TRIAL AND ERROR LEARNING

Experiment No.: Experimenter Name: FT

Experiment Date: Subject Name: NM
Individual Experiment

Learning refers to the process by which experience or practice results in relatively

permanent change in behavior. When confronted with a difficult problem, we attempt to solve it
by adopting alternative methods. The solution occurs eventually, sometimes accidentally
(Manual).
Learning begins when the organism faces a new and difficult situation a problem. Most
learning organism counters errors, and with repeated trials, errors reduce. The phenomenon is
called Trial and Error Learning in a simple sense, is only one of many theories of learning in
Behavioral Psychology (Shrestha, 2017).
The first miniature Trial and Error learning system of the method was provided by
Thorndike’s research on Animal Intelligence in 1898. This form of learning falls under SR learning
theory and also known as Connectionism (Shrestha, 2017).
According to Thorndike learning takes place by trial and error. Some people call it,
“Learning by selection of the successful variant,” accordingly when no readymade solution of a
problem is available to the learner, and adopts the method of trial and error (Leonard, 2002).
Thorndike first stated the elements of his theory of learning in 1913 that connections are
formed in the nervous system between stimuli and response. These connections formed are
illustrated by the symbols S-R. Another word used to describe these connections is the word ‘bond’
and hence,’ this theory is sometimes called a ‘Bond Theory of learning’. Thorndike has written
“Learning is connecting and the mind is man’s connection system” (Saurab, S).

Thorndike formulated his theory, based on his experiments conducted on his cat in the
puzzle box. The door of the box could be opened by pulling the strings inside the box. A fish was
kept outside. The cat was tried to come out of the box by squeezing, jumping, biting etc. As the
experiment was repeated for several times the wrong movements decreased and in the end the cat
was able to open the door in a single trial (Shrestha, 2017).
 Laws of Trial and Error Learning

1. Law of exercise: Fundamental basis of trial and error learning since organism learns as
a result of repeated trials/practice/exercise. The law can be subdivided into two parts:

• Law of Use: If any action is repeated by an organism in certain condition, learning occurs.

• Law of Disuse: If the action is not repeated by an organism, there will be no learning.

2. The Law of Effect: Emphasizes the consequences of behavior, responses resulting in

satisfying (rewarding) consequences are learned; responses producing annoying (punishing)
consequences are not learned. This is a functional account of learning because satisfiers (responses
that produce desirable outcomes) allow individuals to adapt to their environments (Shrestha,
2017).

Basic Conditions for Trial and Error Learning:

1. Drive: is an essential factor that triggers the various conditions for this phenomenon. Drive
motivates to learn and make organism active to learn.

2. Blockade/barrier in satisfaction of drive: Trial and Errors occur only when there is barrier or
blockade in between hunger and food. The barrier was the problem which needed to be solved in
order to receive food. The attempts to solve the problem led to trial and error activities.

3. Random Activities: When the solution is not present beforehand, organism tends to act in
random manner in its attempt to solve the problem. It’s purely because of the lack of knowledge.

4. Accidental Success: The first time an organism gets something right after repeated trials is
always accidental, hence the term, accidental success.

5. Selection of Right Response: The organism keeps trying out its previously tried out random
attempts until it stumbles upon the right response. With repeated trial, the solution can be isolated.

6. Fixation of the Right Response: It’s the final stage of learning, organism having identified the
right response stays fixed on it, which lets the organism to act immediately when presented with
the same situation (Shrestha, 2017).

Another significant aspect of this theory is that to master a complex situation or to elaborate
task, practice is must. It is not possible to handle each difficult situation in a single trial, no matter
what the degree of motivation or reward is. One cannot blame the entire constitution of India in
one reading even if the reward is a crore of Rupees or the threat is to be shot dead otherwise. Each
task initially seems to be difficult and fatiguing but as practice continues, it becomes smoother and
requires less effort.

Insights will emerge as the blundering progresses from simpler associations to higher units.
There is not royal road to success. Kennedy-Fraser, the Psychologist concludes, “The teachers who
are responsible for the beginning of any new subject should be the best available, since at the point,
the pupils have no defensive system of properly formed habits to protect them from the evil effects
of bad teaching.”

Further, both punishment and reward may play a significant role in the process of learning.
But experiments go to show that motivation is successfully handled when it is kept in the positive
phase. Drastic forms of inhibition tend to spread their effects over the whole learning situation.
Sometimes, the teachers impress upon the negative processes.

The false response is effectively inhibited when the correct reaction is fixated and the
emphasis should be on the latter process. The fixating rewards are most effective when they afford
immediate and complete release (Gautam, S).

Aids to improve learning:

Thorndike advocated the following aids of learning are attentiveness, interest in work, interest in
improvement of work and problem-solving attitude. (Leonard, 2002)

Implications of the theory:

1. According to this theory the task can be started from the easier aspect towards its difficult side.
This approach will benefit the weaker and backward children.

2. A small child learns some skills through trial and error method only such as sitting, standing,
walking, running etc. In teaching also, the child rectifies the writing after committing mistakes.

3. In this theory more emphasis has been laid on motivation. Thus, before starting teaching in the
classroom the students should be properly motivated.
4. Practice leads a man towards maturity. Practice is the main feature of trial and error method.
Practice helps in reducing the errors committed by the child in learning any concept.

5. Habits are formed as a result of repetition. With the help of this theory the wrong habits of the
children can be modified and the good habits strengthened.

6. The effects of rewards and punishment also affect the learning of the child. Thus, the theory
lays emphasis on the use of reward and punishment in the class by the teacher.

7. The theory may be found quite helpful in changing the behavior of the delinquent children. The
teacher should cure such children making use of this theory.

8. The teacher can improve his teaching methods making use of this theory. He must observe the
effects of his teaching methods on the students and should not hesitate to make necessary changes
in them, if required (Gautam, S).

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Rerup, C & Feldman, M.S., in 2011 studied on “Routines as a Source of Change in

Organizational Schemata: The Role of Trial-and-Error Learning”. Organizational routines are
ubiquitous, yet their contribution to organizing has been underappreciated. Our longitudinal,
inductive study traces the relationship between organizational routines and organizational
schemata in a new research institution, Learning Lab Denmark. We show how trial-and-error
learning can connect routines and schemata through a micro foundation of observable action. Our
analysis (1) identifies two processes of trial-and-error learning and (2) strengthens theory about
the coevolution of interpretive schemata and routines. By recognizing the complex relationship
between routines and schemata and the role that trial-and-error learning processes play in this
relationship, organizations can gain a previously overlooked tool for managing change.

In 2010 Jonathan. J., et al conducted a study on “A Comparison of ''Errorless'' and ''Trial-

and-error'' Learning Methods for Teaching Individuals with Acquired Memory Deficits” .They
present nine experiments, in three study phases, which test the hypothesis that learning methods
which prevent the making of errors (“errorless learning”) will lead to greater learning than “trial-
and-error” learning methods amongst individuals who are memory impaired as a result of acquired
brain injury. Results suggest that tasks and situations which facilitate retrieval of implicit memory
for the learned material (such as learning names with a first letter cue) will benefit from errorless
learning methods, whilst those that require the explicit recall of novel associations (such as
learning routes or programming an electronic organizer) will not benefit from errorless learning.
The more severely amnesic patients benefit to a greater extent from errorless learning methods
than those who are less severely memory impaired, but this may only apply when the interval
between learning and recall is relatively short.

Jones, in 2015 had conducted a study on “The effectiveness of trial and error and errorless
learning in promoting the transfer of training”. 60 student’s participants engaged in four
acquisition trials under errorless or trial and error conditions, consisting of mazes with one correct
rout and a number of incorrect routes both groups completed a fifth ‘transfer’ maze where the
correct rout contained portions of previous incorrect routes. Then, another 60 participants
completed a task involving identifying target words from word list, again either in an errorless or
a trial and error condition both learning conditions completed the same transfer task (anagram
word task) and a recognition task. Data from both experiments indicated that during the transfer
task, the trial and error group performed significantly better than the errorless group when there
was a requirement to transfer the skill learned during the acquisition phase to a new related task.

Hill, had conducted a study on “Goal gradient, anticipation, and preservation in compound
trial and error learning” in 1939. The effect seems to be greater at each choice point closer to the
goal. Under these conditions anticipatory errors decrease in frequency relative to preservative
errors. There is evidence of a speed-of-locomotion gradient.

AIM

To demonstrate the effect of trial and error learning in subject using Mile’s Step
Maze with an error counter and a stylus.

Hypothesis: Random arrangement of path leads to the gradual reduction in time and error scores,
thereby showing trial and error learning.
 METHOD
Name of the experimenter: FT

Subjects details:

Name: NM

Age: 24

Gender: Female

Education: Post Graduate Student

Materials Required:
1. Manual for Maze Learning: Trial and Error learning by insight
2. Mile’s Step Maze with an error counter and a stylus.
3. Stopwatch.
4. Writing material.

Procedure:
a) Administration Procedure:
The subject was seated comfortably and a good rapport was established. Hence the
following instructions were given, “You will be provided with an apparatus named Mile’s Step
Maze. With the ‘start’ signal trace the path from ’S’ to ‘G’ by touching the screw heads with the
stylus. Whenever you touch the wrong screw head, you will hear a sound, come back to the
preceding correct screw head and proceed again until you reach the goal. You can make right, left,
forward, or backward movement, but not diagonal movement. No time limit is there but complete
each of the trails as soon as possible until you get the score of zero in three consecutive trails”.
And as subject completed the task thanks is conveyed.

Control/ Precautions:
• Do not let the subject know that one maze has a random path.
• Demonstrate to ensure that the subject understood the task.

b) Scoring Procedure:
The time taken and errors committed in each trail are noted hence calculated the mean separately.
• Find the mean of error committed = Total No. of errors committed/ Total No. of Trails.
• Find the mean of time taken = Total No. of time taken/ Total No. of trails.

RESULT

Table 1
The No. of trails, Time taken and errors committed by the subject in trial and error learning
using Mile’s Step Maze.
No. of Trials Errors Committed Time Taken (s)

1 12 70 Sec

2 10 49 Sec

3 3 34 Sec

4 10 35 Sec

5 8 32 Sec

6 3 29 Sec

7 3 33 Sec

8 5 27 Sec

9 4 27 Sec

10 3 23 Sec

11 1 22 Sec

12 2 23 Sec

13 4 21 Sec

14 3 22 Sec

15 0 20 Sec

16 0 19 Sec

17 0 21 Sec

Total 71 501 Sec.

Mean 4.17 29.47 Sec.

Table 2
Name of subject, Average error committed, Average time taken by the group in trial and
error learning using Mile’s Step Maze.
SI No. Name of the Subject Average Error Committed Time taken (s)
1 SN 6.16 26 Sec

2 FR 3.67 24.67 Sec.

3 SH 9.11 42.05 Sec.

4 AJ 7.45 19.63 Sec.

5 VM 6.73 28.3 Sec.

6 SSH 3 20.7 Sec.

7 AK 7.61 23.5 Sec.

8 NETP 2.5 20.1 Sec.

9 AH 5.58 32.17 Sec.

10 MU 6.93 35.81 Sec.

DISCUSSION

The aim of the experiment is to determine the effect of trial and error learning of subject
using Mile’s Step Maze with an error counter and a stylus.
Learning begins when the organism faces a new and difficult situation – a problem. Most
learning organism counters errors, and with repeated trials, errors reduce. The phenomenon is
called Trial and Error Learning. Trial and Error Learning is only one of many theories of learning
in Behavioral Psychology. The first miniature Trial and Error learning system of the method was
provided by Thorndike’s research on Animal Intelligence in 1898. This form of learning falls under
S-R learning theory and also known as Connectionism.
The present experiment was conducted on a female subject NM of age 24 years, who is a
post graduate student. A Mile’s Step Maze apparatus is used for the experiment, subject need to
trace the path from ’S’ to ‘G’ by touching the screw heads with the stylus soon get the start signal
by touching the screw heads and Whenever subject touches the wrong screw head he/she will hear
a sound and come back to the preceding correct screw head and proceed again until you reach the
goal. The subject can make right, left, forward, or backward movement, but no diagonal movement
are allowed.
a) Individual Discussion:
Table 1 shows the No. of trails, Time taken and errors committed by the subject in trial and
error learning using Mile’s Step Maze. The average error committed by the subject is 4.17 with
average time of 29.47 seconds.
Subject took 17 trials for completing the test. The number of errors in first 2- 5 trials
where more when compared with later trials. Time has decreased over trails. We can see that the
number of errors fluctuates from in each trial and the subject completed the trial with no error in
last trials. And the time taken during each trial was decreased. We can also see that the subject
managed to finish last three trials in very short amount of time with no error compared to initial
trials.
In first trail, subject committed an error of 12 to reach the goal with the time of 70 seconds.
During the second trial, the subject reached the goal in 49 seconds with 10 errors. Here we can see
a gradual decrease in the time taken compared to the first trail. In the third trail, there was a
significant decrease in the number of errors committed by the subject, which was only 3 within 39
seconds of time. But during the fourth trail, the errors again increased to 10 with 35 seconds of
time taken. In the fifth trail, the time taken by the subject is 32 seconds with 8 errors. In the sixth
and seventh trials, the error made by the subject is 3 with time 29 seconds and 39 seconds
respectively. The time taken for eighth and ninth trial is 27 seconds with errors 5 and 4
respectively. The subject completed the tenth trail within 23 seconds with 3 errors. During the
eleventh trial, the subject only had 1 error and the time taken was 22 seconds. The time taken and
errors for 12th and 13th trials were 23 seconds, 21 seconds, 2 and 4 respectively. The 14th trial took
22 seconds with 3 errors. In the last three trials that is, 15th, 16th and 17th trials the subject managed
to reach the goal with no or zero errors within 20 seconds, 19 seconds and 21 seconds respectively.
From the scores it is clear that as the number of trials increased, the time taken to complete
the trails get decreased. Here the subject started with 70 seconds to reach the goal and the errors
committed during that trail is 12 respectively, but by the end the time taken to reach the goal is
only 19-21 seconds also no errors are committed.
 In last three consecutive trails, the errors committed is zero and the time taken to
reach the goal is 20 seconds, 19 seconds, and 21 seconds respectively. There is a great decrease in
the time comparing to the first trail where the subject managed to finish them within 19-21 seconds
of time. From the above data it is clear that the learning is positively correlated for the subject,
hence the hypothesis is accepted, i.e., the random arrangement of path leads to the gradual
reduction in time and error scores, thereby showing trial and error learning.
b) Group Discussion:
Table 2 shows the name of subject, Average error committed, Average time taken by the
group in trial and error learning using Mile’s Step Maze.
The group consist of 10 subjects, comparatively of same age groups and each of them are
unique in their own way. For analyzing each individual are studied separately, and analyzed that
with the increase in number trails the time taken and errors committed decreases, also shows that
6 of them taken least number of trails to reach their goals.
The highest average time taken is 42.05 seconds by the subject SH with an average error
9.11 and the lowest average time taken is 19.63 seconds by the subject AJ with an average error
of 7.45. Here it reveals the speed and accuracy of those subjects, the average error committed by
the subject SH is 9.11 and the average error committed by the subject AJ is 7.45, when speed
increases accuracy decreases. The subjects SN, AJ, SSH, NETP and FR take least number of trails
to reach the goal while compare with other subjects in the group. That shows the subject have SN
with average error committed of 6.16 with average time of 26 seconds, AJ with average error
committed 7.54 with average time of 19.63 seconds, SSH with average error committed 3 with
average time of 20.7 seconds , AK with average commit error of 7.61 with average time of 23.5
seconds, NETP with average error committed of 2.5 with average time of 20.1 seconds, and FR
with average error committed of 3.76 with average time of 24.67 seconds respectively.
The subjects SH, VM, AH and MU taken higher number of trails to reach the goal while
compare with other subjects in the group. That shows the subject have SH with average commit
error of 9.11 with average time of 42.05 seconds, VM with average commit error of 6.73 with
average time of 28.30 seconds, AH with average commit error of 5.58 with average time of 32.17
seconds, and MU with average commit error of 6.93 with average time of 35.81 seconds
respectively.
 As trial and error learning is effective for the subject it helps them in easily forming habits
through repetition. This approach will benefit the weaker and backward children. Children learn
some skills through trial and error method like sitting, walking, standing, etc. This approach
emphasis has been laid on motivation. This approach is also helpful in changing the behavior of
the delinquent children.

INTROSPECTIVE REPORT
Subject was very excited to do the experiment, and was doing this experiment for the first
time. She was curious about how this experiment will go and how much trial will it take to find a
solution. she also reported that the experiment was very interesting and easy. Subject was eager to
finish each trial without errors. Even though errors occur, subject was not dissatisfied but was very
eager for next trial to make it errorless. She was not at all tensed, and was calm to do the
experiment. Subject was doing the experiment as fast as she was able to. While she finished the
first experiment without any error, she was in so excited and couldn’t hide her happiness. the
experiment was fun for the subject.

CONCLUSION
Subject’s repeated performance reduced error and time taken for each trail, hence reached
the goal.

REFERENCES

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learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 25(6), 566-585. Retrieved
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for Teaching Individuals with Acquired Memory Deficits. Neuropsychological
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Saurab, S. (n.d.). Preserve Articles: Understanding the theory of Trial and Error Learning
process from Psychological point of view. Retrieved from
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