UNIT-1

DC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
Concept of Network:
A combination of various electric elements connected in any manner what so ever is called an Electrical
Network. The purpose of electric circuit is to convert electrical energy into some other forms.

We may classify the electric elements in two categories:

(i)Active Element
(ii)Passive Element

(i)Active Element: An Active element is one, which supplies Energy to the electric circuit. Example: Voltage
source V and Current source I etc.
(ii)Passive Element: A Passive element is one, which receives energy, and converts into heat or stored in it.
Example: Resister R, Inductor L and Capacitor C.

Various Sources:
Sources are the circuit elements that supply energy. Sources are of two types:
(i)Voltage Source
(ii)Current Source Both are classified in Ideal and Practical Source.

(i)Ideal voltage source: An Ideal voltage source, which is represented in fig. 2, is a device that produces a
constant voltage across its terminal. The terminal voltage is independent of the load connected across it. The
Ideal voltage source has zero internal resistance.

(ii)Practical voltage source: A practical voltage source, which is represented in fig. 3,is a device that
produces a variable voltage across its terminals. The terminal voltage decreases with the increase in load and
vice-versa. The Practical voltage source has some internal resistance Rin in series.

(iii)Ideal current source: An Ideal Current source, which is represented in fig. 4, is a device that supplies a
constant current .The current supplied is independent of the load connected across it. The Ideal current
source has infinite internal resistance.
 (iv)Practical current source: A practical current source, which is represented in fig. 5, is a device that
supplies a variable current. The current supplied is decreases with the increase in load and vice-versa. The
Practical current source has some internal resistance Rin in parallel.

Linear and Nonlinear Element: The characteristics drawn between voltage across any element and current in
that element is known as volt-ampere characteristics. On the basis of this volt-ampere characteristics
electrical elements are classified in two parts as Linear and Nonlinear elements.
v v

I I
Figure: 6 Figure: 7
(i)Linear element: A linear element is one, for which volt-ampere characteristics is a straight line or linear, is
known as Linear element. Fig: 6 show the volt-ampere characteristics of a linear element.

(ii)Nonlinear element: A Nonlinear element is one, whose parameter changes with voltage or current. In
other words a nonlinear element has nonlinear volt-ampere characteristics. Fig:7 shows the volt-ampere
characteristics of a nonlinear element.

Bilateral and Unilateral Element:

(i)Bilateral element: Conduction of current in both directions in an element with same magnitude is termed
as bilateral element. Example: Resister, Inductor and capacitor.

(ii)Unilateral element: Conduction of current in one direction is termed as unilateral element. Example:
Diode and transistor

Meaning of Response: An application of input signal to the system will produce an output signal, the behaviour of
output signal with time is known as the response of the system.
Source Transformation: A Practical source can be interchange i.e. a voltage source can be changed into current
source and current source can be change into voltage source.
(i)Conversion of Voltage source to Current source: A Voltage source of V volt with series resistance R se can
be transformed into an equivalent current source of I with parallel resistance R th.The value of I will be,
V
I=
Rse
And Value of Rsh will be equal to the value of R se.(fig: 10)

(i)Conversion of Current source to Voltage source: A current source of I with parallel resistance R th can be
transformed into an equivalent Voltage source of V volt with series resistance R se.The value of V will be,
V = IRsh
And Value of Rse will be equal to the value of Rsh.(fig:11)
Kirchoff’s Law:
(i)Kirchoff’s Current Law: It states that the algebraic sum of the currents at a junction or node is always zero.
It can also be stated as the incoming current at a junction is equal to the outgoing current from the same
junction. i.e.
I1 + I2 – I3 – I4 – I5 = 0
I1 + I2 = I3 + I4 + I5
Incoming current = Outgoing current

(ii)Kirchoff’s Voltage Law: It states that It states that in a closed circuit, the algebraic sum of all source
voltages must be equal to the algebraic sum of all the voltage drops. it can also be stated as In any network,
The algebraic sum of all the voltage around the closed path is equal to zero.i.e.,
Around a closed path ∑ V = 0
For the circuit shown in fig: 12,

Let current I flowing through closed path ABCDA. Then,

Voltage across voltage source = V
Voltage across R1 = IR1
Voltage across R2 = IR2
Voltage across R3 = IR3
On applying KVL in the clockwise direction,
-V + IR1+ IR2 + IR3 = 0
 *** First sign across each element has been considered.

Voltage Divider And Current Divider Rule:

(i)Voltage divider rule: Since in a series circuit as shown in fig: 13, same current flows through each of the
given resistance. Voltage varies directly with its given resistance.

According to voltage division rule,

R1
Voltage across R1 is V1 = V
R 1+ R 2
R2
And Voltage across R2 is V2 = V
R 1+ R 2

(ii)Current divider rule: Two resistances as joined in fig: 14 are said to be connected parallel. In this case,

(i) P.D. across both resistances in same.

(ii) Current in each resistor is different and is given by Ohm’s law.
(iii) Total current is the sum of two currents.
According to current division rule,
R2
Current in resister R1 is I1 = I
R 1+ R 2
R1
And Current in resister R2 is I2 = I
R 1+ R 2

Network Analysis: There are two method of analysing a network.

(i) Mesh Analysis
(ii) Nodal Analysis

(i)Mesh Analysis: Let us consider a simple dc network as shown in Figure: 15 to find the currents through
different branches using Mesh (Loop) analysis method.

Step-I: Inspect the total no. of mesh in the circuit

Step-II: Label the mesh currents in any arbitrary direction in each mesh.

Step-III: Put the sign convention across each element.

Step-IV: Apply KVL in each mesh. (Write KVL equation for each mesh) and solve the equation.

Applying KVL around mesh (loop)-1:

-V1 + V3+ (I1-I3)R2 + (I1-I2)R4 =0

Applying KVL around mesh (loop)-2:

-(I1-I2)R4 + (I2-I3)R3 + V2 =0

Applying KVL around mesh (loop)-3:

I3R1 - (I2-I3)R3 - (I1-I3)R2 – V3 =0
By solving these equations get the answer.

Note: To analysis, a resistive network containing voltage and current sources using ‘mesh’ equations
method the following steps are essential to note:

 If possible, convert current source to voltage source.

 Mesh analysis is valid only for circuits that can be drawn in a two-dimensional plane in
such a way that no element crosses over another.

(ii)Nodal Analysis: In the node voltage method, we identify all the nodes on the circuit. Choosing one of
them as the reference voltage (i.e., zero potential) and subsequently assign other node voltages (unknown)
with respect to a reference voltage (usually ground voltage taken as zero (0) potential.
Let us consider a simple dc network as shown in Figure: 16 to find the currents through different branches
using “Nodal analysis” method.

Step-I: Inspect the total no. of node in the circuit Select one node as the reference node (assign as ground
potential or zero potential) and label the remaining nodes as unknown node voltages with respect to
the reference node.

Step-II: Assign branch currents in each branch. (The choice of direction is arbitrary).

Step-III: Express the branch currents in terms of node assigned voltages.

Step-IV: Write the standard form of node equations by inspecting the circuit. (No of node equations =
No of nodes (N) – 1.

Step-V: Solve a set of simultaneous algebraic equation for node voltages and ultimately the
Branch currents.

Applying KCL at node-1:

Is1 – Is3 – I2 – I4 = 0

Applying KCL at node-2:

I4 – Is2 – I3 = 0

Applying KCL at node-3:

Is3 + I2 + I3 – I1 = 0

V3
Here, I1 =
R1
V 1−V 3
I2 =
R2
V 2−V 3
I3 =
R3
V 1−V 2
I4 =
R4
Put these values in above three KCL equations and solve the equations.

Note: If possible, convert all the voltage sources into current sources.
 Network Theorems

Superposition theorem: In any linear bilateral network containing two or more independent sources, the net
response in any branch is the algebraic sum of responses caused by each independent sources acting alone,
with all other independent sources being replaced by their respective internal resistances .

To replace voltage source simply short circuit the terminal of voltage source and to replace current source
Simply open circuit the terminal of current source.

Superposition theorem can be explained through a simple resistive network as shown in fig 17. below. It has
two independent practical voltage sources and one practical current source.

We have to find out the current I in Resister R 2, This current I will be the algebraic sum of Three individual
current produced by the three sources. i.e.,
I = I’due to E1 alone + I’’due to E2 alone + I’’’due to Is alone
According to the application of the superposition theorem. It may be noted that each independent source is
considered at a time while all other sources are turned off or killed. To kill a voltage source means the
voltage source is replaced by a short circuit branch and to kill a current source means the current source is
replaced by a open circuit branch.

Remarks: Superposition theorem is most often used when it is necessary to determine the individual
contribution of each source to a particular response.

Procedure for using the superposition theorem:-

Step-1: Retain one source at a time in the circuit and replace all other sources with their internal resistances.

Step-2: Determine the output (current or voltage) due to the single source acting alone.

Step-3: Repeat steps 1 and 2 for each of the other independent sources.
 Step-4: Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the contributions due to the independent
sources.

Limitations of superposition Theorem:-

1: Superposition theorem doesn’t work for power calculation. Because power calculations
Involve either the product of voltage and current, the square of current or the square of
The voltage, they are not linear operations.

2: Superposition theorem cannot be applied for non linear circuit

Thevenin’s theorem: Thevenin’s theorem states that any two output terminals A & B,of an active linear network
containing independent sources (it includes voltage and current sources) can be replaced by a simple voltage
source of magnitude VTH in series with a single resistor RTH .
Where RTH is the equivalent resistance of the network when looking from the output terminals with all
sources (voltage and current) removed and replaced by their internal resistances and the magnitude of V TH is
equal to the open circuit voltage across the terminals.

Procedure for applying Thevenin’s theorem:- To find a current IL through the load resistance RL using
Thevenin’s theorem, the following steps are followed:

Step-1: Disconnect the load resistance (RL) from the circuit and mark the terminal AB.
Step-2: Calculate the open-circuit voltage V TH at the load terminals after disconnecting the load resistance
(RL).In general, we can apply any of the techniques (mesh-current, node-voltage and superposition method)
to find VTH.

Step-3: Redraw the circuit with each practical source replaced by its internal resistance (Note: voltage
sources should be short-circuited (just remove them and replace with plain wire) and current sources should
be open-circuited (just removed).

Step-4: Calculate the resistance RTH that would exist between the load terminals.

Step-5: Place VTH in series with RTH to form the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit as shown below.

Step-6: Reconnect the original load to the Thevenin voltage circuit as shown below the load’s voltage,
current and power may be calculated by a simple arithmetic operation only.

Load current,
V TH
IL =
R TH + R L

Voltage across the load,

V TH
V L = IL . R L = . RL
R TH + R L
 Power absorbed by the load,
PL = IL2 . RL

Norton’s theorem: - Norton’s theorem states that any two output terminals A & B,of an active linear network
containing independent sources (it includes voltage and current sources) can be replaced by a simple current
source of magnitude IN in parallel with a single resistor RN .
Where the magnitude of current source is the current measured in the short circuit placed across the
terminal pair A & B. The parallel resistance RN is the equivalent resistance looking into the terminal pair A &
B with all independent sources has been replaced by their internal resistances.

Procedure for applying Norton’s theorem:- To find a current IL through the load resistance RL using
Norton’s theorem, the following steps are followed:

Step-1: Disconnect the load resistance (RL) from the circuit and mark the terminal AB.

Step-2: Short the output terminal after disconnecting the load resistance (RL) from the terminals A & B and
then calculate the short circuit current I N. In general, we can apply any of the techniques (mesh-current,
node-voltage and superposition method)
Step-3: Redraw the circuit with each practical source replaced by its internal resiststance (Note: voltage
sources should be short-circuited (just remove them and replace with plain wire) and current sources
should be open-circuited (just removed).

Step-4: Calculate the resistance RN that would exist between the load terminals.

Step-5: Place RN in parallel with current source I N to form the Norton’s equivalent circuit.

Step-6: Reconnect the original load to the Norton current circuit as shown below; the load’s voltage,
current and power may be calculated by a simple arithmetic operation only.

Load current,
RN
IL = . IN
RN+RL

Voltage across the load,

V L = IL . R L

Power absorbed by the load,

PL = IL2 . RL
Maximum power transfer theorem: Maximum power transfer theorem states that the power transfer by a
network to a load resistance RL will be maximum, if the value of load resistance is equal to the
thevenin’s resistance (internal resistance) RTH of the network.
Let us consider an electric network as shown in fig. below, the problem is to find the choice of the
resistance RL so that the network delivers maximum power to the load.

In fig. 29 a variable load resistance R L is connected to an equivalent thevenin circuit of original circuit.
The current for any value of load resistance R L Is,
V TH
IL =
R TH + R L

Then the power delivered to load is given by,

P L = IL 2 . R L
V TH 2
PL = (
RTH + R L
. RL )
V 2TH
PL = . RL
(RTH + R L )2
The load power depends on both R L and RTH; however, RTH is constant for the equivalent Thevenin network.
So power delivered by the equivalent Thevenin network to the load resistor is entirely depends on the value
of RL .
To find the value of RL that absorbs a maximum power from the Thevenin circuit, we differentiate PL with
respect to RL.
2
d PL ( R TH + RL ) −2 R L ( RTH + R L )
d RL
= VTH 2
[ ( R TH + R L )
4
] =0

2
( RTH + R L ) = 2 RL ( R TH + R L )

RTH2 + RL2 + 2 RTH .RL = 2RL RTH + 2 RL2

RL = RTH

The expression for maximum power dissipated to load resistance is given by,
V 2TH
PMAX = . RL
(R L + R L )2
 V 2TH
PMAX =
The total power delivered by the source is, 4 RL
PT = IL2 (RTH + RL )

PT = 2 IL2 RL
Efficiency under maximum power condition is,

I 2L R L
Efficiency = 2 x 100 %
2 I L RL
Efficiency = 50%

Remarks: The Thevenin equivalent circuit is useful in finding the maximum power that a linear circuit can
deliver to a load.