It has been postulated that such floating masses, owing to a force
originating in the rotation of the Earth,
pole
would tend to drift towards the equator.
This force has been termed pole-fleeing-

_/
force, or "polfluchtkraft".
blloyoncy
The existence of a polfluchtkraft was force
first postulated by EOTVOS 1 who noted that
the direction-line of the vertical (i.e. the
eQllipotentiol surfaces
force-line of gravity) viewed in a meridio- Fig. 40. Origin of the poUluchtkrafl
nal plane is curved in a rotating ellipsoidal
Earth, the pole being located on its concave side. Furthermore, the
center of gravity of the floating mass in which the weight is acting, must
lie higher than the center of gravity of the displaced substratum
(metacenter) in which the buoyancy-force is acting. The buoyancy-
force as well as the weight are acting in the direction of the tangent to
the corresponding force-line of the gravitational field; because of the
latter's curvature (mentioned above), EOTVOs reasoned that the two
forces would not have the same direction and thus could not cancel
each other, but would have a small resultant towards the equator. This
is the polfluchtkraft. The situation is illustrated in Fig. 40.
In the wake of EOTVOS' qualitative argument, there have been many
attempts to calculate the polfluchtkraft analytically. Such attempts have
been made notably by EpSTEIN 2, LAMBERT3, ERTEL4 and MILANKO-
VITCHo. We shall give below (in Sec. 4.22) one of these calculations.
The underlying model is essentially identical with that envisaged by
EOTVOs, and hence a polfluchtkraft is duly deduced.
1 EOTVOS, R. V. : Verh. 17. AUg. Konf. d. Internat. Erdmessung, I. Teil, 1913,
p. 111-
2 EpSTEIN, P. S.: Naturwiss. 9, No. 25,499 (1921).
3 LAMBERT, W. D.: Amer. J. Sci. 2, 129 (1921).
, ERTEL, H . : Gerl. Beitr. 43, 327 (1935) .
5 MILANKOVITCH, M. : Kanon der Erdbestrahlung (l.c.).
120 The Polfluchtkraft

However, rather severe criticisms against this type of deduction

have been voiced in the meantime. We shall deal with them in Sec. 4.23.
The criticisms are mainly directed against the models which were assumed
in the various deductions of the polfluchtkraft and seem to be rather
pertinent. The reality of a polfluchtkraft must therefore be severely
questioned.
4.22. ERTEL'S Theory. We shall discuss now ERTEL'S analytical theory
of the polfluchtkraft. ERTEL 1 considered a light mass (" continent ")
floating upon a rotating
liquid sphere. Denote the
center of the buoyant force
by A, the center of gravity
of the light mass by 5 (see
Fig. 41). Furthermore, let
A and g denote the vectors
of the buoyant force and of
?; the gravitational force, re-
spectively, and FA and FS
the equipotential surfaces
& passing through A and 5,
o respectively. The latter will
diverge toward the equator.
The line through A and 5
is assumed to be normal to
FA' Hence, the center of
Fig. 41. ERTEL'S model for the calculation of the buoyant force may be
the poJfluchtktaft
Q shifted into 5 according to
a well-known theorem in mechanics. In 5, the buoyant force A may be
resolved into its components normal (A') and tangential (PJ to P.s. The
condition of floating for the light mass then yields:
A'+g=O (4.22-1 )
whence it follows that II is a force effecting a drift of the light mass
towards the equator. This, however, presumes that 5 is moving in
parallel to FS. If the latter is not the case and 5 is assumed to move
parallel to FA, then it is possible to resolve g into components normal (g')
and tangential (P2 ) to FA' The condition of floating yields in this case:
A +g' =0, (4.22-2)
and thus P2 appears as the force effecting the drift towards the equator.
In reality, 5 will move neither in parallel to FA nor in parallel to FS but
1 ERTEL, H.: Gerl. Beitr. 32, 38 (1931); 43, 327 (1935). - SCHEIDEGGER, A. E.:
Handbuch der Physik, Bd.47, S. 277. 1956.
 ERTEL'S Theory 121

somehow in between. However, the resulting tangential forces in the

two limiting cases will differ only in higher order terms than are con-
sidered here; up to a significant order, the true drifting force may be
identified with either .R. or P2. It is easier to calculate P2 which may
be done as follows.
Referring to Fig. 41, denote the geographical latitude of A by tp~,
the geocentric latitude by tpA. Furthermore, gA and ZA are the accelera-
tions due to gravity and the centrifugal force in A which, combined,
yield the total acceleration r A. If one sets QA = a, one has:
ZA = w 2 a cos tp~ (4.22-3)
where w is the angular velocity of the Earth.
The total acceleration YA in A has no component parallel to the
tangential plane TA, since YA is normal to the equipotential surface FA.
This is expressed by the equation:
ZA sin tp~ - gA (tp~ - tpA) = o. (4.22-4)
In 5, one has the following value for the tangential (to TAl component
blp of y:
(4.22-5)
for, when passing from A into 5 along the normal n of FA, ZA changes
into Zs=ZA+bZ A, gA into gs=gA+bgA , tpA into tps=tpA+btpA
whereas tp~ remains unchanged. Thus, one can rewrite Eq. (4.22-5) as
follows:
(4.22-6)
If one sets
arc Q50 = A, OA = r, A5 = bn, (4.22-7)
one has in view of A=tp~-(tpA+btpA):
bn (tp~ - tpA - btpA) = r btpA; (4.22-8)
or:
(4.22-9)
As bn is much smaller than r, this is sufficiently approximated by
(4.22-10)
Substituting (4.22-10) into (4.22-6), one has
blp = bZAsin tp~ + (gA/r - ogA/on) bn(ZA/gA) sin tp~. (4.22-11)
The expression (gA/r - 0 gAl 8 n) can be rewritten by means of the gravi-
tational potential CP. Firstly, one can set
(4.22-12)
122 The Polfluchtkraft

and secondly use the fact that

lap (/J = - 4n" e (4.22-13)
where" is the gravitational constant and e the density. In polar co-
ordinates, and with sufficient accuracy for the present calculation, one
can rewrite this as follows:
ocp 2
-0on + -
2 ([>

2 on -r
=- 4n"e, (4.22-14)
which yields for gA:
- ogA/on = 2gA/r - 4n" e· (4.22-15)
Therefore:

and hence:
bl/' = <5ZA sin cP~ + [3grA - 4n" e] <5n ZA sin cp~.
gA
(4.22-17)
From (4.22-3) one has
<5ZA = w2 cos cP~ <5n (4.22-18)
and also:
ZA=w 2rcoscpA' (4.22-19)
If all this be substituted into (4.22-17). one obtains:

bl/' = ~ <5n sin 2cp~

2
+ 2.2 [1 - 4 n~ e 1'] w2 <5n 2 cos CPA sin cp~. (4.22-20)
3gA
The difference between CPA and cP~ may be neglected, since it is small.
Thus
2 cos CPA sin cP~ = sin 2 cP~, (4.22-21)
whence:
b", = 2w2sin2cp~ <5n[1 - n;:r]. (4.22-22)

If a mean density em is defined by:

(4.22-23)
then it is seen that this cannot be very much different from the mean
density em of the whole sphere which, therefore, may be used en lieu
of em'
Hence:
b", = 2W2 <5n sin (2 cp~) [1 - 2. ~1. (4.22-24)
4 em
Finally, if m is the mass of the floating part, one has for the drifting
force:
K", = 2mw2 <5nsin (2cp~) [1 - 2.~]. (4.22-25)
4 em
This is ERTEL'S expression for the polfluchtkraft.
 Criticisms 123

4.23. Criticisms. As mentioned in Sec. 4.21, the reality of the pol-

fluchtkraft is not at all as established as might appear from analytical
deductions. PREyl has voiced a series of pertinent criticisms which can
be summarized by stating that one should consider an extended floating
mass, since a mass with small horizontal dimensions, i.e. a pencil-shaped
body as considered in Sec. 4.22, could never attain equilibrium at all,
but would simply tip over. However, if an extended body is considered,
it can attain equilibrium by tilting a little. The geometry assumed in
Fig. 41 is therefore, according to PREY, entirely inadequate.
PREY substantiated his criticisms by explicitly calculating the
equilibrium position of an extended" continent" floating upon a denser
substratum. Because the geometry of such an arrangement is rather
complicated, the calculations are correspondingly lengthy and involved.
Starting from a position in which the floating mass is bounded above
and below by equipotential surfaces of the gravity field, he showed that
equilibrium can be attained by moving it by a very small amount to-
wards the pole and tilting it. The necessary displacements are extremely
small indeed.
Thus, if the continent is rigid, there exists an equilibrium position
in which no forces are acting. In this equilibrium position, internal
shear stresses will be present because the boundaries of the continent
above and below do no longer coincide with the equipotential surfaces
of the gravity field. If the continent is not assumed as rigid, there is
therefore the possibility that it might yield under those stresses to adapt
itself to a condition where its boundaries would again coincide with the
equipotential surfaces. Hence it could be driven again into a new equi-
librium position by moving slightly further towards the pole and tilting.
This process could conceivably repeat itself and result in a net drift of
the (deformable) continent towards the pole.
The relation of PREY'S calculations with respect to those of EOTVOS
(and ERTEL) can therefore be stated as follows. Disconnected floating
"pencils" (the model used by EOTVOS) are subject to a polfluchtkraft
(as long as they stay upright) and drift towards the equator, but if a conti-
nent is large and strong enough so that tilting can take place, there is
a net displacement towards the pole. If, in addition, the continents are
able to yield slowly to shear stresses, an actual drift towards the pole
will be the net result. Thus, if continents are weak enough to yield
slowly, but not so weak as to yield instantly, there will be a poleward
motion. The whole matter hinges on the question whether one can assume
instantaneous isostatic equilibrium everywhere on the Earth (EOTVOS)
or whether this is not permissible (PREY). It would appear that PREY'S
model is closer to reality than that of EOTVOS and his followers.
1 PREY. A.: Gerl. Beitr. 48, 349 (1936).
124 The Question of Stability of the Earth's Axis of Rotation

4.3. The Question of Stability of the Earth's Axis of Rotation

4.31. The Problem. As outlined in the first two chapters of this book,
many geological and geophysical observations point towards the likeli-
hood of a change in the direction of the axis of rotation during geological
time.
The postulate of such a change poses certain difficulties from a dy-
namical viewpoint: The Earth is a body rotating around the smallest
principal axis of the moment-of-inertia-tensor; such an axis is a stable
axis of rotation,-at least for a rigid body. In order to justify the
heuristic inference of polar wandering dynamically, one must therefore
seek to refute the apparent a priori impossibility of its occurrence.
Attempts to do this have been based upon various considerations.
We shall deal with these below.
4.32. Effects of Circulations on a Rigid Earth. Let us first consider!
the effects of displacements of matter on the surface of the Earth, in
particular of such displacements which have the form of circulations.
Such circulations are produced and maintained entirely by forces within
the Earth and do not affect its total moment of inertia nor the position
of its center of gravity. Circulations can be characterized by their angu-
lar momentum vector relative to the rotating Earth. The total angular
momentum of the Earth, then, can be separated into the angular mo-
mentum without the circulations plus the relative angular momenta of
the circulations.
During the motion of the Earth along its orbit, the total angular
momentum of the Earth remains a constant vector in space. Thus,
during the occurrence of a particular circulation, the instantaneous axis
of rotation displaces itself. The point on the Earth's surface where the
latter is pierced by the total angular momentum vector is not fixed.
This point is not the pole of instantaneous rotation, but would be the
pole if the circulation would come to a stop. GOGUEL calls this the" per-
manent pole" (designated P P in the accompanying Fig. 42) of the Earth.
Since the angular momentum of the circulation is fixed with regard to
the Earth (at least as long as the circulation remains stationary), the
displacement of the pole from the permanent pole is constant. The
angle 8 of this displacement (d. Fig. 42) can be calculated for various
cases from the knowledge of the total moment of inertia of the Earth,
equal to 6.77 X 1044 cgs units and from the angular momenta of the
possible circulations. GOGUEL considered winds and ocean currents.
With regard to winds, let us represent a cyclonic movement by
assuming that, within a radius of 2000 km, a wind of 48 kmjh affects
the atmosphere to a height of 5000 m. Since the density of air can be,
1 GOGUEL, J.: Ann. Geophys. 6, 139 (1950).
 Effects of Circulations on a Rigid Earth 125

on the average, assumed as approximately equal to 10-3 g/cm 3 , the

angular momentum in question turns out to be equal to 12.5 X 1030 cgs
units. The position of the cyclones and anticyclones is strongly influenced
by the distribution of continents and oceans. GOGUEL assumes that the
resulting angular momentum of all the wind movement is, on the aver-
age, constant and equal to one half of the angular momentum of one
single cyclone. In this fashion, he obtains an angle e equal to about
10-10 radians.
Now GOGUEL assumes that an angle e between the instantaneous
and permanent poles would induce a polar wandering of 2~ Re per day
at right angles to the connecting line between the poles, R being the
radius of the Earth. This wandering 10101
would be an example of the nutation m:::r:::t:m
of a symmetric top as seen in the onglilor momentum
body-fixed system. It would corre- of Eorth witholll
circlilolion
spond to about 1.46 m/year, a very
large value indeed. However, if the
Earth is assumed to be an ellipsoid
instead of a sphere, the equatorial
bulge brings polar wandering to a
halt.
A similar conclusion can be Fig. 42. GOGUEL'S' decomposition of the Earth's
angular momentum
reached if one considers circulations
in the sea. Thus, following GOGUEL, let us represent an ocean current by
assuming a circular trajectory of 5000 km diameter, 500 m depth and
100 km width, with a velocity of 2 knots. GOGUEL calculates the angu-
lar momentum of such a current as equal to 10 31 cgs units, which is of
the same order of magnitude as that obtained above for a single cyclone.
One can estimate, then, the resulting angular momentum from the known
ocean currents; GOGUEL obtains 3 X 1030 cgs units, in the direction of
the meridian of 7° E. The angle e of the of the pole turns out to be about
1/4 of that calculated for the cyclones and the polar wandering induced
in this manner in a perfectly spherical Earth should therefore be about
1/4 of that calculated above. The ellipticity of the Earth, however, will
again make polar wandering impossible.
The above deductions have been made for a solid Earth. If the Earth
is able to yield, then matters are entirely different. It has been pointed
out by INGLIS 2 that in this case circulations have a very similar effect as
any other asymmetry in the crust of the Earth. The influence of such
asymmetries upon the position of the axis of rotation in a yielding Earth
will be discussed in the sections just following. However, in spite of
1 GOGUEL, J.: Ann. Geophys. 6, 139 (1950).
2 INGLIS, D. R.: Rev. Mod. Phys. 29, 9 (1957).
126 The Question of Stability of the Earth's Axis of Rotation

this possible effect of circulations, their quantitative influence will in

any case be much smaller than that due to geographical asymmetries; -
simply because of the orders of magnitude involved.
4.33. Polar Wandering in a Yielding Earth. In order to obtain allY
possibility of polar wandering at all, one has to consider a model of the
Earth where it is assumed that the latter is able to yield. In such an
Earth, "polar wandering" means of course a shift of the Earth with
respect to the axis of rotation; the actual motion of the latter in space
may thereby remain relatively small.
The first attempt to obtain polar wandering assuming a yielding
Earth seems to have been an essay by DARWIN 1. The result was that polar
wandering is possible for a "fluid" Earth;-but it has been pointed out
by LAMBERT 2 that there was an algebraic error in DARWIN'S calculations.
]EFFREYS 3 rectified the error in DARWIN'S calculation and obtained as
a consequence of DARWIN'S physical assumptions that polar wandering
was impossible.
However, entirely non-analytic reasoning by GOLD 4 would make it
plausible that significant polar wandering in an Earth which is capable
of yielding, should be expected. MUNK 5, inspecting the physical basis
of DARWIN'S calculations, noted that one of the assumptions was probably
incorrect. This can be demonstrated as follows.
The problem of polar wandering on a plastic Earth involves three
types of poles: The pole F of rotation, the pole F' of the moment of
inertia tensor (pole of figure) corresponding to the instantaneous shape
of the Earth at the moment under consideration, and the geoidal pole F"
corresponding to the pole of the ellipsoid approximating the Earth's
instantaneous shape.
DARWIN now made the following assumptions which are implicit
in his equations:
(a) the velocity of wandering of the rotation pole F is proportional
to its separation from the pole of figure F',
(b) the geoidal pole F" moves at a rate proportional to the separation
of the rotation pole F from the pole of figure F'.
According to MUNK 5 , the assumption (b) does not seem warranted.
It seems much more likely that the geoidal pole F" moves at a rate
proportional to its separation from the rotation pole F, for it is the
magnitude of this separation which determines the stresses in the Earth
DARWIN, G. H.: Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. 167, Pt. 1, 271 (1877).
1
LAMBERT, W. D.: Bull. U.S. Nat. Res. Coune. No. 78, Chap. 16 (1931).
2
3 JEFFREYS, H.: The Earth, 3d ed., p.343. London: Cambridge University
Press. 1952.
4 GOLD, T.: Nature, Lond. 175, 526 (1955).
5 MUNK, W. H.: Nature, Lond. 177, 551 (1956).
 Polar Wandering in a Yielding Earth 127

and hence the rate of flow altering the shape. It thus appears that
assumption (b) should be replaced by the following
(b') the geoidal pole F' moves at a rate proportional to its separation
from the pole of rotation.
It thus turns out, quite intuitivelyl, that polar wandering should
be quite a rapid process as soon as a small asymmetry has arisen some-
where in the Earth's crust.
The mathematical expression for a special case of the above reason-
ing has been achieved by MILANKOVITCH 2 long before the intuitive argu-
ments of GOLD and MUNK became available. MILANKOVITCH considered
the special case where the Earth is so quickly adjusting its shape that the
rotation pole and the geoidal pole coincide.
Following MILANKOVITCH, we approximate the equilibrium figure
of the Earth by an ellipsoid of rotation whose meridian is given by the
equation
(4·33-1)

where r is the length of the radius vector, a the equatorial radius of

the ellipsoid, 'JI the eccentricity and q; the geocentric latitude. The point
corresponding to q; = 90° is the geoidal pole F". If we denote the prin-
cipal moments of inertia of the ellipsoid by A, B, C, then we have because
of symmetry properties
B=A. (4·33-2)
According to general theorems of mechanics, the moment of inertia T
with reference to any arbitrary axis Cthrough the center of the ellipsoid
is given by
T = A cos 2 (X + B cos 2 P+ C cos 2 y (4·33-3)
where cos (X, cos p, cos yare the direction cosines of the axis C. In the
present case, the last equation reduces to
T =A + (C - A) cos 2 y. (4·33-4)
This defines a scalar field T = T ((X, p, y) describing the dependence
of the moment of inertia of the "equilibrium Earth" as a function of
the direction of the axis with regard to which it is taken.
However, it must be assumed that the Earth is not in an equilibrium
condition. The moment of inertia referring to the axis C is therefore

1 GOLD. T.: Nature. Lond. 175. 526 (1955).

SMILANKOVITCH. M.: Glas. Acad. R. Serbe 152. 39 (1932) ; Handbuch Geophysik
Bd. 1. Abschn. 7. Kap. 2-'. S. 438. 1933. - Publ. Math. Univ. Belgrade 1. 129
(1932). - Glas. Acad. R. Serbe 154. 1 (1933). - MILANKOVITCH. M.: Kanon der
Erdbestrahlung und seine Anwendung auf das Eiszeitproblem; ed. spec. Acad.
R. Serbe Tome 33. Belgrade. 1941. 633 pp.
128 The Question of Stability of the Earth's Axis of Rotation

not T, but, say, J:

J=T+,Q (4·33-5)
where now ,Q is that part of the moment of inertia which is due to the
deviation of the Earth's surface from an equilibrium figure. It must
thus be expected that ,Q as a function of Ot, p, I' is not symmetrical with
regard to the axis of rotation.
Owing to the asymmetry of ,Q, the pole F' of J (i.e. the pole of figure;
this corresponds to an extremal value of ]) does not coincide with the
geoidal pole F" of the equilibrium figure, but must be somewhere near it.
The coordinates ~,'fJ of F' with respect to the geoidal pole F" can be
found from the equation expressing that there is an extreme value for J
for those coordinates:
~=O'
a; ,
~=O (4·33-6)
0'YJ '
or
aT oQ
8f+8f=0; ~+~=O. (4·33-7)
0'YJ 0'YJ

It is convenient to use as coordinates~, 'fJ orthogonal coordinates in

the plane tangent to a unit sphere engendered by the variable axis C
at the point where it is penetrated by the axis through F"; the origin
of these coordinates being at that point of penetration.
Since the pole of figure F' is very near the geoidal pole F", it is
possible to neglect powers higher than the first of ~ and 'fJ. We can thus

I
express the last equation as follows:
oT(O,O) + ~ 02T(0, 0) + oQ(o,o) +~ 02Q(0,0) = 0
a; o~ a; 0;2
oT(O,O) + 02T(0,0) + oQ(o,O) + 02Q(0,0) (4·33-8)
0'YJ 'fJ 0'YJ2 0'YJ 'fJ a'YJ2 = O.
Furthermore, we have in virtue of (4.33-4):

~~ =-(C-A)sin21" (4·33-9 a)
02T
oy2 = -2(C-A)cos21" (4·33-9b)

and hence, since d~ = dl', one obtains finally

I: 1 oQ(O,O) . _ 1 oQ(o,o)
"= 2(C - A) a; , 'fJ - 2(C - A) 0'YJ (4·33-10)

The vector a of displacement of the pole of figure F' with regard to

the geoidal pole F", in a plane tangent at the penetration point of the
axis through F to the sphere engendered by unit vectors along the variable
 Polar Wandering in a Yielding Earth 129

axis C, is therefore given by

a= 2(C~A) grad.Q. (4·33-11)

As outlined earlier, we now assume that the Earth can yield so fast
that the pole of rotation F and the geoidal pole F" always coincide. This
is a special case of assumption (h') above implying that the constant of
proportionality implied by that assumption is very large. Finally, as-
sumption (a) yields for the velocity v by which the pole of rotation F
(which is now identical to F") moves:
v = c' a (4.33-12)
where c' denotes a proportionality constant. It follows that the equation
governing polar wandering is
v = cgrad.Q, (4.33-13)
where c is again a certain constant. The last equation represents what
has been known in the German literature for a long time under the name
of "MILANKOVITCH'S theorem".
The above form of the dynamic condition of polar wandering is
obviously well suited to the model of the Earth where one assumes an
essentially fluid substratum that can assume equilibrium position in-
stantly, with all the deviations concentrated in a thin crust. Then, the
field .0 is independent of time and the possible polar paths are those cor-
responding to the last equation. The changing of the elevation of points
of the crust owing to the adjustment of shape to the instantaneous
equilibrium figure of the Earth is therefore automatically taken into
account. The polar paths can be calculated and are as shown in Fig. 43.
Here it has been assumed that the axes X, Y, Z correspond to QI' Qs,
D a , respectively, the latter being the eigenvalues of Q with.QI <.01 <.03 '
Thus, according to MILANKOVITCH, the polar motion would be slowest
at the ends of the possible paths and fastest in the middle. The path of
the pole for the present distribution of masses upon the Earth's surface
and the present position of the pole has been estimated and is shown in
Fig. 44. It is, however, not clear whether the direction of the polar motion
as shown in this figure, taken from MILANKOVITCHl, is correct. It has
been pointed out by GUTENBERG 1 that for an isostatically adjusted
1 MILANKOVITCH, M. : Glas. Acad. R. Serbe 152, 39 (1932) ; Handbuch Geophysik
Bd.1, Abschn. 7, Kap.25, S. 438 1933.-Pub!.Math. Univ. Belgrade 1, 129 (1932).-
Glas. Acad. R. Serbe 154,1 (1933). - MILANKOVITCH, M.: Kanon der Erdbestrahlung
und seine Anwendung auf das Eiszeitproblem; ed. spec. Acad. R. Serbe Tome 33,
Beograd. 1941. 633 pp.
I GUTENBERG, B.: In: The Internal Constitution of the Earth, P.203. New
York: Dover Pub!. Co. 1952.
Scheidegger, Principles of Geodynamics 9
130 The Question of Stability of the Earth's Axis of Rotation

Earth, the center of gravity of the lighter masses would lie above
that of the heavier displaced material, so that the time-arrow im-
plied in Fig. 44 should point into the opposite direction. This would
put the present pole into a position which is about as far removed
from its stable position as it could be. This seems hardly satisfacto-
ry. However, it seems that the assumption of the sign as accepted by
MILANKOVITCH would not be as absurd as it appears at first glance. In
the isostatic model of the Earth, the inertia of the crust depends on the
Z

x y

Fig. 4 3. Possible paths of polar wandering after MILANKOVITCH 1

second order term resulting from the slightly larger radial distance of
continents and mountains as compared with oceans from the center of
the Earth. If it is supposed that the isostatic balance does not hold
precisely, but that there is erosion of continental matter and sedimen-
tation on the ocean floor which is not compensated, then this represents
a first order effect which might reverse the sign of the polar wandering
so as to be in conformity with MILANKOVITCH'S assumption.
The length of the time units in Fig. 44 depends on the constant in the
fundamental equation, and hence on the "viscosity" of the Earth.
1 See footnote 1, p. 129.
 Tidal Forces 131

The relaxation time for creep is of the order of 20000 years. Using this
estimate one obtains for the time for the polar shift in question something
of the order of 200million years which is of the right order of magnitude
(d. Secs. 1.23 and 2.62).
The curve in Fig. 44 has been calculated by assuming present-day
distribution of mass upon the Earth. However, it is well known that

Fig. 44. Path of polar wandering for the present mass-distribution of the Earth as calculated by MILANKOVITCH'

large tectonic movements have been taking place during . the interval
since the Earth's creation. It is therefore to be expected that the pole
may wander indefinitely as new sets of possible paths come into being
with each redistribution of mass.

4.4. Other Effects of the Earth's Rotation

4.41. Tidal Forces. In conclusion of the chapter on the effects of the
Earth's rotation, we may consider two further possibilities in which forces
might originate that could conceivably have a bearing upon orogenesis.
1 See footnote 1, p. 129.
9*
132 Other Effects of the Earth's Rotation

The first is the force due to tidal effects caused by the Sun and by
the Moon. It has been investigated by JEFFREYS1 who came up with the
conclusion that at the utmost these forces might result in a drag at the
bottom of the crust of the order of 40 dynes/cm 2 • This force reverses
its sign with every tide and can therefore have an orogenetic significance
only in such a way that, on the average, the tendency persists to create
a bulge at the equator. The long-time effect of the tides is therefore
similar to that of the polfluchtkraft, but the magnitude of this tidal force
is very small indeed.
A somewhat greater effect is caused by the tidal forces in an indirect
manner, viz. by their moving around the waters in the oceans. It has
been shown by JOBERT 2 that the bending of the Earth's crust due to
the different amounts of water overlying the crust below the oceans at
various times is not negligible. However, the bending of the crust caused
in this manner is, of course, again periodic so that no long term effects
(other than possibly due to fatigue fractures) may be expected.
In addition, there is a westward stress due to the secular effect of
tidal friction, but its magnitude is only of the order of 10-4 dynes/cm2.
If this stress is assumed to act upon a whole continent, it will cause a
compressive stress therein greater than the westward stress roughly in
proportion to the ratio of the area of the continent to its cross section 3.
The latter may be approximately equal to 100: 1. This would make the
stress equal to about 10-2 dynes/cm2. This is much less than any stress
that could have orogenetic significance. In fact, it has been calculated
by JEFFREYS 1 that, even if there were no Bingham-yield stress present
in the Earth, to make America move westward to its present distance
from the Old World, would take 1017 years. To produce the same effect
in, say, 3 X 107 years, one would require a tidal friction so high that it
would stop the Earth's rotation within a year. In spite of these formid-
able objections, NADAI4 has held tidal friction responsible for the (hypo-
thetical) drift postulated in the continental drift theory (d. Secs. 5.22
and 6.3).
In spite of the apparent insignificance of tidal forces with regard to
orogenesis, these forces are not negligible. They have presumably
caused the Earth's rotation to slow down appreciably since the latter's
creation. Also, estimates of the Earth's rigidity have been obtained from
them, valid for the appropriate time interval (d. Sec. 3.63).
4.42. Coriolis Force. The second of the two effects of the rotation of
the Earth mentioned in Sec. 4.41 is the Coriolis force. The fact that the
1 JEFFREYS, H.: The Earth, 3d. ed., 1952.
• JOBERT, G.: C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris 244, No.2, 227 (1957).
3 GRIGGS, D.: Amer. J. Sci. 237, 611 (1939).
4 NADAl, A.: Trans. Amer. Geophys. Un. 33, 247 (1952).
 Coriolis Force 133

Earth's axis of rotation is inclined towards the plane of the ecliptic

has the effect that the axis precesses. The forces causing this precession
have a different action on parts of the Earth of different density, hence
a component results that might conceivably make the continents move.
However, JEFFREYS! analyzed this force, too, and found that it
cannot cause stresses greater than 60 dynesjcm 2• Moreover, it is also
mainly alternating in direction and therefore cannot be of any more
significance than the tidal forces which have been shown to be negligible
as far as geodynamics is concerned.
1 JEFFREYS, H.: The Earth, 2nd ed., p. 304.
 V. Continents and Oceans
5.1. Primeval History of the Earth
5.11. The Problem of Continents and Oceans. The present distribution
of continents and oceans poses many puzzling problems. Continents are
undoubtedly the most permanent features of the Earth's surface and
therefore their existence probably dates back to the Earth's early
history. This very fact makes an explanation of their presence rather
difficult: nothing certain is known about the origin of the Earth, and
therefore any attempt at establishing a theory of continents is tied up
with speculations.
It may be noted that most theories of the existence of continents have
a counterpart in corresponding theories of the existence of mountains,
i.e. in theories of orogenesis. Since usually any change in the distribution
of continents will cause orogenesis, this is not too unexpected. Never-
theless, it seems worth while to separate the two topics into separate
chapters for the purpose of the present study. We shall treat here
those aspects of geodynamics which have more specifically a bearing
upon continental effects, and treat in the next chapter those aspects
that deal more 'lpecifically with orogenesis. However, there will of
necessity be many cross-references.
5.12. The Origin of the Earth. Questions regarding the origin of the
Earth have a bearing upon the problem of continents and oceans and it
is therefore necessary to give here a brief review thereof.
The Earth is one of many planets and its origin is intimately tied
up with that of the solar system. Unfortunately, the problem of how
the solar system was created has still not yet been satisfactorily solved
although attempts have not been lacking. In fact, the variety of ideas
which has been advanced to explain the origin of the solar system is
almost as great as the variety of ideas advanced to explain orogenesis.
It would thus easily be possible to write a separate monograph on that
subject.
In the present context we are only interested in the possible connection
between the theories of the origin of the Earth and the latter's subse-
quent development. For this purpose it is quite sufficient to confine
ourselves to an account of the broad implications of the theories without
 The Origin of the Earth 135

going into much detail. A useful account along these lines has been given
for instance by SMART1.
The theories of the origin of the solar system can be split into two
categories: Uniformitarian theories and cataclysmic theories. We shall
briefly discuss these two categories.
a) Uniformitarian Theories. The prototype of a uniformitarian theory
is the nebular condensation hypothesis of LAPLACE. In it is assumed that
the whole solar system was a gaseous nebula at its beginning. Such
a nebula would have a rather dense core with a very thin atmosphere
reaching to beyond the present boundaries of the solar system. Owing
to gravitational attraction, the nebula would slowly contract which, in
turn, would cause any initial rotation to become more rapid. Eventually
the rotation would become so fast that at the outer boundary of the
nebula a gaseous ring would be thrown off. The latter, in time, would
condense to form the first planet. This process would repeat itself until
all the planets were formed. The original core of the nebula would form
the Sun.
Although the above theory of LAPLACE'S has some apparent success,
there are in fact many severe difficulties. The most serious one is that
the distribution of angular momentum in the solar system is at complete
variance with any distribution that would be consistent with the theory:
In the solar system, most of the angular momentum is found in the
distant planets; LAPLACE'S theory yields the reverse.
Essentially the same ideas as those of LAPLACE'S have also been
defended by KANT. The latter author, however, did not assume that the
nebula was subject to a primeval rotation, but tried to deduce that such
a rotation would automatically develop. The difficulties in the theory
are thereby not lessened.
A modern revival of the uniformitarian theory has been proposed
by VON WEIZSACKER 2,8 who assumed that the Sun was formed from one
of the interstellar dust-clouds which are fairly common in the Milky
Way. The planetary system was thereby formed as part of the process
by condensation of the dust particles into the required number of larger
masses. The dust cloud is assumed to be in a state of turbulent motion
and endowed with a definite angular momentum. At a late stage of the
process it would have a disc-like shape. VON WEIZSACKER has shown
that certain internal states of motion in the disc are more stable than
others;-in fact that a pattern of vortices may develop which would be
capable to persist in quasistationary motion for a considerable length
1 SMART, W. M.: The Origin of the Earth, 239 pp. London: Cambrigde Uni-
versity Press 1951-
a WEIZSAcKER, C. F. v.: Z. Astrophys. 22, 319 (1944).
8 CHANDRASEKHAR, S.: Rev. Mod. Phys. 18, 94 (1946):
136 Primeval History of the Earth

of time. At the boundaries of the vortices the dust would collect and
form the nuclei for the future planets. At this stage of the evolution
the quasistationary pattern of vortices may disappear as the planets
could grow by themselves by further accretion of matter. VON WEIZ-
SACKER estimates that the time required for a planet to grow to its final size
was about 108 years whereas the Sun might have been" finished" in
107 years. The difference of a factor 10 might just have been sufficient
to allow for most of the lighter elements to escape from the planets and
thus to account for the different composition of the Sun (consisting
mostly of hydrogen) from that of the rest of the solar system.
Finally, KUIPER! modified the previous discussions by assuming
gravitational instability within a disc-shaped solar nebula as a source
of gaseous spheres (protoplanets) which eventually would contract to
form planets.
b) Cataclysmic Theories. The basis of cataclysmic theories of the origin
of the solar system is the assumption of some catastrophe. A good
example of such a theory is the hypothesis, due to HOYLE2, that the Sun
was part of a binary system and that the Sun's companion blew up as
a supernova. According to HOYLE, a slight eccentricity of the explosion
in the Sun's companion would produce the correct distribution of angular
momentum in the solar system. Furthermore, the nuclear chemistry
of a supernova explosion (being completely unknown) could account for
the different composition of Sun and planets.
Other cataclysmic theories include the tidal theory of ]EFFREYS 3 in
which it is envisaged that the Sun was disrupted by a tidal resonance
effect with a passing star. The fragments would ultimately form the
planets. Difficulties arise in this theory from two sides. First, if it is
assumed that the actual fragments of the Sun formed the planets, there
is the difference in chemical constitution of Sun and planets to be ac-
counted for. This is only possible by assuming a tremendous thinning
out of the fragments just after the catastrophe and a subsequent slow
recondensation which would provide time for the light elements to
escape. Second, it is again not easy to account for the distribution of
angular momentum in the solar system. To avoid this difficulty it has
been assumed that the tidal effect occurred with a hypothetical binary
companion of the Sun instead of with the Sun itself. Similar problems
occur if the catastrophe is assumed to be a head-on collision rather than
a tidal resonance effect.
1 KUIPER, G. P.: Chapter 8 in Astrophysics, ed. by Hynek. New York: McGraw-
Hill Publ. Co. 1951,
2 HOYLE, F.: Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 40, 265 (1944).
3 JEFFREYS, H.: The Earth, 2nd ed. London: Cambridge University Press
1929·
 The Earth's Early Thermal History 137

In conclusion, it may be remarked that all theories of the origin of

the solar system have two principal difficulties to cope with: First
there is the distribution of angular momentum in the solar system which
is chiefly (98%) concentrated in the planets and not in the Sun, Jupiter
making the biggest single contribution. Second, there is the difference
in composition between the Sun and the planets. The former consists
chiefly of hydrogen, the latter of heavier elements. The uniformitarian
theories differ from the cataclysmic ones mainly by the likelihood of the
occurrence of the postulated process. In all uniformitarian theories, the
acquiring of a planetary system is part of the normal evolution of any
star, whereas in cataclysmic theories this would be an extremely rare
and unique occurrence. Agreement as to the correct theory has obviously
not yet been achieved.
5.13. The Earth's Early Thermal History. The various theories of the
origin of the Earth discussed in Sec. 5.12 of this book are of importance
in geodynamics because of their implications regarding the Earth's
thermal history. The layered structure of our globe suggests that the
Earth might have gone through a molten state at one stage of its life; for
in a molten body the differentiation into a dense core and progressively
less dense upper strata is most naturally accomplished. Most discussions
of the Earth's thermal history, therefore, start with a hot Earth which
is gradually cooling down. This has also been done in the discussion of
the Earth's thermal history in Sec. 2.53.
It is therefore of some interest to investigate whether there are any
cosmological indications that the Earth has gone through a molten stage,
in the light of the various theories of the origin of the solar system. In
the cataclysmic theories, where it is assumed that the planets were formed
from the fragments of a star, it would presumably be natural to assume
that these fragments were hot. In this instance, it should not be over-
looked, however, that the fragments could possibly have been spread
out after the explosion into a gas cloud of very low density; the gas
cloud, in turn, would condense later to form the planets. Any dispersed
gaseous matter in the stellar space would of necessity be cooled down
very rapidly to form "ice crystals" which creates the problem of ex-
plaining the subsequent condensation in such a fashion so as to arrive
at a hot Earth. In this instance, the problem is the same as that encoun-
tered in the uniformitarian theories of creation of the solar system.
Here, no cataclysm is assumed in the first place and a way must be found
to condense a cold cloud of interstellar matter in such a fashion that it
becomes hot; -at least if it is desired to start the development of the
Earth from a hot sphere.
There are two ways in which the Earth could have heated up during
or immediately after its formation, the latter being assumed to have
138 Primeval History of the Earth

taken place from a cold cloud of dispersed material: first by a conversion

of mechanical energy into heat during the contraction of the cloud, and
second by the effect of radioactivity of the constituent elements in the
Earth.
The process of condensation or contraction of a cool gas cloud to
a planet has been discussed by HOYLEl. In his investigations, HOYLE
came to the conclusion that such cold condensation would convert suf-
ficient mechanical energy into heat to melt a planet of the size and com-
position of the Earth. However, a scrutiny of his argument shows that
it depends very sensitively on the speed of condensation, a quantity
which is not very well known. Accreted material strikes a condensation
surface of radius s and mass M with a kinetic energy E due to gravi-
tation of
(5.13-1)

where x is the gravitational constant (as usual) and dm the mass of the
striking body. If the condensation proceeds at such a speed that the
mass of the "planet" is doubled in time t, then the addition of energy
per unit time is
• MM
E = x------
s t
(5.13-2)
which is per unit surface
E uM 4 3 1 M(2
(5.13-3)
4n s2 = s 4 n S2 3 n eST = x~

where e is the density of the" planet". The surface temperature of the

planet will presumably become so high that an equal amount of energy
per unit time is lost by radiation into space as is acquired from the bom-
bardment of the accreting particles. The energy per unit time and sur-
face at temperature T (OK) is given by the Stefan-Boltzmann law
E =
---:--- a T4 (5.13-4)
surface

with a = 5.67 X 10-5 cgs units. Equating the right hand sides of Eq.
(5.13-3) and (5.13-4) leads to
(5.13-5)
and hence to
T = (UM (2 )1. (5.13-6)
3tG

For a planet like the Earth (e = 5.6, M = 5.98 X 10 27 , all cgs units)
this leads to
(5.13-7)
1 HOYLE, F.: Month. Not. Roy. Astron. Soc. 106, 406 (1946).
 The Earth's Early Thermal History 139

which shows that the temperature T is sensitive to t. HOYLE chose

t=106 years (=3.15 X 1012 sec) and obtained
T ,..., 1400 OK . (5.13-8)
This, he argued, would be sufficient to melt the Earth. However, it
seems very doubtful whether the accretion process could have proceeded
at such a fast pace. Judging by the von Weizsacker theory, a character-
istic agglomeration time t of 108 years would be much more reasonable.
This would lower the temperature
by a factor 5.6 to yield
(5 .13-9)
This is certainly not sufficient to
melt the Earth as it is below the
freezing temperature of water.
It seems therefore that, except in
the case of an extremely rapid con-
densation, there is not enough heat
from mechanical energy available
to melt the Earth if it was formed
from a cold cloud. We shall therefore
investigate the second possibility of
heat production, viz. that due to the
presence of radioactive matter in o t
Time
rocks. A study of this possibility Fig. 45. Temperature distribution at various depths
has been undertaken by URRyl. If in a radioactive Earth, starting from zero
temperature. After ] ACODS •
it is taken into account that radio-
active matter decays exponentially, then it is reasonable to expect that
the density of heat-generating matter within the Earth must have been
much greater during the primeval days than it is at present. URRY's result
is that the radioactivity would be sufficient to melt the Earth. The same
conclusion was arrived at by BIRCH 2 using newer values for the radio-
active decay constants: an initially cold Earth containing as little as
0.1 % potassium would eventually melt,-at least partially. The time
required to reach the molten state might not exceed 108 years.
From these investigations it would appear as likely that even had
the Earth been formed by cold accretion, it would have melted early
in its life. However, it is possible that the above authors overestimated
the effect of radioactivity. In his study of the thermal history of the
Earth mentioned in Sec. 2.53, JACOBS 3 showed that the final solution
1 URRY, W . D.: Trans. Amer. Geophys. Un. 30, 171 (1949).
2 BIRCH, F.: J. Geophys. Res. 56, 107 (1951) .
S JACOBS, J. A. : Trav. Sci. Ass. Seismol., U.G.G.I. 19, 155 (1956).
140 Primeval Hiswry of the Earth

of the heat conductivity equation is the superposition of the cooling

of a non-radioactive Earth from its "initial" temperature (assumed by
JACOBS as high) plus the heating-up of an originally cold Earth due to
radioactivity. If one inspects JACOBS' solution for the latter case, it
becomes evident that no very high temperatures are reached (except at
the surface; see Fig. 45). For his calculations, JACOBS assumed the
present layered distribution of elements inside the Earth, but he made
allowance for the time variation of radioactivity. The end result of the
heating-up does not yield the commonly accepted present temperature
distribution inside the Earth, but the calculations do show that there is
indeed the possibility that the Earth as a whole is slowly heating up
rather than cooling down, and that it has never been molten to any con-
siderable extent. Unreasonable as this possibility might appear (par-
ticularly with regard to the explanation of the origin of the layered
structure) it should however be noted that it cannot entirely be ruled
out.
5.14. The Birth of the Moon. Another event that has been connected
with the Earth's early history is the birth of the Moon. In conformity
with the various theories of the origin of the solar system, a correspond-
ing number of theories of the origin of the Moon has been proposed.
Of these the uniformitarian theories have obviously little bearing upon
the Earth's physiography, but the cataclysmic ones do: for, the cata-
clysm would involve the Earth as parent body. Thus, the removal of
the Moon from the Earth has been thought to have occurred in a similar
fashion as the hypothetical removal of solar matter from the Sun to
form the planets. One of the difficulties existing in the theory of the
solar system is absent in the case of the Moon as the composition of the
latter is very similar to that of the Earth's crust. In order to cause the
hypothetical separation of the Moon from the Earth one could perhaps
invoke a resonance effect in the oscillations of the Earth with the
tidal forces exerted by the Sun 1 , or else an internal "explosion" 2.
Such a cataclysmic birth of the Moon would have far-reaching conse-
quences upon the physiographic appearance of the Earth. These conse-
quences have been discussed for the first time by FISHER 3 ; they have
been re-stated more recently e.g. by BOWIE 4 and by ESCHER 5 • According-
ly, it is assumed that the Earth already had a solid crust when the Moon
was tom off. Consequently, a tremendous wound would be left which
would be represented now by the Pacific Ocean. This could account for
1 DARWIN, G. H.: Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. Partii, p. 532 (1879).
2 QUIRING, H. L.: Gerl. Beitr. 62, 81 (1952).
3 FISHER, 0.: Nature 25, 243 (1882).
4 BOWIE, W.: Sci. Monthly 41,444 (1935).
5 ESCHER, B. G.: Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 60, 352 (1949).
 The Hypothesis of Laurasia and Gondwanaland 141

the fact that the composition of the Pacific ocean floor is different from
that of the other ocean floors. The "suction" caused by the wound
would help to break up the remaining part of the crust and would cause
the pieces to move toward the Pacific. This, in turn, might explain why
all the continents can be fitted together as discussed in Sec. 1.31,
A different view from that outlined above has been taken by HAAR-
MANNI who supposed that the Moon was torn off from the Earth not
where there is now the Pacific Ocean, but in Central Asia. The wound
would have rapidly filled-in with sediments and risen to the present high
elevation owing to the action of isostasy.
An investigation into the physical possibility of a separation of the
Moon from the Earth must be directed at the hypothetical resonance
effect. JEFFREYS· does this and shows that the envisaged process is
really quite untenable as there are three major difficulties. First, during
the oscillations there would be a considerable discontinuity of velocity
at the core boundary which would lead to energy-loss owing to friction.
This, in turn, would restrict the maximum possible amplitude of the
oscillation to much less than that required to cause disruption. Second,
the linear theory of harmonic oscillations is really not applicable to
calculate the resonance effect because of the fact that the amplitudes
involved are large. As soon as nonlinear terms are taken into account;
however, resonance does no longer occur in the customary fashion and
it is very doubtful whether a critical amplitude could be attained at all.
Third, any body ejected from the Earth should of necessity return to
it which is, in case of the Moon, contrary to experience.
It seems therefore that there are almost insurmountable difficulties
in any theory claiming that the Moon was formed from the Earth and
therefore also in any theory attributing the present distribution of
continents to such a cause.

5.2. Evolution and Growth of Primeval Continents

5.21. The Hypothesis of Laurasia and Gondwanaland. One of the
attempts at explaining the present distribution of continents and oceans
is by assuming the break-up and drift of one or two primeval continents.
If two primeval continents are assumed, they are usually referred to
as Laurasia and Gondwanaland. These two primeval continents are
supposed to have originally been formed at the (then) poles of the Earth,
Laurasia in the North, Gondwanaland in the South. After their forma-
tion, these primeval continents are supposed to have broken up and
possibly to have grown and the pieces to have drifted into the present
position of the land masses.
1 HAARMANN, E.: Die Oszillationstheorie. Stuttgart: Ferdinand Enke 1930.
2 JEFFREYS, H.: The Earth, 3d ed., p. 234.
142 Evolution and Growth of Primeval Continents

Most of the evidence put forth in support of Laurasia and Gond-

wanaland is of a physiographic nature; i.e. it is geological, botanical,
climatological etc. This physiographic evidence has already been listed
in Sec. 1.31. We shall concern ourselves below with the mechanical
aspects of the problem.
5.22. The Notion of Continental Drift. The search for a mechanism
that might have broken up Laurasia and Gondwanaland (or, for that
matter, a single primeval continent) and that might have caused the
pieces to move into the present position of the continents, led to the
continental drift hypothesis of WEGENERl. Accordingly, the continents
are light masses floating upon a denser substratum in isostasy. The
forces causing the drifting are not very well defined, one usually assumes
that the polfluchtkraft (d. Sec. 4.2) would be able to do this. The
continental drift hypothesis is intimately tied up with problems of
mountain building since the same hypothetical forces that could cause
the shifts of the continents also would effect crumpling-up at their
margins and therewith cause mountain building. Because of the great
importance of continental drift in the analysis of orogenesis, its more
detailed discussion and the difficulties connected with it (particularly
with regard to the forces which are supposed to cause the drifting)
will be relegated to Sec. 6.3.
5.23. Continental Spreading. The various continental drift theories
are able to explain several features of the present distribution of con-
tinents. However, there are important features which they do not
explain. These features are connected with the different nature of the
Atlantic Ocean bottom as compared with the Pacific Ocean bottom.
According to the drift theory, continents are blocks of "continental"
material floating entirely apart from each other upon the denser sub-
stratum. Consequently, all ocean bottoms should be composed of the
"naked" substratum. However, we have pointed out in Sec. 2.31
that there is, in fact, a marked difference between the Atlantic (including
Indian) and Pacific Ocean bottoms. It thus appears that the origin of the
Atlantic Ocean must be different from that of the Pacific Ocean. The
drift theories do not account for this.
In order to retain the advantages of the drift theory without keeping
its shortcomings, GUTENBERG 2 modified the latter by assuming that there
is essentially only one continuous continental block which is spreading
apart, leaving a continuous though thin layer of continental matter at
1 WEGENER, A.: Die Entstehung der Kontinente und Ozeane. 3. AufI. Braun-
schweig: F. Vieweg & Sohn 1922.
• GUTENBERG, B.: GerI. Beitr. 16239, (1927); 18,281 (1927); - Bull. GeoI.
Soc. Amer. 47, 1587 (1936).
 Volcanic Growth of Continents 143

the bottom of the Atlantic Ocean. Instead of having the continents

break apart they are therefore supposed to have flowed apart (hence the
German name "Fliesstheorie" for the continental spreading theory).
The forces pulling the original continent apart so as to make it spread
would be the same as those active in the drift theories. The basic differ-
ence in the theory of drift and that of spreading is therefore concerned
with the rheology of the material in question. In the drift theory one
has rigid masses undergoing brittle fracture, whereas in the spread-
ing theory one has plastic or ductile deformation in the continents.
Unfortunately, no mathematical studies of the spreading theory seem to
have been undertaken.
5.24. Volcanic Growth of Continents. A theory of the evolution of
continents similar to that of continental spreading has recently been
proposed by BUCHER! and WILSON 2• Accordingly, the undisturbed state
of the Earth was one where there was no crust, the surface of the Earth
being marked by what is now the Mohorovicic discontinuity. WILSON
assumes that at the present time there is on top of the Mohorovicic dis-
continuity a layer of basalt 5km thick. Superimposed upon this there are
the continental blocks, 30 km thick and consisting of andesitic material.
WILSON assumes that this state has been reached by a process of continen-
tal growth. He estimates the present volume of the basaltic layer as equal
to 2.5 X 109 km 3 and that of the andesitic layer as equal to 3.7 X 109 km3.
These volumes, according to WILSON, were formed by outpourings of
lava during volcanic activity. In order to substantiate this possibility,
he uses an estimate of SAPPER'S3 according to which the volume of
lava poured out in recent times is 0.8 km3/year. At that rate, the whole
crust could have been formed in approximately 8 X 1()B years. Since the
age of the Earth is known to be not greater than about 4.5 X 109 years,
of which probably only 3 X 109 years were available for geological pro-
cesses to take place, it is necessary to assume that the volcanic activity
was higher during the Earth's eariy history than it is at present. In
view of the uncertainty regarding the thermal history of the Earth
(d. 2.53), this is perhaps not an entirely unreasonable assumption.
However, SAPPER'S figure is highly at variance with VERHOOGEN'S
discussion of volcanism as presented in Sec. 8.42, which is based upon
geological recognition of lava-outpourings. According to VERHOOGEN, the
total lava flow since the beginning of the Cambrian should not have ex-
ceeded 30 X 1(jI km 3 which yields an average outpouring of 0.05 km 3year
(taking the beginning of the Cambrian as roughly 600 X 106 years ago).

1 BUCHER, W. H.: Trans. Amer. Geophys. Un. 31, 495 (1950).

I WILSON, J. T.: Nature 179, 228 (1957).
8 SAPPER, K.: Vulkankunde, S.269. Stuttgart 1927.
144 Primeval Convection

This raises the time required to form the crust by volcanic activity by
a factor of 16.
Regarding the difference in chemical composition of the ocean
bottoms and the continental areas, WILSON accounts for this by con-
cluding that "basalts are formed by partial melting of the shallow
layers (tens of km deep) and that the andesites are a differentiate from
deep layers (hundreds of km deep) ". At the edges of continents, the
fractures are assumed as deep, hence andesitic materials are added to
the growing continents; in mid-ocean the fractures are shallow, hence
the mid-ocean ridges are ba'laltic. Processes of magma-differentiation
of the postulated type have been considered in connection with the
undation theory of orogenesis (d. Sec. 6.62); they are, as far as can be
judged at present, still somewhat speculative.
Thus, according to the volcanic growth theory, continents are ex-
panding by the addition of andesitic material at their margins produced
by volcanic activity originating in very deep layers. The nuclei of
continents presumably were formed by the accidental creation of very
deep fissures; once a continent has been started, the creation of further
deep fissures is supposedly a self-supporting process. The basic acting
force is assumed to be that of volcanism. All ocean bottoms, according
to the present theory, should be identical (d. Sec. 2.31 regarding this
point). The extrusion of lava from below the original surface of the
Earth (i.e. the present MohoroviCic discontinuity) would of necessity
cause the latter to contract and thereby to provide an orogenetic force
equal to that assumed in any contraction theory. The orogenetic patterns
incidental to the theory of volcanic growth of continents should therefore
be equal to those postulated in the thermal contraction theory.

5.3. Primeval Convection

5.31. The Formation of Continents by Convection. The concept of
Laurasia and Gondwanaland as primeval continents outlined in Sec. 5.2,
immediately poses the question as to how the latter may have originated.
One of the possibilities that has been advocated to this end is the hypo-
thesis of the formation of continents by convection l .
In this hypothesis it is assumed that in the early days of the Earth's
history, the latter was well-nigh liquid. The heavier material sank to
the center to form the core, and what is now the mantle proceeded to
cool (heat being lost into the universe) by thermal convection. One
school of scientists assumes that these convection currents in the mantle
of the Earth are still operative to the present day, thereby providing a
force for orogenesis (d. Sec. 6.4). An alternative opinion, however,
1 HILLS, G. F. S.: The Formation of Continents by Convection. London:
E. Arnold & Co. 1947.
 The Formation of Continents by Convection 145

is that such convection currents were possible only in the primeval

days of the Earth. Whatever the solution to this question may be, it
seems agreed that thermal convection would be a possible means of
creating primeval continents.
The creation of a continent by convection can be envisaged to have
occurred in one of two ways. First, if one has a rising current, then the
material just above it will be brought to a higher elevation than the
surrounding material owing to the effects of mechanical dragging. It
thus would form a "continent". However, the "continent" would be
able to subsist only for so long as the corresponding convection current
is operative. In order to 80 ·

- --- - '- ---

adopt this view, it must
therefore be assumed that
70·
60·
... -- .. -.........
'- ...... ..... -
........ ""'---
1'''- -- ...... ,
rising convection currents ........, , ",4'-':':':-'" " , , , ..-
are operative everywhere ) ' r', ( 1"\ ( 'I
"
I I',

underneath continents up to \ /1 1'\.\\ / /r-,.\\ / /""\. '

the present day. A second 20· , '-' 1'/ \ ' ,........ / / \ ' , 1/ \
way by which continents ,>, \. ) ,.,, \. )
I
\. j
, ,, ,, ,- ,
may be formed is by as- " " -
--' . '" ... _-_ ...
-
----~'

suming the latter as much 70·

O· 90' 180·
- 0'
lighter than the liquid. The
continents would thus corre- Fig. 46. Octahedral arrangement of convection currents (inward
cnrrents dotted, outward currents solid).
spond to "scum" (in iso- After VXNING-MEINESZ'
static equilibrium) on a li-
quid which accumulates over the descending branch of a convection current.
After the convection stopped, the "scum" (i.e. the continents) would
simply remain in its prior position or possibly get dragged around and
broken up due to incidental causes.
The hypothesis of the existence of Laurasia and Gondwanaland
as primeval continents implies that the primeval convection currents
would have had such a geometrical arrangement that two continents
formed at the (then) poles of the Earth. If the scum-theory is adopted,
this means that the currents must have been descending at the poles,
otherwise they would have to be rising at the poles.
However, the primeval existence of Laurasia and Gondwanaland
is not at all certain. A different system of primeval continents is arrived
at from the observation that four old shields, at present, have a position
roughly at the corners of a tetrahedron. If it is not conceded that con-
tinents may have moved around much during the history of the Earth,
an explanation for the position of these continents may be sought in
the assumption of an octahedral system of convection currents. This
has been proposed by VENING MEINESZ 1 . Fig. 46 shows the system of
1 VENING MEINESZ, F. A.: Vers!' K. Akad. Wet. 53, No.4 (1944).
Scheidegger, Principles of Geodynamics 10
146 Primeval Convection

currents. The creation of this system could be made plausible by the

remark that a regular pattern is most likely to occur. The octahedron
is the only regular surface in which an even number of sides touch in
one corner, and this is a necessary condition in a convection current
distribution.
It is thus seen that there is at least the possibility of explaining the
existence of continents in terms of convection currents. We shall in-
vestigate below the physical aspects of such currents in somewhat
greater detail.
5. 32. Physical Aspects of Convection Currents. The investigations of
JEFFREYS, Low and others discussed in Sec. 3.3 show indeed that
type o' currenf type 7i cUf'!'enf

o.do5---"

Fig. 47. Pos.iblc t ypes of convection currents

type "a"current fype"b"currenf

Fig. 48. Material accumulated on top of an outward, type a Fig. 49. Hole created by an inward, type b,
convection current convection current

convection currents are possible in viscous media, provided certain

fundamental requirements are fulfilled . Let us therefore investigate
the implications of the hypothesis of convection currents somewhat
further from a physical standpoint and see what they might do and
what they might not dOl.
Since heat must be conveyed from the bottom to the top, the material
must flow in that direction. Furthermore, owing to general hydro-
dynamic requirements, the axis of a convection current must be closed,
Therefore, the patterns that are possible are easily shown to be of the
general type of those shown in Fig. 47 where the axial rings lie approxi-
mately parallel with the surface of the Earth.
The effect on the surface in Fig. 47, type a, would be that material
would accumulate over the current (see Fig. 48). In type b, a hole
1 SCHEIDEGGER, A. K: Trans. Amer. Geophys. Un. 33, 585 (1952) .
 Physical Aspects of Convection Currents 147

would result (see Fig. 49). If the radius R of the convection current
becomes large, then ring-shaped structures would result.
We can calculate the rotating speed (t = time of revolution) for
such a convection current which would be necessary to give the observed
heat flow. For we note that the heat H transported by such a revolving
torus is
H = 2n2 r 2 RnLl T/t. (5·32-1)
The volume of the torus is 2n2 r 2 R, the temperature difference be-
tween the two levels is Ll T, and the specific heat per unit volume is n.
Thus the heat flow per unit area (denoted by h) is
h= H r2R LIT
:n;(R+r)2 =2n (R+r)2 n-t- · (5·32-2)
Hence
(5·32-3)
We must now make reasonable assumptions for the quantities
occurring in the last equation. Thus we assume that r is of the order
of 100 km, R of 1000 km, n of the order of 1, Ll T of the order of 1000 de-
grees and h of the order of 12 X 10- 7 cal cm -2 sec-I. Then we obtain
(5·32-4)
and we see that the time of revolution will be of the order of several
times 108 years. The speed of the material where it moves fastest is
2 n r/t = 4 mm/year . (5·32-5)
The speed of the material is thus of the order of a few millimeters per
year.
The stresses that occur due to viscous drag can also be estimated.
Denoting the shear stress by 7:, the coefficient of viscosity by'fJ, one has
in approximation I
7: = 'fJ r dru/dr . (5·32-6)
ru being the angular velocity of the torus. We have l ru=A/r2 • A is a
constant of integration which has to be determined so that for r = R
we have ru = 2n/t. Hence we find
dru/dr = 4n/(tR) (5·32-7)
and
(5·32-8)
This equation connects the stresses with the coefficient of viscosity.
If the material is to behave as though it was rigid in certain instances,
1 See LAMB, H.: Hydrodynamics, 6th ed. New York: Dover Publications 1945.
p.587.
10*
148 Primeval Convection

then the limiting shear stress To (beyond which rupture will occur) must
be rather low (see Sec. 3.65); but the viscosity rather high (at least
10 22 Poise; d. Sec. 3.6). Our last equation indicates that these require-
ments are indeed compatible. Choosing
To ,....., 109 dynesjcm 2 (5·32-9)
yields
'YJ < To X tj(4n) roo..I4 X 1023 poise (5·32-10)
with the value found above for t.
There is therefore, no difficulty in assuming slow convection currents,
moving at a rate of about four millimeters per year. In this instance,
we see that· convection currents might provide an explanation of the
existence of continents and oceans. They would also provide an ex-
planation of why all continents and ocean shields are of the form of
blocks, and not of the form of a single large belt around the globe.
Motions that could be connected with these convection currents would
be continental uplift and marginal flexure by the drag at the edges of
a continent. However, the fact that continents do not entirely have
the physiographic appearance of uplifted blocks, but to a certain extent
that of worn-down mountain roots, is not explained. Similarly, the
above discussion does not pertain to the scum-theory of continent-
formation.
5.33. Analytical Theory. The above discussion does not yet provide
any thermo-mechanical explanation for the existence of convection
currents. A much-quoted analytical attempt to elucidate the mechanics
of these convection currents within the Earth has been made by PEKE-
RISl. For his calculation, PEKERIS chose a model of the Earth in which
there is a temperature variation with depth as well as a zonal tempera-
ture variation over the surface of the Earth. The zonal temperature
variation is a much more effective cause of convection currents than
that presented by a temperature variation with depth. The mean
temperature variation (due to exposure to solar radiation) from the
equator to the poles is about 60° C and penetrates to great depth since
it is independent of time. Another possible source of zonal temperature
variations is that the bottom of the oceans is uniformly at a temperature
of about 2° C and, in addition, that there is only a small crustal layer
over the latter.
PEKERIS analyzed two particular models. He assumed an axis of
rotational symmetry (not necessarily coincident with the axis of rotation
of the Earth) and calculated the flow patterns as a function of colatitude
{} (with respect to that axis) and radial distance from the center. The
assumed zonal temperature variation in the first model is from 100° to
1 PEKERIS, C. L. : Month. Not. Roy. Astron. Soc., Geophys. Supp!. 3, 343 (1935).
 Analytical Theory 149

-100° if f} varies from 0 to 180°, and in the second model from 100°
to -50° to 100° if f} varies from 0° through 90° to 180°. PEKERIS found
rising convection currents underneath the temperature maxima (i.e.
at f}=00 in his first, and at f}=00 and 180° in his second model) and
descending currents underneath the temperature minima (i.e. f)= 180°
conlinenf
(1 - 0

(1 ·,80
llS~;;:Y'yeor
Fig. 50. Convection streamlines and flow velocities in one of I'EKERIS" models

in the first and f) = 90° in the second model) . The result for the second
model is shown in Fig. 50.
In detail, we give here PEKERIS' treatment of the second model.
In polar coordinates (r, f}) the equations of steady motion (neglecting
quadratic terms in the velocities) are 2

(5.33-1 )

(5 ·33-2)

1 Pj>KERIS,C. L.: Month . Not. Roy. Astron. Soc., Geophys. Suppl. 3,343 (1935).
2 Cf. e.g.
BASSET, A. B. : Hydrodynamics 11, 243.
150 Primeval Convection

where u, v are the radial and zonal velocities, respectively, s is the di-
vergence of the velocity, P is the pressure, 'YJ the viscosity, e the density
and g the gravity acceleration. The density is assumed to vary as follows
e = eo (1 - oc T) (5·33-3)
where oc is the coefficient of thermal expansion, T the temperature and
eo is a constant. The continuity condition yields

s=- ~ (u ~~ + ~ :~)=oc[u~: + ~ :~l. (5·33-4)

Furthermore, the temperature obeys the equation

ec[~
of
+ u~
or
+ !.-~'!l
r °{}
= klap T +P (5·33-5)

where P denotes the rate of generation of heat owing to radioactivity.

PEKERIS proceeds now in such a fashion that all quantities are
developed into a series in oc, where terms of an order higher than the
first are eventually to be neglected. Thus
u = rxu! + rx2U2 + ... , (5.33-6a)
v=rxv1 +rx 2V2+···, (5·33-6b)
s=rxs1 + rx2S 2+"', (5.33-7)
r
P= - J g eo (1 - rx 7:0) dr + rx P! + rx2P2 + .. '. (5.33-8)
Furthermore, the solution is to be expressed in a series of spherica
harmonics:
00
U1 =L cf>n (r) Pn (cos -&),
1

VI =
00
n
°P
L lJI (r) 8fi n (cos -&) ,
1
00
(5·33-9)
SI = L an (r) Pn (cos -&),
1
00

In virtue of the identity

Si:11 oo{} (sin -& ~;) = - n (n + 1) Pn (5·33-10)

the continuity condition yields

an = ~ ~- (r 2 cf>n )
r2 dr
- n (n + 1) lJ'nr (5·33-11)
 Analytical Theory 151

and
,m. 2
'¥n= -tPn -
r
1
-n (n
r
+ 1) lJIn = O. (5·33-12)

Substituting this into the second of the equations of motion (5.33-2)

and using the identity

(5.33- 13)

(5·33-14)

I
Using the assumption that 17 = const., and setting 'V = 171 eo one finally
ends up with the following differential equation:

n (n + 1)
1 (r 2 ifj~ + 8 r iP~ + 12 cPn) - 2 cPn - ~r tPn
(5.33-15)
-
2,m.
2'¥n
r
+ 2r1 n (n+
,m.
1)'¥n =
g
-Tn'
v
This, together with (5.33-12) enables one to determine the tP and P,
i.e. the velocities, and hence to draw the stream lines. The solution
depends on the initially assumed temperature perturbation. In accord-
ance with the model under discussion, it is assumed that 1'1 = 0, 1'2=1= 0;
thus one has from (5.33-15):

(5·33-16)
In particular, assuming
(5.33-17)

where b is the outer and a the inner radius of the convective shell,
PEKERIS obtained

(5.33-18)

lJf.2 = ~r$
6 2
+~tP
3 2
=-.~
3r4
+~
2
+ Sc6 r + E(~3
24
-~)
24r
(5.33-19)
with
E=133.3~-_1-
V b6 - a.
(5.33-20)

1
and
c_ 4 =93·588E,
L2 = 168.409 E,
(5.33-21)
C1 = 9.89664E,
C3 = - 0.449201 E.
152 Primeval Convection

The streamlines corresponding to this are those that have been shown
in Fig. 50.
Similar calculations as those just mentioned have also been made
by CHANDRASEKHAR 1 and by UREy 2, with corresponding results.
According to PEKERIS, a rising current creates a continent, a de-
scending one an ocean. The system of currents, thus, would be self-
perpetuating if continents would automatically always stay hotter than
oceans. This is, however, an unsettled question.
A remark supporting the point may be obtained from the distribution
of granitic rocks which indicates that the continental crust seems to
contain more radioactive matter than the oceanic crust. This would
mean that, once a continent has been formed due to the perturbation
of the homogeneous state of the Earth, it would tend to perpetuate
this perturbation. However, recent heat flow measurements discussed
in Sec.2.5 show that there is no more heat being conducted from
underneath continents than there is from underneath oceans. If any-
thing, the condition is reversed from that assumed above. This seems
to viciate the argument.
One could therefore seek another mechanism that might keep the
continents warmer than the oceans. It has been claimed that this might
have been achieved by solar radiation. It is true that in moderate
zones, the surface temperature of land is higher than that of the sea,
but in the Arctic the reverse is true. If differences in solar irradiation
would have caused convection currents, it must surely be assumed
that the primary zonal differences that started the whole process going,
must have been caused by the fact that less heat was received by the
(then) polar regions than by the equatorial regions. This is the exact
opposite to the picture envisaged by PEKERIS in his second model.
One would therefore expect a ring-shaped continent to have formed
around the equator; this continent then would also be at a higher tem-
perature than the surrounding ocean which would, as outlined above,
help to perpetuate the original system of convection currents. Such a
result, however, would not at all agree with the phenomenologically
suggested pattern of the arrangement of original continents at the poles,
and it seems, therefore, that little is gained by making any elaborate
calculations.
The situation might be saved by taking recourse to the scum-theory
of continent formation according to which continents are ultimately
formed over descending branches of convection currents. This is con-
trary to PEKERIS' picture and one would therefore have to exchange
"continents" and "oceans" in Fig. 50. Under these conditions, the
1 CHANDRASEKHAR, S.: Phil. Mag. 43. 1317 (1952).
2 UREY. H. C.: Phil. Mag. 44. 227 (1953).
 Criticism 153

system of currents would be self-perpetuating if the "scum" (the future

continents) would always stay cooler than the exposed naked substratum.
Since this condition must have been maintained in primeval days long
before the emergence of continents (due to isostasy) and long before
the condensation of primeval steam into water, its existence is again
pure speculation.

5.4. Tetrahedral Shrinkage

5.41. Principles. Another theory to account for the morphological
facts about continents and oceans which, at the same time, aims at
an explanation of the tetrahedral arrangement of the former, is a theory
assuming a particular type of shrinkage. It is based upon the assumption
that a tendency exists for a contracting sphere to shrink tetrahedrally,
simply because the tetrahedron has minimum volume for a given sur-
face of all regular bodies. The case for this theory has recently been
re-stated by WOOLNOUGH 1 .
Thus, if it be assumed that the Earth had at one time cooled enough
so that the outermost layer had become a solid skin incapable of
changing its area, then a tetrahedral shape might be considered as the
logical outcome of such a process. The corners of the tetrahedron
would correspond to the continents, the faces to the ocean basins.
A proper arrangement concerning the size of the tetrahedron would
also explain the ratio 1: 2 occupied by continents and by oceans.
An idea very similar to that presented above has been suggested
long ago by DAVISON 2• Accordingly, the Earth is contracting in its
upper layers only (due to cooling) which are therefore in a state of
internal tension. Owing to the pressure of the continents, DAVISON
assumes that the amount of stretching under them must have been very
much less than.under the great oceanic areas. This would tend to make
the ocean basins subside even further and present a physical cause for
their permanence. Any orogenetic effects would be most pronounced
at the junction of the oceans with the continents, thereby leading to
the idea of continental growth.
5.42. Criticism. The chief criticism of the tetrahedral shrinkage
theory iss that the topmost"skin" of the Earth simply does not have
such properties which would prevent it from changing its area under
the action of tangential forces. It is thus quite inconceivable that it
would retain its area upon a shrinking interior; at the very least it would
1 WOOLNOUGH, W. G.: Bull. Amer. Ass. Petrol. Geol. 30, 1981 (1946). The
present discussion is after the author's Handbuch-article.
B DAVISON, C.: Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. Lond. A 178, 240 (1888).
8 SCHEIDEGGER, A. E.: Handbuch der Physik Bd.47, S.283. 1956.
154 Formation of Continents by Expansion

either thicken in spots or else become folded over in the manner of

nappes. The evidence of folding seems to show that adjustment of an
outer shell to a collapsing interior would take place continually or in a
rapid sequence of diastrophisms rather than in a slow settling to the form
of a tetrahedron. Furthermore, the theories of deformation of such an
outer shell seem to indicate that buckling would be the mechanism
determining the adjustment of a rigid shell to a collapsing interior.
It has been shown 1,2 that the deformation of a buckling sphere is
symmetrical about a diameter and that the deviations of the shape
are given by a series of spherical harmonics along parallels of latitude
associated with the diameter of symmetry. This obviates the postulate
of tetrahedral shrinkage.

5.5. Formation of Continents by Expansion

5.51. Thermal Theories. Several theories of the origin of continents
have been proposed in which it is postulated that the Earth was subject
to expansion. Such an expansion might cause the crust of the Earth
to be torn to pieces at some stage of its life which, in turn, might explain
why some of the continents can be fitted together more or less accurately
as shown in Sec.1.31. However, in none of these theories is it quite
clear why, then, the continents should be so few and far between. If
it is to be assumed that the present continental area would correspond
to the total surface of the Earth at one stage of its life, the rate of expan-
sion would have to have been tremendous indeed.
The most obvious effect that could cause expansion is a thermal one.
One could imagine that, if the Earth started out as a hot liquid sphere,
it might form a solid layer on the top like ice on water. This layer might
in a way serve as an insulator so that immediately after its formation
the interior would heat up again since the heat created by radioactivity
could now no longer escape. Although the above idea seems appealing
at first glance, it is in fact quite untenable because (unlike ice and water)
most rocks are more dense in the solid state than in the molten state.
If it is to stay on top, the solid crust cannot therefore simply be the
solid phase of the substratum but must be composed of a different
substance. If this be assumed, however, then the thermal history for
various Earth-models can be calculated, as has been reported in
Sec. 2.53. Accordingly, it is possible that the whole Earth was remelted
early in its history but it does not seem reasonable that it would have
melted later on. Looking at the values given earlier in Table 11, one
1 ZOELLY, R.: Dber ein Knickungsproblem an der Kugelschale, Diss. E. T. H.
Ziirich, 1915.
2 LEUTERT, W.: Die erste und zweite Randwertaufgabe der linearen Elastizi-
tatstheorie fiir die Kugelschale. Diss. E. T. H., Ziirich, 1948.
 Thermal Theories 155

must admit, however, that the possibility exists that there is a net
gain in heat and hence a slight expansion of the Earth as a whole during
its history. It does not seem possible, though, that this could effect
more than the formation of e.g. deep ocean trenches,-although any
exact calculations do admittedly not exist.
A similar idea has been proposed by MATSCHINSKI 1 who assumed
that during solidification of the crust (consisting of lighter material
than the substratum) the latter would decrease its volume from V in
the liquid state to (1-1') V in the solid state. This would create great
tensions and hence produce the same effects as an expansion underneath.
MATSCHINSKI calculated these tensions by considering the instant
where the crust from RI upwards (Rl measured from the center of the
Earth) to its surface at distance R from the center is solidified, the
material below being liquid. If the cavity of radius Rl were empty,
the crust would contract in accordance with the value of r. However,
since the cavity is filled with an almost incompressible liquid, it can
sustain a very large pressure PI without contracting much. The con-
traction u1 (at the radius R}J say) is given by

Ut = p1R1 (5.51-1)
3K

if the bulk-modulus is denoted by K. Then, in a spherically symmetrical

Earth, the equations of elasticity require 2

(5.51-2)
and
T" = 2,u(~; + ~ e), (5.51-3 a)

T.u=T66 =2,u(; + ~ e) (5.51-3 b)

where, as usual, {}, A. denote spherical coordinates (co-latitude and

e
longitude, respectively), is given by

e=~~(r2u) (5.51-4)
r2 or

and U denotes the radial displacement. Hence one has

r2 u" + 2ru' = 2u (5.51-5)

and
(5.51-6)
1 MATSCHINSKI, M.: Ann. Geofisica 7,1 (1954).
2 Setting POISSON'S ratio m = 0.25 which is a good value for rocks.
156 Formation of Continents by Expansion

The constants of integration C1 and C2 have to be determined from the

boundary conditions. The displacements at the bottom of the crust
must coincide with the displacement of the top of the liquid; hence we
have
(5.51-7)

The pressures must also be equal at that interface, thus:

(5.51-8)

Hence the boundary conditions can be formulated as follows

-1 R lY + -Rl0
3 3K TT
I,=R, =U I,=R, , (5.51-9)

Orr !,=R, = O. (5.51-10)

MATSCHINSKI introduces the abbreviation

(5.51-11)

and hence one obtains from Eq. (5.51-10)

(5.51-12)

In virtue of Eq. (5.51-9), this yields

C _ 4R~y
1 - 3{4R~ + 5R3 + 20e(R3- R m' (5.51-13 )

5R3R3 y
C2 = "3-{4R¥ + 5R3 + 20e(R3 -
1
Rm (5.51-14)

Finally, MATSCHINSKI obtained for the stresses

(5.51-15)

This shows that 0" is a compressive stress, whereas OU and O{H} are
tensions;-which is what was to be proven.
Although it is now ascertained that the solidification of the crust
puts the latter into a state of tension, MATSCHINSKI'S model is, in fact,
somewhat artificial: it has to be implied that the whole crust solidifies
 Cosmological Speculations 157

at once, otherwise the solidification would take place from the bottom
up (i.e. the solidified pieces would sink to the bottom as they are assumed
as denser than the melt) and the model as envisaged would be impossible.
This does not seem to be quite reasonable; if it has occurred at all,
it must have occurred very early in the Earth's history. Under these
circumstances, as is the case with all expansion theories, it could be
thought that the tensions created would cause fractures which might
be comparable to ocean trenches, but never a disruption of the crust
into the present continents. In order to create the latter, the volume
contraction upon solidification would have to be on an excessive scale
indeed.
5.52. Cosmological Speculations. Expansion of the Earth has been
attributed not only to thermal causes, but also to a slow change of the
value of the gravitational "constant" postulated in some cosmological
speculations. JORDAN l , in a discussion of projective relativity theory,
came up with the conclusion that the quantity u in NEWTON'S law of
gravitational attraction
(5.52-1)

(where F is the force; ml and m 2 are the two masses involved; r is the
distance between them) should not be a fundamental constant as com-
monly assumed, but in fact should be a variable which has been slowly
decreasing since the beginning of the universe.
Accepting the above conclusion of JORDAN'S, jOKSCH 2 tried to
account for the peculiar statistical composition of the hypsometric
curve of the Earth explained in Sec. 1.32. Accordingly, soon after the
Earth was created, it consolidated into various layers. In virtue of the
decrease of u, the Earth then expanded, the uppermost layer being the
first to be torn up owing to the tensions created by the expansion. The
tearing-up would lead to a logarithmico-normal distribution of heights
within that layer. The process, then, was repeated with a second and
with a third layer. Each time a layer was torn, a logarithmico-normal
distribution of heights was the result. By assuming three layers, jOKSCH
accounted for the tripartite composition of the hypsometric curve.
Needless to say, the above remarks are highly speculative.

5.6. Evaluation of Theories of Continents and Oceans

Looking over the various theories of the formation of continents and
oceans, it is apparent that one has a series of contradicting opinions.
1 JORDAN, P.: Schwerkraft und Weltall. Braunschweig 1952.
2 JOKSCH, H. C.: Z. Geophys. 21, 109 (1955).
158 Evaluation of Theories of Continents and Oceans

There is, however, only one theory that is at all widely accepted: that
of the formation of continents by convection. This does not necessarily
contradict the possibility of subsequent continental growth or continen-
tal drift: it is very well possible that, during the Earth's early history,
convection was a significant phenomenon, but that it died down later,
leaving wide room for other effects to occur.
The other theories of the origin of continents seem to be somewhat
more artificial. However, they certainly cannot be ruled out entirely.
Much depends on the actual state of the Earth in its early history, i.e.
on whether it had a cold or a hot beginning. As long as the answers
to such fundamental questions are as uncertain as they are at present,
a definite explanation of the origin of continents and oceans cannot be
hoped for.
 VI. Orogenesis
6.1. Fundamentals
6.11. Crustal Shortening. The central aim of the science of geody-
namics is to elucidate the mechanism of mountain building, called
orogenesis. The object of a theory of orogenesis is to explain the geo-
graphic position and the physiographic character of an orogenetic
system. Thus, the main features that have to be explained are the
arcuate strike of mountain and island chains, the observed crustal
shortening in the vicinity of mountains and the structure of the arcs.
Of particular importance is the observed crustal shortening which
suggests, from geological evidence, large horizontal movements. For
most mountain ranges, geological estimates of shortening (d. Sec. 1.4)
are of the order of
(6.11-1)
We denote this value of shortening by SA to indicate that this is the
geologically "apparent" shortening. The Alps are an exception; the
observed crustal shortening is up to 320 km. It is difficult in any theory
of orogenesis to arrive at such large values.
An orogenetic diastrophism, in general, affects the whole Earth.
The orogenetic activity is at anyone time concentrated in narrow belts
that form a world-wide pattern (d. Sec. 1.43) which nearly follow two
great circles. Thus, let us assume that in a single diastrophism two-
thirds of two great circles about the Earth are folded into mountains
2 km high and 300 km wide. The length L of a complete orogenetic
system is thus
L = 5.3 X 104 km. (6.11-2)
The volume V of an orogenetic system is thus
V = 32 X 106 kms . (6.11-3)
Any theory of orogenesis must somehow explain these numbers and
connect them with the value of shortening.
A series of theories of orogenesis presupposes that mountain ranges
are not the direct outcome of crustal shortening, but a secondary effect
owing to a process involving the concept of tectogenes (or possibly geo-
synclines). A tectogene is a trough which is formed through down-
buckling of the crust in order to accommodate crustal shortening. Such a
160 Fundamentals

trough would rapidly become filled with (light) sediments which, even-
tually, would rise under the action of isostasy above the former level
of the crust so as to create mountains. One would look for such tecto-
genes in recent orogenetic systems which have not yet risen to form
high mountains, e.g. the Antilles, the island arcs from Japan to North
America etc. The failure of seismic investigations to detect the expected
downbuckling of the crust has dealt a severe blow to the concept of
tectogenes. On the other hand, orogenesis seems always to take place
in areas where there are thick sediments. If tectogenes do not exist,
it is still possible that geosynclinal areas somehow become eventually
transformed into mountains.
6.12. A Basic Geodynamic Relationship. The volume V of an oro-
genetic system obtained in (6.11-3) does not stand entirely by itself.
As indicated above, there must be a connection with the apparent
shortening SA across the orogenetic system. This connection is a most
basic relationship in geodynamics.
By the term "apparent" it is already implied that there also should
be a "true" shortening Sr. The apparent shortening is obtained by
assuming that in a normal cross-section of a mountain range the length
of a stratum (which is a curved line) is equal to the length of that section
before it was folded, i.e. when it was flat on the ground, and comparing
it with the width of the mountain range. The difference is the "apparent
shortening" SA' It is, however, not a foregone conclusion that the
strata did not undergo an extension of their length during folding.
The "true" shortening may therefore have been less than the "apparent"
shortening. Let us assume that the extension of length was by the
factor y, then we have
(6.12-1)
Furthermore, during an orogenetic diastrophism, the surface only of
the Earth is affected. Let us denote the (hypothetical) depth to which
the shortening is felt by h. Then, if the total length of the orogenetic
system is again denoted by L, the volume that appears ac; mountains
is given by
(6.12-2)
Replacing the hypothetical true shortening by the measurable apparent
shortening, and putting all the hypothetical quantities on one side of
the equation, we obtain:
h v
Y LsA '
(6.12-3)
This is a basic relationship which every theory of orogenesis must
fulfill. Such theories yield values for the hypothetical constants; the
fact that these are not independent, has usually been overlooked.
 A Basic Geodynamic Relationship 161

An interesting outcome is observed if the numerical values obtained

earlier (6.11-1/3) are inserted into the basic relationship (6.12-3). One
then obtains:
h/y -12km (6.12-4)
which is of the order of the thickness of the crust (as defined by the
Mohorovicic discontinuity) ; in fact it is only a little less than the weight-
ed mean thickness of an oceanic (5 km) and continental (35 km) (of
frequency 2:1) crust (which would yield about 15 km). Thus, if it be
assumed that y is of the order of 1 (no significant extension of the strata)
one can explain the geologically observed shortening and the volume
of mountains by postulating that the apparent shortening approximately
equals the true shortening and that the depth to which orogenesis is
felt is determined by the Mohorovicic discontinuity. This leaves one
with the difficulty of finding forces that can produce the required large
shifts.
On the other hand, if y is assumed to be significantly larger than 1
(of the order of up to 10), then it is easy to find possible forces to pro-
duce the required small shortening, but the depth to which orogenesis
is felt becomes much larger and the explanation of large extension
factors y itself becomes problematic.
It is thus seen that the value of the extension factor y is very char-
acteristic for any theory of orogenesis and, in fact, enables one to make
a classification of the latter. However, in the following survey we shall
follow the historical classification rather than that indicated by various
values of y.
The above argument assumes that there is no density reduction
in the material affected by orogenesis. If there is such a density re-
duction, possibly due to rock-metamorphism, say by the metamorphosis
factor C, the basic equation reads l
(6.12-5)

A further interesting remark can be made with regard to the maximum

speed with which crustal shortening can take place. If crustal shortening
is assumed to be due to the sliding of the crustal parts in question over
the substratum, the work necessary to produce the motion is expended
against the frictional resistance occurring at the sliding surface. The
resistance W to the edgewise motion (with velocity v) of a circular disc
of radius c in a viscous liquid (of viscosity 'Yj) has been calculated by
1 It may be noted, however, that rock metamorphosis is generally connected
with an increase in density; hence we have, in general, C< 1. This is generally
ignored in theories of orogenesis where, if metamorphism is considered at all, it
is always assumed that C> 1.
Scheidegger, Principles of Geodynamics 11
162 The Contraction Hypothesis

LAMB!; it is given by the following expression

W=6:nrJRv (6.12-6)
with
R = 16c
9:71;
= 0.566c. (6.12-7)

A floating disc experiences only half of this resistance, hence

16
W = 3 :n rJ R v = -3 C rJ v. (6.12-8)
If the crustal parts are sliding over the substratum, a force as
given by the last equation must act on these parts. This introduces
stresses l' in the latter whose order of magnitude is
l' = W/(2c H) (6.12-9)
where H is the thickness of the crustal part in question. The stresses l'
obviously cannot exceed the yield stress f} of the surface material:
(6.12-10)
which, in turn, imposes a limit on the speed v with which the crustal
shortening can proceed. The movements considered here belong into
the "long" time range in the sense of Sec. 3.6; using the corresponding
values for rJ, f} etc, one obtains (with H = 40 km corresponding to the
depth of the Mohorovicic discontinuity in mountainous areas) for the
maximum speed at which crustal parts can slide over the substratum
3W 3{)2cH
v = -- = = 6 X 10-7 cm/sec = 18 cm/year. (6.12-11)
16c1J 16c1J
Thus, in order to create crustal shortening of the order of 40 km
(Rocky Mountains, d. Sec. 1.42), at least about 200000 years would
be required; in order to produce the shortening of 320 km quoted for
the Alps, at least about 1.8 million years are necessary. These values
constitute the absolute minima of the time necessary to produce the
mountain ranges in question. It rules out any speculations that moun-
tain building might have occurred by instantaneous catastrophes. It
should be noted, however, that the above argument does not hold if
it is assumed that the substratum is moving in unison with the crust
(d. Sec. 6.4 on the convection current hypothesis of orogenesis). In
that case, speeds faster than those calculated above might be possible.

6.2. The Contraction Hypothesis

6.21. Principles. The contraction hypothesis is one of the earliest
attempts to explain the origin of geodynamic forces. It goes back at
least to the time of DESCARTES. In its modern form, it is usually presented
1 LAMB, H.: Hydrodvnaroics, p. 605. New York: Dover Publ. Co. 1945.
 Principles 163

as stated by JEFFREYSl. Accordingly, it is assumed that the Earth

began as a hot, celestial body. Early in its history, it differentiated
into an iron core and an essentially silicate mantle. The mantle solidi-
fied outwards from its base at the liquid iron core and has since been
cooling by conduction without convection currents. From the center of
the Earth to within about 700 km of the surface there has not been
time since the earth solidified for any appreciable cooling or change in
volume to have taken place. Within the region from about 700 to
70 km, cooling by conduction is taking place and hence this layer
is contracting and being
stetched about an unchang-
ing interior. Hence it is in
a state of internal tension.
N ear the surface the
rocks have already largely
cooled so that they are in
thermal equilibrium with
the heat provided by solar
radiation. They are there-
fore not changing very
much in temperature and
the cooling and contraction Fig. 51. Stresses in the hypothesis
Earth according to the contraction

of the layer or shell beneath

them puts the outermost shell into a state of internal compression
above a level of no strain at 70 km depth.
Thus, the contraction hypothesis divides the Earth upon grounds
of thermal and mechanical behavior into three shells: the non-contract-
ing part of the Earth below a depth of about 700 km, the contracting
part of the mantle above 700 km and below the level of no strain at
about 70 km, and the "exterior" which is crumpling up due to the
contraction below. These shells are not dependent upon the Earth's
composition and hence should not be confused with such terms as core,
mantle and crust. As the Earth cools, the boundaries between the
shells move deeper into the Earth. The stress state assumed in the
contraction hypothesis is shown in Fig. 51-
At first glance, the contraction hypothesis explains many physio-
graphic facts about the Earth. The cross-section of an island arc can
be envisaged as the outcome of a deep faulting process in the contracting
layer of the Earth (see Fig. 52). This would be in conformity with the
claim that the foci of deep-focus earthquakes lie approximately upon
a surface dipping into the Earth beneath recent island arcs (d. Sec. 2.22).

1 JEFFREYS, H.: The Earth. London: Cambridge University Press 1929.

11*
164 The Contraction Hypothesis

The geological implications of this assumption, in conjunction with the

assumed stress state, have been followed up by WILSON! and are shown
III Fig. 53, which is self-explanatory.

Fig. 52. Formation of an island arc in the contraction hypothesis. After WILSON

secondary arcs pr i mary arcs

moderately fo:ded sediments inner arc outer arc
no volcanism volcanoes contor ted sediments
and batholiths negative gravity anomalies
miogeosYllc/lire
sea level

~ sialic continental block

r?-';;,"~ (plutonic rocks of previous eycle)
{
Sial ~:.' ! :~ plutonic rocks of present r;ycle

~ sedimentaty rocks of present cycle

Sima ~:l basic and ultra-basic rocks

7VIIkm
Fig. 53. Diagrammatic cross section of a double mountain range, as envisaged in WILSON'S! development of
the contraction theory (great exaggeration of vertical scale in upper part of the picture)

The discussion so far deals only with the cross-sections of island

arcs. For a consistent theory, the arcuate surface structure of the
orogenetic belts must also be obtained. Possible bases for such an
1 WILSON, J. Tuzo: Proc. Geol. Ass. Canad. 3, 141 (1950) .
 Principles 165

explanation would be furnished 1,2 either by assuming plastic yielding

or yielding by creep, or else by assuming sliding fracture.
According to the first assumption, an explanation of the shape of
failure on the Earth would be that around a "weak point" (of symmetry)
where there is a branch point line (that is the circle in Fig. 30) (d.
Sec. 3.23), spiral-shaped slip-lines form (Fig. 30). Underneath each
of those lines would be a surface dipping down into the Earth (Fig. 31).
If the margins of continents are assumed to be weak zones owing to
the tremendous amount of deposition taking place there (in conformity
with the notion of geosynclines), corresponding to branch point lines,
then island arcs and perhaps marginal ranges might correspond to
spiral slip lines springing from the margin of continents. The fact that
the material along the slip lines undergoes a different kind of deforma-
tion from that in other regions might account for earthquakes and
volcanoes near island arcs.
From the theoretical standpoint, there are some objections to this
theory. Slip lines form a double family of curves crossing each other,
not just single lines, and there is no evidence on the Earth of two sets
of arcs crossing each other approximately at right angles. Furthermore,
each family of slip lines theoretically forms a great number of curves
that cover a whole region quite densely. On the Earth, there are only
single spirals at comparatively wide intervals. There is no evidence
that several arcs start from one region of weakness. It might be possible
to adjust the facts better to the theory by geological explanations, such
as the assumption of a certain anisotropy in the Earth. However, it will
require further geological and geophysical explanation and evidence
to justify the assumption of a plastic slip phenomenon as explanation
for spiral-shaped island arcs and mountain ranges. The same arguments
apply to any explanation that arcs are due to yielding by creep.
RUUD 3 also assumes plastic failure as the cause of orogenesis, but
postulates that the arcuate structures upon our planet correspond to
the branch point lines instead of the slip lines. Assuming circular
symmetry, the primary orogenetic structures to be expected are ring-
shaped craters like those on the Moon. In this instance, a major diffi-
culty seems to be that the chains of island arcs on the Earth bear but
little resemblance to the craters on the Moon. Also, the craters on the
Moon are now generally believed to be of meteoritic origin.
Accordingly, instead of assuming plastic yielding, let us investigate
fracture as a possible explanation for island arcs. For the sake of
1 SCHEIDEGGER, A. E., J. T. WILSON: Proc. Geol. Ass. Canad. 3, 167 (1950).
2 The following is after the writer's discussion in Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 64,
127 (1953).
8 RUUD, 1.: Gerl. Beitr. 52, 123 (1938).
166 The Contraction Hypothesis

simplicity, we shall take MOHR'S criterion as relevant (d. Sec. 3.52). If

circular symmetry is again assumed around a point, the greatest pressure
must be assumed as vertical (or nearly so) because of the weight of the
overlying material, and because below the level of no strain, the other
principal stresses are tel).sions. MOHR'S theory then predicts that the
failing surfaces will be inclined at an angle of less than 45° to the radial
direction of the sphere and parallel to the intermediate principal stress.
This can be either the tangential direction to a circle around the point
of symmetry or the meridional direction. The first of these cases might
explain circular island arcs and mountain ranges, for it leads to a conical
fracture with a dip of about 45°. On the other hand, if island arcs are
considered to be spiral-shaped, the theory would have to be modified.
One might assume, for instance, that the stress state is symmetrical
with respect to a point in a limited region only and that farther away
there is an undisturbed stress state. Thus, starting in a "weak region",
a sliding crack would develop in a circular manner before flattening out
in an irregular strike. This is the pattern which suits, in fact, most of
the island arcs and mountain ranges investigated numerically in
Sec. 1.42. The failure of the crust would logically occur in such places
which are under larger stresses than neighboring ones. This would be
those places where "geosynclines" exist, the latter being thought as
having been caused by an overweight of material deposited there. This
is in contrast to other theories which suppose that tectogenes are formed
first by downbuckling owing to lateral compression and that the latter
are subsequently filled-in by sedimentary materials simply because they
are depressions. The latter view may perhaps be advocated as an alter-
native possibility in the contraction theory (d. also Sec. 7.32).
Based upon the above considerations (sliding fracture), WILSON 1 ,2
has extended the contraction hypothesis to present a theory of the
growth of terrestrial features. Accordingly,continents, once nucleated
by the processes discussed in Sec. 5, keep growing throughout the ages 3 .
The coast lines represent weak zones around which circular fractures
occur as discussed above. The cross section of each fracture is as shown
in Fig. 53; the fractures are identified with island arcs. The island arcs
become gradually transformed into mountains and the process then
starts anew elsewhere. During the Earth's history, the level of no
strain is assumed to move deeper into the Earth which may be the
reason why very early mountain ranges had a different physiographic

1 WILSON, J. T.: Pap. & Proc. Roy. Soc. Tasmania p. 85 (1950).

2 WILSON, J. T.: In: The Earth as a Planet, ed. Kuiper, p. 138, University
Chicago Press.
3 Note that the concept of continental growth had already been formulated
in 1888 by DAVISON; d. Sec. 5.41.
 The Existence of a Level of No Strain 167

pattern as compared to recent ones (d. Sec. 2.42). At anyone time,

a whole orogenetic system may be active; however, it constantly expands
and changes until an entirely new physiographic picture may be formed.
Thus, about 9 to 10 "distinct" systems may have been created since the
solidification of the Earth's crust. The energy for the various processes,
corresponding to the contraction hypothesis, would be provided by the
cooling and contraction below the level of no strain.
The general pattern of mountain building as envisaged by the con-
traction hypothesis has been modeled by BUCHER! in the laboratory
with very suggestive results.
A very recent modification of the contraction hypothesis has been
suggested by BUCHER and WILSON according to which not cooling, but
the extrusion of volcanic material from below the MohoroviCic dis-
continuity would be the cause of the shrinkage. The details of this
hypothesis have been discussed in Sec. 5.24. The relevant mechanics
with regard to orogenesis is the same as if thermal contraction were
assumed to take place. The same may be said regarding a suggestion
of SONDER'S2 where the shrinkage of the Earth's interior has been at-
tributed to a nuclear reaction by which the silicates of the mantle are
transformed into the much denser material of the core.
In spite of the apparent success of the contraction hypothesis, there
remain several points in which it is not very satisfactory. The first
of these is that it leads to a discrepancy if the extension factor is calcu-
lated, and the second is that the contraction theory cannot explain the
observed transcurrent motion in earthquake foci. These difficulties will
be discussed in Sec. 6.25 and 6.26. Furthermore, the contraction theory
does not even attempt to face the mounting evidence that parts of the
Earth's crust underwent large horizontal displacements (d. Sec. 1.23,
2.62). It appears, therefore, that the contraction hypothesis (in its pre-
sent form at least) cannot be accepted as an entirely satisfactory ex-
planation of orogenesis.
6.22. The Existence of a Level of No Strain. The contraction hypo-
thesis stands or falls with the possibility of the existence of a level of
no strain in the light of thermal considerations. The problem has been
investigated by ]EFFREYS 3 who considered a shell of internal radius r
and thickness (Jr. During a rise of temperature by the amount d T,
the density, originally equal to (], becomes (] (1-3ndT) where n
denotes the coefficient of linear expansion due to a temperature change.
+
If it is assumed that the radius r becomes equal to r (1 dlX), then the
1 BUCHER, W. H.: In Geotektonisches Symposium zu Ehren von H. STILLE,
ed. F. LOTZE. Stuttgart: Deutsche Geologische Gesellschaft (1956); p. 396.
2 SONDER, R. A.: Mechanik der Erde. Stuttgart: Schweizerbart 1956.
3 JEFFREYS, H.: The Earth, 2nd ed. (1929).
168 The Contraction Hypothesis

external radius becomes after the change of temperature

r (1 + doc) + <5r{1 + :r (rdoc)}.

Consequently, the mass of the shell will be (neglecting the squares and
products of d T and doc):
4.ne r2 <5r{1 +2doc+ d~ (rdoc) -3 ndT}.

Since the mass of the shell cannot alter, this leads to the following
equation of continuity:
d
2doc +dr (rdoc) - 3ndT = O. (6.22-1)

This is a differential equation which may be used to determine doc.

(Note that it was assumed that d T is known throughout the Earth.)
If the shell could expand without straining, the radius would in-
crease by rnd T instead of rdoc, so that the amount of straining required
to make it fit into its place is
r (doc - ndT) = rdS. (6.22-2)
One thus obtains for d S, a quantity immediately connected with the
strains:
d d
- (r 3dS) = -r3_ (ndT) (6.22-3)
dr dr
or
,
dS= - :3 f r3 ddr (ndT) dr. (6.22-4)
o
By partial integration, this yields
,
dS =- ndT + r~ f 3r2ndTdr, (6.22-5)
o
and, since the differential d T may be understood with respect to time,
,
f
one obtains:
as= - naT
- -+-1 aT
3r2 n-dr. (6.22-6)
at at r3 at
o
So far, we have been following JEFFREYS!. But now we note 2
that we can substitute 8 Tj8t from the heat conductivity equation:
aT =
eC fit k lap T. (6.22-7)

1 JEFFREYS, H.: The Earth, 2nd ed. (1929), p.280.

2 SCHEIDEGGER, A. E.: Canad. J. Phys. 30, 14 (1952).
 The Existence of a Level of No Strain 169

In spherical coordinates this is (if T depends on r only):

aT = Y28r
eCTt k a (r 2 7iY
OT) . (6.22-8)
Hence
,
as =
ot _ ~ [~~
ec r2 or (r2 ~)l
or + ~
r3
f ~ec ~ar (r2 ~)
ar dr. (6.22-9)
o
Now, the object is to evaluate the integrals in Eq. (6.22-9) from the
center of the Earth up to a point r somewhere in the mantle. Thus,
we have to integrate over the whole core, across the discontinuity
between core and mantle, and finally over part of the mantle. Let us
denote the radius of the core by Ro (= 3470 kIn), then we have a dis-
continuity in the integration for r = Ro. Before (undashed) and after
(dashed) this level, n, k, e and C are assumed to be constant. Hence,
for r>Ro
:~ = - e~:' [k' :2 :r (r2 ~:)l 1
+ ~ {~(r2~) IRo + ~ (r2~)
r3 ec or 0 e' c' or
I' }.
Ro
(6.22-10)

Thus
°o~ = -
~{(~ _ n'k')R2~1 +
:r
e~~' [k' r~ (r2 ~:) 1
n'k' r2~}.
1
(6.22-11)
+ r3 ec e' c' 0 ar Ro e' c' or
The term from the discontinuity vanishes if we assume that the tempera-
ture gradient for Ro vanishes. Then we have for r > Ro:
as
-=-----k-.
n' k' aT n', a2T
ot e' c' r or e' c' orB (6.22-12)

This is the equation connecting stress and temperature in the Earth.

The condition for a level of no strain is (according to JEFFREYS)

°o~ = o. (6.22-13)
Hence
(6.22-14)

If we have any given temperature distribution within the Earth, then

the layers in which the above equation is satisfied are levels of no strain.
It is obvious that the position of the level of no strain has nothing to
do with the coefficients of heat conduction etc., but is determined
wholly by the shape of the temperature curve with depth.
We are now in a position to compare Eq. (6.22-14) with the various
estimates of temperature curves above 1000 km shown in Sec. 2.52.
170 The Contraction Hypothesis

In particular, it is of interest whether any of the estimates mentioned

in Sec. 2.52 are compatible with the assumption of a level of no strain
at 70 km depth. The gradient at that depth is about 1 or it o/km.
Then, formula (6.22-14) gives us
02T/or 2 = 0.00025°/km2. (6.22-15)
The change of the gradient over a distance of 100 km in the level of no
strain becomes
(0 2T/or 2) dr = 0.00025 X 100 = 0.025°/km. (6.22-16)
This means that, over a distance of 100 km, the gradient should change
in the level of no strain by about 1/40o/km, which is almost negligible.
This indicates that in the level of no strain the temperature curve must
be almost straight. This would still be the case if the temperature gradi-
ent were assumed to be much larger.
It is obvious that JEFFREYS' temperature estimate (d. Sec. 2.52)
fits this condition fairly well. On the other hand, GUTENBERG'S assump-
tion of a sharp kink in the temperature-depth curve at about the depth
of the level of no strain is certainly not in conformity with it. The
conclusion would therefore be that a temperature curve of the type
postulated by GUTENBERG would preclude the existence of a level
of no strain, but that JEFFREYS' curve would be compatible with it.
Since both these temperature curves are largely hypothetical, not
much of a definite conclusion regarding the existence or nonexistence
of a level of no strain can be derived in this manner.
6.23. The Thickness of the Earth's Crust and Mountain Building.
The Available Contraction. The next problem to be investigated concerns
the relative size of present and very ancient mountains. Presumably,
the depth to which cooling has penetrated (according to the contraction
hypothesis) must' be assumed to increase during the Earth's history,
which, in turn, might give an explanation of why very ancient mountains
show a different pattern from recent ones, as has been outlined earlier.
We shall investigate now whether such a theory can be confirmed by
physical considerations of the types of folding that must occur when
the outermost shell above the level of no strain is supposed to become
thickerl. Thus, the model of the mechanism of mountain building which
we are to consider is as follows: Below a surface shell of constant den-
sity we assume a contracting spherical interior. If the contraction takes
place at a constant rate, the question arises as to what extent folding
depends on the thickness of the surface shell.
Let the volume of the shell be V and the inner radius of this shell
be a and its thickness b. If the shell is a relatively thin and cool layer,
1 SCHEIDEGGER, A. E.: Canad. J. Phys. 30, 14 (1952).
 The Thickness of the Earth's Crust and Mountain Building 171

it will retain its volume almost unchanged during any short period of
contraction brought about by cooling in the larger and hotter interior.
Then we have
v = 4:na2 b. (6.23-1)
If the radius of the interior sphere is changed by the amount d a and the
thickness of the shell by db, then we obtain
dV = 4:na 2 db + 8:nabda. (6.23-2)
However, dV must vanish, as stated above, hence

2dab+adb=0, (6.23-3)
db = - 2bdala. (6.23-4)
This equation indicates that, for a shrinking of the interior by the
amount da, the amount of material of the shell that has to be moved
in order to make it continue to fit the interior is proportional to its
thickness.
If we assume that the shrinking of the interior occurs at a constant
a
rate in time, then (6.23-4) becomes
dbldt = - (2 bla)a, (6.23-5)
which indicates that the material in the shell that has to be moved
around per unit time is just proportional to the thickness of the shell.
This shows indeed that a thin shell must form smaller mountain ranges
than a thick one, if the interior shrinks by the same amount. Thus,
if the ancient folds were formed in that manner, they would be expected
to be closer together than later folds formed in a similar way.
We may corroborate this statement and estimate how much the
mantle has to cool so as to cause a major world-wide orogenetic system.
We have already calculated in (6.11-3) that the volume of an orogenetic
system is equal to 32 X 106 km 3 • This corresponds to an over-all increase
in thickness of the outermost shell of 7 X 10- 2 km. It follows from
Eq. (6.23-4) that in order to obtain an increase of thickness of db =
7 X 10- 2 km, assuming b = 70 km, one has

dala = - (1/2) dblb = - 5 X 10-4 • (6.23-6)

Thus, one needs an over-all relative linear contraction of 0.05 % in the
interior to fold up one orogenetic system. The radius of the interior of
the Earth is thereby contracting by about 3 km.
We shall assume now that the cooling and contraction takes place
in depths between 70 and 700 km only. Thus the thickness of that
layer is changed from 630 to 627 km during one orogenetic cycle. We
172 The Contraction Hypothesis

can calculate the relative volume contraction which has therefore to

occur, it is 0.0106. The relative linear contraction is one third of that,
and thus equal to 0.0035 or 0.35%. The relative linear expansion of
granite equals l about 10-5 per degree centigrade, so that an over-all
change in temperature of about 350° C in the cooling layer would cause
sufficient contraction to give rise to the mountains of one orogenetic
cycle.
This seems indeed quite reasonable. If the liquid iron core is assumed
to be at a temperature of about 4500° C, then about 12 orogenetic
cycles would be possible while a particular part of the mantle cooled
down from the temperature of the core to that of outer space. This
is the right order of magnitude in comparison with the actual number
of observed orogenetic cycles which is usually given as 10.
Apart from the creation of mountains, contraction has also been held
responsible (by SONDER2) for small changes in elevation of the continents
such as caused the inundation by the sea of various parts of the former
throughout geological history. Such changes in elevation, according to
SaNDER, are caused by a buckling mechanism induced by the varied
tangential compression owing to the steady contraction of the Earth.
6.24. The Junctions of Island Arcs. A further instance in which the
contraction hypothesis has lead to fairly reasonable results is the ex-
planation of the types of junctions between orogenetic elements (i.e.
island arcs) that have been observed in
reality (d. Sec. 1.43). In order to show
this, one has to split the implications of
the contraction hypothesis into "primary"
effects taking place in the contracting
shell and into "secondary" effects which
Fig. 54. Motion within a cross section are the surface expressions of the primary
parallel to the surface of the Earth
through the contracting shell during the
ones 3.
formation of an arc We shall turn first to the primary
effects. During the formation of an island
arc, the phenomenon thought to occur in the contracting shell is a
conical fracture with slippage taking place along the cone of fracture.
Within a cross section through the contracting layer parallel to the
surface of the Earth, the motion is therefore as illustrated in Fig. 54.
Within the cross section, the surface of slippage is seen as a line which
1 BIRCH, F.: Handbook of Physical Constants, Geol. Soc. Amer. spec. pap.
No. 36 (1942).
2 SONDER, R. A.: Mechanik der Erde. Stuttgart: Schweizerbart 1956.
3 SCHEIDEGGER, A.E.: Canad. J. Phys. 31,1148 (1953). A Similar analysis,
though less mathematical, has also been made by ROBINSON [ROBINSON, R. O. A.:
Canad. J. Phys. 35, 536 (1957)].
 The Junctions of Island Arcs 173

is, in the mathematical sense, singular. The displacements of the mate-

rial elements in the cross section of the contracting shell are everywhere
continuous during the orogenetic diastrophism except on that singular
line which is the trace of the surface of slippage on the cross section.
It is quite obvious that the displacements of material within the
contracting shell of the Earth during an orogenetic diastrophism must
obey a continuity equation, since no material can be created or annihi-
lated in the process. Whatever the displacements (denoted by~) may be,
they must therefore be subject to the equation
(6.24-1)
If the density e of the material is assumed as (more or less) constant,
this means that the displacement field must be a divergence-free field.

WI!
\

Fig. 55. Motion within a cross section parallel to the Fig. 56. Motion within a cross section parallel to
surface of the Earth though the contracting shell in the the surface of the Earth through the contracting
neighborhood of the junction of two arcs if only one shen in the neighborhood of the junction of two
additional singular line is present. The permitted sector arcs if two additional singular lines are present
for the additional singular line is shaded

It is well known that such a divergence-free field cannot satisfy arbi-

trarily singular boundary conditions.
This fact can be illustrated by elementary geometry which is directly
applicable to the theory of island arcs and mountain belts.
Thus, assume that two island arcs join, forming an angle IX at the
junction point. In a cross section of the contracting shell parallel to
the surface of the Earth, within the neighborhood of the junction,
one will have a singular line, having a kink of angle oc at the junction
point of the arcs. If it be borne in mind that ab hypothesi the motion
has to be at right angles to the singular line, it is immediately clear that,
for continuity reasons, at least one other singular line must join the first
one at the kink. Furthermore, elementary geometry shows that this
new singular line must lie within the sector formed by the two normals
to the original singular line at the kink. Fig. 55 will clarify the situation:
174 The Contraction Hypothesis

the permitted sector for the additional singular lines is shaded; a

possible position for the latter has been drawn in and the arrows signify
the motion of every element in the cross section of the contracting shell
which is under consideration. It is seen that this arrangement of singu-
larities corresponds to the junction termed "linkage" in Sec. 1.43.
It has been stated above that there has to be at least one additional
singular line joining the island arcs at their junction. There may be
more. In every case, the additional lines must lie within the shaded
area of Fig. 55; a possible position of two singular lines together with
the displacement field has been drawn in Fig. 56. It must be expected
that this is the case which gives rise to a junction
of arcs with cap range and lineaments. However,
those two latter occurrences are phenomena of
the surface and not of the contracting shell, and
will be discussed below.
It is obviously not meaningful to have more
than two additional singular lines joining the
arcs at the junction, as the motion of the
additional sector created would be entirely
arbitrary and in no way connected with the
formation of the arcs.
hiatus shiH
Fig. 57. Two types of surface
There is one additional possibility; that is
fracture when the junction of two arcs forms no kink at
all. If the arcs are to be distinct, this suggests
that they must be joined in reverse. It is anticipated that this arrange-
ment will give rise to the reversed arcs as discussed in Sec. 1.43.
The primary effects discussed above are not immediately manifest
on the surface of the Earth. Owing to secondary effects occurring within
the surface layer of the Earth, features additional to those occurring
in the contracting layer may be expected.
The surface shell of the Earth overlies the contracting layer. Any
movement in the contracting layer must therefore transmit itself to
the surface shell because the two layers act upon each other. It will
therefore be expected that fractures within the contracting layer will
also be reflected as fractures on the surface of the Earth. The types
of fracture to be expected at the surface will depend on the relative
motion of the fractured parts of the underlying (contracting) shell.
There will be two extreme cases: viz. if the motion of the contracting
shell is at right angles to the singular line, a hiatus will be the result on
the surface; contrariwise, if the relative motion of the contracting shell
is parallel to the singular line, a simple shearing fracture or shift will
be the surface result. The two types of fractures are illustrated in
Fig. 57.
 The Junctions of Island Arcs 175

There will be some additional effects, however. It is a salient fea-

ture of the contraction hypothesis that it assumes that the Earth as a
whole is shrinking. The surface is assumed to be in a state of (planar)
compression. Anticipating results to be presented in the sections on
the theory of folding, we shall assume that buckling will be responsible
for determining the position of mountain ridges to be expected due to
the compression.
If we examine the phenomena occurring in the contracting layer with
reference to their effect on the surface, it is seen that the case illustrated
in Fig. 55 where there is only one singular line at the junction, will
give rise essentially to a hiatus. Were it not for the compression which
is assumed to be superimposed, the surface expression of this hiatus
would always be a trench. Owing ~frt: of I/re
to the compression, however, this
is not necessarily the case, as follow-
ing the formation of a trench, the
latter may play the role of a weak r1m

region in a shell about to fail, so Fig. 58. Maximum size of triangle (shaded) in
that all that can be said is that the which the surface may be cut owing to pure
shearing motion of the contracting shell
singular lines below are reflected as
tectonic disturbances-upward or downward-on the surface. These
disturbances are arrayed in exactly the same manner as below, i.e. they
correspond to "linkages".
More complex are the phenomena to be expected if there are two
additional singular lines originating from the junction point of arcs .
In this case, the relative motion of the contracting shell is essentially
parallel to the singular lines so that a shearing fracture or shift would
be expected to be the surface result. Geologically, this would cause
lineaments on the Earth's surface.
Such lineaments have actually been observed in certain cases, but
the superimposed (assumed) compression may be held to be able to
change the picture considerably. The shearing may occur under any
circumstances and the surface will therefore be cut up into a tooth-
shaped triangular pattern which is pointed toward the junction points
of the arcs. The maximum size of the triangles depends on the size of
the arcs as illustrated in Fig. 58: a triangle cannot be bigger than that
formed by the centers and the junction points of two adjoining arcs.
We have outlined above that we shall assume now that buckling
will determine where these triangles will fold up under the assumed
compression; for a discussion of this assumption one may refer to
Sec. 7.32. The buckling of a triangle can easily be calculated. If we
denote the angle at the vertex by f3, the distance from the vertex of a
line parallel to the base by x, and the deflection of that line from the
176 The Contraction Hypothesis

original plane of the triangle by y, the condition of static equilibrium

yields
-Fy (x) = M x tanfJ d2yjdx2. (6.24-2)
The left-hand side of that equation is the moment of a force F parallel
to the original plane of the triangle and normal to the base, applied at
the vertex (that is the force causing buckling), and the right-hand side
is the resistance to bending provided by the material of the triangle,
M being a constant. The solution of this differential equation is a
Bessel function
y = xl It [2 x~ (M tan fJ)- ~ F~] (6.24-3)
whose zeros are at X =0,3.83,'" with
X = 2 (MtanfJjF)-ixiI. (6.24-4)
The maxima of yare at those points where d yjd x = o. Thus
dyjdx = t x-~ It (X) + (MtanfJjF)-iJ; (X). (6.24-5)
However, one has
J; = - t (M tan fllF)lt x- i Jl (X) + Jo (X) (6.24-6)

so that it is seen that the zeros of y' = d yjd x are the same as those
of Jo(X). The latter are X = 2.40, 5.52, ....
In order for buckling to be possible, the buckling force F must have
such a value that y is zero for x = 0 and x = h (the latter being the
height of the triangle); thus one has for first-order buckling
3.83 = 2 (M tan fJIF)-iI hi. (6.24-7)
The maximum deflection (the "ridge") is obtained for X = 2.40; thus
(6.24-8)
whence
x max = 0·393 h. (6.24-9)
It is thus seen that the distance of the buckling ridge from the vertex
of the triangle depends only on the height of the triangle and not on
the angle at the vertex.
If we apply these results to the buckling of the surface of the Earth,
the following may be seen.
In the case of two singular lines, lineaments may be expected to
start out from the junction of two arcs. Some distance away, a high
ridge (the buckling ridge or the secondary arc of a common deflection)
would be formed facing the junction. The foregoing discussions refer to
a plane. On a sphere, conditions may be slightly modified so that the
 The Extension Factor 177

picture shown in Fig. 59 may be expected to result. In the case of pure

shear, the lineaments are at 90° to the arcs. The larger the angle between
the arcs, the smaller is the angle at the vertex of the triangle, and the
larger the triangle may be. Therefore, the smaller the angle between
the arcs, the closer to the junction point the buckling range will be
found. If it is very close, it could correspond to the "cap range", if it
is far away, it could correspond to the "front range".
Finally, one can also explain reversed arcs by the earlier remark
that there is one possibility for which there may be no kink between

Fig. 59. Geographical appearance of buckling ranges

arcs: when the arcs are joined in reverse. The surface features connected
with reversed arcs may then be thought of as a direct manifestation of
the arrangements in the contracting shell. The contraction theory,
thus, yields an acceptable explanation of the observed junctions of island
and mountain arcs.
6.25. The Extension Factor. After having outlined such features of
the contraction hypothesis that lead to reasonable results, let us now
examine some implications that are somewhat less satisfactory.
We have discussed a basic relationship (in Sec. 6.12) which every
theory of orogenesis must fulfill. Let us investigate how well the con-
traction hypothesis as outlined above is compatible with this relation-
ship. The depth h to which orogenesis is felt is given by the depth of
the level of no strain; thus
h = 70 km . (6.25-1 )
This yields at once, in virtue of (6.12-4):
y' = 5.8. (6.25-2)
According to earlier estimates (Sec. 6.23) an orogenetic system
can be created by a shortening of the Earth's radius by 3 km. This
yields a shortening of each meridian by (approximately) 9 km, or a
true shortening of
s~ = 4.5 km (6.25-3 )
for one mountain range since a meridian intersects the orogenetic
system twice. However, according to Eq. (6.12-1), the true shortening
Scheidegger, Principles of Geodynamics 12
178 The Contraction Hypothesis

(with SA = 50 km) is given by

s~ = sAIr' = 8.6 km. (6.25-4)

The fact that the two estimates for the true shortening (viz. S ~
and s:j) are not identical, shows that the usual form of the contraction
theory is inconsistent in the light of the basic equation (6.12-3). The
discrepancy can be removed only if the level of no strain is assumed to
be at a depth of
h" = 132 km. (6.25-5)

The factor of extension then becomes

y" = 11. (6.25-6)

Thus, the contraction theory can only be maintained if the double-

primed values (6.25-3), (6.25-5) and (6.25-6) are adopted!. These,
however, do not fit at all the physiographic concepts as they were de-
veloped in the contraction theory.
Finally, it may be remarked that the discrepancy cannot be removed
by introducing a metamorphosis factor (d. 6.12-5) 1; different from
(i.e.greater than) 1. One simply needs less for s' and s" to produce the
required volume V, but the true shortening is reduced by the same
factor in both cases.
6.26. Compatibility with Seismic Data. The chief results of statistical
evaluations of seismic data, as had been explained in Sec. 2.2, are (a)
that the great majority of earthquakes represents transcurrent faulting,
(b) that there is some doubt whether the earthquake foci are really
arranged on such a well-defined plane beneath recent island arcs as
had been thought before, and (c) that, considering the dip-slip compo-
nents of earthquakes, there is no indication of a level of no strain. All
these results, if correct, constitute severe difficulties regarding the
geological implications of the contraction theory.
First, if the earthquake foci are not arranged in planar zones beneath
orogenetic systems, then there is obviously no support for the hypo-
thetical cross-section of such systems as envisaged in Fig. 53. Since,
in earthquakes below 70 km depth, thrust faulting is preponderant, the
assumption of a level of no strain at that depth and a state of internal
tension below that depth seem highly questionable. Second, from the
drawing in Fig. 53, it is also apparent that there is no room for any
transcurrent adjustments as have been found to take place during
1 If it is assumed that each meridian (on the average) intersects an orogenetic
system only 2 X j times, one obtain ~ s'-J. = 6.75 km, h" = 90 km, y" = 7.4. This is
still unreasonable.
 Principles 179

earthquake-faulting. It is therefore evident that there is not much

support for the contraction hypothesis from recent seismological investi-
gations.
Amidst this rather discouraging picture, there is, however, a possi-
bility of an explanation, at least to a certain extent, of the seismologi-
cally observed horizontal adjustments within the framework of the
contraction hypothesis, although the latter is then not of the conventional
type. In order to show this, let us again assume that the model dis-
cussed in Sec. 6.23 is representative of the contraction theory. In this
model, the total vertical adjustment Av can be calculated from
Eq. (6.23-3); it is
Av = dblb = - 2dala. (6.26-1)

The vertical adjustment is contiguous to a horizontal adjustment. The

circumference of the inner shell before contraction is
e = 2na, (6.26-2)
with a change during contraction of
de = 2nda. (6.26-3)
This yields a relative horizontal adjustment of
AH = dele = dala. (6.26-4)
This yields a ratio of horizontal to vertical adjustment of
(6.26-5)
This ratio is too small if it is compared with the actually observed ratio,
which is 1.44, but it shows that there is at least the possibility of an
explanation of horizontal adjustments in terms of a contraction hypo-
thesis. It is naturally to be expected that most of the horizontal adjust-
ments may be effected by transcurrent faulting. However, although
the above analysis shows that there might be some truth yet in the
contraction hypothesis, it does not support it in its usual form. If there
is a level of no strain, it must be below the deepest of earthquakes.

6.3. Continental Drift Theory

6.31. Principles. After the contraction theory, we turn our attention
to the continental drift theory of orogenesis. This theory assumes the
whole Earth as practically liquid, with the land masses floating upon it
in almost total local isostasy like ice on water. Forces of unknown
origin are pushing the land masses around and their interaction with
the substratum and with each other gives cause to orogenesis.
12*
180 Continental Drift Theory

The continental drift theory has been supported chiefly by WEGE-

NER!. The development of the theory as presented by that author is
mainly based on physiographic evidence as mentioned in Sec. 1.31.
This general physiographic evidence has then been (heuristically)
followed up into much detail.
Thus, the crust of the Earth is assumed to have originally solidified
to form a uniform, thin layer of the composition of the present continents.
Due to some unknown cause, it broke up and started to drift around on
the still liquid substratum. During this process, the "front" of any
land mass (with respect to the
drifting motion) drags against the
substratum and therefore becomes
folded up. Behind, island arcs are
broken off as demonstrated in
Fig. 60. The net effect of this
process is that the land masses
\I became thicker vertically and
/
/ smaller horizontally during geo-
/
I logical evolution. This concept
/I is exactly opposite to the idea
I of growing continents as exhibited
\ in the discussion of the contraction
hypothesis.
Fig. 60. The formation of an island arc according to
the drift theory of WEGENER The history of the continents
since the Carboniferous epoch was
traced back by WEGENER from the evidence listed in Sec. 1.3. He
arrived at the result that all the continents formed at that time a connec-
ted block which broke up subsequently, gradually yielding the distri-
bution as we know it to-day. The evolution as postulated by WEGENER
is shown in Fig. 61. Accordingly, the average drift of the pieces of Gond-
wanaland would have been some 14000 km since the Carboniferous
(d. Sec. 1-31).
In contrast to WEGENER, DU TOIT 2 postulated the primeval existence
of two continents at the poles of the Earth, called Laurasia and Gond-
wanaland, originally formed by convection. By a mechanism similar
to that envisaged by WEGENER, these two original continents are then
supposed to have broken up and to have gradually drifted into the
present distribution of land masses. It is, in fact, quite possible to start
with any hypothetical primeval layout of land and to arrive at the

1 WEGENER, A.: Die Entstehung der Kontinente und Ozeane. 3. Auf!. Braun-
schweig: F. Vieweg & Sohn 1922.
2 Du TOIT: !. c. in Sec. 1. 31.
 Principles 181

Fig. 61 a-c. The evolution of continents as envisaged by WEGENER. a Carboniferous. b Eocene. c Pleistocene
182 Continental Drift Theory

present distribution by a suitable shift. The particulars of the shifts

are, in any case, developed from purely physiographic considerations.
The physiographic theories outlined above fit many of the observed
facts rather well. One of the chief difficulties, however, is the explana-
tion of the occurrence of earthquakes to a depth of 700 km. The
existence of deep-focus earthquakes was, of course, not known at the
time when WEGENER developed his theory. A further difficulty is that
drift theories usually envisage that the "primeval" state of the Earth
subsisted essentially to a time not much before the beginning of the
traditional geological time scale. That the latter constitutes only about
one-fifth of the total geological history of the Earth was also not known
before the development of the recent techniques for radioactive age
determinations.
Nevertheless, because of its good aspects, it will be necessary to
examine the continental drift theory somewhat further.
6.32. Extension Factor. Transcurrent Faulting. In Sec. 6.12 we
have introduced the extension factor y. In the continental drift theory,
the value of this extension factor comes out as equal to 1.25. This can
be shown by recalling Eq. (6.12-4)
h/y = 12 km. (6·32-1)
If we insert for h the weighted mean thickness of the crust as defined
by the Mohorovicic discontinuity, viz.

h=15km, (6·32-2)
we obtain
y = 15/12 = 1.25 (6.3 2-3)

as claimed above. This means that the continental drift theory permits
the apparent shortening in mountains to be approximately equal to the
true shortening. The fact that the assumption of an extension factor
very nearly equal to 1 is consistent with the limitation of folding to
precisely that depth which is indicated by the Mohorovicic discontinuity,
is a strong argument in favor of a drift theory.
A similar strong argument in favor of the theory considered here
follows from a consideration of the results from fault plane solutions of
earthquakes. In Sec. 2.24 we have demonstrated that the average
horizontal motion in earthquakes is large compared with the correspond-
ing vertical one; in fact, the ratio has been determined as equal to
1.44: 1. This value is well in accordance with the idea of large continental
shifts, whatever may be their cause.
It thus appears that the continental drift theory yields a basically
very satisfactory explanation of geophysical facts. Of the criticisms
 Origin of the Forces Causing Drifting 183

that might be launched against it is chiefly the existence of deep-focus

earthquakes. However, this can be countered by the remark that the
drifting motion must of necessity belong to the "long" time range in
the sense of Sec. 3.6, whereas the build-up of stresses leading to earth-
quakes belongs to the "intermediate" time range. Since it has been
shown earlier (in Sec. 3.6) that the dynamical behavior in the various
time ranges may be entirely different, it is quite possible that the drift-
ing motion and the occurrence of earthquakes can take place concur-
rently at their own individual characteristic speeds.
6.33. Origin of the Forces Causing Drifting. No theory of orogenesis
can be called such until it is put upon a sound mechanical basis. The
continental drift theory, so far, is a purely heuristic hypothesis which
has been rather successful in explaining a series of observations. The
crux of this hypothesis, however, lies in whether it will be possible to
find a reasonable explanation for the mechanical cause of the postulated
continental drifts.
WEGENER himself thought that EoTVos' polfluchtkraft would pro-
vide a suitable physical basis for his continental drift idea. However,
since PREY questioned the existence of the polfluchtkraft altogether
(d. Sec. 4.23), WEGENER'S assumption does not seem to be very strongly
supported. A similar conclusion must be reached with regard to tidal
and Coriolis forces which are also much too small to have any significant
effects in relation to orogenesis.
The question remains, then, to postulate a mechanical process which
would provide for the forces necessary to produce the continental shifts.
To-date, no such mechanical process is known. It is interesting to note,
however, that certain observations can be made regarding some of the
properties of this process. It turns out that the actual values of the
continental drifts as suggested by the factual (although still somewhat
doubtful) evidence can be explained by the assumption of a random
force 1 . This implies that the continents are subject to random drifting.
Since geological investigations lead to a continental path, the logical
type of analysis of continental drift is the Lagrangian analysis. We
assume that the mean velocity v of all the continents is zero; for the
analysis, the Earth can of course be considered as flat (coordinates of
a continent are then Cartesian; they may be denoted by x and y). Thus
we have
vx=vy=O, (6.33-- 1)
2 2 12
v" = Vy = 2" V = cons t . (6.33- 2)
A value for the velocity-square v2 can be obtained from the drift
of India; paleomagnetic evidence suggests that India drifted 6000 km
1 SCHEIDEGGER, A. E.: Canad. ]. Phys. 35, 1380 (1957).
184 Continental Drift Theory

towards America since the Eocene 60 million years ago (d. Sec. 2.62);
if half of this is assumed to be due to the actual drift of India, the other
half due to the drift of America, one obtains 1

(6·33-3)
Then the total displacement of a continent evolving in time is
I
x=Jvx(-r)d-r, (6·33-4)
o
I
y=Jvy(-r)d-r. (6·33-5)
o
This leads to
(6-33-6)

where f/> (t) can be calculated as follows:

(6·33-7)

If we introduce the Lagrangian correlation coefficient:

Rx (-r) = Vx (t) Vx (t + -r)/v;, (6·33-8)

relation (6-33-7) can be written a') follows:

II
x2 =;; JJ R (-rl -
00
-r2 ) d-r1 d-r 2 (6·33-9)

and, upon making a minor transformation 2

t
x2 = 2;; J (t - -r) Rx (-r) d-r. (6·33-10)
o
The last relation is useful to investigate limit cases. Thus, introducing
the Lagrangian autocorrelation time L t
00

LI =, J R (-r) d-r (6·33-11)

o
one can for instance investigate the case
(6·33-12)
1 Note that this is indeed less than the maximum speed with which crustal
parts can slide over the substratum as calculated in Eq. (6.12-11).
2 KAMPE DE FERIET, J.: Ann. Soc. Scien. de Bruxelles 59, Ser. 1,145 (1939).
See also PAl, S., Viscous Flow Theory, vol. II, p. 174. New York: D. van Nostrand
Inc. 1957.
 Origin of the Forces Causing Drifting 185

One then obtains from (6.33-10)

(6·33-13)
With
(6·33-14)
this yields
(6.33-15)
This formula for the average square of the displacement is valid
for time intervals which are long compared with Lt. If we insert the
estimates for the displacements and the velocity, we obtain a value
for the autocorrelation time Lt. Recalling that the displacements of
the pieces of "Gondwanaland" since the Carboniferous epoch (t =
2.65 X 108 years) are on the average 14000 km, and using the earlier
value of 25 (cm/year)2 for v2 , we obtain

(6·33-16)

It may be noted that this is indeed small compared with the time since
the Carboniferous (as was supposed when making the calculation). On
the other hand, for very short time intervals, one obtains

(6·33-17)
Therefore, if the time since the Eocene (60 million years) can be
regarded as "short", the time since the Carboniferous (265 million years)
as "long", one can explain the order of magnitude of the drift of India
and of the drift of the pieces of Gondwanaland simply by assuming a
random drift with a velocity-square of, on the average, 25 cms/yearS
and an autocorrelation time of 150 million years. It is worthy of note
that the autocorrelation time is precisely of the right order of magnitude
to divide "short" from "long" time intervals and thus to make the
theory consistent. This can hardly be assumed to be accidental.
The above kinematical discussion of continental drift does not
elucidate the nature of the random force which is supposed to cause
the drifting. One of the efforts to do this has been the assumption of
subcrustal convection currents with which we shall deal in Sec. 6.4.
However, this introduces further difficulties in that it requires a special
mechanism below the crust. From factual evidence with regard to
continental drift, there is no indication that anything special should
happen below the continents: the deep focus earthquakes could be
treated as secondary effects. What one would like to have, therefore,
is a universal force capable of shifting the "floating" masses around.
Although this has not yet been found, it appears that the continental
186 Convection Current Hypothesis of Orogenesis

drift idea is one of the more hopeful alleys in which the cau<;e of orogenesis
might be further explored.

6.4. Convection Current Hypothesis of Orogenesis

6.41. General Principles. We have shown above that there are indi-
cations which make it conceivable that parts of the Earth's crust under-
went large displacements. We have also shown that it is difficult to
envisage forces which would be large enough to produce such shifts.
The search for such forces led HOLMES l (following an earlier proposal
by HOPKINS 2) to the postulate of subcrustal convection currents whose
drag would have enough power to produce the required displacements.
It was first thought that orogenesis would be the outcome of the con-
tinents being thrown together and buckling at their margins, but it
was soon recognized that only single orogenetic diastrophisms could
be explained in this manner. Finally, however, the idea of continental
collisions was abandoned and the claim was made that convection
currents alone would suffice (by their drag) to explain orogenetic cycles.
Subcrustal convection currents, as is implied by the name, are hypo-
thetical currents which are supposed to exist in the mantle of the Earth.
The patterns of such convection currents that have been proposed are
quite varied. A good summary has been given in the colloquium of the
American Geophysical Union on plastic flow and deformation within
the Earth under the chairmanship of A DAMS 3. We shall discuss these
proposals one by one below.
The question of the physical possibility of convection currents is
tied up with the chemical and physical conditions in the Earth's mantle.
In particular, if the chemical or physical phase-change at 900 km depth
which has been postulated by BIRCH (d. Sec. 2.71) is real, it would
presumably obviate any convection hypothesis. Convection currents
are possible only if the mantle consists of homogeneous material. The
possibility of currents under such conditions depends on the assumed
rheological equation, on the assumed thermal gradient and on the
assumed thermal properties of the interior of the Earth;-in other
words, there are a great number of assumptions involved. It is quite
obvious that these assumptions can only be tested by an elaborate
discussion of the interior of the Earth. The chemistry and physics
of the interior of the Earth, however, forms a subject distinct from
geodynamics and is even more speculative than the latter. For the
present purpose we shall therefore confine ourselves to the calculation
of some of the critical parameters without going into too many details.
1 HOLMES, A.: Mining Mag. 40, 205 (1929).
2 HOPKINS, W.: Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. Lond. 381 (1839).
3 ADAMS, L. H.: Trans. Amer. Geophys. Un. 32, 499 (1951).
 Steady-State Convection 187

6.42. Steady-State Convection. The most straightforward way to

establish a convection-current theory of orogenesis is by investigating
large-scale patterns of thermo-mechanical flow systems that might
become established in the mantle of the Earth. This leads to steady-
state convection-currents in which the motion of the fluid particles
would be continual. The established patterns would be world-wide;
they have been discussed e.g. by PEKERIS 1 and by CHANDRASEKHAR 2.
Because of the world-encompassing scale of steady convection cur-
rents, one would expect that they would influence the distribution of
continents rather than the mechanics of mountain-building. In this
connection, they have been discussed in Sec. 5.53. Mountain-building
would be induced by them only owing to secondary effects, particularly
owing to drag-effects which would occur at the margins of continents.
In this instance, the mechanics of mountain-building would be identical
to that envisaged in the continental drift theory (d. Fig. 60): the drag
of the convection currents would simply replace the E6tv6s force.
However, if the above theory of mountain-building be adopted,
it does not seem possible that orogenesis could be a continuing process
because of the intrinsic time-independence of steady-state flow. Thus,
once the continents are in their proper places, all the drag forces are at
equilibrium and mountain-building should cease. Furthermore, the
geographical distribution of orogenesis does not fit into a simple geo-
metrical pattern as postulated e.g. in the scheme of PEKERIS (d. Fig. 50).
Therefore, modifications of the simple theory discussed above have to
be attempted.
One of these modifications is to abandon the idea that there is a
world-wide convection pattern, but to assume instead that, owing to a
suitable temperature gradient in the mantle, many single convection
currents would become established in various regions without any
regularity in geometrical arrangement. Each convection current would
have a closed axis so as to be in conformity with kinematical require-
ments, and may last only for a certain length of time. To demonstrate
the effect of such "little currents" upon the surface of the Earth,
GRIGGS 3 performed model experiments in which the currents were
represented by rotating drums in a viscous liquid. A typical result,
meant to represent the development of tectogenes and an accumulation
of crustal material is shown in Fig. 62. Although the outcome of the
experiments has a striking resemblance with certain orogenetic pheno-
mena, there are, in fact, several difficulties to be overcome until GRIGGS'
model studies can be taken as a basis for a theory of mountain building.
1 PEKERIS, C. L.: Month. Not. Roy. Astron. Soc., Geophys. Supp. 3, 343 (1935).
2CHANDRASEKHAR, S.: Phil. Mag. 43,1317 (1952).
3 GRIGGS, D.: Amer. ]. Sci. 237, 611 (1939).
188 Convection Current Hypothesis of Orogenesis

First, the models deal only with the cross-section of mountain belts.
The plan and the three-dimensional arrangement of convection currents
in existing island and mountain arcs is completely neglected. It was
mentioned above that the axes of convection currents have to be closed
in themselves. The rotating drums correspond to these axes and the
question arises, therefore, as to how they should be arranged if they
are to represent orogenetic features. If they are connected with island
arcs, they must be curved, too, and where the island arcs join each
other, the axes of the convection currents must disappear. From a hydro-
kinematical standpoint this is, to say the least, very difficult to explain.
Second, although GRIGGS has been very careful to construct his
models in such a fashion as to be in conformity with the laws of mecha-
nical similarity, the ther-
mal similarity has been
completely neglected.
According to Sec. 3.33,
the product A. of Grashoff
and Prandtl numbers
must be at least 1709 in
order to start convection
Fig. 62. Stereogram of GRIGGS' model of convection currents
l
currents. A little ca1cu-
showing the development of a teetogene lation shows that this is
possible in the Earth (for
approximately D= 500 km, e=3 gjcm 3 , {3 = 5 X 10- 6 deg-1 , c=0.25 caljg.
deg., 1] = 1023 cgs and k = 5 X10-3 caljsec.cm.deg., one obtains A. = 3000),
but the thermal facts have no analogues whatsoever in the model.
It is questionable, therefore, whether the convection currents would
occur in the supposed way.
Third, the convection currents described above are laminar and
steady and thus do not reflect the fact that orogenetic events occur in
single diastrophisms and not steadily.
Fourth, the concept of tectogenes, basic to GRIGGS' idea of mountain-
building, has recently been questioned by the work of WORZEL (d.
Sec. 2.31) who failed to detect a depression of the MohoroviCic discon-
tinuity below deep-sea troughs.
Last but not least there is the ever-present possibility mentioned in
Sec. 2.71 that a chemical or physical phase-change exists at about
900 km depth. If this is true, convection currents as envisaged above
are impossible.
6.43. Intermittent Convection Currents. GRIGGS was fully aware of
the fact that orogenetic cycles cannot be explained by steady-state
1 GRIGGS, D.: Amer. J. Sci . 237, 611 (1939).
 Intermittent Convection Currents 189

convection currents. He therefore postulated that the substratum be

pseudoviscous instead of viscous. It is not quite clear what he meant
by the term "pseudoviscous". In the few calculations which he made,
a rheological equation was used which resembles a creep condition of
a Maxwell liquid, but the model which he constructed appears to show
the characteristics of a St. Venant yield stress. At any rate, the idea
was to introduce a substratum of such properties that it behaved like
a solid until a sufficiently high temperature gradient was reached, and
then executed a half revolution in laminar viscous motion. It then
should stop dead, because the temperature gradient had been abolished
by this process and not until a sufficient gradient had again been es-
tablished was another cycle to start. A convection cycle should therefore
have distinct phases which would be connected with corresponding
phases of the mountain-building cycle. This connection is shown in
Fig. 63.
The above ideas have been formulated somewhat more definitely
by VENING MEINESZ 1 who stated clearly that he expected that a plastic
substratum with a finite yield strength would be capable of sustaining
intermittent convection currents. VENING MEINESZ supposed that a
direct consequence of this finite yield strength would be the counter-
action of the instability which otherwise the cooling of the Earth would
bring about. He considered that this cooling causes a lowering of the
temperature at the surface of the convective layer, the upper part of
this layer thus acquiring a greater density than the lower half. VENING
MEINESZ then proceeds to state that "in the case of a Newtonian liquid,
this would mean instability, as the slightest disturbance would start a
convection current. If, however, the layer possesses a certain strength,
the disturbance must be powerful enough to overcome this strength
before the current can be started."
In this connection, the reader is remineded of the investigations
discussed in Sec. 3.33 into the thermohydrodynamics of viscous fluids
and of the results reported in Sec. 3.44 regarding heat convection in
general rheological substances. In view of those results, the statement
that an arbitrarily small temperature gradient would mean instability
in a viscous medium does not seem to be correct. The temperature
gradient has to reach a definite value even in viscous media before
instability occurs. The additional assumption of a finite yield strength,
therefore, does not seem so tremendously important except to increase
the temperature gradient necessary for instability.
Furthermore, VENING MEINESZ believes that some other starting
phenomenon is also necessary to get the currents moving and that a
1 VENING MEINESZ, F. A.: Quart. J. Geol. Soc. Lond. 103, 191 (1948).
190 Convection Current Hypothesis of Orogenesis

plastic substance would cause the currents to be intermittent. He

proceeds with the following statement:
"Because of the initial temperature difference needed to overcome
the strength limit and start the current, we may assume that this will
quickly attain a fairly high speed in comparison with that which a
geosyncline

- - - '\
slow currenls c(}()1

a
- region of knsion

cool

c
Fig. 63 a-c. Hypothetical correlations between a convection-current cycle and a corresponding mountain·
building cycle as envisaged by GRIGGS '; (a) first stage: period of accelerating current ; (b) period of fast
currents ; (c) end of convection current : period of emergence of the mountains

steady convection in a Newtonian liquid would assume. Moreover,

during the first quarter of a complete revolution it will no doubt further
accelerate, since the sinking column will receive more and more low
temperature matter from the surface while in the rising column the
higher temperature of the deeper layers penetrates further towards the
surface. So the difference of mass in the two columns caused by their
different temperatures will increase till a maximum is reached after
1 GRIGGS, D . : Arner. J. Sci. 237, 611 (1939) .
 Roller Cell Theory 191

about a quarter revolution. This increasing mass difference will produce

an increasing pressure difference, with a resultant acceleration of the
current during this period. (... ) After about a quarter revolution the
speed will gradually decrease as higher temperature matter penetrates
from above into the sinking column and lower temperature matter from
below into the rising column. The mass difference between the two
columns will be thereby diminished and the current brought gradually
to a stop. This must occur before a half revolution is made, since at
that point, roughly speaking, the higher temperature matter has arrived
in the upper layer and the cooler matter at the bottom; the situation
has become stable. No new current can come into being before first,
the cooling of the Earth has re-established a vertical gradient of the
temperature, and second, a starting phenomenon of sufficient intensity
has occurred."
The assumption of a plastic substratum is thus believed to give
rise to intermittent currents. The picture created by VENING MEINESZ
is, however, very phenomenological and not based upon sound rheologi-
cal reasoning. BROOKS i has made a mathematical analysis of con-
vection currents in a plastic substratum and came up with the result
that such currents as envisaged by VENING MEINESZ can actually exist.
However, no full account of BROOKS' investigations seems to have been
published and from the short communication mentioned above it is
not possible to check the validity of the claim.
We have tried to obtain an idea of what happens when a plastic
material is heated from below (in SeC. 3.44). Although an exact solu-
tion of the problem admittedly does not exist, the evidence seems to
point toward a steady phenomenon, not too much different from con-
vection currents in a viscous material. Therefore, VENING MEINESZ'
suppositions need, to say the least, a lot more physical corroboration.
6.44. Roller Cell Theory. The latest modification of the convection-
current hypothesis of orogenesis seems to have been made by HEss2.
In it is assumed that convection currents are stacked in the mantle
of the Earth. The topmost convection cells are called roller cells, they
reach from just beneath the crust to a depth of about 500 km. Below
the roller cells are mega-cells. The arrangement is shown in Fig. 64.
The system of convection currents envisaged by HEss has been
postulated purely upon physiographic grounds in order to accommodate
a suspected lack of deep-focus earthquakes at a depth of approximately
475 km. Since this lack is by no means definitely established, and since
no investigations into the mechanism of roller cells have been made,
the postulated existence of the latter is still largely a speculation.
1 BROOKS, H.: Trans. Amer. Geophys. Un. 27, 548 (1941).
2 HESS, H. H.: Trans. Amer. Geophys. Un. 32, 528 (1951).
192 The Hypothesis of Zonal Rotation

From the roller cell theory of HESS, it is only a small step to the
assumption that convection currents of various shapes and sizes are dis-
tributed randomly below the crust 1 dragging the continents hither and yon.
A support for this assumption may be obtained from the observation
(d. Sec. 6.33) that the alledged drifting motion of the continents can be
described adequately by assuming that it is random. This naturally
suggests that the forces causing the drift are also random, and in par-
ticular, that they are due to the drag of random convection currents.
If the continents are assumed to be large with regard to the convection
currents, then it is obvious
u that the effect of the latter
on the former will, on the
A7/\,""'" ,'fKJ average, be zero, since the
various convection currents
ZUJ
t rollerce/l
1 are just as likely to pull in
:w anyone direction as in any
>k
-
other. However, if the con-
../.,) - 'HXJ tinents are small compared
1--- - -- JIll} with the convection cells,
~c 6flJ
then the former will be
totally immersed in the
t1ego cell latter and therefore assume
7«1
'kin the surface speed of the

Fig.~. RoUer cell of HESS'

convection current that
happens to be underneath.
The net effect of this argument is that the larger the continents, the
slower should be their motion. It cannot yet be said whether this is
actually the case. Evidence rather seems to indicate that all continents,
regardless of size, move on the average equally fast. Therefore, if
convection currents are the cause of the motion of the continents, they
should be larger than the largest continents, which would make them
of some 6000 km radius. The same 6000 km is then also the distance
over which a continent may move at uniform speed; the velocity of the
current just below the surface should be equal to the average velocity
of the continents, viz. 5 cm/year. The currents, thus, would have to
be of gigantic proportions indeed which, in turn, makes their reality
somewhat doubtful.

6.5. The Hypothesis of Zonal Rotation

6.51. Principles. We now turn our attention the next attempt at
explaining orogenesis: to the hypothesis of zonal rotation. This hypo-
1 MATSCHINSKI, M.: Ann. Geofis. 7, 1 (1954).
2 HESS, H. H. : Trans. Amer. Geophys. Un. 32,528 (1951).
 The Origin of the Atlantic Ocean 193

thesis grew out of the observation that the Sun as well as the Larger
Planets do not rotate uniformly like a solid body. In fact, the angular
velocity w increases in these celestial bodies towards the equator. For
the Sun, the law of rotation has been determined empirically as follows
w = a + b sin 2 e, (6.51-1)
e
where is the heliocentric latitude and a and bare constants l • Setting
e
cos = sJR (with s distance from axis of rotation, R radius of the
Sun) this law can also be written:
w = Wo + A. S2 (6.51-2)
where Wo = a + b and A. = - bJR2. No similarly definite law can be
given for the larger planets, but there, too, it is quite clear that the
angular velocity of rotation increases towards the equator.
It thus appears as possible to postulate that all bodies of the solar
system, at least as long as they are in a fluid state, would exhibit the
phenomenon of zonal rotation with increasing angular velocity towards
the equator. The implications of such a hypothesis with regard to the
Earth and orogenesis have been investigated by ]ARDETZKy 2,3,4. In
this connection it is imagined that the material below the Mohorovicic
discontinuity is still fluid enough to this day to show differential rotation.
6.52. The Origin of the Atlantic Ocean. ]ARDETZKY assumes that
a primeval continent formed at one time while the Earth was still
essentially fluid, as is the case in many other theories of the origin of
continents and oceans. This primeval continent was a large mass,
roughly equivalent to the present land masses combined. Owing to the
zonal rotation of the substratum, stresses would act upon this large
mass which would crack up in big rifts.
Thus, let us assume that the strains in the primeval continent are
due to the zonally differentiated rotation of the substratum. The parts
near the equator would be dragged faster than the parts near the pole.
One can therefore calculate the displacements in the substratum, hence
the stresses in the primeval continent and hence those curves along
which fracture (envisaged as occurring by a tensile mechanism) would
most likely occur. The shape of the latter curves depends on the law
of rotation that is originally assumed; for the particular case represent-
ed by Eq. (6.51-2) ]ARDETZKY obtained
cos cp = const e- YJ (6.52-1)
1 SOTOME, K.: Proc. Imp. Acad. Tokyo 3,317 (1927).
B ]ARDETZKY (ZARDECKI), W.: Recherches mathematiques sur revolution de
la terre. Ed. spec. Acad. Roy. Serbe, tome 107 (1935).
8 ]ARDETZKY, W.: Denkschr. t)sterr. Akad. Wiss. 108, No.3 (1948).
']ARDETZKY, W.: Science 119, 361 (1954).
Scheidegger, Principles of Geodynamics 13
194 The Hypothesis of Zonal Rotation

where "p is the longitude and q; the latitude. This is the equation of an
S-shaped curve which has been referred to as the "equation of the
Atlantic Ocean"; the corresponding curve is shown (denoted by efg) in
Fig. 65. If the primeval continent is assumed as somewhat square, then
the line represented by the equation of the Atlantic Ocean will con-
veniently cut off two pieces resembling North and South America (A and
B in Fig. 65); the rest, then, would form the Eurasian block. jARDETZKY
gives the time of breakup of the primeval continent as the Carboniferous
N

S
Fig. 65. ]ARDETZKY'S hypothesis of zonal rotation. <Xl'" are the zonal velocities, the line efg represents
the equation of the Atlantic Ocean, A and B are the pieces left (i.e. the Americas) if the big block breaks
along efg

epoch. The subsequent motion of the pieces would then take place in a
fashion as postulated by WEGENER (d. Sec. 6.3). The forces of the differ-
ential rotation would give rise to the mountains through the interaction
of the "continents" with the material upon which they float. Since
jARDETZKY assumes that North and South America are rotating in an
anticlockwise and clockwise direction, respectively, this would cause
a piling up of substratum effecting this rotation in the equatorial
regions, whereas in the polar regions rifts would occur that could give
rise to island arcs. The Alpide-Himalayan orogenesis would similarly
be caused by the corresponding drift of Europe and Africa.
6.53. Persistence of Zonal Rotation. jARDETZKY'S scheme rests on
the possibility of zonal rotation persisting through the ages. It is of
 Persistence of Zonal Rotation 195

course quite obvious that zonal rotation cannot represent an equili-

brium state of rotation in a viscous Earth since the viscosity has the
ultimate effect that the Earth, given an initial state of zonal rotation,
will finally rotate en bloc (i.e. like a solid). What is of importance,
therefore, is the decay constant of the zonal rotation.
]ARDETZKY has indicated a way by which zonal rotation can be
treated in a simplified manner. Thus, let us think of the Earth as
represented by co-axial cylinders of equal length, the common axis
being the axis of rotation of the Earth, and assume that each cylindrical
shell rotates en bloc with an angular velocity characteristic of its radius s;
the latter being given by ]ARDETZKY'S assumption [Eq. (6.51-2). with
COo = 0 since we are only interested in the deviation from the mean
angular velocity]. The model described here corresponds essentially
to a rotation viscosimeter.
The equation of motion for each cylindrical shell of thickness ds is

- sF' (s) ds = dJ w (6.53-1)

where the left hand side represents the moment exerted by the frictional
forces, and the right hand side the deceleration (dJ being the moment
of inertia of the shell) thereby effected. In a viscous fluid, the force
F exerted on one side of the cylindrical shell (so that sF'ds is the moment
originating from the different velocities on both sides) is
dv
F = 'f} ds X surface (6.53-2)

with v being the linear velocity of motion. With ]ARDETZKY'S assump-

tion for the distribution of angular velocity, this yields (note that
v = s co)
F(s) = 6A1I:'f}S3R. (6.53-4)
Noting that for a cylindrical shell
dJ = S2 211:s Reds, (6.53-5)
(e being the density) one obtains by straightforward differentiation from
the equation of motion (6.53-1)
(6. 53-{»)
Integrating, we obtain:
A = exp [ - 9'f} tj(es2)] (6.53-7)
which shows that the decay constant T of the feature is

(6.53-8)
13*
196 Undation Theory

The decay constant depends on s which reflects the oversimplification

employed in the model, but the order of magnitude can still be calcu-
lated. With e = 3, 1} = 10 22 , S = 1000 km, one obtains
T = 3 X 10- 7 sec. (6.53-9)
This shows that the decay time for zonal rotation is extremely short.
It seems therefore quite unlikely that a "primeval" zonal rotation could
subsist in the Earth for very long, as the assumed viscosity (10 22 cgs
units) simply makes this impossible. It is true enough that the analogy
with the model of a rotation viscosimeter is not very accurate, but it
seems unlikely that the order of magnitude could be changed very much
by a better model. The decay-time of zonal rotation, in order for the
latter to have any orogenetic significance, should be of the order of
hundreds of millions of years, i.e. by about a factor of 10 20 larger than
what was found above. It is extremely doubtful whether any small
adjustments in the model employed could effect this, even if the "vis-
cosity of the Earth" were lowered by a substantial amount. A possible
way out of the difficulty might be found by assuming that the differential
zonal rotation is upheld by some thermal process, i.e. for instance by
convection currents. However, this sounds very much like an ad hoc
hypothesis.
There are other difficulties with the hypothesis of zonal rotation.
One is the questionability of the fact that a primeval continent could
have existed until the Carboniferous epoch. The orogenesis which is
evident at the West Coasts of the Americas and the Alpide-Himalayan
orogenesis are only the most recent ones, and only they are explained
by the zonal hypothesis. The theory completely ignores the fact that the
geological history of the Earth is much longer than that evidenced by
the most recent orogeneses. The earlier orogeneses (about 9 of them)
are therefore totally unaccounted for.

6.6. Undation Theory

6.61. Principles. The next theory of orogenesis to be discussed here
is the undation theory. This is an attempt at explaining orogenesis in
terms of rhythmic oscillations (undations) of the Earth's surface. The
theory seems to have been proposed for the first time by HAARMANN 1
from purely physiographic reasoning; its mechanical aspects have later
been analyzed mathematically by VAN BEMMELEN and BERLAGE 2 and a
recent account of it has been given by BELOUSOV 3 •
1 HAARMANN, E.: Die Oszillationstheorie; Pub!. by F. Enke, Stuttgart 1930.
2 BEMMELEN, H. W. VAN; H. P. BERLAGE: Ger!' Beitr. 43, 19 (1935).
3 BELOUSOV, V. V.: Trudy geofiz. in-ta Akad. Nauk SSSR., No. 26 (153), 51
(1955).
 Principles 197

As indicated above, the undation theory assumes that orogenesis is

due to oscillations of certain parts of the globe. These oscillations
constitute the primary cause of orogenesis. During their occurrence,
certain parts of the world become elevated and others become lowered
with regard to their surroundings. The elevated parts have been called
geotumors, the lowered ones geodepressions. As soon as the limit of
stability is exceeded, material from the top of the geotumors is supposed
to slide down into the depressions. This phase of the process is called
secondary orogenesis. By it are produced contortions and folds in the
strata as the depressions are rapidly being filled in (see Fig. 66). Finally,

Fig. 66. Fold formation through sliding

after the depressions have become geotumors in their own turn during
the continuation of the undations , the familiar picture of folded moun-
tain ranges is created. Thus, primary orogenesis is represented by slow
irregular oscillations; their periods are of the order of millions of years.
Secondary orogenesis is caused by gliding and sliding of material from
the top of the elevations ; this produces the detailed patterns of tectonic
elements.
The undation theory was postulated by HAARMANN to account for
certain physiographic features of the Earth. The uplift of Fennoscandia,
the existence of submarine canyons and the fact that various parts of
the world seem to have been flooded by the sea at various times, gain
indeed a very natural explanation in this way. A further peculiar fea-
ture of the theory is that it does not have to assume any crustal shorten-
ing at all, i.e. all the folds are produced by extension of the original
strata.
HAARMANN gives in his book a great number of examples of his
interpretation of the physiographic aspects of orogenesis. He maintains,
for instance, that the craters on the Moon represent the remnants of
primary orogenesis l , -no secondary orogenesis exists on the Moon. The
arcuate strike of most mountain ranges and island chains is explained
1 This is, of course, completely at variance with the current view according
to which the craters on the Moon have been formed by meteorite impact.
198 Undation Theory

by the remark that most of the sliding into the depressions would
presumably occur in the form of giant tongues (like avalanches); the
front of these tongues would then yield the mountain-arcs.
HAARMANN did not proceed to a detailed investigation into the
mechanics of his undation theory. He stated, however, that he expected
that the primary undations would be caused by differentiation of magma
in the mantle of the Earth into two components, and that the action
of gravity would cause the tops of the geotumors to slide down into
the depressions. The action of a load (such as ice, mountains etc.) upon
the Earth's surface is by HAARMANN entirely discounted.
There have been other speculations regarding the origin of forces
which could make the Earth pulsate, such as that of HAVEMANN'Sl
postulating that this behavior be caused by periodic accumulation and
escape of radioactive heat. Since this is much less specific than the
theory outlined above, it is wide open to criticisms.
6.62. Forces in the Undation Theory. We shall now investigate what
the possible causes are that might give rise to the primary motions
of the Earth's surface which were assumed in the undation theory.
Following HAARMANN, VAN BEMMELEN and BERLAGE 2 postulated that
the undations could be brought about by the uneven differentiation
of "fundamental magma" into heavier and lighter material.
Accordingly, the proposed mechanism would be as follows. Origi-
nally, the surface of the Earth was flat and a homogeneous layer of
"fundamental magma" (envisaged as a mixture of Si-AI and Si-Mg com-
pounds) which was resting upon some "basement layer" (possibly identi-
fied with the doubtful Birch discontinuity at 900 km depth). In a cross-
section through the upper part of the Earth, the situation was therefore
as shown in Fig. 67a. Herein, the curvature of the Earth has been
neglected, the x-axis represents the bottom boundary of the fundamental
magma, the z-axis is the vertical.
After the postulated differentiation of the magma into Si-AI and
Si-Mg has proceeded for a while, it may be assumed that the picture
shpwn in Fig. 67b results. This picture implies that the speed of differ-
entiation may vary with the geographical location. Furthermore, it
is assumed that the density of the fundamental magma is larger than
the mean density of the end products, i.e.

(6.62-1)

if the differentiation into material 0 and 2 takes place in the ratio

a: b. Thus, with continuing differentiation, the surface Z2 is pushed to
1 HAVEMANN, H.: Trans. Amer. Geophys. Un. 33, 749 (1952).
2 BEMMELEN, R. W. VAN; H. P. BERLAGE: Ger!' Beitr. 43, 19 (1935).
 Forces in the Undation Theory 199

a higher lavel than was the case originally. During the differentiation,
isostasy is maintained with regard to the material below z = 0, but
there will of course be a tendency to smooth out the differences in
height of the surface Z2 by lateral displacements.

°
The heights Zo, Zl ' Z2 of the corresponding interfaces above the
datum-level Z = are functions of x and t. The speed of differentiation
of the fundamental magma depends on the pressure and on the temperat-
ure; if this speed is set equal to an undetermined function F (zo, Zl' Z2),
z z

-
x x
--------~-------.
a b
Fig. 67 a and b. Magma differentiation from one into 3 layers as envisaged in the undation theory

one obtains for the change of thickness of each of the layers under
consideration:
at
ZI)
e2
a(Z2 -
= clF,
el a (\~ zo) = - (co +- cI ) F, (6.62-2)
eOat
azo = Co F .

Here, Co and CI are constants. One thus obtains for the vertical compo-
nent of the change of each interface

aZ2 . = (_C1___ Co + C1 + ~)F,

at e2 e1 eo
aZ1 = (~ Co + C1 ) F , (6.62-3)
at eo e1
azo = ~- F .
at Qo

The next task is to calculate the disappearance of the differences in

level in the surface Z2 through lateral flow of the rocks. It is quite
hopeless to attempt this by recurrence to the fundamental equations
of a Maxwell body, and hence VAN BEMMELEN and BERLAGE made the
200 Undation Theory

following intuitive assumption

8zzz 8 zz 1 8zzo
8zo _
fit - 1X0 (12 8xZ- + fl 0 ((11 - (12) 8xZ + Yo (
(10 - (11) 8xz .

Here, IX, fl, I' are all positive constants indicative of the "viscosity" of the
substance under consideration. The set of equations (6.62-4) has been
chosen because it has essentially the form of a set of diffusivity equations.
It is well known that, if in a system the microscopic resistance to motion is
everywhere proportional to the velocity, one ends up, macroscopically,
with a diffusivity equation. Proportionality between resistance and flow
velocity is, however, characteristic for bodies of a Maxwell type and
hence the basic structure of the system (6.62-4) of equations is justified.
The factors (12' ((?1 - (12) etc. are conditioned by the requirement that
the corresponding terms must vanish if there is no density difference
above and below the interface.
If one combines the motion resulting from the differentiation with
that resulting from the smoothing-out of the surface, one obtains
finally

8zZ = (~ -- Co + CL + ~)F + 1X2 (12 8Zz: + fl2 (e1 - (2) &Zz;

8t [Iz [11 [10 8x 8x
82 z
+ 1'2 (eo - (11) Tx~ ,
8z _
fit -
1 ('co
eo - CO +C1
-[1-1-
)F+ IXI (12 82 z2
8x2
+fl1 ((11 - ) 88x2
2z
e2
1
(6.62-5)

+ 1'1 (eo - (1)

82 •
8;:-'

It is possible to integrate this for some special cases. First, let us

consider the case where the upper layers of the Earth are homogeneous
so that (10 = (11 = (12 = (I, and where there is no differentiation of magma.
Then one has
(6.62-6)

This is the diffusivity equation which describes, for instance, the dis-
appearance of an initial trough. Let the trough be represented by

(6.62-7)
 Forces in the Undation Theory 201

then the solution of (6.62-6) yields

Z = - h exp {_ p.2 x a } (6.62-8)

Y1+4oc(!p.2t 1+4oc(!p.2 t .

This confirms the earlier inference that the rheological equation is such
that the material behaves like a Maxwell liquid. Thus, if a trough is
impressed on the Earth by some mechanism, it will disappear asympto-
tically with a characteristic time interval determined by the parameter IX.
If such a trough, i.e. a tectogene, should be filled-in (partly or wholly)
with light sediments, then we have here a mechanism whereby a moun-
tain-range can eventually be created (d. the notion of tectogenes in
Sec. 6.11).
The implications of the basic equations (6.62-5) can be analyzed
more fully by neglecting fewer terms than in the example just discussed.
A characteristic case is obtained by setting 1;10 = 1;11 in the system
(6.62-5), but retaining F. Writing as an abbreviation

(6.62-9)
we obtain

The next task is to make a reasonable assumption for F. VAN BEMME-

LEN and BERLAGE assume

(6.62-11)

I
mainly because it makes the calculations easy. If this be substituted
into (6.12-10), one obtains

°oZt2 = c5(!h - (2) {D - (Z2 - Zl)} + e2!;;: + fJ2 (el - e2) ~~21-
1X2 ,

o 02 02 (6.62-12)
0~1 = - c5 1;12 {D - (Z2 - Zl)} + 1X1 e2 O:} + fJdl21 - 1;12) 0;: .
The general character of the solution of this system can be recognized
if, for the sake of simplicity, only the terms dependent on F are calcu-
lated (i.e. the IX'S and fJ's are set equal to zero). One obtains:

(6.62-13)
202 Undation Theory

Hence by subtraction

:t {D - (Z2 - Zl)} = - <5(lJ. {D - (Z2 - Zl)} (6.62-14)

and finally
(6.62-15)

This shows that the upper layer (e2)' if zero thickness is assumed at
t = 0, will asymptotically grow to having a thickness D.
The general solution of (6.62-12) is therefore a combination of the
growth of the upper layer plus a smoothing-out of any differences in
level created. It can be obtained by a series-expansion of the form

(6.62-16)

where the coefficients ai i will be functions of x. The calculations become

very involved, but the result can be stated briefly as follows: The
general solution Zi (x, t) leads to a Fourier series which, for reasonable
parameters, allows only for aperiodic undations of the same type as
that discussed in connection with the filling-in of a trough presented
earlier. Oscillations in the proper sense or progressive waves do not
seem to be possible.
The calculations in this Section (6.62) rest upon the validity of the
assumption [used especially in writing down Eq. (6.62-2)] that, once
primary differentiation of the magma into its two components (whatever
they be) has started, the latter accumulate immediately into their
respective layers. This implies that the diffusion of the two components
through the original magmatic layer is very rapid. This, however, is
very doubtful. The speed of diffusion can be estimated as follows.
The viscosity 1] of the layer in question is of the order of 1022 to 1023 cgs.
If we assume a spherical droplet of radius a with a density (lJ. = 1.1 eo
(i.e. 10% denser than the surrounding fluid), one can calculate the
speed v with which it would drop. The latter should be indicative of
the order of magnitude of the speed of diffusion of the heavier fluid
through the original one. The resistance R of the fluid to the droplet
is given by STOKES' law [see Eq. (3.32-5)]:

R = 6na1]v. (6.62-17)

The force F acting on the droplet effecting its sinking is

4
F =" -:;-
.)
n a3 0.1 eo . (6.62-18)
Thus, from F=R
v = 0.1 2 a2 eo (6.62-19)
9 7J
 Secondary Orogenesis 203

thus, with a= 1 cm (as an upper limit; v increases with a), eo = 3,

11 = 10113 , one has
v ~ 10- 24 cm/sec. (6.62-20)
The time T for the droplet to fall through, say, 100 km (which may be
taken as about half the thickness of the original layer) is
T = 1031 sec = 3 X 1023 years. (6.62-21)
This is about 10 14 times the total estimated life span of the Earth. It
seems therefore extremely doubtful wheter the postulated mechanism
could have any real significance, quite apart from any chemical con-
siderations.
6.63. Secondary Orogenesis. The secondary orogenesis as envisaged
by the undation theory depends entirely on the hypothetical gliding
process. According to HAARMANN, gliding seems to be a rather rapid
event which is compared with turbidity currents known to occur on
inclined slopes of the ocean bottom. Consequently, the front of a
gliding tongue might even detach itself from the main part (presumably
owing to the momentum inherent in it) to form a detached mountain
chain.
The process of gliding depends according to HAARMANN on three
factors. First, there is a requirement for the existence of suitable
strata such as water-logged sediments. The absence of such strata on
the Moon would, in tum, explain the absence of folded mountains on
that celestial body. Second, an adequate inclination of the gliding
surface is of equal importance. The difference in elevation between
geotumors and geodepressions may be envisaged as up to about 3000 feet
(1 000 meters), the distance between the maxima and minima of ele-
vation perhaps as of the order of several tens of miles. The available
inclination would therefore be of the order of 1: 10 (6°). According to
HAARMANN, this is sufficient to cause downhill slides. Third, the time
required for the sliding process to take place has been estimated to
reach from that corresponding to a "sudden" catastrophe (an avalanche)
to hundreds of thousands of years. The latter would correspond to
slow creep.
HAARMANN arrived at the above picture of the sliding process by
purely intuitive arguments. Testing some of his statements somewhat
more closely reveals that the possibility of the envisaged process is in
reality rather doubtful. The fact that high mountains with a slope angle
of much more than 6° can persist for a long time (at least for several
millions of years) pretty well obviates the possibility of much sliding
due to gravity occurring over slopes with such small inclinations. There
is no doubt, of course, that land slides can and do occur, but in order to
204 Expansion Hypothesis of Orogenesis

produce anything like, say, the islands of Japan by a slide off the
mainland of China, such land-slides would have to be of fantastic di-
mensions indeed. It is true enough that there remains the possibility
of gliding by slow creep. Indeed, if the rheological properties of the
Earth's surface would come close to those of a Maxwell liquid (d. Sec.
3.42), then there would be no doubt that slow creep could occur no matter
how small the inclination of the gliding plane would be. However, there
are no indications whatsoever that the topmost part of the crust does
behave like a Maxwell body. It was shown in Sec. 3.42 that there
seems to be a finite yield-strength; if the material is stressed below
that strength, no permanent deformations can occur. It is precisely the
topmost km. of the crust which HAARMANN supposed to undergo de-
formations, in spite of the fact that this is the only part of the Earth
for which some trustworthy information is available. Unfortunately,
the latter runs contrary to the assumption of Maxwell behavior.
In spite of these difficulties, BELOUSOV 1 has followed the undation
theory into even greater detail than HAARMANN. The formation of geo-
synclines, the building of mountains, in fact all geodynamic effects are
attributed to up-and-down movements of larger or smaller portions of
the Earth's crust. Thrust and tangential motions are entirely discounted.
Summarizing, all that can be said about the undation theory is
that it presents some interesting ideas about mountain building. There
is little hope, however, that it will have much chance to be proven
acceptable, unless some facts would happen to be uncovered which
are completely at variance with all present ideas about the Earth's
rheological properties.

6.7. Expansion Hypothesis of Orogenesis

6.71. Principal Outlines. It is a most notable feature of most theories
of fracture of materials that the predicted failure-patterns are indepen-
dent of the sign of the applied stresses. With the one exception of the
possible occurrence of chasms under tension, the expectable failure
patterns in an expanding Earth would therefore be the same as those
in a contracting Earth.
In an expansion theory, one would assume that the Earth consists
of several layers, the topmost representing the crust, and the next
one down representing an expanding layer. The orogenetic effects would
originate in this expanding layer and the crust, in turn, would yield
under the stresses which are created. According to the above remarks
all that has been said regarding plastic and brittle failure patterns in

1 BELOUSOV, V. V.: loc cit., also: Tez. Dokl. Mezhd. Ass. Seismol., pp. 5 and 9.
Moscow 1957.
 MATSCHINSKI'S Buckling Theory 205

the contraction theory of orogenesis, can also be said with regard to an

expansion theory of orogenesis. The formation of island arcs, their
position on the Earth's surface, the junctions between orogenetic ele-
ments etc. could equally be explained by assuming a slight expansion
in a layer beneath the crust. In addition, there is the possibility of
deep chasms occurring in an expansion theory which could be thought
of as an explanation of deep ocean trenches.
However, there is one fundamental difficulty. This is that in an
expansion theory, it is no longer easy to account for the observed crustal
shortening as there is no reason for the "skin" of an expanding sphere
to become crumpled up. It would therefore appear that all the expansion
could create, is a pattern of fissures through which the liquid "magma"
below could rise to cause mountains. There,seems to be no possibility
of explaining nappes and similar phenomena.
In spite of these difficulties, EGYED 1 followed the hypothesis of an
expanding Earth into some detail, claiming that it could account for
many observed facts. According to EGYED, the tension in the crust
would affect the modulus of rigidity which, in turn, would produce
warping of parts of the crust. In this fashion, one again arrives basically
at an undation theory with all its drawbacks. In an expansion-undation
theory, however, it seems doubly impossible to obtain the crustal shorten-
ing necessary for mountain formation, because of the tensional character
of the stresses involved. If a slight expansion of the Earth's interior
did occur, it may be responsible for such features as rift valleys, the
mid-Atlantic rift etc., but certainly not for the folding-up of mountains.
6.72. MATSCHINSKI'S Buckling Theory. There have been several at-
tempts at overcoming the difficulty of the seeming impossibility of pro-
ducing crustal shortening or nappe structures in any type of expansion
theory. A particularly notable one is that proposed by MATSCHINSKI 2 •
Accordingly, when the Earth is expanding, the (solid) crust gets
torn to pieces. Due to the expansion underneath, the pieces of the
crust will soon exhibit a smaller radius of curvature than the substratum
which forces them to "stand up" (d. Fig. 68a). It stands to reason
that such a state could not persist for very long and that a bulging
would occur in the middle. This bulging would finally develop into
nappes (d. Fig. 68b) and thus explain orogenesis.
From the rheological properties of rocks it seems quite impossible
that a state as envisaged in Fig. 68a could exist at all. Seen in a section,
it would have to be expected that the crust conforms at all times to
1 EGYED, L.: Acta Geolog. Magyar Todom. Akad. Fold. Kozl. 4, 43 (1956).
I MATSCHINSKI, M.: Rend. Accad. Naz. Lincei, Cl. Sci. fis., mat. e nat., Ser. VIII,
16, 54 (1953).
206 Orogenesis and the Rotation of the Earth

more or less an equilibrium position;-this, in reality, is implied in the

observation that isostasy (d. Sec. 2.12) is maintained over large areas.
In two dimensions, of course, it is thinkable that a certain amount of
bulging in the middle of, say, a triangular plate could occur, but it
would appear as more reasonable to adjust the plate to the expanding
sphere by assuming that tension cracks develop running radially from
the center on outward, particularly in view of the low tensile strength
of rock strata. It would appear, thus, that the preponderant pheno-
menon in any expansion theory would be
tensional fissures scattered over the Earth
and not crustal shortening. It is therefore
hard to see how orogenesis could originate
in any expansion theory.
a 6.73. Expansion by Rock Metamorphism.
A further theory which might bl-' classed
as an "expansion hypothesis" has been
proposed by LEBEDEV 1 . In this, however,
it is not assumed that the Earth as such is
expanding, with the crust being torn in
consequence, but that the crust itself in
spots is intrinsecally expanding owing to
metamorphism taking place. In other
words, the metamorphosis factor' intro-
duced in Sec. 6.12 is assumed to be, in
spots at least, significantly greater than 1.
b
Fig.68a and b. MATSCHINsKI'sexplanation
There is no doubt that metamorphism of
of orogenesis rocks could account for very considerable
stresses in the Earth's crust. However, the
chemical factors involved are still largely hypothetical although LEBEDEV
cites various examples that could have produced the enormous pressures
necessary to cause orogenetic activity. It is generally believed that
metamorphism causes an increase in density, not a decrease, and LEBE-
DEV'S theory needs, therefore, a lot more substantiation.

6.8. Orogenesis and the Rotation of the Earth

6.81. The Problem. It has been outlined in Sec. 4.3 that there is
a real possibility that polar wandering took place during the Earth's
geological history, possibly on a very large scale. As stated earlier,
polar wandering does not actually imply a change in the direction of
the axis of rotation in space, but rather a change of position of the

lLEBEDEV, V.l.: DokJ. Akad. Nauk SSSR. 90, 217 (1953).

 The Problem 207

Earth with respect to its axis of rotation. It must be assumed that, for
every position of the axis with respect to the Earth, the latter will take
on an equilibrium figure which can be represented approximately by
an ellipsoid. Thus, if the polar axis moves through an angle e, i.e. from
the position represented by P Q to the position P' Q' in Fig. 69, the
crust of the Earth must adjust itself to the new shape. It is a possible
conjecture that this adjustment will cause stresses that might have
orogenetic significance. In the most extreme case the pole would move
from its original position on the former equator through 90°. That
would mean that the former equator becomes a meridional circle which
would imply a shortening due to the
..--.- _- - __ X'
ellipticity of the Earth of p ""
\
10019148.441 = 1.0017 (6.81-1)
10002288.299

or of 17 km for a quadrant. Since an

orogenetic system consists of world-
wide mountain ranges of the shape of
roughly two great circles, it will pre-
sumably be intersected 4 times by any
other great circle so that the above-
mentioned shortening (17 km) would Fig. 69. Geometry of the shift of the Earth's
be that available for each mountain axis of rotation
range. From various sources of evi-
dence, it must be assumed that two orogenetic cycles took place in the
time interval since the Devonian in which the pole moved maybe through
80°. This leaves a shortening of about 8km per mountain range. However,
it should be noted that the above value is for maximum shortening, valid
only for that meridian which goes through the new pole at right a!1gles
to the direction of the polar shift. If we consider any quadrant, the
available shortening is on the average again about halved which leaves
approximately 4 km for a mountain range:
ST = 4km. (6.81-2)
This seems very little as it is somewhat smaller in magnitude than
what is observed in the contraction theory. Correspondingly, we obtain
the following parameters:
Y= = 50/4 = 12.5,
SA/sT (6.81-3)
h = 12y = 150km . (6.81-4)

These figures are even somewhat less reasonable than in the contrac-
tion theory. They constitute a strong argument against the possibility
208 Orogenesis and the Rotation of the Earth

of polar wandering having been a cause of mountain building. Further-

more, polar wandering does not only induce crustal shortening as
derived above, but also crustal lengthening in a different part of the
world. Thus, if the shortening ST is prevalent in one area, then a corre-
sponding lengthening should prevail in another and one would expect
trenches to develop. The observation that deep ocean trenches are
associated with orogenetic developments and not one quarter of the
way around the world from orogenetic developments, is a further
difficulty in assuming that polar wandering causes mountains. Never-
theless, although it has thus been shown that polar wandering is in-
adequate to cause orogenesis, it might still give rise to shearing of the
crust on a continental scale. This question has been investigated by
various people!, 2, 3. A discussion will be given below.
6.82. General Theory. Referring to Fig. 69, let the original state of the
Earth be represented by the ellipse drawn in solid lines, and the state
corresponding to that after a shift of the polar axis through the angle e,
by dotted lines. This picture implies that the axis of rotation and the
geoidal axis always coincide corresponding to an infinitely great adapta-
bility of the Earth to the prevalent dynamic forces. During the dis-
placement, each point of the Earth shifts to a new position; such a
shift is indicated for a point on the surface by an arrow pointing from
X to X'.
What are the conditions governing the displacement? It is evident
that there are two types of conditions necessary which can be designated
as "kinematical" and as "dynamic". The kinematical condition requi-
res that the change of shape of the total Earth be such that the original
ellipsoid changes into another ellipsoid, the dynamic condition requires
that the state before and after the displacement be an equilibrium
state.
In order to investigate the possible effects of polar wandering upon
stresses within the crust, it is necessary to consider such Earth models
in which polar wandering is possible. This confines one, according to
earlier remarks, to models in which the Earth is assumed as e'>sentially
fluid (at least with regard to the time intervals involved) with the crust
being a thin skin covering the latter. What is of particular interest, is
the displacement pattern of points on the surface as the di<;placement
of the interior is not directly observable. Skin and interior will therefore
be considered separately as this is presumably permissible in all models
which exhibit polar wandering.
VENING MEINESZ, F. A.: Trans. Amer. Geophys. Un. 28, 1 (1947).
1
MILANKOVITCH, M.: Kanon der Erdbestrahlung und seine Anwendung auf das
2
Eiszeitenproblem. Ed. spec. Acad. Roy. Serbe, Tome 133, Belgrade 1941.
a SCHMIDT, E. R.: Fbldtani Kbzlbny 18, 94 (1948).
 General Theory 209

The kinematic condition can be taken care of as follows. In the

original state we describe each point on the Earth's surface by its
(geocentric) longitude IX and corresponding latitude q; (or polar distance
o instead). It is to be understood that the<;e coordinates represent an
ellipsoid of revolution of a given ellipticity. The position of the pole is
given by 0=0°. A similar set of coordinates IX', q;' (or 0'), then, corre-
sponds to the detormed state with the new polar axis P' Q' instead of
PQ (d. Fig. 69) . Again, these coordinates are presumed to describe an
ellipsoid of revolution of the same ellipticity as that above. The new
position of the pole is given by 0' = 0°. In terms of the pre'5ent scheme,
the deformation is thus given by the pale
following transformation equations

IX' = IX' (IX, 0) , (6.82-1 a)

0' = 0' (IX, 0). (6.82-1 b)

Thus, if the coordinates IX, 0 are taken

as variables over the surface of a unit
sphere, the shift of the polar axis
represents a mapping of that sphere
upon itself.
A very convenient way to de-
scribe the displacements occurring
Fig. 70. The coordinate system A, LI
during a shift of the polar axis is
obtained by the following remark.
e
A shift of the polar axis through the angle corresponds to a rotation
with regard to a certain axis. The pole of this rotation lies on a line vertical
to the plane in which the polar shift occurs, i.e. it is on the intersection
of the new and old equator of the Earth. It is convenient to introduce
a coordinate system (A, Lf) where A and Lf are the longitude and polar
distance, respectively, with regard to this pole, zero longitude corre-
sponding to the position of the North Pole before the polar shift occurred.
The use of this coordinate system enables one to describe the shift of
the surface of the Earth by giving the displacement vector as a function
of A , Lf (see Fig. 70).
The dynamic condition requires that the transformation expressed
by (5 .82-1 a/b) leads from an equilibrium state to another equilibrium
state. In general, any possible set of equations of the above type will
prescribe a set of strains in the Earth. However, only such strains are
permissible whose associated stresses satisfy equilibrium conditions.
The equilibrium conditions for the additional stresses (additional with
regard to the hydrostatic state) have been investigated by VENING
Scheidegger, Principles of Geodynamics 14
 210 Orogenesis and the Rotation of the Earth

MEINESZ 1 who found (refer to Fig. 71 for an explanation of symbols):

(a" - ad) cos r5 - (oa6jor5) sin r5 + (o-rjo rx) = 0, (6.82-2 a)

(oa"lorx) - (o-rjor5) sin r5 - 27: cos r5 = 0, (6.82-2b)

a, + RT (a" + a,,) = ° and a, = - R (a" - a,,) .

T
(6.82-2 c)

These formulas hold for a thin crust of thickness T and radius R in which
T ~ R so that bending stresses can be neglected and a g increases line-
~-:::::::: - --
arly with depth from a
I . . . . . . . . ...... ---- . . . . . . . . value of zero at the sur-
TII ............'
, ............ face to the value a, at
I ', ...... ,
the bottom of the crust.
I
~-:::..---
I .......... --......
,'"
" ,,0 I
, C'
Upon inspection of
I ...... , .................. , / the above discussion, it is
I ,"
I ',- XB'I c evident that one is faced
with (a) a set of con-
I " /1" \
A1' I~'
II 10&~16 \ straints for the strains
I / / / A :rre \ and (b) with a set of con-
RI / I / ./ ' 8 \ U8 \ \
I I I q; / y \ \ \ straints for the stresses.
I 1/ (' / / /\ \ \ \ It is therefore obvious
I 1..1 / / / \ \ \ \
I 17'ld> / / \ \ I 'I that the problem of de-
I 1/ ~/' \ \ \
I
I
I? /~
1/ / j /
\, \I \\ \ termining the deforma-
\ tion of the Earth's crust
II//-/ II \
II//-/ I \ due to polar wandering
I 1I~7 I 'I \
cannot possibly be sol-
~-===:::::..-_-~~----+--::;;::-J.L---:.J ved unless some stress-
t-C
- ___ ;T---~ T - -
strain relations are as-
Fig. 71. Forces acting upon an element of a spherical shell. After
sumed. These, however,
VENING MEINES Zl constitute the "rheo-
logical condition" for
the material in question and the difficulties for estimating the latter
for the various layers of the Earth are well known.
From the above considerations it is clear that the orogenetic signifi-
cance of a shift of the polar axis can be determined only if a certain
rheological condition is assumed for the crust of the Earth. The two
extreme conditions that have been investigated are (a) the assumption
that the crust of the Earth is ideally elastic (VENING MEINESZ) and (b)
the assumption that the crust of the Earth has no strength at all (MILAN-
KOVITCH). These are, of course, the two logical extremes which one
might attempt to investigate.
1 VENING MEINESZ, F. A . : loco cit.
 The Elastic Model 211

However, one can try to obtain an idea as to the likelihood of appli-

cability of either of these assumptions. If polar wandering is the cause
of an orogenetic cycle, then its characteristic time must be of the order
of 100 million years, i.e. "long" in the sense of Sec. 3.6. We have
stated earlier that under "long" -duration stresses, creep is the signifi-
cant behavior-pattern (once the strength-limit has been exceeded).
This renders it extremely doubtful whether any model assuming an
elastic Earth will be useful as the relaxation time for stresses that
could produce significant elastic deformation is much shorter than the
above-assumed time for their build-up. The opposite assumption of
complete weakness in the Earth's crust is therefore much more realistic.
A further difficulty with an elastic model of the Earth is that it is almost
unavoidable to assume the crust as a homogeneous shell of uniform
thickness. This is nowhere near reality. We shall therefore only briefly
sketch the theory of elastic deformations due to polar wandering and
then proceed to a more elaborate discussion of a weak Earth.
6.83. The Elastic Model. Thus we tum first to the assumption of
ideal elasticity (POISSON'S ratio m = t. YOUNG'S modulus E=10 12 cgs)
considered by VENING MEINESZ 1 • For a shift of the axis through an
angle 8, one finds for the additional stresses by a straightforward calcu-
lation (employing the coordinate system A, L1 explained above)

a"j = [1/(5 + m)] v E sin 8 (sin 2 L1 + 2) sin (2A - 8), (6.83-1 a)

aA = [1/(5 + m)] v E sin 8 (3 sin 2 L1 - 2) sin (2A - 8), (6.83-1 b)
a, = - [4/(5 +m)]vE (T/R) sin8sin 2 L1sin(2A -8), (6.83-1 c)
T= - [2/(5 + m)]vEsin8cosL1 cos (2A -8), (6.83-1 d)

where v is as usual the ellipticity of the Earth (=1/297). The corre-

sponding displacements S are

S, = v R sin 8 sin 2 L1 sin (2A - 8), (6.83-2 a)

S"j = [2 (1 + m)/(5 + m)] v R sin 8 sin L1 cos L1 sin (2A - 8), (6.83-2b)
SA = [2 (1 + m)/(5 + m)] vRsin8sinL1 cos (2A - 8). (6.83-2 c)
This gives the complete solution of the problem. VENING MEINESZ
then proceeds to calculate the maximum shearing stress due to a polar
shift of 90°, which is the maximum possible value. He obtains approxi-
mately
Tmax = 1.2 X 109 cgs (6.83-3)
1 VENING MEINESZ, F. A.: loc. cit.
14*
212 Orogenesis and the Rotation of the Earth

using the present-day value for the ellipticity. The above value is just
about equal to the lower limit of the strength of rocks at the surface
of the Earth.
As outlined earlier, the pole of the Earth moved maybe about 40°
during one orogenetic cycle, so that about half of the shearing stress
calculated above in (6.83-3) would be available for the deformation
of the rocks. This is well below the strength of the rocks at the surface,
and it is therefore doubtful whether it could be sufficient to have any
significance with regard to mountain-building. Entirely apart from the
question of the applicability of
the elastic model, which is un-
certain in the first place, it
does not appear that such a
model would feature sufficient
stress to cause any orogenetic
effects.
We therefore turn to the
possibility of large-scale shear-
ing effects being induced by
polar wandering in an elastic
Earth. In fact, VENING
MEINESZ had this possibility
in mind when he undertook
the calculations mentioned
Fig. 72. VENING MEINESZ'l shear pattern above. In this instance, the
low value for the shearing
stress would serve as a justification of the use of an elastic model, as it
might be argued that the latter is appropriate as long as the strength
of the material is not exceeded.
Thus, from the displacements one can calculate the strains. One
obtains
eA= 1 OSA = _ 4(1 +m) vsinesin(2A -e) (6.83-4a)
M S+m '

I
R~~

e - 1 OS,1 _ 2(1+m) vsinecos2L1 sin (2A-e) (6.83-4b)

-,1 - R 1M - 5+m '

eA,1 = ~ {R Si~ ~ ~~,1 + ~ ~~A}

(6.83-4c)
= 3 1 + m V sin e cos L1 cos (2A - e) .
S+m
From these equations it is possible to calculate lines of maximum
shear. The tangent to the line of maximum shear is the bisectrix of the
1 VENING MEINESZ, F . A.: loco cit.
 Model of a Weak Earth 213

principal strain axes at each point. The angle which the principal axes
form with the given coordinate system is
tan 2 = _ 3cosLJ cot (2A - 0) = 2EALI
(6.83-5)
({I COS2LJ+2 EA-ELI

where the angle ({I is measured in the direction opposite to the sense of
turning from the A-axis to the LJ-axis.
VENING MEINESZ did not calculate such lines of maximum shear. He
usedBIJLAARD'S theory (d. p. 83) in which the tangent to the line does not
bisect the principal strain axes,
but forms a slightly different
angle which varies with the
strain. He thus arrived at the
picture shown in Fig. 72. If
it is assumed that the maxi-
mum shear direction bisects
the principal strain direction,
the conjugate curves must in-
tersect each other at a right
angle. One can obtain an idea
of the pattern by noting that
Eq. (6.83-5) can be written as
follows (for e '" 0) :
tan 2 ({I } (6.83--{5~
= -I (LJ)cot 2A . Fig. 73. Modified shear pattern

Here, 1 is some positive function with an upper limit for 0;:;;;: LJ < 90°.
It does not affect, therefore, the zeros and infinities of the tangents
and cotangents, as long as LJ <90°. It is therefore possible to draw the
direction of the shear lines (note that this direction is ({I ±45°) for
A =0°, 45°, 90° etc.; similarly, they can be drawn for LJ =90°. The
shear lines, thus, are the orthogonal curves that fit into this pattern of
tangents. The picture obtained by VENING MEINESZ must therefore
be somewhat modified to look as shown in Fig. 73.
6.84. Model of a Weak Earth. Let us now assume that the crust of
the Earth is so weak that it cannot offer any significant resistance to
the adaptation of the Earth as a whole to the polar wandering. Then
each point on the surface of the Earth will move in a direction corre-
sponding to the change of the equilibrium surface. This problem has
been studied by MILANKOVITCH but, unfortunately, the latter author
only calculated the displacements in that meridional section of the
Earth which is tangent to the direction of the motion of the pole. This
214 Orogenesis and the Rotation of the Earth

is of little use for the investigation of possible shear zones and we shall
therefore extend the calculations of MILANKOVITCH to the whole surface
of the Earth.
The potential function W producing the equilibrium surface of the
Earth has been given in Eq. (4.12-10). The calculations ",ill be greatly
simplified if the coordinate system A, .1 explained above is again intro-
duced (d. Fig. 70). One has then for instance
cos t5 = sin .1 sin A. (6.84-1)

If we only take account of the rotational part of the potential func-

tion W (neglecting the small change in gravity due to the changing
shape of the Earth), the change dW of the potential W during a polar
shift de can be found as follows:

dW=-Wde=
8 -8 [W2 R2
--(1-sin 2 .1sin 2 A) 1de )
8A 8A 2
1 (6.84-2)
= - - co 2 R2 sin 2 .1 sin 2 A de
2

where now R is used for the radius. The force dF originated by this
change is simply the gradient of the potential; one thus obtains
8 w2 R
dFR = 8R- dW = - - 2 - sin 2A (1 -cos 2.1) de, (8.84-3 a)

1 8dW .
dFA = RsinLl 8A = -co 2 Rsm.1cos2Ade, (6.84-3 b)

w2 R . A' d£l
dFj = R1 8T
8dW
= -
A
- 2 - sm 2 sm 2LJ ~. (6.84-3 c)

One observes at once that the direction of the force dF always falls
into that plane which contains the circle of latitude .1 = const of the
coordinate system A, .1. This becomes obvious if one calculates the
angle (J. which the resultant dF,
(6.84-4)
of the components that do not fall into that plane, forms with the
radius vector:
tan (J. = dFjfdJ<R = cot .1 = tan (90 0 - .1). (6.84-5)

This is the same angle which the radius vector forms with that plane.
Furthermore, since the resultant dF, must lie in a plane which contains
the radius vector and is normal to the circle of latitude, it must also
lie in the plane of the circle of latitude. This simplifies the calculations
tremendously.
 Model of a Weak Earth 215

Let us therefore choose such a plane containing a circle of latitude

L1 = const. Aparticle on the surface of the Earth will follow the direction
of the force until it arrives at the new equilibrium position, correspond-
ing to the new ellipsoidal shape of the Earth. Thus, a particle will
move only in a plane containing a circle of latitude L1 = const;
referring to Fig. 74 it will move from M to Ml along dL while an
(infinitesimal) polar shift through the angle de occurs.
Furthermore, the resultant
of dFR and dF,j also lies in the
direction of r, the radius of
the circle of latitude and may
therefore conveniently be de-
noted by dF,. Its magnitude is

dF, = (dF;:
= w 2 R sin 2A
+ dFl)! 1
(6.84-6)
X sin L1 de.

I
Hence we obtain for the angle
fJ shown in Fig. 74.

tan fJ = dF
dF,.A
= w R sin 2A sin LI de (6 .84-7)
2

w 2 R sin LI cos 2A de
= tan2A
or Fig. 74. Displacement in a weak Earth
fJ = 2A. (6.84-8)

Furthermore, since T is the angle between the tangent to the ellipse

and the normal to the radius-vector, it is given by (the first relation is
valid for any plane curve in polar coordinates r, A; the second is obtained
by using the equation of an ellipse r = r0 - r 0 v cos 2 A) :

tan T =...!-.~ = IIsin2A (6.84-9)

r dA 1 -lIcos 2 A

where v is the ellipticity of the ellipse under consideration; this is the

same as the ellipticity of the Earth. Since the latter is only 1/297, it is
possible to neglect the term containing v against unity, and one finally
obtains for the components of the displacement denoted by ds" ds A :

dS A = v cos 2A rde, (6.84-10a)

ds, = v sin 2A r de. (6.84-10b)
216 Orogenesis and the Rotation of the Earth

Splitting ds, into the directions of Rand ,1, and substituting for r,
one finally has
dS A = V cos 2A sin ,1 R de, (6.84-11 a)
dSR = v sin 2A sin 2 L1 R de, (6.84-11 b)
ds,d = v sin 2A sin ,1 cos ,1 R de. (6.84-11 c)
Of interest are the strains in the crust of the Earth:
_ 1 odsA _ . A dO (6.84-12a)
eA - RsinLi ~ - - 2vsm2 0',

1 odsLI
e~ =---=vsm2
A
. A COS2LJA d£l
0- (6.84-12b)
R oLi '

eALI = ~[--!- odsLI +~ OSA] = ~vcosL1 cos 2A de. (6.84-12 c)

2 R sm LI OLI R OLI 2

It is most significant to note that these strains are the same as those
found in the elastic model of the Earth for an infinitesimal polar shift,
except for a constant factor of proportionality. Therefore, the lines
of maximum shear turn out to be identical to those found in an elastic
Earth. The tangent to the lines of maximum shear bisects at every
point the principal strain axes. The angle which the principal strain
axes form with the given coordinate system is given by Eq. (6.83-5)
since the factor of proportionality is the same in numerator and de-
nominator and therefore cancels out. The picture of the shear lines is
therefore that shown in Fig. 73.
It may be of some interest to calculate the absolute maximum of
strain and its location on the Earth. The maximum for the shear eShear
is at anyone point
eShearmax = T2 - K Vi (6.84-13)
with
T=el+e2' (6.84-14a)
K = el e2 - e~2' (6.84-14b)
One obtains
e2 = '112 de 2 {1. sin 2 2A cos 2 2,1 }
shear max (6 84-15)
+
4
+ sin 2 2A cos 2,1 sin2 2A + £ cos 2 ,1 cos 2 2A}. .
In order to calculate the absolute maximum of shear, one differentiates
e~earmax first with respect to A and then with respect to ,1 and sets
the result equal to zero. This yields the conditions
sin2A[cos2Acos2 2L1 }
+ 4 cos 2A cos 2,1 + 4 cos 2A - 9 cos 2A cos2L1] = 0, (6.84-16a)
sin 2,1 [sin22A cos 2,1 + 2 sin 2 A + £cos 2 2AJ = o. (6.84-16b)
 Tectonic Significance 217

One obtains from the second condition

sin 2 LI = 0; LI = 90° (6.84-17)
if the bracket is not assumed zero. Inserting LI = 90° into the first
condition yields
sin 2A cos 2A = o. (6.84-18)

Thus one has the following solutions for A

(6.84-19)
Hence
Eshear max = ! '/I de. (6.84-20)

Thus, the maximum shearing strain occurs on that great circle which
contains the direction of the polar shift at a distance of 45° from the pole.
The above considerations refer to an infinitesimal polar shift only.
This is in accordance with the notion of a weak Earth; adjustment of
the Earth to the prevailing forces is assumed to be instantaneous and
no integrated form of the equations would be applicable.
6.85. Tectonic Significance. We are now in a position to evaluate
the possible geological significance of polar wandering. As stated earlier,
it cannot be expected that polar wandering can give rise to mountains;
the only possible effect is therefore one of producing shear patterns.
The most important result is that, whether the Earth be considered
as consisting of an elastic shell covering the interior or as possessing a
crust that has no strength at all, the resulting shear pattern is the same.
The only difference between the two models lies in the fact that, if the
shell is assumed as elastic, the shear forces can be integrated over a
finite shift of the pole, i.e. over some hundreds of millions of years,
whereas in a weak Earth this is not possible. However, if one seeks to
explain tectonic movements in this fashion, it is obviously implied that
adjustments to the prevailing stresses do take place; this, in turn,
obviates the principles of elasticity. It therefore appears that one ought
to expect that the displacements to be explained correspond to the
instantaneous strains; i.e. to the strains set up during an infinitesimal
shift of the pole;-which are the same in either model.
If at every point the local adjustments take place in the plane of
maximum shear, then one obtains the shear pattern shown in Fig. 73.
If some other criterion is used (such as BIJLAARD'S condition for bands
of plastic instability considered by VENING MEINESZ) some other pattern
is obtained. Again, it should be remarked that the VENING MEINESZ
pattern does not really differ significantly from a maximum shear
pattern; most of the deviations concern minor details. The fact that
218 Evaluation of Theories of Orogenesis

the result depends significantly neither on the model of the Earth nor
on the yield criterion applied, lends considerable support to the argument
presented above.
It therefore remains to correlate tectonic features on the Earth's
surface with the possible shear patterns. The position of the shear
pattern with regard to the Earth's surface is given firstly by the present
position of the pole, and secondly by the tangent to the polar path at
the present time. Whereas the present position of the pole is quite
definite, the direction of the tangent to the path is not. Inspecting the
various proposals for a polar path, we note that the tangent is according
to KREICHGAUER along the 40 E meridian, according to KOPPEN and
0

WEGENER along 50 0 W meridian (see Fig. 1), according to MILANKO-

VITCH along the 140 W meridian (see Fig. 44), and according to RUN-
0

CORN (see Fig. 27) along the 1200 E meridian. This completes pretty
well the whole circle of the compass.
It is therefore evident that any correlations with known features
on the surface of the Earth that one might be tempted to set up, are
somewhat doubtful. In attempting such correlations, it should also be
kept in mind that the nets shown in Fig. 72 and 73 are symmetrical
with respect to the polar path and with respect to the equator. Thus,
if the St. Andreas fault in California is to be explained in this manner,
there ought to be other faults with similar characteristics in Japan,
South America and New Zealand, as well as on the opposite side of the
Earth somewhere in Europe and in the Indian Ocean. It thus appears
that any shear pattern obtained from polar wandering is too symmetrical
to have anything to do with large-scale motions on the Earth's crust,
as the latter seem to be unsymmetrical, and could be apparent only in
small-scale tectonic features.
6.9. Evaluation of Theories of Orogenesis
Of the many attempts at explaining the cause of orogenesis, only
two have been considered (until very recently) as the chief contenders
to be the correct ones: The contraction theory and the convection cur-
rent hypothesis. Both seemed to fit the known data equally well. In
the case of the contraction theory, specific calculations had been made
yielding a corroboration thereof by showing that, quantitatively, the
required amounts of cooling, contraction, upthrust and the resulting
fault-patterns are entirely reasonable;-especially if the theory is com-
bined with the notion of continental growth.
Similarly, the convection current hypothesis yielded a reasonable
explanation of tectogenes with a subsequent upthrust of mountains.
This theory, however, has not been developed to such a high quanti-
tative refinement as the contraction theory. The size of the convection
 Evaluation of Theories of Orogenesis 219

cells, the dynamical condition under which the latter are to appear and
to disappear, their distribution over the surface of the Earth, are there-
fore wide open to speculation.
However, the outcome of recent geophysical investigations casts
grave doubts upon the contraction theory as well as upon the convection
current hypothesis of orogenesi". The first of these geophysical results
is WORZEL'S work (see Sec.2.31) showing that the Mohorovicic dis-
continuity is not depressed beneath ocean trenches and thus dealing
a severe blow to the notion of tectogenes. The second is the work on
faulting in earthquake foci (ct. Sec.2.24) showing that the latter is,
in the vast majority of cases, strike-slip and not dip-slip. This runs
contrary to any idea sustained in either the contraction or the convection
current theory.
I t is therefore necessary to re-examine aU theories of orogenesis
that have ever been invented, in order to determine what can be saved
of them in the light of the presently available facts. If this is done, it
becomes immediately obvious that something fundamental is wrong
with each and every of the theories: The difficulties in the contraction
and convection theories have just been discussed; in the continental
drift theory the forces producing the shifts are a mystery; the hypothesis
of zonal rotation is rendered impossible by the rapid decay of any
differential rotation; in the undation theory it seems to be inconceiv-
able that the small inclinations which are postulated, could induce
orogenesis to take place on the required large scale; expansion theories
could presumably produce only a few fissures here and there,-and the
same is also true of hypotheses basing orogenesis upon effects of the
rotation of the Earth.
If one tries to extract something constructive out of the above
discussion, one notes first of all that the value of the extension factor y
introduced in Sec. 6.12, the fact that earthquake faulting is trans-
current, the paleoclimatic and paleomagnetic evidence all point towards
the likelihood that at least parts of the Earth's crust have undergone
considerable horizontal displacements. This points towards a continen-
tal drift hypothesis of orogenesis. The latter need not necessarily be
opposed to the idea of continental growth which might well be super-
posed upon drift. It is difficult to see, however, where the forces causing
the drift could have come from. Judging from present knowledge,
forces due to the rotation of the Earth are presumably entirely ruled
out owing to their minuteness so that convection currents would be the
only agents left. Convection currents might not have to be thought
of as forming part of a world-wide system, but they might exist in
random patterns within the mantle of the Earth. The net drag upon
each continent might therefore be the outcome of a composition of the
220 Evaluation of Theories of Orogenesis

various individual drags so that the continental path might correspond

to that of a particle subject to Brownian motion. Such a theory, how-
ever, is not entirely satisfactory either because, first of all, it is uncertain
whether the temperature distribution in the mantle and its rheological
properties are such that convection currents can exist and second,
because it is not known whether there is a significant discontinuity
(Birch discontinuity) at 900 km depth (d. Sec. 2.71) which would make
convection cells reaching across that depth impossible. One way out
of the last difficulty would be to assume that convection does not take
place above the level of the Birch discontinuity but only below it. Then
the mantle above that discontinuity would move in unison with the
crust proper. This would also account for the fact that there appears
to be no difference in focal mechanisms between deep and shallow focus
earthquakes, transcurrency being preponderant at all depths. Assuming
that primary orogenesis is felt to a depth of 700-900 km, however,
would imply that the calculation of the extension factor (Eq. 6.12-4)
has to be made with h = 900 km, yielding y = 75, which is an unreason-
able value. This, in tum, obviates one of the arguments in favor of
random convection which stood at the beginning of the present train
of thought. Thus, one has arrived at a vicious circle.
It would therefore be much more satisfactory if it could be assumed
that only the crust proper (as defined by the MohoroviCic discontinuity)
is involved in "basic" (or: "primary") orogenesis, with deep focus earth-
quakes being a secondary effect. Some unknown forces, then, (d.
Sec. 6.33) might bring about a random motion of the continents. The
very fact, however, that these forces have to remain unknown at the
present time, and that all other theories are even less satisfactory, shows
that the problem of orogenesis, in spite of many attempts, has not yet
been solved. It is one of the greatest challenges of the present day to
try to make sense of all the puzzling and often contradicting results
that geological and geophysical exploration has been uncovering.
 VII. Dynamics of Faulting and Folding
7.1. Dynamics of Faulting
7.11. Principles. We are turning our attention now to some smaller
features of the Earth's surface as compared with those which have been
considered in the preceding parts of this book. Such features are rela-
tively easily amenable to an investigation of their physical causes be-
cause of the very smallness of the scale of the phenomena.
We shall start with faults. The principal features and classes of
faults have already been described in Sec. 1.5; we shall proceed here
with their physical explanation.
From the physiographic appearance of the faults it seems likely
that they are simply the expression of localized mechanical failure of
the material of the Earth's crust. Using one of the theories of such me-
chanical failure, it should therefore be possible to reconstruct the field
of stresses which must have been in existence when a fault was caused.
If the prevalence of such a field of stresses can be rendered plausible
from other considerations about the Earth's crust, the phenomenon
of faulting will have been "explained".
The subject of mechanical failure has been discussed in Sec. 3.5
of this book. Accordingly, MOHR'S "engineering" theory gives at least
a qualitative description of how fractures occur. Based upon it, ANDER-
SON has evolved a theory of fault formation which will be discussed in
Sec. 7.12. Following this, in Sec. 7.13, we shall add a few remarks
regarding the possibility of devising an actual analytical theory of
faulting.
7.12. ANDERSON'S Theory. In this paragraph we shall review some
theories of faulting which are based upon "engineering theories" of
(brittle) fracture. The idea to explain faulting in such terms seems
to have been due originally to ANDERSON l who observed that an un-
disturbed or "standard" state of stress in the Earth's crust cannot be
entirely arbitrary. First, it must be near the breaking point as is evi-
denced by the frequency of earthquakes. Second, there can be no
pressure or tension perpendicular to the surface and no shearing force
1 ANDERSON, E. M.: Trans. Edinb. Geolog. Soc. 8, part 3, 387 (1905). -
ANDERSON, E. M.: The DynamiCll of Faulting and Dyke Formation with Appli-
cations to Britain. Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd Ltd. 1942.
222 Dynamics of Faulting

parallel to it. The latter condition implies that the normal to the sur-
face is one of the principal directions of stress at or near the surface.
Thus, except in strongly folded areas, one principal direction of stress
is nearly vertical, the other two are horizontal.
Now, assuming comparatively small disturbances of this standard
stress state in the Earth's crust, ANDERSON arrived, based on MOHR'S
engineering theory of fracture (d. Sec. 3.52), at the following explana-
tion of the three types of faults observed by geologists:
(i) Normal faults. Assuming that there is relief of pressure in all
horizontal directions, the greatest pressure is the vertical pressure
which is due to gravity. In general, the horizontal stresses will not be
equal so that the greatest tension will prevail in a certain direction.
Thus, the intermediate stress will also be horizontal, but at right angles
to the direction of greatest tension (whatever this may be) and, if frac-
ture occurs, this will happen along a plane containing the intermediate
stress and inclined at an angle ([J:s;; 45 ° toward the vertical, which is
the direction of smallest principal stress. One thus obtains the char-
acteristics of a normal fault. From the geometrical pattern of the
stresses it is obvious that the motion of the two parts must be such that
the horizontal extent is increased.
(ii) Transcurrent faults. Assume that there is an increase of pressure
in one horizontal direction and a relief of pressure in a horizontal direction
at right angles to it. The smallest principal stress is then horizontal and
the intermediate one is vertical. Now, if fracture occurs, this must
happen according to MOHR'S theory in a vertical plane inclined at an
angle ([J:;;;; 45° toward the greatest pressure. One obtains thus a fault
with a vertical dip, the motion of the two parts being essentially hori-
zontal. This is the characteristic pattern of a transcurrent fault.
(iii) Reversed faults. Assume that there is an increase of pressure
in all horizontal directions. In general, one horizontal direction will be
characterized by the fact that along it the pressure will be greatest.
Thus the minimum pressure will be vertical and the intermediate
principal stress will be horizontal, at right angles to the greatest pressure.
If conditions are such that fracture occurs, this will happen according
to MOHR'S theory along a plane inclined at an angle ([J :;;;; 45° toward
one horizontal direction, the motion of the two parts being toward each
other. One thus obtains the characteristics of a reversed fault: the
dip is shallow, and the motion is such that the horizontal extent is
shortened.
Apart from the faulting phenomena discussed above, ANDERSON'S
theory also provides for an explanation of dykes. Dykes are in the main,
nearly vertical fissures between 3 and 30 metres wide that have been
infilled with some intrusive material. The two sides of a dyke appear
 ANDERSON'S Theory 223

to have moved apart in a direction normal to the fissure such that

there is neither a lateral nor a vertical dislocation. ANDERSON explained
dykes by the remark that MOHR'S theory of fracture does not apply in
the case of a degenerate stress state. In the latter case, fracture is,
according to engineering theories, normal to the "tensile stress". Thus,
dykes may be explained by considering them as evidence of "tension
fracture". The same explanation would hold for foints.
ANDERSON'S theory, as outlined in the previous paragraphs, seems
to account for the types of faults and related phenomena that have
been observed by geologists. It might be desirable, however, to seek
a more analytical description of itc;, after all, very qualitative statements.
In this connection, HAFNERI gave an analytical representation of
ANDERSON'S standard state. He then proceeded to calculate analyti-
cally such deviations from this standard state as would seem reasonable
and which could produce faulting. The faulting patterns to be expected
were then also calculated upon the assumption of MOHR'S criterion of
fracture. The results were compared with geologically observed facts.
Thus, ANDERSON'S standard state can be expressed as a two-
dimensional stress state. Let x and y be two Cartesian coordinates,
x horizontal, y downward, in the direction of gravity (y = 0 surface),
and let the components of the stress tensor be a", (]'1' 1''''1. It is then
convenient to express the stressec; by means of AIRY'S stress function tP
so that [d. (3.21-8)J
a,,=8 2 (j)j8y2, a'1 =82(j)j8x2-egy, 1'"y=-82(j)j8x8y (7.12-1)

if gravity is the only body force and e = density. The stress function,
furthermore, has to satisfy the following equation

(7.12-2)

Then, ANDERSON'S standard state can be expressed by the following

choice of the stress function:
(7.12-3)
which yields
(]" = (]'1 = - eg y } (7.12-4)
1'"y = o.
As an example of a practical stress state, one can assume the pres-
ence of an "additional" horizontal component in addition to the stand-
ard stress state, but the absence of an associated additional verti-
cal component. This is expressed by: (no body force for additional
1 HAFNER, W.: Bull. Geolog. Soc. Amer. 62, 373 (1951).
224 Dynamics of Faulting

stress)
02qJ
a=- = 0 for all values of y. (7.12-5)
" ox2
Integrating, one obtains the stress function:
(7.12-6)
To satisfy Eq. (7.12-2), the fourth order derivatives of 11 and 12 must
vanish. Hence the second order derivatives must be either linear func-
tions of y, constants, or zero. The stress components then are

ax = c I~' (y) X + b I~' (y); a" = 0; 1'x" = - c I~ (y). (7.12-7)

The boundary conditions at the surface require that I~ = 0 for y = o.

Keeping within the limits of the above restrictions, one can set up the
following subgroups:
(a) I~ (y) = 0; I~' (y) = y + d, (7.12-8a)
ax=b(y+d); a,,=O; 1'x,,=O. (7.12-8b)
(b) I~ = y; t~' (y) = 0, (7.12-9 a)
(7.12-9b)

(c) I~(y) = ~ y2; I~' (y) = 0, (7.12-10a)

(7.12-10b)

The most general expression for the stress systems satisfying the
assumption of absence of a vertical stress component is given by the
superposition of Eqs. (7.12-8 to 7.12-10). It is seen that the stipulation
a" = 0 is associated with two additional general properties of the internal
stress system: (i) that the shearing stress is a function of y only, i.e.
constant in all horizontal planes, and (ii) that ax has linear gradients in
both the horizontal and vertical directions.
Of practical importance are the stress systems of the first two sub-
groups. The combination of (7.12-8), (7.12-9) with the standard stress
state yields (with d = 0)
ax=cx+by-ay; a,,=-ay; 1'x,,=-cy. (7.12-11)

where a = (! g. An analysis of these expressions yields that the tra-

jectories of maximum principal pressure are curved lines dipping down-
wards away from the area of maximum compression. The curvature is
stronger if the vertical gradient of ax is small. From these trajectories,
the potential fault surfaces can be calculated according to MOHR'S
 Requirements of a Theory of Earthquakes 225

criterion. The potential faults obviously belong into the class of thrust
faults. The set dipping towards the area of maximum pressure is slightly
concave upwards, the complementary set concave downwards. Thrust
faults of the former type are very common in nature and the theoreti-
cally deduced curvature is frequently observed. The latter type appears
to occur only rarely.
7.13. Analytical Theories. ANDERSON'S theory gives a good and satis-
factory qualitative explanation of the various types of faults that have
been observed by geologists. However, it does not tell us how the
breakage actually occurs, i.e. what the conditions are under which the
material fails and what the speed is with which a fault slips or extends.
In order to obtain information on the above questions, it would be
necessary to devise a complete analytical theory of faulting. Unfortu-
nately, one runs in this connection into the same difficulties as those
encountered in a discussion of the dynamics of fracture (d. Sec. 3.54):
a formulation of the appropriate dynamical laws has not yet been
achieved.
There have been some attempts at using the concept of dislocations
in connection with the fracture of materials. These studies will be
discussed when we investigate the mechanism of earthquakes in Sec. J.2.
In fact, the phenomenon of an earthquake is probably one of
slippage along a fault which occurs at the present time. It stands to
reason that the faults now visible to geologists on the surface of the
Earth were formed by the occurrence of earthquakes in the past.

7.2. Theory of Earthquakes

7.21. Requirements of a Theory of Earthquakes. The phenomenon
of the occurrence of an earthquake has been described earlier (see
Sec. 2.2). A valid explanation of this phenomenon has to account for
the various aspects of its characteristic features. First of all, one must
find a mechanism which causes stresses to be built up in those layers
of the Earth which are prone to contain earthquake foci; this problem
can be disposed of by identifying the mechanism with that causing
orogenesis, thus labelling earthquakes as geodynamic phenomena.
Second, the particular cyclic pattern in which the energy is released in
earthquake sequences must be explained; this leads to the strain rebound
theory and the "field theory" of earthquakes. Third, one has to account
for the characteristic way in which energy is radiated from the focus
during an earthquake; this has prompted one to construct a variety of
models for the focal mechanism which would suit the observed seismic
phenomena. Finally, the actual process at the focus during the occur-
rence of an earthquake is of much interest. Needless to say, these are
Scheidegger, Principles of Geodynamics 15
226 Theory of Earthquakes

all very difficult problems and no complete explanation can be hoped

for to-date.
7.22. Mechanism of Stress Creation. Let us consider first the problem
of stress creation. A suitable theory must produce the pattern of energy
release in earthquake sequences established by BENIOFF (see Sec. 2.23).
Accordingly, there seems to be a constant strain accumulation in the
world wherein, however, the energy is not released at a corresponding
steady rate, but rather in sudden bursts of short duration which occur
at frequent intervals.
We have already referred to an interpretation of this phenomenon
which may be called "strain rebound theory", originally proposed by
BENIOFF (d. Sec. 3.63). Accordingly, the strain in the world is assumed
to be built up steadily by some basic orogenetic process (e.g. contrac-
tion). At a certain instant, the breaking strength of the rock is reached
and a fracture (an earthquake) develops. As soon as this has happened,
the resistance to further motion along the fracture surface (i.e. fault)
is greatly decreased (the fault is "greased") so that subsequent adjust-
ments (aftershocks) may occur at frequent intervals. The energy for
the aftershocks is supplied by the strain rebound owing to a Kelvin
effect (d. Sec. 3.63) in the mantle of the Earth.
The above theory gives a good explanation for the phenomenological
pattern of earthquake aftershock sequences. However, there seems
to be a similar pattern of energy release apparent if the sequence of
world earthquakes is investigated. As was pointed out in Sec. 2.23
(see also Fig. 19), time intervals of high seismic activity alternate with
time intervals of low activity, the characteristic period being about
10 years. This is true for the sequence of world shallow earthquakes and
seems to be also true for the earthquakes in anyone seismic zone. It
is hardly conceivable that this could be the outcome of the same Kelvin
effect held responsible for aftershock sequences since the required
relaxation times are quite different in the two cases. It seems therefore
desirable to seek a mechanism which could produce such patterns of
alternating activity.
An interesting attempt along these lines has been made by MATU-
ZAWA 1 by the proposal of his "field theory" of earthquakes. An earth-
quake field is a part of the crust of the Earth which produces periodi-
cally swarms of earthquakes. Such a field is, according to MATUZAWA,
a heat engine which functions intermittently. The driving force of this
engine is the constantly supplied heat flow from the interior of the
Earth where it is assumed that in seismic areas the heat flow is some-

lMATUZAWA, T.: Bull. Earthq. Res. lnst. Tokyo 31, 179,249 (1953); 32, 231,
341 (1954).
 Mechanism of Stress Creation 227

what larger than in seismically inactive zones. This would cause the
temperature in seismic areas to rise which in turn would produce stresses
which eventually could cause an earthquake swarm as soon as the
breaking strength of rocks is exceeded. Once an earthquake swarm is
started, it may itself be capable of dissipating the excess heat beneath
it rather rapidly so that the process then could start all over again.
This would produce the cyclic appearance of earthquake sequences.
MATUZAWA considered two thermal mechanisms which might be
capable of producing stresses. The first is the obvious one of producing
the stresses by thermal expansion. MATUZAWA found (with reasonable
assumptions for the constants involved) that the seismic zones in the
upper part of the mantle would have to be heated to a temperature
by 100° C higher than the surrounding aseismic zones to reach stresses
equal to the breaking strength of rocks. To expect this to occur every
10 years or so is certainly somewhat unreasonable. MATUZAWA therefore
considered a second possibility, viz. the assumption that a solid-liquid
phase transformation would occur at the bottom of the crust. Such
phase transitions are governed by the well-known Clausius-Clapeyron
equation
(7.22-1)

where Ll P is the. increase in pressure necessary in order to maintain

equilibrium if the temperature is raised by the amount Ll T (OK); L is
the heat of melting (per gram) and vI> V 2 are the specific volumes (per
gram) of the liquid and solid phases, respectively. Using suitable con-
stants (VI = 0.385, V 2 = 0.346, T = 1500° K, L = 360 joule/gram) one
obtains the result that a temperature increase of 5° K requires an
increase of pressure of 3 X 108 dyne/cm 2 to maintain equilibrium. If the
mantle is assumed to be in a critical equilibrium state, it follows that a
greater pressure is required to maintain this eqUilibrium in a region
where the temperature is higher than in the surrounding region; for a
5° temperature increase, the required pressure increase is, as outlined
above, 3 X 108 dyne/cm 2 • Now, if a temperature increase of 5° is assumed
as a reasonable one to occur in the region of an earthquake field, this
means that, under the above assumption of a critical equilibrium state,
the pressure beneath the crust in an earthquake area must be higher by
the calculated amount as compared with the surrounding areas. MATUZAWA
shows that such an increase in pressure is indeed capable of producing
stresses in the crust which are of the order of the breaking strength of
rocks. In order to do this he took as models of earthquake fields plates
of various shapes (circular, elliptic) with fixed rim, subject to a pressure
on one side. In the case of a circular model, MATUZAWA chose the
following constants and dimensions: thickness h = 25 km, radius
15*
228 Theory of Earthquakes

a = 2h, modulus of elasticity E = 1.25 X 1012 dyne/cm 2, POISSON'S ratio

m = 1/4. The result was that the maximum shear stress is of the same
order of magnitude as the pressure increase (3 X 108 dynes/cm 2) and
hence of the order of the breaking strength of rocks. The corresponding
volume increase Ll V, owing to the upbulging of the plate, turns out to
be LlV=5.1X1016 cm3. It must be assumed, of course, that an equal
volume Ll V below the plate is being filled with molten material during
the build-up of stresses. As soon as the breaking occurs, the pressure
below the considered part of the crust will collapse, heat will escape
and great seismic activity will follow. This process may be assumed to
repeat itself at regular intervals.
The possibility of the above mechanism hinges on whether enough
heat can be supplied to cause the required differential heating. Taking
the heat of melting as equal to 9.4 X 109 erg/cm3 yields that a total
amount of heat of H = 9 X 10 27 erg is required to melt the above-
calculated volume Ll V. This amount of heat must be conducted into
and out of the area of the earthquake field during the time interval of
one cycle (about 10 years). Thus, the total heat flow in an earthquake
area consistent with the above mechanism would have to be

H
-- 2 i , . . . .=,
X --- 10-2 calidego sec. cm 2. (7.22-2)
:rca 10 years

This is by about the factor 10 4 higher than any normally observed

heat flows.
The explanation of the required high heat flow, thus, constitutes
one of the main difficulties in the field theory of earthquakes although
some investigations regarding this point have recently been published
by AKI1. Furthermore it may also be remarked that there is, in fact,
no indication that the material in the Earth's upper mantle is in a
critical state.
7.23. Models of Earthquake Foci. Models of earthquake foci have
been referred to already in this study in Sec. 2.24. We shall investigate
here somewhat more closely some of the assumptions adopted there.
The whole issue in the construction of models is to explain the
pattern of displacements observed at seismological observatories in
terms of a focal mechanism. The observed displacements are partly
conditioned by the properties of the medium transmitting the waves;
it is therefore first necessary to reduce them to the abstract case of
seismic rays emanating in all directions from the focus into a homo-
geneous medium. This can be done by the device (also mentioned in
Sec. 2.24) of introducing a focal sphere; i.e. a sphere of homogeneous
1 AKI, K.: J. Phys. Earth 4, 53 (1956).
 Models of Earthquake Foci 229

material enclosing the focal region, the sphere being large compared
with the focal region. In the focal sphere, all seismic rays are straight.
As was outlined earlier, each seismic station corresponds to a point on
the surface of the focal sphere; the equivalent displacement on that
surface can be inferred from seismic observations. This can be done
with the aid of travel-time curves and with the aid of results of wave-
transmission theory which is beyond the scope of the present study.
Then, the task is to construct such models of the focal mechanism so
that the induced motions on the
surface of the focal sphere tally Il
with those which are inferred t
->---1r--"_f...i0P of fowl sphere
from actual observations.
The types of models that --.. . . . . .... 0 I1 / / " .....-
have been proposed for this of ~~on ..................1/ /

purpose fall into three cate- / .r-,

/ I ,
gories: (i) a fault with rigid / I '
/ I "
/ 1
motion of the two halves of ~ fOCl/S
the focal sphere; (ii) a point I
I
source (i.e. a suddenly applied
single force, dipole etc.) at
the center of the focal sphere,
(iii) a dislocation at the center
of the sphere. In the cases
(ii) and (iii) the interior of
the focal sphere is taken as Fig. 75. P nodes
perfectly elastic.
Turning first to the model assuming a fault with rigid motion of the
two halves, we note that the displacements can be read easily from the
picture of the focal sphere in Fig. 20. Of particular interest is the
position of the nodal lines of P, SH and SV (d. Sec. 2.24 for the defini-
tion of these terms) for a given fault . These are lines on the surface of
the focal sphere on which the P, SH or SV motion is zero. These nodal
lines can be compared with the actually observed zero lines for the
first impulse of the corresponding seismic phases.
With regard to the P component, an inspection of the focal sphere
shows at once that firstly the trace of the fault plane and secondly the
trace of the plane perpendicular to the motion vector (which has been
termed "auxiliary" plane) separate regions of outward radial motion (0)
from regions of inward radial motion (.6) . Therefore they represent the
nodal lines for P. The situation corresponding to the same faulting as
in Fig. 20 is outlined in Fig. 75. From the discussion given here it
becomes obvious that, by P observations alone, one is not able to
distinguish between fault plane and auxiliary plane.
230 Theory of Earthquakes

The nodes for SH can be calculated as follows . The sign of the SH

motion is that of the horizontal component of the tangential displace-
ment on the surface of the focal sphere, i.e. of that component which is
normal to the plane through the focus and the vertical direction. It is
obvious that this component is zero, firstly, on the fault plane, and
secondly, on a plane containing the vertical direction, the focus, and the
pole of the motion. The latter fact becomes apparent immediately
upon inspection of the focal sphere in Fig. 20. Therefore, the nodal
13
~,.

Fig. 76. SH nodes

lines pertaining to SH upon the surface of the focal sphere are as shown
in Fig. 76, where the position of the fault corresponds to that assumed
in Fig. 20.
Finally, the sign of SV is identical to that of the component of the
tangential displacement on the surface of the focal sphere which lies in
the plane of the ray. The plane of the ray is that plane which contains
the focus, the top of the focal sphere and that point S' on the focal
sphere which is under consideration. In order to determine the nodal
lines of SV, one can note firstly, that the trace of the fault plane must
be such a nodal line, and secondly, that one is faced with the task of
determining the geometrical locus of all such points S where the SV
component of the motion on the surface of the focal sphere is zero, i.e.
where the tangential motion is orthogonal to the plane of the ray.
This means that in the spherical triangle formed by the points Pole,
S' and Top on the focal sphere, the angle Pole-S'-Top must be a right
one. This yields the following condition:

cos r:t. = tan b cot c (7.23-1)

 Models of Earthquake Foci 231

where Ot denotes the difference between the azimuth of S' and the azi-
muth of the pole of the motion as seen from the top of the sphere, b is
the declination of S' and c the declination of the pole of the motion from
the top of the sphere. The curve described by Eq. (7.23-1) is not a
simple one, it is not even plane. The stereographic projection of a
family of such curves (for various values of c) is shown in Fig. 77.
I t is quite obvious that the above model of an earthquake focus is
a gross oversimplification of the physical facts. It is hardly believable

Fig. 77. SV nodes, in stereographic projection (after MALINOVSKAYA ')

that the motion at a distance from the focus is exactly that which would
occur if the whole sphere were sliced and the halves would move rigidly.
Nevertheless, it is interesting to note that the nodes observed in earth-
quakes correspond in the vast majority of cases to just those which have
been postulated in the above theory. It thus appears that the model
of "rigid faulting " at least describes the signs of the first impulses of
the P, SH, and SV phases correctly.
The most obvious attempt to introduce a model which is physically
more realistic is by assuming various types of multi pole forces which
are suddenly or periodically applied at the center of the focal sphere.
The displacements at the surface of the sphere can then be calculated
by methods of the theory of elasticity 2, 1. If this is done, it turns out
that a dipole force with a moment, applied at the center of the focal
sphere, produces exactly the same nodal lines as those obtained by the
model of rigid faulting. Other types of forces have also been tried,
1 MALINOVSKAYA, L. N.: Trudy Geofiz. in-ta Akad. Nauk SSSR, No. 22 (149)
143 (1954).
2 NAKANO, H.: Seism. Bull. Centro Met. Obs. Japan 1, 92 (1923).
232 Theory of Earthquakes

but it appears that the ensuing nodal lines are not realized in natural
earthquakes 1. It is also possible to calculate the magnitudes of the
various phases outside the nodal lines. The theoretical ratios of the
magnitudes (i.e. P/SH, SH/SV etc.) can then be compared with the
amplitude ratios observed on the corresponding earthquake phases. It
turns out, however, that neither the rigid fault nor the dipole force
yield entirely satisfactory results. The same seems to be true for other
models along these lines, such as one assuming a sudden dislocation at
the center of the focal sphere 2.
In order to compare amplitudes, it appears of fundamental impor-
tance to know how the slippage progresses along the fault surface of
an earthquake. None of the above mentioned models get to the bottom
of this question. Therefore only the first impulse of each phase has been
explained by them.
7.24. The Friction at an Earthquake Fault. From the models of earth-
quake foci discussed above, it appears that the assumption of a simple
fault has at least a great likelihood of being correct. In order to get a
proper understanding of the phenomenon of an earthquake, it is neces-
sary to have a detailed picture of the mechanism of slip along the fault.
This is of particular interest because the process of faulting in an earth-
quake is probably not much different from the process occurring in
geological faulting.
At first glance it would appear that earthquakes are not even me-
chanically possible. The surface-roughness of broken rocks causes,
under ordinary (laboratory-) circumstances, the latter to have a coeffi-
cient of friction of 1=2. At 100 km depth the pressure is roughly
P = 3 X 1()1o dynes/cm2. (7.24-1)
This means that, with a coefficient of friction of 1=2, one needs a
tangential stress of
T = IP = 6 X 1010 dynes/cm 2 (7.24-2)
to slide one rock face over another. However, this required tangential
stress is about 10 times larger than the yield stress of rocks. Hence
earthquakes appear to be impossible.
The only possible way to resolve the above dilemma is by assuming
that the coefficient of friction must, in effect, be much smaller than
1=2 suggested by laboratory experiments. An indication why this
might be so is obtained from the work of BOWDEN 3 on the microscopics
1 Except, however, that HONDA noted that a quadrupole mechanism seems to
fit data in Japan better than any other mechanism. Cf. Sec. 2.24.
2 VVEDENSKAYA, A. V.: Izv. Akad. Nauk SSSR., Ser. geofiz. 1956, 277.
3 BOWDEN, F. P., D. TABOR: The Friction and Lubrication of Solids. Oxford:
Clarendon Press 1954.
 Fracture Theories of Earthquakes 233

of friction. Accordingly, under ordinary circumstances, the actual area

of contact (not to be confused with the apparent area of contact) be-
tween two sliding surfaces is in fact very small, due to minute surface
irregularities. During sliding, pressures across the actual area of con-
tact are always very great; in fact so great as to cause plastic yielding
and flow. If the pressure between the two sliding bodies is increased,
the actual area of contact is simply increased proportionally which yields
the customary linear law of dry friction implied in Eq. (7.24-2).
Extrapolating the above picture to very high pressures, it can be
argued that one should expect that, at a certain stage, complete contact
(Le. a saturation point) would be reached between the sliding surfaces
and hence that at that stage the linear law of dry friction should break
down. It is easy to calculate the pressure beyond which the law of dry
friction is certain to break down. BOWDEN'S (1. c., p.31) data show
that in the case of steel, the area of contact is a fraction of 1/(9.5 X 10 3)
of the total area per pressure of 1 kg/cm2. Thus, if the law of dry fric-
tion were valid to very high pressures, i.e. if the area of contact would
remain proportional to the load, the saturation point would be reached
at a pressure of 9.5 X 10 3 kg/cm 2 = 9.5 X 109 dynes/cm2. Beyond this
pressure, the mechanism of dry friction as envisaged by BOWDEN could
certainly no longer be valid. This "saturation" pressure, however, is
lower than the pressure at 100 km depth.
This would account for an apparently much lowered coefficient
of dry friction at depth. Furthermore, friction also causes much heat
to be produced which, in turn, might help to soften the material adjacent
to the fault surface, thus again lowering the resistance to sliding. The
absence of pronounced chemical evidence regarding this point, however,
shows that heating cannot be too great.
Unfortunately, no further quantitative corroporations of the above
qualitative arguments are as yet available.
7.25. Fracture Theories of Earthquakes. We come now to the central
problem of strain release during an earthquake. Since earthquakes have
much in common with fracture processes, the logical thing to do is to
attempt to go through the various theories of fracture and to see whether
a suitable explanation of earthquakes can be obtained from them.
Earthquakes have always the appearance of sudden shocks, and
therefore only those theories of fracture can be relevant which exhibit
high-velocity crack propagation.
First of all, one would think of the earthquake mechanism as being
one of brittle fracture. This would imply the validity of MOHR'S fracture
criterion, i.e. the postulate that the stresses producing the fractures are
such that the fracture surface is inclined by about 30° toward the
234 Theory of Earthquakes

maximum principal pressure and contains the intermediate principal

stress. Equally, turning to the microscopics of brittle fracture, one
would assume the Griffith mechanism and a crack propagation velo-
city derived from Eq. (3.53-10). In this interpretation, an earth-
quake would correspond to a sudden extension at the margin of an old
or creation of a new fracture, the sweep of the edge at high speed provid-
ing the shock.
Straightforward as such a theory might appear, it has some unsatis-
factory aspects. Brittle fracture represents essentially the opening up
of a crack, and it is very doubtful whether at the depths at which earth-
quakes occur, cleavage could occur at all. Furthermore, it is most
doubtful whether the material can be assumed as brittle.
The next possibility is therefore to think of some high-velocity ductile
fracture. However, this also represents essentially the opening up of a
crack with the extension of the crack at its edges causing the shock.
This seems improbable.
It appears therefore indicated that one should look for a mechanism
where the shock is produced by a sudden slippage along a pre-existing
fault surface. The aspects of such a phenomenon are very much like
that described in the intergranular type of fracture, although it is of
course unlikely that it is crystal grains which provide the interlocking.
In connection with the discussion of intergranular fracture, we have
mentioned, however, that a similar type of stress release could be
expected in any material that exists of two different structuraJ elements.
Analytically, the intermittent sliding along a pre-existing fracture
surface can be described by the mechanism of snapping dislocations l
(for the definition of dislocations, see. Secs. 3.22 and 3.54). The general
idea of snapping dislocations has been explained in Sec. 3.54. However,
it is now necessary to envisage physical conditions for the start and
continuation of the snapping process along the earthquake fault.
It has already been stated that it is quite impossible to try to give
a proper analytical description of a fracture process, and therefore it is
also impossible to give an exact analysis of the snapping of dislocations.
The best that can be hoped for, are therefore statistical considerations.
In order to do this, HOUSNER l split the whole earthquake fault into slip
areas A in which the slip is constant, i.e. areas which are active in anyone
earthquake. He then assumed that the expected number of slips having
areas between A and A +dA would be proportional to dAIA, i.e. he
assumed a statistical frequency distribution I of slip areas A which may
be written 1= C ~ = C~ (7.25-1)
A x
1 HOUSNER, G. W.: A Dislocation Theory of Earthquakes, 34pp. Cal. Inst.
Technol. Rep. N 6-onr-244. - Bull. Seism. Soc. Amer. 45,197 (1955).
 The Problem of Folding 235

where a o is the minimum value of A. Normalization yields

c= -c------:-
log Xl - log xD
(7.25-2)

where Xl is the largest and Xo the smallest possible value of x. Hence

the frequency distribution can be expressed as follows
/ _
- log Xl -
1
log Xo x.
• 1 (7.25-3)

As a measure of an earthquake, HOUSNER took the average slip 5

occurring along the fault. This he connected by a logarithmic measure
with the RICHTER magnitude M which led to the following formula:
dM=d5j5. (7.25-4)
Integrating, HOUSNER obtained
5 = 50 eM. (7.25-5)
If it be further assumed that all dislocations are geometrically similar,
the slips must be proportional to the square root of the area A. Hence:
(7.25-6)
and finally with (7.25-1):
/=conste- 2M • (7.25-7)
The last equation (7.25-7) may be compared with the frequency
distribution of earthquakes in anyone area, M being taken as the
RICHTER magnitude. According to HOUSNER, the agreement is good.
A similar test can be made with Eq. (7.25-6) regarding the areas
affected by earthquakes of anyone magnitude. From an analysis of
observational data HaUSNER obtained
Ao = 0.0012 sq. miles = 3.1 X 107 cm 2 • (7.25-8)
Similarly, he obtained for the constant 50 in (7.25-5):
50 = 0.25 inches = 0.64 cm . (7.25-9)
These are values which appear to be reasonable. They permit one to
calculate the average slip and area of slip for earthquakes of anyone
magnitude.

7.3. Analytical Theories of Folding

7.31. The Problem of Folding. A study of the mechanics of folding
must yield an explanation of the very large contortions evident in the
physiography of mountain ranges. It is obvious that this will have to
be achieved by a recourse to the rheology of the Earth. We have point-
ed out in Sec. }.6 that one and the same material, although it may
236 Analytical Theories of Folding

appear as very strong in tests involving only short time intervals, may
have totally different rheological properties when it is subject to stresses
of very long duration.
Therefore, the approach to the explanation of folding has been one
of trying to apply each one of the basic rheological equations of state to
the problem. First of all, one would think of folding as being simply
due to elastic instability as exhibited by buckling. Although results
suggestive of simple folds are obtained in this fashion, the main ob-
jections against such theories stem from the observation that the de-
formations in natural folding are certainly exceeding the elastic limit.
The next step, therefore, is to assume infinite flexibility to bending
of the strata, but retaining most of the other concepts of elasticity
theory. This does not lead to a very satisfactory explanation either.
The ultimate explanation of folding, therefore, can only be achieved
by assigning to the material in question general rheological properties.
Unfortunately, except for a few cases of plastic buckling, no such cases
have ever been rigorously discussed. The reason for this is that any
exact treatment of such questions involves extreme analytical diffi-
culties.
7.32. Buckling. In order to demonstrate how elastic buckling could
give rise to folds, let us consider the following idealized case. A rectangu-
lar piece of the crust of the Earth is represented by a thin plate of the
same shape (but thought of as plane). A force F is acting in the original
plane of this plate normal to one of its edges. Then, for an elastic
material, the condition of equilibrium is
-F y (x) = M d 2 y/dx 2 (7.3 2-1)
where F is the force, y the deflection of the plate from its original plane,
x the coordinate in the direction of the acting force, and M a constant
indicative of the resistance of the plate to bending depending on its
elastic parameters. In Eq. (7.32-1) the left-hand side represents the
moment of the force exercised upon the plate at the point x, the right
hand side is the resistance to bending of the plate, being assumed as
proportional to the local curvature which is equal to d2 y/d x 2 for small
deflections.
The solution of Eq. (7.32-1) is

y=Asin(~x) + BCOS(~X) (7.3 2-2)

where A, B are constants of integration to be determined from the

boundary conditions. If we assume for the latter, say,
yeo) = y(X) = 0 (7·32-3)
 Theories Assuming Infinitely Flexible Strata 237

it becomes at once obvious that, in general, no solutions of the assumed

type (i.e. bulging) exist; that is one obtains

A = B=O. (7.3 2-4)

The plate, if it be subjected to the indicated force, will simply contract
a little under the load and will not bulge. However if F has a certain
particular value given by (i.e. it is equal to an eigenvalue of the system)

(7.3 2-5)

with n denoting any even integer, then the solution becomes (B = 0)

. (n:n- X) '
y= A sm (7.3 2-6)
2 X
and this satisfies the boundary conditions for any A. Thus, if F reaches
an eigenvalue of the equation, the plate will buckle. The lowest eigen-
value of F produces a sinusoidal halfwave with arbitrarily great ampli-
tude. For F above the first eigenvalue, the deformation becomes un-
stable. The first mode of buckling, being in the shape of a sinusoidal
half-wave, has some resemblance with a fold. This resemblance has been
used for an explanation of folding. A representative example of this
kind has been calculated in Sec. 6.24 in connection with the contraction
theory.
However, we have already mentioned that the assumption of a
basically elastic behavior of the materials involved is hardly justified
in view of the large permanent deformations that are evidenced in the
crust of the Earth. It is therefore seen that buckling will at best give
an indication where folds will start, with another mechanism taking
over as soon as deformations become established. Accordingly, we shall
return to the buckling hypothesis in connection with the discussion of
systems of folds.
7.33. Theories Assuming Infinitely Flexible Strata. A semi-analytical
solution of the folding problem assuming the mechanism of deformation
to be that of infinitely flexible sheets, has been given by DE SITTERI.
According to DE SITTER, the mechanism of folding is the result of the
following conditions: (a) during folding, the volume of the strata is
conserved and (b) each infinitesimal layer undergoes only bending.
Furthermore, DE SITTER assumed the "principle of concentric folding"
which is expressed by the assumption that the surface of a folded layer
is formed by three circles (cf. Fig. 78). DE SITTER thus arrived at the
picture of folding illustrated in Fig. 78; in this Figure, unprimed letters
IDE SITTER, L. U.: Proc. Kon. Ned. Akad. Wet. 52, No.5 (1939).
238 Analytical Theories of Folding

refer to the situation before folding, whereas primed letters refer to the
situation after folding. The folding has been caused by the compression
by the amounts 2s of the original strata. It is easy to see that above
the line through B, the two laws stipulated by DE SITTER are indeed
satisfied, below that line this is, however, not the. case. Thus, the
material from the first shaded area must have been transferred into

F ig. 78. DE SITTER'S' model of folding

that of the second one by plastic flow or some such phenomenon. More-
over, even above the line through B, DE SITTER is certainly satisfying
his two assumptions, but it is quite obvious that this is not the only
solution satisfying those principles. It may be observed that the solu-
tion of DE SITTER is not a real "explanation" of folds as the cause of
the latter is not reduced to a field of forces, nor is any attempt made at
a rationalization what forces could produce the particular type of
bending assumed by DE SITTER. That the two laws are satisfied, is not
sufficient to account for this, as they are only an expression of the
conservation of area and matter.
The theory of DE SITTER has been modified by TIEDEMANN 2. The
latter author replaced the circles which make up the form of a concentric
1 DE SITTER, L. U.: Proc. Kon . Ned. Akad. Wet. 52, No. 5 (1939).
2 TIEDEMANN, A. W.: Geologie en Mijnbouw 3,199 (1941).
 Theories Assuming Infinitely Flexible Strata 239

fold, by sine-curves. As in DE SITTER'S scheme, the two fundamental

assumptions are adhered to. It is fairly easy to calculate the shapes
of a series of sine-curves that make up the strata in a layer of the Earth,
and one thus obtains a picture as shown in Fig. 79. It will be observed
that the lower boundary of possible folding is now not a surface below
which one has to assume plastic
deformation or such like, but
rather a "shearing plane" above \
which a displacement takes place, \
\
but below which everything re- \
mains fixed. \
Referring to Fig. 79, one has
,
\
\
for a point on the curve:
y = ihsin nx/cp.
, \
(7·33-1)
\
\
From the geometry apparent in \

Fig. 79, one can form the following

equations which are based upon
the fundamental assumptions:
A x h
area A' FH }
(7·33-2)
=icph=sh,
L = length A' toF }
(7·33-3)
=AF = cp+ s.
Shearing plant
However, the length of the sine
Fig. 79. TIEDEMANN'S' model of folding
curve can be calculated; one has:
dL = (1 + y'2)! dx = (1 + n2)! (1 - [n2/(1 + n2)] sin 2 n x/cp)! dx (7.33-4)
with n 2 = n 2h2/4cp2, and hence
L = 2 (1 + n2)!E(k).cp/n (7·33-5)
where E (k) is a standard elliptic integral:
",/2
E(k) = f (1 - k2sin2x)!dx (7·33-6)
o
with
(7·33-7)
The integral E (k) has been tabulated; using its values, one can calculate
the values for h for various assumptions for sand d. It can be readily
seen that the process of folding can be explained by a continuous move-
1 TIEDEMANN, A.W.: Geologie en Mijnbouw 3,199 (1941).
240 Model Experiments of Faults and Folds

ment, simply by adjusting the parameter n for the neighboring strata

accordingly. One thus arrives at a series of folds as depicted in Fig. 79.
The theory of TIEDEMANN is open to the same criticisms as that of
DE SITTER: The mechanism of folding is not uncovered as the sine-
curve type of bending is nothing but an arbitrary shape satisfying two
laws of continuity. Moreover, it is quite certain that the second law
(which prohibits the areal extent of a stratum from being altered) is
not fulfilled because of the almost certain preponderance of plastic
extensions in the folding process.
7.34. General Rheology. The final section on folding should be de-
voted to the mathematics of fold formation assuming a general rheolo-
gical equation of state of the material. Unfortunately, the theory of
fold formation based on these assumptions is still unwritten and no
report on it can therefore be given. It is possible that the advent of
high-speed computing devices will enable one to overcome the tremen-
dous analytical difficulties involved so that some progress in this di-
rection may be made in the years to come.

7.4. Model Experiments of Faults and Folds

7.41. Theory of Scale Models. Owing to the difficulty of describing
the deformation of rocks apparent in faults and folds by analytical
means, emphasis has been placed upon experimental investigations.
The basis of such experimental investigations is the mechanical
theory of scaling. The general principles of scaling have been known
in physics for a long time, but it is to the credit of HUBBERT l to have
pointed out their significance in connection with geodynamical problems.
The general principles of mechanical scaling are based upon the fact
that the scaling factors between the model and nature must be chosen
in such a manner so as to cause all the relevant dynamical equations to
become identities if the scaling factors are inserted in place of the
quantities themselves. This can be exemplified as follows. Assume a
dynamical system whose behavior is completely described by NEWTON'S
law of motion
F=Md 2 X/dT2 (7.41-1)

where F signifies the force, M the mass, X the displacement and T time.
If we denote the corresponding scaling factors by t, m, x, t respectively
and insert them into the equation of motion, we obtain the following
scaling condition:
t = m xft2. (7.41-2)
1 HUBBERT, M. K.: Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 48, 1459 (1937). - Bull. Amer.
Ass. Petrol. Geol. 29, 1630 (1945). - Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 62, 355 (1951).
 Faults 241

The relationship between the various scaling factors is therefore the

same as that between the dimensions of the various quantities involved.
Since, in a mechanical system, there are three independent dimensional
units (usually chosen as length, mass and time) it follows that there are,
in general, three independent scaling factors that one is able to choose at
will. All other scaling factors are then prescibed.
This can be illustrated in a practical example. In the discussion of
geodynamic phenomena, it is of importance to know by what material
the rocks should be represented. Thus, let us assume that we want to
make a model with a length reduction of x = 5 X 10-6 (i.e. 1 km is rep-
resented by 5 mm). For practical reasons, there are limits set to the
reduction in density which may be assumed of the order of 1/2. A further
quantity that is fixed is the ratio in gravity (the latter is an acceleration)
which is unity since the gravitational attraction in the laboratory is
the same as that in nature.
With the ratios of length, density and acceleration being given, all
others will be prescribed. One finds easily for the mass reduction
m = 6.25 X 10-17 and for the time reduction t = 2.24 X 10-3 • In order to
determine what material would be suitable to represent the rocks, one
can now determine the required reduction in strength. The strength is
expressed in terms of a stress, and one finds therefore for its ratio
s = 2.5 xi 0-6 • If this be compared with the strength of granite of
2 X 109 dynes/cm 2 , one finds that the model-material must have a
strength of 5 X 10 3 dynes/cm 2 • This represents a rather weak material;
a cube of 3.3 cm to the side or larger would not stand up under its own
weight. Thus it turns out that e.g. sand would be a good example.
It may be noted that in most geodynamic processes, one is faced
with the condition that it is permissible to neglect inertia forces: the
motions are usually so slow that one proceeds through a series of equili-
brium states. Under such circumstances, it is possible to ignore the
required scaling factors of time. One has only to insure that in the
model the experiments are performed slowly enough to permit one to
ignore inertia terms.
7.42. Faults. The theory of scaling outlined above shows that it is
permissible to try to duplicate geological structures by means of experi-
ments.
In order to duplicate faulting, it has been proven to be most con-
venient to take ganular materials such as sand, lead-shot etc. A series
of beautiful experiments has been reported by NETTLETON and ELKINS1
who achieved the duplication of many well-known types of faults, in-
cluding cliffs.
1 NETTLETON, L. L., T. A. ELKINS: Trans. Amer. Geophys. Un. 23, 451.
Scheidegger, Principles of Geodynamics 16
242 Model Experiments of Faults and Folds

Other experiments on faulting have been performed by CLOOS 1 ,

RIEDEL2, HUBBERT 3 and LEE and coworkers 4 • The last authors report-
ed experiments with clay on shear fractures. In all these experiments,
the general idea that geological faulting is nothing but the expression
of MOHR'S ideas of fracture in rock strata,-as envisaged by ANDERSON,
has been beautifully confirmed. Adrawing of a typical model-experiment,
showing both faulting and folding (d. next Section) is shown in Fig. 80.

/ I------~
Fig. 80. Drawing of a model experiment showing faulting and folding. After H UBBERT'

7.43. Folds. The remarks of Sec. 7.41 on scaling are particularly

important with regard to the explanation of folding. The fact that it
has been shown that rock strata, in a small-scale model, must be re-
presented by a very soft material, has the effect that it is no longer
difficult to understand why the rock strata actually should have been
contorted to the fabulous extent uncovered by field geology. In a mate-
rial with a yield strength as low as that calculated in Sec. 7.41, plasti-
city and creep must have a major effect. This also makes it very doubt-
ful whether elasticity (through buckling) could have had a major in-
fluence on folding. At best, buckling might give the folding process a
start and perhaps determine the location of the final faults. It is thus
not at all necessary to postulate that the contortions of the strata had
to occur during some catastrophe at high temperature.
Experiments on folding have been performed by HUBBERT 5 , BELOUSOV
et a1. 6 , KUENEN and DE SITTER 7 , and others. The last-mentioned authors
performed a particularly beautiful set of experiments, making use of
various types of plastic materials. In every instance, results very sug-
gestive of geological folding have been obtained.
1CLOOS, H . : Natur u . Mus. 6 (193). - Centralbl. f. Min. & C., 273 (1932).
2RIEDEL, W . : Centralbl. i. Min. & C. (B), 354 (1929).
3 HUBBERT, M. K.: Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 62, 355 (1951) .
4 LEE, J. S., C. H. CHEN, M . T. LEE: Bull. Geol. Soc. China 28, No. 1-2, 25
(1948).
I> HUBBERT, M. K.: Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer . 62,355 (1951).
6 BELOUSOV, V . V., E . I. CHERTKOVA, V. V. Ez: Byull. Mosk. ob-va. ispyt.
prirody, otd . geol. 30, No 5 (1955) .
7 KUENEN, P. H., and L. U. DE SITTER: Leidsche Geol. Med . 10, 217 (1938).
 Fracture Systems 243

The use of scale models to "explain" folding does not, in fact, pro-
vide an actual "explanation" of the process. The mechanism of pro-
ducing the folds is not any better understood in the model than it is
in nature. Nevertheless, the duplication of natural phenomena on a
small scale shows that the evident geological effects of crustal shortening
are nothing supernatural or catastrophic, but the reasonable outcome
of a reasonable process. Owing to mathematical difficulties, the analyti-
cal calculation of the resulting folds from a given external stress field
is probably still a long way off and model experiments will be the only
way to treat the problem for some time to come.

7.5. Theory of Systems of Faults and Folds

7.51. The Problem. We finally have to provide a link between the
mechanics of mountain-building discussed in Sec. 6 and the mechanics
of producing the small-scale elements of such mountains, i.e. faults and
folds. This leads us to the discussion of systems of faults and folds.
Such questions, of course, have already been touched upon in the
chapter on orogenesis, particularly with regard to such theories of faults
and folds that are of specific interest to only one type of hypothesis
of mountain building. We shall give here a more complete review of
all such theories of systems of folds and faults than has been done
earlier, wherein of course proper references to cases that have already
been treated elsewhere will be given.
A suitable classification of theories of systems of faults and folds
seems to be suggested by the various types of rheological behavior of
the Earth's crust which they surmise. These types reach from elastic
behavior all the way to complete fluidity. We shall ..tart with brittle
fracture, then proceed to elasticity, plasticity, general "rheidity" and
fluidity.
7.52. Fracture Systems. We have noted in Sec. 7.12 that faults and
dykes often occur in the form of parallel systems. An explanation of
this is at once suggested by assuming a state of uniform stress, wherein
every single fault of the system would be caused by fracture as envis-
aged by ANDERSON (d. Sec. 7.12).
The above argument can even be carried further. ANDERSON! notes
that the occurrence of any fault in a uniform stress system will in
general tend to restore the standard state. The pattern of a fault-
system may therefore change after the development of some of the faults
owing to the reaction of the latter onto the stress system.
ANDERSON calculated the change of stresses due to the development
of a transcurrent fault by using the solution of INGLIS (d. Sec. 3.21)
1 ANDERSON, E. M.: 1. c., p. 160.
16*
244 Theory of Systems of Faults and Folds

of stress around an elliptic crack in a plate. Thus, he assumes that

there exists a vertical transcurrent fault of length 2c with the coordi-
nate x being taken along the strike and y normal to the strike of the
fault in a horizontal plane. The "additional" stress system (i.e. the
stresses "additional" to ANDERSON'S standard state), which produced
this fault must have had its principal axes inclined at 45° and 135° to
the strike of the fault. Introducing elliptic coordinates IX, {3 with

x = c cosh IX cos {3, }

(7.52-1)
y = csinhlXsin{3

I
permits one to express the additional stresses at infinity after the
formation of the fault as follows:

Taa = K sin 2{3 ,

Tap = K COS 2{3 , (7.52-2)
Tpp = - Ksin 2{3
where K is some constant related to the strength of the rock. After

I
the fault has occurred, one has the further condition that all the stresses
must vanish at the fault surface. INGLIS has given the solution for this
case; one obtains from (3.21-33):

Taa

Tap -
=KK s.inh2{3 (c(~::p' -:)
SIn 21X F -
i~~/),1 ),
P , (7.52-3)

T{J{J
· {3 ( cosh 20(
= - K SIn 2 F
+ 1 - cos 2{J )
F2
with
F = cosh 21X - cos 2{3. (7.52-4)
In the stress system before the formation of the fault, the
additional stresses are given by (7.52-2); the stress system after the
formation of the fault is given by (7.52-3). The difference between the
two stress systems is due to the creation of the fault.
The system of Eq. (7.52-3) shows that the fault causes a stress con-
centration near the tips of the original crack. Furthermore, the stress
trajectories intersect the fault near its tip at roughly right angles. Thus,
additional (transcurrent) faults caused by the stress concentration after
the formation of the "main" fault, branch off from the latter at acute
angles since, according to ANDERSON'S theory, their strikes must bisect
the stress trajectories. This explains the often-observed occurrence of
"splay-faulting" in fault systems, i.e. of faults that branch off at an
 Folding Systems Originated by Buckling 245

acute angle from the main faults in an otherwise more or less parallel
system.
In a similar fashion, attempts have been made to explain the system
of joints discussed in Sec. 1.51. The lineaments have been thought as
associated with the nodal lines on plates which are being flexed. Another
possibility is that the joints might be caused by very old fractures in
the basement which worked their way up to the surface owing to fatigue
fracture under the periodic stresses caused by tidal forces.
7.53. Folding Systems Originated by Buckling. According to the
discussion in Sec. 7.32 there is little justification for trying to explain
the shape of single folds by z ..... .
elastic buckling. There is, /{!-- -
however, the possibility of /
explaining the geometrical /
position of folds by buck- /
ling. In order to do this, it /
is convenient to follow an /
idea of DARWIN'S according /
to which use is made of the /
equations of elasticity theo- I
I
ry and, after the deforma- I
I
tion of the body is com- I
I
puted, the displacements I / /
are replaced by the velo- If
, - - - - - A t---,-
.. ..'./.. I
cities. In this fashion, one L_____ _ _ _ '--_
··· A, ·· 8,
can attempt to obtain an Fig.81. Fonnation of a coastal mountain range. After
explanation of the geome- jARDETZKyl

trical position of the folds

in large systems of folding without having to attach much faith to the
actual shapes of the folds as predicted by elasticity theory.
The above argument has been used by ]ARDETZKyl in an attempt
to treat the problem of mountain chains. ]ARDETZKY considers four
types of mountain ranges as fundamental which he calls Precambrian
type, coastal mountains, intercontinental ranges, and Himalaya type. The
different types of folds are obtained by assuming various thicknesses of
the buckling layer and various modes of application of the compressive
force. Thus, the Precambrian type of folding is obtained by assuming
that a thin elastic layer is underlain by a plastic one which subjects the
upper layer to tangential forces. This yields a multitude of small undu-
lations which, allegedly, represent Precambrian mountain ranges. The
coastal mountains are obtained by considering a strip which is dragged
1 ]ARDETZKY. W. S.: Trans. Amer. Geophys. Un. 31, 901 (1950) .
246 Theory of Systems of Faults and Folds

against another body (d. Fig. 81). To simplify the problem, it is assumed
that the deformation of the strip corresponds to plane strain. The
intercontinental ranges are obtained by assuming that a strip of matter
(representing a geosyncline) is compressed by two shields or continents.
The Himalaya type of folding, finally, is obtained by assuming that an
elastic rectangular plate is fixed on two adjacent sides and that a force
is applied diagonally to the free corner. This, according to ]ARDETZKY,
produces a curved bulging in the plate.
Let us sketch ]ARDETZKY'S calculation on the example of coastal
mountain ranges: a strip of material is dragged against another, as re-
presented in Fig.81. The strip A C1 is moderately thick: its thickness
is denoted by 2h and its width by a. If, as indicated above, only plane

I
strain in the plane 0 xz is considered, the displacements u and ware
solutions of the plane strain elasticity equations [from (3.12-20) and
(3·21-5)]
lap u + ;. +1' ae = 0,
I' ax (7.53-1)
lap w + ;. +1' ae = 0
I' 03
where, as usual
(7.53-2)

I
and A, ft are LAME'S parameters. The sought-after solution can then
be represented as follows
u= - + tP1,
;. : : x6)
(7.53-3)
w = - ;. +1' z 6) + tPs
21'
where 6) (x, z), tPl (x, z) and tPs (x, z) are solutions of the Laplace equa-
tion
lap 6) = 0, lap tPl = 0, lap tPs = o. (7.53-4)
By combining (7.53-2) and (7.53-3), ]ARDETZKY obtained the relation
~ 21' 6) = _ ;. +1'
I' 21'
[x ae
ax
+ z~]
03
+ arfJ
ox
+ arfJ
03
a•
1 (7.53-5)

In order to complete the formulation of the problem, one has to intro-

duce the stress-strain relations

7:u = A6) + 2ft ::; 7:8% = A6) + 2ft ~: ; 7:n = ft (:: + ~:). (7. 53--{)
Then, the problem is mainly one of finding suitable solutions of the
Laplace equations (7.53-4) satisfying the correct boundary conditions.
If one introduces harmonic polynomials P,,, Qn
(7.53-7)
 Plastic Folding 247

the general solution of the Laplace equation may be written as follows:

00

e = ao +,,=1
L: (an~ + bn Qn)· (7.53-8)

Since all the (]J's, as well as e, can be expressed in terms of harmonic

polynomials, one obtains the following expression for u and W

U= - "~p x{ao+L:(anP"+b"Q")}+Cto+L:(Ctn~+P,,Q,,), (7.53-9)

W=- l+p
2p
z{ao+L(an~+bnQ,,)}+l'o+L:(l'n~+~nQn)' (7.53-10)
This set of equations can be solved by tackling the expansions term
by term. After going through two pages of tedious algebra, ]ARDETZKY
finally found for the quantity w which is the vertical component of the
displacement which is alone of interest:
laB T. 31+2p T.z3+ IT,. II (753 11)
W=-8ph(l+p) lZ-24hp(l+p) 1 8ph(l+p)XZ .-

where Ii. is a constant indicative of the strength of the drag. At the

surface of the Earth, this yields
(7.53-12)
where Ks and Ko are both positive constants. The solution indicates
that the strip thickens in one (or many) buckles, the first buckle being
at x = o. This is the "coastal" mountain range.
7.54. Plastic Folding. The view that systems of faults and folds may
be created as a result of large-scale plastic behavior of the Earth's crust
has been taken by RUUD l and by GESZTI s.
RUUD took the view that mountain-ranges would correspond to
the branch-point lines on a two-dimensional plate during plastic defor-
mation. If small regions of weakness are assumed, it would turn out
that plastic deformations would take place which are similar to those
observed when a stamp is pressed into a soft steel plate (d. Fig. 31).
This implies that the shape of the branch point lines is circular with
slip lines branching off from them as shown in Fig. 30. Thus, the proto-
type of a mountain range would be a circle. RUUD compared this with
the craters on the Moon which he envisaged as being due to the same
cause as mountains on the Earth. The last supposition, however,
seems somewhat doubtful since it appears now fairly certain that the
craters on the Moon were caused by meteorite impact and not by pro-
cesses analogous to mountain building.
1 RUUD, I.: Gerl. Beitr. 52, 123 (1938).
2 GESZTI, J.: Gerl. Beitr. 21, 36 (1929).
248 Theory of Systems of Faults and Folds

Less definite ideas are contained in GESZTI'S article where it is simply

shown that the volume of mountains can well be accounted for by
assuming relatively small crustal shortening.
A further application of the theory of plasticity to mountain building
has been made by BIJLAARDI. The latter author assumed that the
zones of orogenetic activity would
correspond to the zones of local
plastic deformation in his theory of
the failure of thin steel plates under
tension (d. Sec. 3.23). The result of
this idea is that the prototype of
an orogenetic zone should be in form
of an "X" and not of that of curved
arcs as would seem more appropriate
from physiographic investigations.
However, BIJLAARD'S basic concept
that orogenetic zones might corre-
spond to some type of bands of
rheological instability, certainly has
some merit. The idea, however,
to compare these bands with those
occurring in steel plates under ten-
sion, would appear rather doubtful.
7.55. General Rheology. Systems
of folds can also be created by an
unspecified rheological behavior of
the materials in question. By this
we mean that the materials are
capable of flow with well-defined
flow lines, assuming that the stresses
and their durations are of the right
order of magnitude. The actual type
Fig. 82. Formation of folds owing to rheidity. f h b h' (I'
After CAREY' 0 r eological e aVlOr p ashc,
Maxwell-, Bingham-type) need not
be specified in detail. Such materials have simply been called 2 "rheid"
and it stands to reason that, as long as flow does occur, it makes little
difference what the actual equations of motion are.
From the above discussion it is clear that all the explanations based
upon the assumption of "rheidity" of the strata, are rather qualitative.
1 BI]LAARD, P . P . : Rap. Ass. Geod. U. G. G. I. , Edimbourg, 1936. - Proc.
Kon. Ned. Akad. Wet. 51 , No.4 (1948). - Trans. Amer. Geophys. Un. 32, 518 (1951) .
2CAREY, S. W.:]. Geol. Soc. Australia 1, 67 (1953).
 Rift Systems 249

No detailed investigations into the stresses required to produce the

various flow patterns seem to have been made.
The mechanism by which systems of folds are postulated to have
been caused by the rheidity of the strata, is shown in Fig. 82. According-
ly, the unevenness of the Earth's surface is created by a difference in
flow velocity along parallel flow lines that are more or less vertical.
7.56. Rift Systems. The above remarks are all essentially concerned
with systems of faults and folds that are caused by basically compressional
stress-fields such as must be assumed to be present in an area during
the time when crustal shortening, and therewith mountain building, is
taking place. Entirely different effects occur in tensional stress systems.
According to ANDERSON'S theory, it may be assumed that in such cases
one obtains ritts. Since such rifts have been observed in the African
Rift Valleys and in the mid-ocean ridges, this, in turn, is an indication
that parts of the Earth's crust are subject to tension.
In accordance with the above remarks, there is a theory of the origin
of mid-ocean ridges which postulates that! the latter constitute, in
essence, giant chasms in the oceanic crust through which material from
below was able to intrude to build up the ridges. Tear-faulting is still
going on at the present time which causes e.g. the mid-Atlantic rift.
There have been some model experiments to substantiate this claiml,
but calculations of the required stress systems etc. do not seem to exist.

7.6. Evaluation of Theories of Faults and Folds

The various theories of faults and folds discussed in the present
Chapter (7) all have in common that they attempt to explain these
features in terms of known behavior of matter under stress. In this
instance, it must be said that there is general agreement regarding the
origin of faults and folds: faults are fractures and folds are large con-
tinuous contortions of rock strata.
Differences of opinion occur only regarding comparatively minor
details: what is the long-term rheological behavior of the (rock-) material
undergoing fracturing and folding? This is not known. Accordingly,
it is also not possible to obtain an exact idea as to how faults and folds
develop as a function of time.
Nevertheless, in spite of these difficulties, the explanation of faults
and folds is one instance (and just about the only one) in geodynamics
where the features concerned have been shown to be the entirely reason-
able result of entirely reasonable processes.
1 See e. g. DIETRICH, G, K. KALLE: Allgemeine Meereskunde. Berlin: Born-
trager (1957).
 VIII. Dynamics of Other Features
8.1. Meteor Craters
8.11. Physical Principles. In this, the final chapter of our treatise on
geodynamics, we shall discuss the cause of some special features of the
Earth's crust whose physiography has been outlined in Sec. 1.6.
We have shown in Sec. 1.61 that the Earth is pockmarked with
craters that might conceivably be of meteoritic origin. Meteorites are
small celestial objects that are found to strike the Earth's surface at
infrequent intervals. We are therefore faced with the problem of explain-
ing the mechanism of crater formation by impact and of estimating
the size and speed of the objects causing the holes in the ground.
However, before discussing the attempts at explaining the physics
of crater formation, it is of interest to note some important correlations
with regard to the various parameters that describe the shape of the
craters. This will be done in Sec. 8.12.
Then, we shall proceed to investigate the formation of the craters.
For this purpose, two types of attempts have been made. In the first
of these, it has been assumed that owing to the pressures created by the
impact, rock loses its solid character and can be treated as a liquid.
Thus, the problem is treated as a case of the impact of a liquid drop
into a liquid medium. In the second type of attempts at explaining
crater formation, it is assumed that the kinetic energy of the meteorite
is equal to an equivalent amount of high explosive detonating in-
stantaneously. One then makes estimates of the effect of high explosives
and, finally, one arrives at conclusions about the size of the meteorite.
The two cases will be discussed separately below.
8.12. Correlations. A meteoritic origin has not only been claimed for
some craters on the surface of the Earth, but also for many craters on
the Moon. The fact that many more craters are visible on the Moon
than on the Earth has been attributed to the lack of detrition and sedi-
mentation on our satellite. The frequency of impacts by meteorites
upon the surface of the Earth and of the Moon might thus well differ
only very little, what difference there is being caused by the protecting
influence of the Earth's atmosphere.
 Correlations 251

The formation of meteorite craters could be thought of as similar

to the formation of explosion craters: a meteorite would strike the
surface of the Earth or Moon at a speed of some 20 km/sec (the standard
speed of meteorites), become vaporized instantly and thus create the
7.0

5 ./
~!
.~

. ..~rf
1.-
l.. .. I/J{/(//' crafirs

I D-

/
I I
• ft:msIrlol mekorife crufers_

.~/ I
1//' Iexp!,' its
. OSIon p

. ~~~ L
"'.A ~
..
I
1.0
AU?).
• f< ..
she/! crakr$

. 0 - 0.10$3 il" + 0.6911 iL + 0.75

t

oso tL
u o u u u ~ u u u u u ~
t.og if tleplh {fel:tJ
Fig. 83. BALDWIN'S' correlation between depth and diameter of craters

effect of an exploding super-bomb. This comparison prompted BALD-

WINl to expect that correlations between the various geometrical para-
meters of craters caused by explosions, of craters caused by meteorite
impact on the Earth and of lunar craters could be established. Thus,
plotting the logarithm of the depths of all these craters against the
logarithm of the diameter, he found that the corresponding points all
fell very nearly on a continuous curve (see Fig. 83). The latter can be
1 BALDWIN. R B.: The Face of the Moon. Univ. Chicago Press 1949.
252 Meteor Craters

represented by the following equation:

D = 0.1083 d 2 + 0.6917 d + 0.75 (8.12-1)
where D is the logarithm of the diameter in feet and d the logarithm of
the depth in feet.
r
I I
..
E- - am at + ["fZO -1.11'11
. .~
,.. -.--
t=<
~i
~
•
.
. k"
.
.-k-""
E
/0-"
/"
. Illnar craters
/
......,,Y • meteoritic craters

.
,
explosive crolers
~a'~.
o
. .
/
/:.1
·1: A
6 J II- s G
Log of diameter [feet]
Fig. 84. BALDWI N'S' correlation b etween h eight and diameter of craters

BALDWIN found a similar simple relationship between the diameter

and rim height of all explosion pits and lunar craters (of a certain
type), as demonstrated in Fig. 84:
E = - 0.097 D2 + 1.542 D - 1.841 (8.12-2)
where E is the logarithm of the rim height in feet and D again the
logarithm of the diameter in feet.
The fact that such releationships as represented by Equations
(8.42-1/2) exist is a strong indication that the assumption of a similar
origin of the various types of craters might be correct.
8.13. Liquid-Drop Model of Crater Formation. We shall proceed now
with the discussion of the physics of crater formation. In the present
1 BALDWIN, R. B.: The Face of the Moon. Univ. Chicago Press 1949.
 Liquid-Drop Model of Crater Formation 253

section we assume that the process can be explained by assuming it

as equivalent to the impact of a liquid "projectile" upon a liquid. The
chief exponent of this idea has been (JPIKI.
According to the above model, the minimum mass of the projectile
can be estimated by noting that the mechanical work required to lift
up the walls of the crater, throwing out the fragments and shattering
the rocks must be furnished by the kinetic energy of the projectile.
Since part of the available eriergy may 'also be dissipated in form of
heat and seismic effects, setting the mechanical work necessary to form
the crater equal to the kinetic energy of the meteorite will lead to a
minimum estimate of the latter's mass.
With the above reasoning, one obtains for the meteorite that caused
the Arizona crater (d. Sec. 1.61), a mass of 60000 (metric) tons. In
order to arrive at this estimate it was assumed that the diameter 2r
of the crater was 1200 meters and the depth of the base of solid rock
d = 320 m. If the angle of incidence of the meteorite was 20°, this yields
a distance of penetration of Xm = 340 m. With a density e assumed as
equal to 2.7 g cm-a, this yields that the mass affected was
(8.13-1)
Judging from the distance at which fragments were found, (JPIK as-
sumed that the mechanical work would be equivalent to lifting all the
mass involved to a height of 1200meters, or as equal to ex. = 1.2 X 108 erg/g.
He took the work of shattering the rock as equal to about 6 X 108 erg/g
(from compressibility and crushing strength) which is quite negligible.
For a meteoritic velocity of v = 20 km/sec (= 2 X 106 cm/sec) one
can write the energy equation as follows:
E=tmv2=ex.M. (8.13-2)
Thus, (JPIK obtained for the mass of the meteorite

m = 2 ('J.~ = 6X1010 g = 60000 tons. (8.13-3)

v
This would correspond to an iron sphere of 24 meters diameter.
(JPIK then proceeded to calculate the penetration of the projectile
into the ground by the liquid model. He assumed the resistance R to
a body penetrating a fluid at high speed as given by
(8.13-4)
where C is some constant. If the projectile was originally of the form
of a cylinder of radius r o and height 2ro , then during the impact it
10PIK, E.: Publ. Obs. Astron. Univ. Tartu 28, No.6 (1936).
254 Meteor Craters

must have been flattened owing to its own "liquidity". After pene-
tration to the distance x it will be compressed to, say, height H (x)
and radius r(x) so that
r H = 2r~. 2 (8.13-5)
(jPIK assumed that the velocity of the front surface be v', the velo-
city of the center of mass be v and, with a linear velocity gradient,
the velocity of the rear surface would accordingly be 2 v - v'. The loss
of momentum per unit time and cross section (i.e. the pressure) would
then be equal to
p' = tev'2 +-0, (8.13-6)
according to a well-known law of hydrodynamics. Here -0 is the crushing
strength which ordinarily can be neglected. If the velocity of sideways
expansion is denoted by v", one obtains
v" = dr/dt. (8.13-7)
Furthermore, one has
- 2 (v - v') = dH/dt, (8.13-8)
and hence
v" = -~ (v - v') . (8.13-9)

The pressure on the lateral surface of the cylinder is in analogy with

(8.13-6)
p" = ev" 2 + -0. t (8.13-10)
Furthermore, using another well-known hydrodynamical principle
"2
(J --;- = p' - p", (8.13-11)

where (J is the density of the projectile, (jPIK obtained

v" = v' Ve ! ; , (8.13-12)

and finally

- 1+~V-(!­
v'----
e+" 'Y
v (8.13-13)

NEWTON'S equation of motion requires

, dv d2 x
1rr2 p = - m dt
- = -m--
dt
(8.13-14)
where m (=21rr~(J) is, as above, the mass of the projectile and x the
depth of penetration. Thus
dx
2

dt 2
=~=_~(~~V'2+~)(~)2.
de 'Yo 4 " 2" 'Yo
(8.13-15)
 Analogy with Explosion Craters 255

The system of equations (8.13-6/7/12/13/15) can be integrated numeri-

cally. (jPIK'S results are shown in Table 16.

Table 16
Case a Caseb Casec Cased
v,=60 v,=60 v,=60
v,=60 I vo=20

xm 7·923 7.351 4.536 4.255 2.785

rm 4.022 3.636 3.456 3.254 2·504
2rmfxm 1.02 0.99 1.52 1.54 1.80
Maximum penetration (xm) and final radius (rm) in units of initial radius (r 0 = 1)
of a cylindrical projectile (Ho = 210) of initial velocity Vo (kmfsec) moving parallel
to its axis (after OPIK).
Case a: iron projectile impact into stone (j1(J = 3. {} = 2 X 109 cgs.
Case b: stone projectile impact into stone (j =(J. {} = 2 X 109 cgs.
Case c: iron projectile impact into iron a=(J. {} = 2 X 10 10 cgs.
Case d: stone projectile impact into stone (JI(j = 3. {} = 2 X 10 10 cgs.

The above results can be used to calculate the mass of a meteorite

from the depth of its penetration. If one takes the observed penetration
Xm in the case of the Barringer Crater in Arizona as equal to 340 meters,
(jPIK obtained with ~/e = 3 and initial velocity v = 20 km/sec, that the
meteorite mass should have been equal to 4.8 X 106 tons. This is well
above the minimum required from energy calculations (d. 8.13-3) and
is, in fact, unreasonably high.
8.14. Analogy with Explosion Craters. We shall discuss now the second
possibility of attempting to explain the formation of meteorite craters.
This consists in drawing up an analogy with explosion craters. The
procedure, thus, is as follows. First, an estimate is made of the amount
of high explosive which would be required to produce a crater the size
of that created by a certain meteorite. Second, the kinetic energy of
the meteorite is set equal to the chemical energy contained in the explo-
sive. Finally, the mass of the meteorite giving the correct energy is
calculated. The above procedure has been proposed by WYLlE 1 •
The analogy with explosion craters is very much in line with BALD-
WIN'S attempt to establish correlations between meteorite craters and
explosion craters. The fact that such correlations could be found, is a
strong indication that the two types of craters are due to a similar cause.
By comparing, for instance. the size of the Barringer Crater in Ari-
zona with explosion craters. WYLIE estimated that about 1.1 Xi 08 kg of
nitroglycerin would be required to produce it. From the molecular
weight and the heat of combustion, he calculated the energy of this
amount of explosive to be equal to E = 9 xi 021 ergs. Setting this
1 WYLIE. C. C.: Popular Astronomy 51.97 (1943).
256 Boudinage

equal to the kinetic energy of the meteorite, one has

E = 9 X 1021 ergs = t m v2 • (8.14-1)
With v = 20 km/sec this yields
m = 4.5 X 109 g = 4S00tons. (8.14-2)
This is considerably less than what had been estimated by means of the
liquid drop model. In fact it is much less than what had been estimated
from the "work of excavation" necessary to produce the crater and thus
may be an indication that the estimate is too low. Nevertheless, the
liquid drop model as well as the present model are both not unreasonable.
This serves to show the uncertainty that still exists regarding the
elucidation of the mechanics of crater formation.

8.2. Boudinage
8.21. Experimental Approach. The next special feature to be dis-
cussed here is boudinage. In the chapter dealing with the physiographic
description of boudinage (1.62) it has already been stated that, in order
to produce this structure, it is necessary to have a competent layer
wedged in between two incompetent ones 1, 2, 3. It may then be assumed
that elongation of the system parallel to the layering would cause the
incompetent rock to yield without rupture, whereas the competent
layer would break so as to form the boudins. Numerous field obser-
vations seem to support this view.
A test of this hypothesis can be made by setting up a model-experi-
ment simulating the incompetent rock with putty, and simulating the
competent rock with various other substances such as modeling clay
etc. A series of such experiments has been reported by RAMBERG 4.
He describes them as follows: "The competent materials were formed
into evenly thick sheets from 2 to 5 mm thick. In each experiment,
one competent sheet was placed between incompetent putty layers
1-2 cm thick. These layered cakes were then compressed between two
stiff plates. In most runs, the cakes were allowed to expand in two
dimensions. In other runs, the expansion was restricted to one dimension
by performing the experiments in an oblong box. After the compression,
which lasted a few minutes and was performed by hand pressure, the
cakes were cut with a razor blade, and the cross section examined and
photographed. In all cakes, the competent layers were ruptured and
1 WEGMANN, C. E.: C. R. Soc. Geol. France 5 pt. 2, 477.
E.: Trans. Amer. Geophys. Un. 28,626 (1947).
2 CLOOS,
3 Similar ideas have also been put forward by G. I. GUREVICH, Izv. Akad.
Nauk SSSR., Ser. Geofiz. 411 (1954).
4 RAMBERG, H.: ]. Geol. 63, 512 (1955).
 Theoretical Approach 257

formed boudins, or necked-down to form pinch-and-swell structures.

The most 'brittle' types of the competent layers formed relatively
sharp-edged boudins, whereas the most plastic types of plasticene
formed smooth, lenticular boudins and pinch-and-swell structures."
There is therefore little doubt that the general picture outlined above
for the explanation of boudinage is essentially correct.
8.22. Theoretical Approach. In order to substantiate the explanation
of boudinage suggested by experimental analysis, it will be necessary
to investigate theoretically the dynamics of such models as were dis-
cussed above. This has also been done by RAMBERG l . It can be achieved
easily if (i) the deformation of the incompetent rock layers is treated
as viscous, incompressible flow and (ii) if the competent layer is assumed
as rigid and incompressible before rupture, the latter occuring at a
critical tensile stress.
For the convenience of the calculation, RAMBERG introduced a
Cartesian coordinate system x, y, z; here z is assumed to be perpen-
dicular and x, y parallel to the layering of the beds. The origin of the
coordinate system is asumed in the center of the competent bed, the
latter is wedged in between two parallel incompetent beds. For the sake
of simplicity, deformation in the x-direction only was taken into account;
i.e. it is assumed that there is a constraint preventing the material
from flowing in the y-direction.
If now the three layers are compressed uniformly in the z-direction,
the assumed incompressibility effects that a certain volume V of in-
competent rock is forced to flow outward from the center of the system.
At a distance x from the center, the volume-flow in the incompetent
layers is
oV ,oz
Tt=y x Tt (8.22-1)

where y' is the width of the layer and 8z/at is the rate of compression
in each layer.
The rate of volume flow is connected with the pressure gradient
apIa x by the following equation 2
oV = _ Z3 y' ~
at 121J ox (8.22-2)
where z is the thickness of the flowing layer and rJ the viscosity. Combin-
ing (8.22-1) and 8.22-2) yields
OZ Z3 op
-x= -----. (8.22-3)
ot 121J ox
1 RAMBERG, H.: J. Geol. 63,512 (1955).
See LAMB, H.: Hydrodynamics, 6th. ed. New York: Dover Publ. Co. 1945.
S
Equation (4) on page 582.
Scheidegger, Principles of Geodynamics 17
258 Boudinage

For a constant rate of compression, this can be integrated and one

obtains
Px_- O
P _ 61JOzfot
z3 X.
2
(8.22-4)

Of particular interest is the drag force which creates tension in the

competent layer. The shearing stress T at the distance x is
z op
T=--. (8.22-5)
2 OX

The total force is then found by integrating this from the end of the
feature, say L, to x. Finally, in order to calculate the tensile stress G
in the competent layer, it must be recalled that the shearing stress cal-
culated in Eq. (8.22-5) acts on both of its sides. One thus obtains:

f~
x
G =~
T ox dx = ~ ~
at (L2 -
Tz2
x 2) (8.22-6)
L

where T is the thickness of the competent layer. In particular, the

tensile stress at the center of a structure of length 2L is

(8.22-7)
which can also be written
Go = ~ (Po - PL) . (8.22-8)

This shows that the tensile stress in the competent layer increases
with the square of the length of the structure. The largest length possible
is therefore that for which Go is equal to the critical tensile stress of the
competent layer at which the latter ruptures. This, automatically,
gives rise to boudinage-structures, as the competent layer must break
in such intervals as correspond to the maximum length compatible with
its strength to tensional forces.
8.23. Tectonic Lenses. Phenomena related to boudins have been found
which were given a corresponding explanation by SORSKd 1 . This
concerns the transformation of a continuous layer of rock into a lenti-
cular thread (tectonic lenses) which may be observed in regions of
violent orogenetic diastrophisms among deformed Archean rocks.
SORSKd suggests that if a plastic mass is compressed by high vertical
pressures, the compressed stratum flows in a lateral direction. This
would give rise to the tectonic lenses. It is in this instance the incompe-
tent rock which is supposed to be collected into a string of disconnected
lenses; the less-yielding rock above and below would simply close up
in between the lenses.
1 SORSKII, A. A.: Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR. 72, 937 (1950).
 Analytical Attempts 259

In order to substantiate the above theory, one would have to in-

vestigate the behavior of a thin plastic layer in between two elastic
plates, under pressure. No such calculations, however, appear to have
been made.
8.3. Domes
8.31. Principles of a Theory of Domes. The striking circular features
discussed in Sec. 1.63 have held the interest of geologists for a long
time. Drilling and other direct procedures have established that such
features are domes and the question has arisen as to the physics of their
origin. After many unsatisfactory conjectures, it is now pretty well
accepted that dome-formation is a case of plastic intrusion of a less
dense layer into a denser overburden under the action of gravity. The
originator of this idea was ARRHENIUSl who reasoned that the intruding
masses (usually salt) being less dense than the overburden, would be in
an unstable state owing to this condition. They would thus tend to
rise independently of any tectonic forces. The theory has later been
developed particularly by NETTLETON 2•
To test the above theory, it seems appropriate to represent the
mechanism of (salt) dome formation by constructing (theoretically and
experimentally) models in which the intruding layer as well as the
overburden are represented by layers of liquids of appropriate viscosity,
density etc. Analytical attempts to calculate the intrusion of one layer
into the other have been made, but it is obvious that any attempt at
an exact calculation of the hydrodynamical phenomena would be beset
with tremendous difficulties. The chief emphasis in the study of dome
formation has therefore been on experiments.
We shall discuss these attempts below.
8.32. Analytical Attempts. Turning first to analytical attempts at
elucidating dome-formation, we note an investigation by DOBRIN 3 in
which the following assumptions were made: (i) the model-dome is
being formed in the center of a large cylindrical box, (ii) the dome
is cylindrical and has a flat top, and (iii) the dome is considered as a
solid of variable height pushing its way upward through a viscous
liquid of greater density. These assumptions certainly oversimplify
the problem to a great extent. It appears, however, that they should
nevertheless lead to a valid indication of the physical processes involved.
For his analysis, DOBRIN defined the following symbols: z is the
height of the top of the dome above the surface of the layer from which
it originates; t is the time of the beginning of the intrusive process, v is
1 ARRHENIUS, S.: Med. K. Vetenskabsakad. Nobelinst. 2, No. 20 (1912).
2 NETTLETON, L. L.: Bull. Amer. Ass. Petrol. Geol. 18, 1175 (1934).
3 DOBRIN, M. B.: Trans. Amer. Geophys. Un. 22, 528 (1941).
17*
260 Domes

the velocity of intrusion (= dz/dt); R is the radius of the dome; w is a

characteristic distance expressing proportionality between the velocity
and the velocity-gradient, £?t is the density of the fluid, f!2 is the density
of the dome (with f!D = f!l - f!2), 'YJ is the viscosity of the liquid and 'IjJ is
the Newtonian form-resistance coefficient.
When the dome is at height z, there will be three forces acting which
must be in equilibrium at all times. They are (i) the buoyant force
Fs given by (8·32-1)
(ii) the viscous drag Fy on the side of the cylinder
G
v
.L·y=- -217: R'YJz -dz
i
(8·32-2)
V w dt

II
I
(iii) the turbulent resistance FF at the front
of the cylinder
v _
.Li' - - -
1
'ljJn
R2 f!l (dZ)2
-dt . (8·32-3)
/
2

V
Using the abbreviations

Kl = (!Dg R, K2 = 2'YJlw, }

/
(8·32-4)
K3 = 'ljJR f!1/2,

/ DOBRIN obtained for the equilibrium con-

o
/ dition the following expression

(~)2
dt
+ (~)
Ka
Z~ _
dt
(KI) Z = O. (8.32-5)
Ka
Fig. 85. DOBRIN'SI solution for the rise
of a dome The solution of this differential equation is 1

(8-32-6)
with
(8·32-7)

This solution is shown in Fig. 85. It may be noted that, if z becomes

very large, the expres')ion for v tends towards
~ KI IlDg
v- - - = -Rw- - - (8·32-8)
- K2 2 'I)'

which shows that the curve in Fig. 85 becomes a straight line for large z.
8.33. Model Studies of Domes. Because of the tremendous analytical
difficulties in treating the problem of domes accurately, recourse has
1 DOBRIN. M. B. : Trans. Amer. Geophys. Un. 22.528 (1941) .
 Model Studies of Domes 261

been taken to model studies. An excellent summary of such studies

has been provided by TRAVIS and McDoWELL l . Accordingly, it is to
the credit of NETTLETON 2 to have originated much of the experimental
work; others followed suit. DOBRIN 3 has compared the experimental
formation of model salt domes with his analytical theory.
In making model experiments leading to domes, cognisance has to
be taken of the dynamical theory of scaling {see Sec.7.41}. The con-
ditions for the scaling of salt domes have been determined by HUBBERT
in his general discussion of scaling in geology {see Sec. 7.41}. He found
that the ratio 'fJ of viscosities must satisfy ilf)
the following relationship em
{8·33-1} 16
v
/
'fJ=(!xt,
if (! signifies the density-ratio, x the length- ...~ IZ
ratio and t the time-ratio. In addition, the l I
usual similarity conditions have to be ful- 'Is 8 1
filled except, of course, that the consider- ~
ations regarding the strength of the ma- ~
I
'I
,/
terials do not come into play {viscous fluids V'
as are here under consideration have no ,/
.b" ~
finite yield strength}. o
Observing the above conditions, the Fig. 86. Rise characteristics of an asphalt
various investigators have made experi- model dome. AfterDoBRIN a
ments with suitable liquids. They were
indeed able to simulate dome-formation. The shape of the domes is
what one would expect it to be, the rate of rise is reasonably fast so
as to correspond to the formation of a dome in the time interval available,
say, since the Eocene epoch. The rise-versus-time curve of a particular
experiment {performed by DOBRIN} is shown in Fig. 86.
If one compares the empirical curve of Fig. 85 with the theoretical
one of Fig. 86, one observes immediately many points of similarity. The
general form of the beginning is convex downward in both cases, and
both curves approach a straight line for large dome-heights.
In view of the above, it must be held that ARRHENIUS' idea of ex-
plaining the formation of domes by the assumption of plastic intrusion
is substantially correct. A different view, however, has been taken by
GzovSKd 4 who was able to obtain dome-like structures by pressing a
1 TRAVIS, J. P ., A. N. McDOWELL: Bull. Amer. Ass. Petrol. Gecl. 39, 2384

(1955)·
2 NETTLETON, L. L.: 1. c. Sec. 8.32; also Bull. Amer. Ass. Petrol. Geol. 27,51
(1943); ibid. 39, 2373 (1955).
a DOBRIN, M. B.: 1. c. Sec. 8.33 .
'GZOVSKIl, M. V.: Izv. Akad. Nauk SSSR., Ser. geofiz. 1954, 527.
262 Volcanism

stamp from the bottom into an elastic overburden. The upper surface
of the overburden assumes indeed a dome-like structure; the stress
trajectories inside the dome can be traced by means of photo-elasticity.
In view of the general rheological properties of the Earth (particularly
because of its low yield strength) it seems, however, that there is little
likelihood that domes were actually formed in the manner envisaged
by GZOVSKII.

8.4. Volcanism
8.41. The Shape of Volcanoes. The peculiar cone-like structures
that volcanoes represent suggest upon a very first inspection that they
are simply piles of ash and other materials ejected from the Earth.
The steepness of their slopes would be determined by that angle at
which a mound of volcanic material could support itself. The conical
form of volcanoes would simply result from the fact that the critical
slope angle must be reached everywhere.
The stability of mounds of various materials has been discussed in
Sec. 3.64 where the Terzaghi equation (3.64-2) has been given. This
equation enables us to deduce a slope angle fJ from the height H of
volcanoes, the density e of volcanic material and from its yield strength
{}. However, the yield strength may vary in wide limits so that it is
presumably always possible to adjust it in such a manner as to produce
the desired slope angle. It would thus appear as a more honest proce-
dure to assume the slope angle fJ as given in the first place and to cal-
culate therefrom the required yield strength. It can be tested, then,
whether the latter has a reasonable order of magnitude. If so, the shape
of volcanoes has been "explained".
With H = 800 m, e = 1 g cm-3 , fJ = 30° (and hence N = 6.5) one
obtains from the Terzaghi equation
{} ""' 1.2 X 107 cgs. (8.41-1)

This is by about a factor of 100 less than the yield stress obtained in the
case of mountains which consist of granite. This appears as reason-
able in view of the difference between granite and the ash-materials of
which volcanoes are composed.
Hence the shape of volcanoes has been "explained".
8.42. Volcanic Heat and Orogenesis. The eruption of a volcano is
certainly an event which is very impressive to a human observer. It
is therefore rather amazing that one can show that volcanism as such
plays only a very insignificant role in geodynamics.
We have already mentioned that the heat released during volcanic
eruptions is quite a small fraction of the total heat flow from the interior
 Mechanism 263

of the Earth into space (d. Sec. 2.51). A corroboration of this state-
ment will be given at the end of the present section. In addition, it is
also possible to show that the volume of lava ejected in anyone geological
period is small in comparison with the volume of mountains thrust
up during the corresponding orogeneses.
To illustrate this point, VERHOOGEN I assumed that 30 outpourings
of lava (certainly an over-estimate in the light of geological findings)
occurred since the beginning of the Cambrian epoch, each of which
may be of the order of 10 21 cm3,-corresponding to a plateau-type
outpouring of 108 km 2 in area and 1 km in thickness. This leads to a
volume produced which is equal to 3 X 10 22 cms. On the other hand,
we have calculated in Sec. 6.11 that the volume which is upthrust in
one orogenetic cycle, is approximately equal to 32 X 108 km 3 -- 3 X
10 22 cms. This shows that the volume of all the lava produced since the
end of the Precambrian is equal to the volume upthrust in one orogenetic
cycle. Since there were several orogenetic cycles (at least 2, possibly
more) since the end of the Precambrian, this shows that volcanism can
play only a minor part in orogenesis.
The above ec;timate of the volume of lava produced enables one to
calculate the heat lost to the Earth by the outpouring of that lava.
Assuming that the heat lost by the lava owing to cooling and crystalli-
zation is equal to 400 cal/g (following VERHOOGEN I), the total heat lost
in this fashion would turn out to be 4 X 10 26 cal. During the same period
the heat lost due to the ordinary heat flow through the Earth's surface
(d. Sec. 2.51) was 8.2 X 10 28 cal. The last value was obtained byassum-
ing the mean surface heat flow as equal to 1.2 X 10-8 cal cm- 2 sec-I;
VERHOOGEN obtained only 7.5 X 10 28 cal as total heat lost because he
assumed the mean heat flow as equal to 1.1 X 10-8 cal cm- 2 sec-I. The
estimate of the total heat flow is, in any case, low, because it must be
assumed that the heat flow was higher during early geological epochs
than it is at present owing to the continual decay of radioactive and
hence heat-creating material. The above estimates show decisively
that the heat produced by volcanism is entirely insignificant.
It follows from the above discussion that volcanism is really an
insignificant phenomenon in the evolution of the Earth's surface. The
energetics of a volcano is no problem, -owing to the small amount of
extra heat (over and above the ordinary heat flow) that is required.
The only problem that remains to be solved is that of finding an actual
mechanism which would produce all the impressive puff and smoke.
8.43. Mechanism. Unfortunately, no definte answer exists to the
question what the actual mechanism of a volcano is. GRATON 2 has
lVERHOOGEN, J.: Amer. J. Sci. 244,745 (1946).
2 GRATON, L. C.: Amer. J. Sci. 243 A, 135 (1945).
264 Volcanism

given a review of the problem but the latter has a negative character.
Of all the processes considered, each one meets with some serious ob-
jection.
A very old explanation of volcanic activity is the assumption that
rising gases may act as heating agents. However, GRATON invalidates
this theory by drawing attention to the fact that expanding gases are
refrigerants, not heating agents.
Other possibilities that have been considered are various chemical
reactions, but none of those investigated seem to fill the bill. There is,
of course, always the possibility that further reactions might be postu-
lated: VERHOOGENI, in a discussion of GRATON'S paper, states "the fact
that no reactions are known which Gould provide much energy at the
surface does not imply that other reactions do not occur with important
thermal effects at some depth".
Another hypothesis, that of postulating some "internal heat" to
cause volcanoes, is so vague that it is even difficult to state.
Another interesting theory of volcanism has been advanced by RITT-
MANN 2. Accordingly, it is postulated that the viscosity of the material
below the Earth's crust is highly pressure-dependent. The viscosity is
supposed to be very high (10 22 cgs) at high pressures, viz. at such pres-
sures that subsist in the undisturbed state at the depth in question.
As soon as the pressure is lowered, e.g. by the opening-up of a fissure
due to orogenetic activity, the viscosity drops sharply (to 10°-105 cgs)
and the material can flow freely as "lava", producing the eruption of
a volcano. Interesting as RITTMANN'S theory is, it does not seem entirely
certain whether substances exist that would exhibit the postulated
rheological properties.
A final attempt at elucidating the mechanism of volcanoes has been
made by VERHOOGEN 1. In it he postulates that the temperature at a
certain level in the Earth (being located slightly below the crust) is
not constant, but subject to small fluctuations in time and in space.
This would have the effect that there exists a finite chance for the
temperature in anyone spot to be appreciably higher than in its vicinity.
Consequently, the masses affected might become molten and cause a
volcano to come into existence. The chief difficulty with such a statisti-
cal theory is that the distribution of volcanoes on the Earth's surface
is not entirely random. The concentration of volcanoes in orogenetic
belts is too marked so as not to suggest a connection between volcanism
and orogenesis. Within the belts there is in fact a certain random
arrangement of volcanoes so that there is the possibility of a statistical
VERHOOGEN, J.: Amer. J. Sci. 244, 753 (1946).
1
RITTMANN, A.: Presidential Address, Ass. Gen., Ass. Volc., V.G.G.I., Toronto
2
1957·
 General Remarks 265

effect being present within those belts. However, it is difficult to see

how such an effect could alone be responsible for volcanic activity.
As stated above, the problem of explaining the mechanism of vol-
canic eruptions has therefore obviously not yet been solved.

8.5. Postglacial Uplift

8.51. General Remarks. In the final sections of this book, we turn our
attention to the uplift of land in the vicinity of Fennoscandia (d.
Sec. 1.65). For an explanation of this phenomenon, the theory of iso-
stasy has been greatly favored. Accordingly, one explains the present
uplift of land by assuming that Fennoscandia would have sunk after
having been covered with a heavy, extensive load of ice which must
have been present there during the Pleistocene ice age. Now, after the
melting of much of the ice has been accomplished, it would be rising
again to preserve isostatic equilibrium corresponding to its present
loading condition.
The idea of isostatic rising has been accepted as logical by many
geologists, notably BARRELL!, DALy 2 , SAURAM0 3 , NISKANEN 4 and many
others. Signs of rising occur in other areas where a similar explanation
could be advocated: parts of North America, Scotland, Iceland, Spitz-
bergen, Novaya Zemlya, South New Zealand, Antarctica and others,-
which would make the above concept of load recovery appear as reason-
able.
However, there are certainly large regions on the Earth which are
not isostatically compensated and which, in spite of this, do not show
any signs of rising or subsidence. India with large negative gravity
anomalies is the most notable example. This would render doubtful
any theory which postulates isostatic adjustment of moderately un-
balanced regions. Furthermore, the observations of the rising of the
coast on Hudson's Bay in North America (near Churchill) has been
severely questioned 5. LYUSTIKH 6, scrutinizing geologic evidence,
maintains that the Fennoscandian shield has been rising even before the
last ice age and that therefore some phenomenon other than loading with
ice should be its cause. On the other hand, HEAPS 7 has shown that failure
must occur if an ice cap of even only a moderate thickness (! km) is
formed upon the Earth's surface. This has been demonstrated by
1 BARRELL, J.: Amer. J. Sci. 40, 13 (1915).
2 DALY, R. A.: Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 31, 303 (1920).
3 SAURAMO, M.: Fennia 66, No.2, 3 (1939).
4 NISKANEN, E.: Publ. Int. Isostat. Inst. No. 6 (1939).
5 JOHNSTON, W. A.: Amer. J. Sci. 237, 94 (1929).
6 LYUSTIKH, E. N.: Izv. Akad. Nauk SSSR., Ser. Geofiz. 1956, 360.
7 HEAPS, H. S.: Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada 47, Sec. 4, 17 (1953).
266 Postglacial Uplift

assuming that the Earth's crust is elastic and has a yield strength
equal to that of granite, and that it is floating upon a slightly denser
(by 1 g/cm 3) substratum. Assumption of plastic yielding instead of
fracturing would increase this effect. There is no doubt, therefore,
that the assumption of an ice cap causing downpunching, and hence
recovery after the removal of the ice, is, to say the least, reasonable.

8.52. The HASKELL Theory. If we assume that the idea of isostatic

adjustment is the correct explanation of the Fennoscandian uplift, then
it is possible to arrive at an estimate of the viscosity consistent with
the observational data, simply by discussing the hydrodynamics of the
problem. The most rigorous discussion of this question has been given
by HASKELL 1 , whose analysis we shall sketch here.
The equations of motion of a viscous fluid (viscosity 'YJ, density e)
in a gravitational field are [d. Eq. (3.32-3)]

'YJ lap V = grad p + (! g, (8.52-1)

divV= 0 (8.52-2)
where g is the gravity vector, V the local velocity vector; inertia terms
have been neglected. Transforming to cylindrical coordinates (r, z, f[J;
Z is downwards), assuming radial symmetry and setting

p=P-r}gZ, (8.52-3)
one obtains
~~(OV,) _~ + Q2V, = ~ op (8.52-4a)
r or or r2 OZ2 1] or'

~~
r or
(r OV,)
or
+ ~~
0,2
= ~ op,
OZ 1]
(S.52-4b)
1 0
-, -or (r "V:)
T
+ --
oV,
OZ = O. (S.52-4c)

The stress components of interest are

1'z z = - (1' + (! g z) + 2'YJ 0 ~/ 0Z , (8.52-5 a)

1'" ='YJ (oV,/oz + o~/8r). (S.52-5b)

The boundary conditions require that on the surface 1', z shall be zero
and T.. shall be equal to the applied stress, and at infinity the stresses
and velocities shall vanish. Let the equation of the surface be

Z = C(r, t) (8.52-6)
1 HASKELL, N. A.: Physics 6, 265 (1935).
 The HASKELL Theory 267

and take as the undisturbed surface (i.e. that before there was any ice)

z=o. (8.52-7)
If we assume that remains small in comparison with other distances
entering, we may replace the value a~/az at z= C by its value at
z = 0; -and similarly with all the other quantities involved, except
egz. Since we are interested in the case of load recovery after the ice
has melted, the external applied pressure is zero and the boundary
conditions become:

p (r, 0, t) + egC (r, t) - 2'f} ~:. (r, 0, t) = 0, (8.52-8a)

[ov,
os
+ ov.j
or .=0
= 0, (8.52-8b)

oe
Be = ~ (r,O,t). (8. 52-8 c)

Setting v,: =R1(r) Zl (z), ~ = R2 (r)Z2 (z), P= Ra(r)Za (z) in Eq.(8.52-4)

and separating variables, one ends up with the following differential
equations:
d/rdr (rdRl/dr) - R 1/r 2 + .12Rl = 0, (8. 52--9 a)

d/rdr (rdR2/dr) + .12R2 = 0, (8. 52--9b)

Ra = const R2 . (8. 52--9 c)

The solutions of these equations are Bessel functions, A being eigenvalue

of the system. The solutions are
(8.52-10)
where the constant factor has been included in the z factor. The equa-
tions for the latter are
d2Z 1/dz 2 - .12Z1 = - .1Za/'f} , (8.52-11 a)
d2 Z 2/dz 2 - .12Z2 = dZs/'f}dz, (8.52-11 b)
;'Zl + dZ2 /dz = 0. (8.52-11 c)

Eliminating Zl andZa , one obtains the following fourth-order equation

for Z2
(8.52-12)

The solutions of this equation are exp (± .1z), z exp (± ;'z) of which
only those with negative exponents are appropriate to the present
268 Postglacial Uplift

problem. The solutions of the set (8.52-11) are then

Z2 = exp (- AZ) (A + Bz), (8.52-13 a)

Zl = exp (- AZ) (A - BIA + Bz), (8.52-13 b)
Z3 = 2'YJ B exp (- AZ) . (8.52-13 c)
In order to satisfy the boundary condition, one has B=AA. One
must now satisfy (8.52-9) with functions of the form

v, = oJ A (A) exp (- AZ) A(Ar) dA,

00

Z (8.52-14a)

00

V; = J A (A) exp (-Az)(1 + AZ) dAJo(Ar), (8.52-14b)

o
00

p= 2'YJ J A (A) exp (- AZ) Jo(Ar) AdA. (8.52-14c)

o
From (8.52-14b) one has dV;/dz=O at z=O, hence the first boundary
condition becomes:
00

2'YJJ A (A) Jo(Ar) AdA + ruC = 0. (8.52-15)

o
The quantity A will evidently have to be a function of time in order to
satisfy this equation, hence we may differentiate with respect to t and
use the third boundary condition. This yields

f Jo(M) {2'YJ 88~ + eg ~ }AdA =

00

0. (8.52-16)
o
This yields the following differential equation for A
8A A
2'YJ ae + egT = 0. (8.52-17)
The solution is
A = K(A) exp(- ~)
2'YJ ).
(8.52-18)

where K (A) must be determined from the initial conditions, viz. either
from the initial velocity or from the initial configuration of the surface.
From (8.52-14b) one obtains
00

V; (r, 0, 0) = J K (A) Jo (Ar) dA. (8.52-19)

o
Hence by inversion
00

K (A) = A J V; (r, 0, 0) 10 (Ar) r dr. (8.52-20)

o
 I
The HASKELL Theory 269

One also has

t

C= C(r, 0) + f Y. (r, 0, t) dt
o 00 (8.52-21)
= C(r, 0) + :~ J K (A) [1 - exp (- : : l)] Jo (Ar) Ad A.
o
As t becomes infinite, Cmust approach zero, therefore
co

C(r, 0) = -ELJK(A)Jo(Ar)AdA,
eg
(8.52-22)
o
or, upon inversion

;! J 1; (r, 0) Jo (Ar) r dr.

co

K (A) = - (8.52-23)
o
Thus, the subsequent motion is completely determined if one knows
either C(r, 0) or y'(r, 0, 0).
In order to choose an initial condition, it is reasonable to suppose
that - y'(r, 0, 0) will have a maximum at the center and will decrease
outward in a way that can be represented with sufficient accuracy by
an exponential function:
y. (r, 0, 0) F= - a exp (- b2 r2) • (8.52-24)
By substituting into (8.52-20), one has

1
K (A) = - a A exp (- b2 r2) Jo (M) r dr )
(8.52-25)
=- (a)'/2b 2) exp (- ),2/4b2).
By using (8.52-21/22) one obtains:

(8.52-26)

At r=O, t=o we have

C(O,o) = a 1]
egb 2
f exp (-
co
A,2 ) ),2dA=2
4b 2
V-neg'
ab
'I} (8.52-27)
o
The viscosity is thus given by

'YJ = egC(O,O)/[2V;tabj. (8.52-28)

In order to calculate a viscosity from this equation, all that remains
to be done is to make a reasonable estimate of the quantities a, b, C.
270 Postglacial Uplift

A probable assumption is!:

a/C=k (8.52-29)
with 11k being the duration time of the isostatic adjustment. Setting

11k = 10000 years = 2.8 X 1011sec, (8.52-3 0)

1lb = 750 km = 7.5 X 10 7 cm (8.52-3 1)
yields with e= 3
'YJ = 2 X 10 22 cgs . (8.52-3 2)

This is the value for the viscosity listed as coming from the uplift of
Fennoscandia when the rheology of the Earth was under discussion.
8.53. Postglacial Uplift Interpreted as a Kelvin Effect. It is also
possible to interpret the uplift of Fennoscandia as a Kelvin effect 2, but
the physical picture is then somewhat different from that underlying
the discussion of Sec. 8.52: The driving force is now the expression of
elastic afterworking (and not of buoyancy) after the ice has melted.
The relaxation constant in a Kelvin body is equal to

(8.53-1)

[this follows immediately upon integrating (3.43-1) upon setting r: = OJ.

If the relaxation constant is set equal to 10000 years, one has

(8.53-2)

Strictly speaking, no value for the rigidity can be given, as there is no

way of determining it for the "long" time range here under discussion.
Nevertheless, if the "short" -time rigidity is substituted, it is interesting
to note that one ends up with a similar "formal" value of viscosity as
that determined for the Maxwell-type behavior discussed earlier.
Inspecting the two types of possible interpretation of the recovery
of areas upon the Earth after the disappearance of an additional load,
one is faced with either having to accept that, in two time ranges, the
Earth has the same type of rheological behavior (Kelvin-type), but
with different time constants, or else different types of behavior
(KELVIN in the "intermediate" range and "MAXWELL" in the long range)
with correspondingly non-related constants. The latter possibility
would appear as more reasonable, especially since it is known that many
bodies show increasing tendency towards Maxwell-behavior in long
time-intervals.
1 NISKANEN, E.: Ann. Acad. Sci. Fenn. Ser. A, 53, 10 (1939).
2 SCHEIDEGGER, A. E.: Canad. J. Phys. 35, 383 (1957).
 Conclusion 271

8.6. Conclusion
Looking back over the way we have come in our discussion of geo-
dynamics, we note that throughout, we were faced with the condition
that no coherent theory is known from which all the details would
follow. In contrast to most physical theories where a fundamental
equation is postulated whose consequences more or less agree and thereby
"explain" the facts of nature which they concern, no such fundamental
equation exists in geodynamics. The only approach to the problem is
therefore by induction. This has the effect that the causes of small-
scale surface phenomena, such as faults and folds, are much better
understood than the causes of fundamental processes such as orogenesis.
The only way open to the investigator is thus to make various
guesses as to the possible cause of geologic phenomena, and to test their
reasonableness on the consequences which they entail. In spite of over
a hundred years of research in this fashion, this prodecure has not yet
led to entirely satisfactory results. One can only hope that some day it
will be possible to obtain some really pertinent information regarding
the rheological state of the pertinent layers of the Earth. This then
would automatically sift what is reasonable from what is unreasonable
and eliminate those speculations that border on the realm of the super-
natural.
 Author Index l

Adams, L. H. 58, 186 De Sitter, L. U. 237, 238, 242

Aki, K. 228 Deuker, E. A. 67, 69
Allan, D. W. 55, 58 Deutsch, E. R 61
Anderson, E. M. 221, 243 Dietrich, G. 249
Arrhenius, S. 259 Dobrin, M. B. 259, 260, 261
Du Toit, A. L. 6, 7, 8, 9, 180
Baker, H. B. 6, 7
Baldwin, R B. 251, 252 Eckart, C. 67
Barrell, J. 265 Egyed, L. 11, 205
Barringer, D. M. 24 Elkins, T. A. 241
Basset, A. B. 149 Eotvos, Rv. 119
Beals, C. S. 24 Epstein, P. S. 119
Belousov, V. V. 196, 204, 242 Ertel, H. 119, 120
Bemmelen, H. W. van 196, 198 Escher, B. G. 140
Benioff, H. 39, 40, 41, 106, 108, 109, 111 Ewing, M. 19, 76
Berlage, H. P. 196, 198 Ez, V. V. 242
Bijlaard, P. P. 83, 248
Birch, F. 55, 62, 139, 172 Fairbairn, H. W. 105
Bondi, H. 107 Farquhar, R M. 52, 53, 54
Bowden, F. P. 232 Ferguson, G. M. 24
Bowie, W. 140 Fisher, O. 140
Bridgman, P. W. 105
Brock, B. B. 20 Garland, G. D. 31
Brooks, H. 191 Geszti, J. 247
Bucher, W. H. 143, 167 Gilman, J. J. 99, 100
Bullard, E. C. 56 Goguel, J. 124, 125
Bullen, K. E. 49, 50, 51, 104 Gold, T. 107, 126, 127
Byerly, P. 43 Graham, J. W. 61
Graton, L. C. 263
Carey, S. W. 248 Green, A. E. 69
Chandrasekhar, S. 135, 152, 187 Griffith, A. A. 98, 99
Chen, C. H. 242 Griffiths, D. H. 61
Chertkova, E. I. 242 Griggs, D. 105, 132, 187, 188, 190
Clegg, J. A. 61 Gurevich, G. I. 256
Cloos, E. 256 Gutenberg, B. 28, 29, 32, 35, 36, 37, 38,
-,H. 242 39,48,49,50,56,106,108,111,129,142
GzovskiI, M. V. 261
Daly, R. A. 265
Darwin, G. H. 126, 140 Haarmann, E. 141, 196
Davison, C. 153, 166 Hafner, W. 223
De Geer, C. J. 29 Handin, J. 105
1 Slavonic names have been transliterated according to the Cambridge system;
this is the system used, for instance, in Physics Abstracts.
 Author Index 273

Haskell, N. A. 111, 266 Labrouste, H. 49

Havemann, H. 198 Lake, P. 13
Heaps, H. S. 265 Lamb, H. 85, 147, 162, 257
Heezen, B. C. 19 Lambert, W.D. 119, 126
Heim, A. 15 Landau, A. 24
Heiskanen, W. 31 Lebedev, V. 1. 206
Hencky, H. 83 Lee, J. S. 242
Hersey, M. D. 91 -,M. T. 242
Hess, H. H. 191, 192 Lees, G. M. 63
Heywood, W. W. 26 Leutert, W. 154
Hiersemann, L. 35, 36 Lohest, M. 25
Hill, M. J. 20 Love, A. E. H. 74
- , R. 80 Low, A. R. 87
Hills, G. F. S. 144 Lyustikh, E. N. 111, 265
Hirschmann, J. 19
Hobbs, W. H. 20 Malinovskaya, L. N. 231
Hodgson, J. H. 45 Marble, J. P. 4
Holmes, A. 3, 23, 186 Mason, B. 62
Honda, H. 47 Matschinski, M. 155, 192, 205
Hopkins, W. 186 Matuzawa, T. 226
Housner, G. W. 234 McAdams, W. H. 87
Hoyle, F. 136, 138 McDowell, A. N. 261
Hubbert, M. K. 240, 242 Melchior, P. J. 108
Milankovitch, M. 117, 119, 127, 129, 130,
Inglis, C. E. 76, 99 131, 208
- , D. R. 125 Milverton, S. W. 87
Mintrop, L. 48
Jacobs, J. A. 56, 57, 58, 139 Mises, R. v. 80
Jaeger, J. C. 74 Mohr, O. 70, 93
Jaggar, T. A. 27 Mollard, J. R. 23
Jardetzky, W. S. 76, 193, 245 Moody, J. D. 20
Jeffreys, H. 74, 86, 106, 107, 110, 116. Mott, N. F. 99
126, 132, 133, 136, 141, 163, 167, Munk, W. H. 126
168
Jobert, G. 132
Nadai, A. 83, 132
Johnston, W. A. 265
Nakano, H. 231
Joksch, H.C. 9,10,157
Nettleton, L. L. 241, 259, 261
Jordan, P. 157
Neumayr, M. 2, 27, 34
Jung, K. 116
Nininger, H. H. 24
Niskanen, E. 265, 270
Kaariiiinen, E. 29
Kalle, K. 249
Kampe de Feriet, J. 184 Oldroyd, J. G. 68, 71, 91
Kawasumi, H. 43 bpik, E. 253
KeIlis-Borok, V. I. 43 Orowan, E. 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99
Kogan, S. D. 35, 37
Koppen, W. 4, 5, 9 Pai, S. 184
Kosminskaya, I. P. 49 Pekeris, C. L. 148, 149, 187
Kossinna, E. 9, 10 Pellew, A. 87
Kreichgauer, D. 4, 5 Petch, N. J. 98
Kuenen, P. H. 242 Pirson, L. V. 14
Kuiper, G. P. 136 Press, F. 47, 76
Kukkamaki, T. J. 29 Prey, A. 123
Scheidegger, Principles of Geodynamics 18
274 Author Index

Quiring. H. L. 140 Southwell. R. V. 87

Stille. H. 12
Ramberg. H. 25. 256. 257 Strakhov. N. M. 11
Ramsey. W. H. 62 Suess. F. E. 2. 27. 34
Rankama. K. 61
Reiner. M. 87. 88. 89. 90 Tabor. D. 232
Reuss. A. 81 Terzaghi. K. 112
Richter. C. F. 32. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 108 Tiedemann. A. W. 238. 239
Riedel. W. 242 Travis. J. P. 261
Rittmann. A. 264 Truesdell. C. 65. 69
Riznichenko. Yu. V. 49 Tsuboi. C. 32. 33. 56
Roberts. D. K. 100 Turner. F. J. 105
Robertson. E. C. 105
Robinson. R. O. A. 172 Umbgrove. J. H. F. 12. 13
Robson. G. R. 56 Urey. H. C. 152
RotM. J. P. 49 Urry. W. D. 139
Rudnik. P. 107
Runcorn. S. K. 60. 61 Veitsman. P. S. 49
Russell. R. D. 52. 53. 54 Vening Meinesz. F.A. 20. 111.145.189.
Rutten. L. M. R. 12 208. 210. 211. 212
Ruud. 1. 165. 247 Verhoogen. J. 56. 57. 263. 264
Vvedenskaya. V. V. 232
Sahama. T. G. 61
Sapper. K. 143 Walker. A. M. 107
Saunders. O. A. 87 Wegener. A. 4. 5. 7. 142. 180. 181
Sauramo. M. 29. 265 Wegmann. C. E. 256
Scheidegger. A. E. 13. 21. 23. 24. 41. 42. Weizsacker. C. F. v. 135
43. 44. 65. 72. 86. 90. 102. 120. 146. Wells. A. A. 100
153. 165. 168. 170. 172. 183. 270 Willmore. P. L. 24. 56
Schmidt. E. R. 208 Wilson. J. T. 13. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 52.
-.R.J.87 53. 54. 143. 164. 165. 166
Schuchert. C. 15 Woolnough. W. G. 153
Schulz-Weidner. W. 24 Worzel. J. L. 48
Shurbet. G. L. 48 Wylie. C. C. 255
Skerl. J. G. A. 7
Slichter. L. B. 58 Young. A. 107
Smart. W. M. 135
Sonder. R. A. 23. 167. 172 Zardecki see Jardetzky
Sorskil. A. A. 258 Zerna. W. 69
Sotome. K. 193 Zoelly. R. 154
 Subject Index
Additional stress definition Arctic piercement domes 26 Bulk modulus (incompressi-
72ff. Argon (radiogenic) 52 bility) 74
- - in Earth 223 Arizona crater, origin 253, Buoyancy (of domes) 260
Africa, heat flow 55 255
- , paleoclimate 4 - - , physiography 24, 25 Calcium (radiogenic) 52
- , rift valleys 19, 33, 249 Asia, island arcs 14, 15, 16 California, earthquakes in
After-effect (elastic) 89 - , mountain roots in 49 38
Aftershocks (in earth- Atlantic Ocean, heat flow 55 - , mountain roots 49
quakes) 108ff. - , origin of (zonal ro- Canada, heat flow 55
Age, determination 51 tation) 193 - , line patterns 23
- , of geological epochs 4 - , physiography 6, 48 Canadian shield 53f£'
Airy function 74 - , ridges 19 Cap range, description 16
Airy hypothesis 31, 49 - , spreading theory 142 - , theory 174, 177
Alaska (mountains) 13 Autocorrelation 184 Carlsberg ridge 19
Aleutians 13, 14, 15, 37 Auxiliary plane 22, 43, 229 Cataclysmic theory of origin
Alpine cycle 12 Axis (of fold) 23 of earth 136
Alps, nappes 23 Catastrophe in mountain
- , physiography 16 Bands of instability 113 building 12
- , roots 48, 49 Barringer crater (see Ari- Cauchy-Riemann equations
- , shortening 15 zona crater) 80
- , speed of formation 162 Basalt, description 63 Chandler wobble 107
Altitude effect (on gravity) - , origin of 144 Circulations, definition 84
30 - , quantity in crust 143 - , on Earth 124ff.
America, drift of 184 Basaltic layer 49 Classical bodies 87
- , origin of 194 Batholith 3 ClausiUS-Clapeyron equa-
- , paleoclimate 4 BIJLAARD'S theory 113, 213, tion 227
- , westward motion 132, 217, 248 Climate (ancient) 4
184 Bingham solid 90 Coast Range 15, 16
Anatexis 63 Birch discontinuity 50, 62, Cohesion (molecular) 97
ANDERSON'S theory 221 ff., 186, 198, 220 Compatibility condition 67
243 Boudinage, description 25 ff. Competent layer 25, 256ff.
Andes 14, 16 - , theory 256f£' Compressional waves, de-
Andesite, description 63 Bouguer anomaly 31 finition 33
- , origin 144 Branch point line 165, 247 - , see also P waves
- , quantity in crust 143 Brasil, paleoclimate 4 Concentric folding 237ff.
- , line 63 Britain, heat flow 55 Congo: volcanoes 28
Anomalies (gravity) 30 British Columbia, mountain Conrad discontinuity 49
Antarctica (uplift) 265 ranges 13 Conservation of phase signs
Anticline 23 Brittleness 93 42
Appalachian cycle 12 - , in notches 94 Constitutive equations 71
Appalachians 15 - , see also fracture, brittle Continental drift, concept
Archean rocks 53, 258 Buckling, description 79 6ff.
Arcs (mountain and island) - , in orogenesis 175, 205, - , magnetic evidence 61
35 (see also orogenesis) 236 - , theory 141 ff., 179ff.
18*
276 Subject Index

Continents, crustal studies Damping of oscillations 89 Elastic constants of Earth

47 Dating, paleontological 3 104ff.
- , dynamics 134ff. Dating, radioactive 51 ff Elastic limit 80
- , geography 6 Deep earthquakes 35 Elasticity theory 73 ft.
- , growth theory 53ff., Deflections 16 Ellipticity of Earth 116
143ff., 166 Deformation, description 65 Energy of earthquake
- , margin 33 - , measure 65 38ff.
- , nucleus 53 - , mechanics 64ff. Epicenter 33
- , spreading 142 Density, definition 67 Equation of motion 69
Continuity condition 68ff. - , Earth 30, 50ff. Europe: paleoclimate 4
Continuous media 64 Depth of focus 35 Evolution (geological) 2
Contraction theory 144, Detrition 3 Expansion theory 154,
162ff. Deviator (of a tensor) 81 204ff.
Contraction theory (tetra- Dextral fault 22 Extension factor 160, 161,
hedral) 153 Differentiation of magma 177ff., 182, 207, 219
Convected coordinates 68 198 ff.
Convection currents, con- Dip (of fault) 21
tinental 145 Discontinuities (mathe- Failure (of materials) 93££.
- , magnetic field 59 matical) 92ff., 101 Fatigue 95
-,orogenetic 144ff., Discontinuity, Birch 50, 62,
Fault, description 21
185, 186ff. 186, 198, 220 - , dynamics 221 ff.
- , plastic 90 - , Conrad 49 - , scale models 241
- , thermal theory 86, - , core 49 Fault plane studies 41 ff.,
87 - , Mohorovicic 32, 47ff., 229
Convection cycle 189ff. 49, 63, 105 Fennoscandia, gravity 32,
Cooling (of Earth) 3, 58 Dislocation 79, 102, 225, 33
Coordinate space 65 234ff. - , uplift 29, 111, 265
Core, chemistry 62 Dispersion (surface waves)Field theory (of earth-
- , electrical conductivity 48 quakes) 226
62 Domes, physiography 25 Figure (of Earth) 116ff.
- , seismic velocities 50 - , theory of formation Finite strain 64, 65ff.
- , inner 50 259ff. First rocks 3
Coriolis forces 132ff. Ductility 94 Focal sphere 41 ff., 228ff.
Correlation coefficient 184 Dunite 62 Focus (of earthquake), de-
COULOMB'S hypothesis 93 Dust: interstellar 135 finition 33 ff.
Craters, meteoritic 24, Dyke 22, 222 - , mechanism 41, 228ff.
251ff. Folds, description 23
- , on Moon 165, 197, - , dynamics 235
247 Earthquakes, description - , scale models 242
- , volcanic 27 33ff. - , systems 245
Creep 88, 165 - , energy 38 Foredeep 15
Creep fracture 96 - , fault plane studies Fossils 3
Crustal shortening 14, 41 ff. Fossil craters 24
159ff. - , field theory 266 Fossil ice 5
Crust, chemistry 62 - , magnitude 37ff. Fourier equation 58
- , extension factor 161 - , mechanism 106 Fracture, analytical theo-
- , layering 47 -, strain release 39ff. ries 101 ff.
-,strength 105,112,115 -, theory 225ff. - , brittle 93
Curvature tensor 67, 73 - , waves 49 - , criteria 92ff., 99
Cycle, convection theory Eclogite 62 - , cup-and-cone 94
190 Eigenvalues (in buckling) - , ductile 94
- , geochemical 63 237 - , in Earth 221
- , orogenetic 12, 55 Elastic buckling 236 -,in earthquakes 233 ff.
 Subject Index 277

Fracture, fatigue 95 Haskell theory 266 Keewatin 53

- , fault systems 243 Hawaii: volcanoes 27 Kelvin constants, definition
- , fibrous 94 Heat flow 55 89
- , GRIFFITH'S theory 98ff. Hinge line 21 - - , in Earth 115, 270
- , intergranular 96, 234 HOOKE'S law 74 Kelvin solid 88 ff.
- , microscopic theories Hypsometric curve, de- Kodiak 15
97ff. scription 9 ff. Krakatau 27
- , principles 92ff. - - , explanation 157 Kuriles 13, is, 37
- , shear- 94
Free-air anomaly 31
Friction: in earthquakes 232 Ice ages 6, 32 Lame constants 74
Front range 177 Iceland: uplift 265 Laminar flow 85
Igneous rocks 2 Laurasia 7, 8, 141, 180
Gal (unit) 30 Incompetent layer 256ff. Lava, amount in crust
Ganges Valley: sediments India, drift of 61, 184 143
12 - , gravity 33 - , description 2, 63
- , uplift 265 - , viscosity 264
Geocentric latitude 116
Geochemistry 61 ff. Indian Ocean 19, 48 - , volume 263
Geodepression 197 Indonesia 45 Lead (radiogenic) 52
Geological time scale 3 Inglis solution 76 Lenses (tectonic) 258
- - - extended 52 Inner core 50 Level of no strain 45, 163,
Geophysical data 30ff. Intensity (of fold) 23 167ff.
Geosyncline 12, 20, 48, 159, Interior (of Earth) 49 Limb (of fold) 23
165, 166, 246 - , chemistry 61 Lineaments 16, 17, 174,
Geotumor 197 - , density 51 245
Glaciation 4, 6 - , temperature 56 Lines (patterns of) 21
Gliding (by gravity) 203 - , wave velocity 50 Linkage, description 16
Gondwanaland 7, 8, 141, Intermediate earthquakes - , explanation 174
180 35 Logarithmico-normal di-
Granite 2, 63 Intermediate layer 49 stribution 10
Granitic layer 49 Intermediate time inter- Long time intervals, defi-
Granodiorite 2, 63 vals, defini- nition 103
Grashoff number 86, 91, tion 103 - - - , rheology 1lOff.
188 - , rheology 107ff. L-phase 33
Gravitation, variation of International gravity for-
constant 157 mula 30
Magma; differentiation 144,
Gravity 30ff. Isachsen dome 27
198ff.
Gravity anomaly, Bouguer Island arcs, contraction
- , viscosity 200 .
31 theory 163
'Magnetic field, secftlar
- - , free-air 31 - , drift theory 180
variation 59
- - , isostatic 31 - , gravity 32
- - , westward drift 59
Gravity field 30 - , physiography 11 ff.
Magnetization, polar wan-
Gravity formula (inter- Isostasy 31, 48, 265
dering 60
national) 30 Isostatic anomaly 31
- , principles 59ff.
Grenville 53 - , reversal 61
Griffith theory, principles James Bay: uplift 53 Magneto-hydrodynamics 59
98 Japan 13, 37 Magnitude of earthquakes,
- - , in earthquakes 234 Joints 22, 223, 245 connection
Group velocity 76 Jump vector 101 with slip
Gulf of Bothnia: uplift Junctions of arcs, physio- 235
29 graphy 16 - , definition 37ff.
Gulf of St. Lawrence: origin - - - , theory 172 - , Richter 37
24 Jupiter 137 - , teleseismic 38,39
278 Subject Index

Magnitude of earthquakes, Moment of inertia: of Earth Pakistan: lineaments 23

unified 38, 39 124 Paleobiology 9
Mantle, chemistry 62 Moon, craters 165, 197,203, Paleoclimatic data 4, 61
- , strength 106 247, 250ff. Paleomagnetism 59ff.
- , thermicity 58 - , origin 140, 141 Paleozoic cycle 12
- , rigidity 107 Mountain building see Paleozoic mountains 18
- , viscosity 108, 111 orogenesis Pamir 45
Margin of continents 33 Mountain ranges 11 ff., Parameter space 65
Mariana Islands 37 13ff. Peridotite 62
Marsupalia 9 Mountain roots 31, 48ff. Phase 33
Material form: equations Phase-discontinuity 63
of motion 65 Phase velocity 76
Maxwell constants, defini- Navier-Stokes equation 85 Philippines 13, 16
tion 88 Nebula (stellar) 135 Physiography (of Earth)
- - , in Earth 115 Necking: plastic 83 1 ff.
Maxwell liquid 88 New Quebec Crater 24 Piercement domes 26
Medianland 17 Newtonian fluids see vis- Pinch-and-swell structures
Mega cells 191 cous fluids 25, 257
Melanesia 16 New Zealand: uplift 265 Pitch (of fold) 23
Metamorphism 3, 63, 161, Nodal lines: in seismology Plane strain state 75, 82
206 229 Plane stress state 75
Metamorphosis factor 161, Normal fault 22, 222 Planets 134ff.
178 North America, mountains Plasticity, theory 80ff.
Meteor craters 24, 250ff. 19 - , in folding 247
Meteorites 250ff. - , paleoclimate 4 - , in convection 91, 189
Mexico 13 - , uplift 265 POISSON'S ratio 74
Micronesia 45 - , westward drift 132 Polar wandering, magnetic
Mid-Atlantic Ridge 19, Notch brittleness 94 evidence 60
249 Novaya Zemlya: uplift 265 - , paleoclimatic evid-
Mid-Atlantic Rift 19, ence 4ff.
249 - , tectonic effects
Mid-ocean ridges; origin Oceans, area 47 217ff.
144, 249 - , composition of bottom - , theory of 124ff.,
- . - , physiography 19 ~ ~7~
- - , seismicity 33 - , geodynamics of 134ff. Polfluchtkraft, concept and
Milankovitch theorem - , geography 6 theory 119ff.
129 - , trenches 48, 49 - , criticisms 123ff.
Models, boudinage 256ff. Origin of Earth 53, 134 - , orogenetic effects 142
- , domes 260 Orogenesis 11 ff., 53, 55, Potassium-40 (decay) 52
- , faults, folds etc. 240, 159ff. Prandtl number 86, 91,
241 ff. Orogenetic cycle 13, 55 188
- , theoretical: of earth- Orogenetic systems 11 ff., Pratt hypothesis 31, 49
quake foci 228ff. 1 59, 167 Precambrian type folding
- , theory of scale models Oscillation damping 89 52ff., 171, 245
240ff. Principal stress 70
Mohorovici6 discontinuity Proterozoic 53
32, 47ff., 49, 63, 105 Pacific Ocean, composition Pseudoviscosity 189
Mohr circle 70 of bottom 63, 142 P waves 33, 76
Mohr theory, earthquakes - , geography 6
234 - , heat flow 55
- , exposition 93 - , origin 140 Radioactivity and age de-
- , faulting 221 - , ridges 19 terminations 51 ff.
- , rocks 105 - , trenches 48 - and heat flow 56, 58
 Subject Index 279

RAMSEY'S hypothesis 62 Seismogram 33. 49 Stress. definition 69

Rays (seismic) 33 Seismograph 33 - . in Earth: Build-up
Recent mountains 17 Seismology 33 ff. 226
Relaxation of stress 88 - . and contraction theory - , in Earth: Due to polar
Reversal of magnetization 178 wandering 211 ff.
61 Seymour Islands 6 Stress function 74, 223
Reversed arcs 19. 177 Shallow earthquakes 35 Stress tensor 69
Reversed fault. definition 22 Shear 69 Strike (of fault) 21
- -. explanation 222 Shearing plane in folds Strontium (radiogenic) 52
Reynolds number 85. 86 239 Summation convention 65
Rhegmagenesis 23 Shear patterns 20 Sun 134ff.
Rheidity 248 Shear waves 76 Supernova 136
Rheological condition. de- Shield 6. 53. 144 Surface energy 97
finition 71 Shortening see crustal Surface waves 33. 48. 76
- - , crust of Earth 210 shortening S waves 76
- - , Earth 102££. Short time intervals. defi- Syncline 23
Rheology. principles 64ff.. nition 103 Systems of faults and folds
87 - - - , rheology 104ff. 243
-. of Earth 102 ff. Shrinkage see contraction Systems of mountain ranges
Richter magnitude 38 Sial 198 15
Riemann-Christoffel tensor Siberia 4
67. 73 Sierra Nevada, physiogra-
Rift systems 249 phy 16 Tectogene 12.48. 159, 166,
Rift valleys 19 - - , roots 48 187, 201
Rigidity. definition 74 Sima 198 Tectonic lenses 258
- , of Earth 115 Sinistral fault 22 Temperature (in Earth)
- . of mantle 107 Sliding (by gravity) 203 56ff.
Riu Kiu arc 13. 15 Slip: in earthquakes 234ff. Tensile strength 93
Rocks 2 Slip angle 21. 22 Tension 69
Rocky mountains. physio- Slip lines 82ff.. 165 Terzaghi equation 112.
graphy 15 Solar system 134 ff. 262
- - , speed of formation South Sandwich Islands 1 5 Tessera 20
162 Spatial form (of equations Tethys geosyncline 8
Roller cells 191. 192 of motion) 66 Thermal data 55
Roots (of mountains) 31. S phase 33 Thermal history of Earth
48ff. Spitzbergen: uplift 265 55. 57. 137ff.
Rotation (of Earth). de- Splay faulting 244 Thermohydrodynamics 86
scription 116 ff. Standard stress 72. 223 Thixotropy 113
- . orogenesis 206ff. STOKES' law (for falling Thorium: decay 52
- , zonal 192ff. sphere) 86 Thrust fault, description
Rubidium (decay) 51 STOKES' theorem 84 22
Strain 64ff., 66 - , explanation 222
Strain energy 97 Tidal forces 131ff.
Salt domes 259 Strain-hardening 81 Tidal friction 110, 132
Samfrau geosyncline 8 Strain rebound theory Tides in Sun 136
Scaling 240 226 - , causing separation of
Scorpionidae 9 Strain release 39ff. Moon 140
Scum theory 145 Stratification 3 Time scale (geological) 3
Sea level 10 Strength of ash 262 Timor 15
Sedimentary rocks 2. 63 of crust 105, 112 Traction 69
Sedimentation 3. 63 of granite 106 Transcurrent fault. defini-
Seismicity 35 ff. of mantle 106 tion 22
Seismic waves 33ff. of materials 97, 106 - - , explanation 222
280 Subject Index.

Travel-time curves 33, 49 Velocity of crack propaga- Vortex tube 84

Transverse waves 33 tion 99ff. Vorticity 84
Trinidad 15 - of seismic waves 49, 104,
Turbulence 85, 91, 260 105 Wandering of pole see polar
Venezuela: lineaments 23 wandering
Undations 11 Vesuvius 27 Water (quantity on Earth) 11
Undation theory 144, 196 Viscosity, definition 84 Waves (earthquakes) 49, 75
Unified magnitude 38 - , in Earth 115, 270 West Indies 14, 19, 24
Uniformitarian theory of - , of magma 200
origin of Earth 135 -, of mantle 108, 111 Yielding 80
United States, heat flow 55 Viscous fluids 84 ff. YOUNG'S modulus 74
- - , mountains 13, 19 Volcanism 27, 143, 262ff.
Uplift (postglacial) 29, 111, Volcanoes, description 27 Zero strain 66, 72
265ff. - , dynamics 262ff. - stress 73
Uranium (decay) 52 - , heat flow 56 Zonal rotation 192ff.