Design and Implementation of IEC Based

Digital Over-Current Protection Relay for

Pakistan Power Market

B.Sc. Electrical Engineering Program

Department of Electrical Engineering,

University of the Punjab

Supervisor

Dr Azhar Naeem

1
 APPROVAL SHEET

This is certifying that I have read the project report submitted by the following students:

 RP15-EE-425 - Sharjeel Sarwar Awan

 RP15-EE-428 - Lamya Munir

 RP15-EE-429 - Hafiz M. Tayyab Zakir

 RP15-EE-433 - Hamza Afzal

It’s my judgment that this report is of a sufficient standard to warrant its acceptance by

University of the Punjab, for BSc (Engg) Electrical Engineering.

Internal Examiner:

Name: _

Designation: _

External Examiner:

2
 Name:

Designation: _

Dated:_

3
 UNDERTAKING

We certify that the project titled “Design and Implementation of IEC Based Digital Over-Current Protection

Relay for Pakistan Power Market” is our own work.

Neither the thesis nor the practical work contained therein has been submitted to this or any other

institution for evaluation. Material used from other sources has been properly sited and acknowledged.

Resemblance to someone else’s work is unintentional and purely co-incidental.

Signature:

 RP15-EE-425 - Sharjeel Sarwar Awan ______________

 RP15-EE-428 - Lamya Munir ______________

 RP15-EE-429 - Hafiz M. Tayyab Zakir ______________

 RP15-EE-433 - Hamza Afzal ____________

4
 Dedication
I dedicate this project to Allah Almighty my Creator, my strong pillar, my source of

inspiration, wisdom, knowledge and understanding. He has been the source of my

strength throughout this program and on His wings only have I soared. I also dedicate

this work to my parents who has encouraged me all the way and whose

encouragement has made sure that I give it all it takes to finish that which I have

started. To my honorable teachers, who has made me what I am today and has

instilled in me the education and learning. To my supervisor, Dr. Azhar Naeem who

has been of inordinate assistance throughoutthe project. To EPESOL(Pvt.) Ltd. for

without their unconditional support, this project might not have come to an end. Tomy

friends and family whohave been affected in every way possible by this quest. To my

motherland, Pakistanandto all the power industry of Pakistan. Thank you. My love for

you all can never be quantified.

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 Acknowledgement

First and foremost, I thank Allah (SWT) for letting me live to see this thesis through.

Mostimportantly,weofferoursincerestgratitudetooursupervisor,Dr.Azhar Naeem,who

hassupportedusthroughoutourthesiswithhispatienceandknowledgewhilstallowingusthe

room to work in our own way. He was also our Head of Department and we

attributethelevelofourBachelor’sdegreetohisencouragementandeffortandwithouthimthis

thesis,too,wouldnothavebeencompletedorwritten.We feelprivilegedtohavehispresence as

supervisor and truly acknowledge his expertise which resulted in completion of our work.

One simply could not wish for a better or friendliersupervisor.

We would like to express our sincere gratitude to the department of Electrical

Engineering,

UniversityofthePunjab.Wewouldliketothankourfamilies,noneofthiscouldhavehappened

without our families. Every time we were ready to quit, they did not let us and we are

forever grateful. This dissertation stands as a testament to their unconditional love and

encouragement.Lastly, we would like to thanks our friends and fellow mates for their

encouragement and support.

6
 Table of contents:

ListofTable

List ofFigure

Abstract

Chapter-1:

Introduction 7

Chapter-2:

LiteratureReview 10

 Types of protection:

 Unit Type Protection

 Non-unit schemes

 Overcurrent protection

 Earth fault protection

Various types of Line Faults

Overcurrent Relay Purpose and Ratings

 Primary requirement of Overcurrent protection

 Purpose of overcurrent Protection

 Overcurrent Relay Ratings

Difference between Overcurrent and Overload protection

Types of Overcurrent Relay:

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  Instantaneous Overcurrent relay (Define Current)

 Definite Time Overcurrent Relays

 Inverse Time Overcurrent Relays (IDMT Relay)

 Normal Inverse Time Overcurrent Relay

 Very Inverse Time Overcurrent Relay

 Extremely Inverse Time Overcurrent Relay

 Directional Overcurrent Relays

Chapter-4:

Results and Findings 39

4.1.Test results 54

Chapter-5:

Conclusion and Recommendations 57

5.1. Conclusion 57

5.2. Recommendations 57

5.3. Limitations 57

5.4. Future Research Directions 58

References 59

8
 List of Tables

Table No. 1:

9
 List of Figures

Figure No. 1: Connections of circuit breaker control for the opening operation

Figure No. 2: A typical electro-mechanical relay

Figure No. 3:

Figure No. 4:

FigureNo.5:

Figure No. 6:

Figure No. 7:

Figure No. 8:

Figure No.9:

Figure No. 10:

FigureNo.11:

Figure No. 12:

Figure No. 13:

Figure No. 14:

Figure No. 15:

Figure No. 16:

Figure No.17:

10
 List of Abbreviations:

11
 Abstract

This report aims design and implementation of an IEC digital overcurrent relay with a

characteristic of a standard inverse that can comply to the IEC standards. The

overcurrent relay which is used to protect one phase of an alternating circuit (AC)

from the overcurrent disturbances consists of aMEGA 2560 as a microcontroller to

control the operation of the relay, a current sensor ACS712 with the allowable current

up to 30A used to detect the input current to the relay. The Time Multiplier Setting

(TMS) of the relay was set at 0.1. The trip test of the relay was conducted at a varying

TMS from 0.1 to 0.4 and the operation current was limited to 1A. When a fault current

was detected at 2.02A, it was found that the operation time of the relay occurred at

1008ms with a TMS of 0.1 and at 3932ms with the TMS of 0.4. Increasing the fault

current to 3.99A decreases the operation time to 504ms at the TMS of 0.1 and to

2016ms at TMS of 0.4. From these findings, it can be concluded that the prototype of

the digital overcurrent relay can fulfill the inverse characteristic of the standard IEC.

Following this, the various fault analysis was done which included both symmetrical

and unsymmetrical fault detections.

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 Chapter-1

Introduction

A good power system must be equipped with a proper protection system which is intended to prevent and to

protect the system against any faults that might occur during the operation of the system. This protection system

consists of a current transformer, a relay and a circuit breaker. A current transformer is used to inform the

magnitude of the input current signal to the relay. If the value of the input current sensed by the relay exceeds the

setting current of the relay, the relay will send the signal to the circuit breaker to trip or open the circuit. Basically,

most of the protection relays are electromagnetic types.

Overcurrent Protection plays an important role to protect power system due to sudden rise in current that damages

the system components. Overcurrent relays are the simplest and most widely used relays. Overcurrent relaying, in

one form or another, has been used for the protection of all power system components. It is the primary protection

for distribution feeders and the backup protection for transmission lines against either phase or ground faults. It is

also widely used as a fault detector to enable other sensitive protective relays such as distance relays. The basic

principle is that when the current flowing into the relay exceeds a predetermined amount, the relay operates with or

without an intended time delay and trips the associated circuit breakers. Overcurrent relays without intended time

delay operate “instantaneously”, usually in less than two cycles.

The colossal growth in silicon circuit fabrication technology of digital relays over the last power 30 years’ industry

has led Microprocessor- to the adoption based relays have brought unbeatable advantages in terms of economics

and techniques to the protection of the power network. Manufacturers have been quick to use the mainstream

products in the marketplace which is the only economic appmach available in terms of functionality and price.

Although the older electromagnetic relays are gradually replaced by static analog and digital relays, a large number

of these reliable electromagnetic relays still remain in service.

13
Power-system protection is a branch of electrical power engineering that deals with the protection of electrical

power systems from faults through the disconnection of faulted parts from the rest of the electrical network. The

devices that are used to protect the power systems from faults are called protection devices.

Protective relays, a fundamental part of protection devices work in concert with sensing and control devices to

accomplish their function. Under normal power system operation, a protective relay remains idle and serves no

active function. But when fault or undesirable condition arrives, relay must be operated and function correctly.

Faults may occur in any part of power system as a short circuit & earth fault. Fault may be Single Line to Ground,

Double Line to Ground, Line to Line, three phase short circuit etc. This results in flow of heavy fault current

through the system. Fault level also depends on the fault impedance which depends on the location of fault referred

from the source side. To calculate fault level at various points in the power system, fault analysis is necessary.

The protection system operates and isolates the faulty section. The operation of the protection system should be

fast and selective i.e. it should isolate only the faulty section in the shortest possible time causing minimum

disturbance to the system. Also, if main protection fails to operate, there should be a backup protection for which

proper relay co-ordination is necessary. Failure of a protective relay can result in devastating equipment damage

and prolonged downtime.

14
 Chapter-2

LiteratureReview

A Power System consists of various electrical components like Generator, transformers,

transmission lines, isolators, circuit breakers, bus bars, cables, relays, instrument transformers,

distribution feeders, and various types of loads. A protective relay is a relay device designed to trip

a circuit breaker when a fault is detected.

Working of Protective Scheme:

Protective relaying senses the abnormal condition in a part of power system and gives an alarm or isolates that

part from healthy system. Protective relaying is a team work of CT, PT, protective relays, time delay relays, trip

circuits, circuit breakers etc. It plays an important role in minimizing the faults and also in minimizing the

damage in the event of faults.

 Figure shows basic connections of circuit breaker control for the opening operation. The protected circuit X is

shown by dashed line. When a fault occurs in the protected circuit the relay connected to CT and PT actuates

and closes its contacts.

 Current flows from battery in the trip circuit. As the trip coil of circuit breaker is energized, the circuit breaker

operating mechanism is actuated and it operates for the opening operation. Thus the fault is sensed and the trip

circuit is actuated by the relay and the faulty part is isolated.

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What is a Relay:

 A relay is automatic device which senses an abnormal condition of electrical circuit and closes its contacts.

These contacts in turns close and complete the circuit breaker trip coil circuit hence make the circuit breaker

tripped for disconnecting the faulty portion of the electrical circuit from rest of the healthy circuit.

Functions of protective Relay:

 To sound an alarm or to close the trip circuit of a circuit breaker so as to disconnect Faulty Section.

 To disconnect the abnormally operating part so as to prevent subsequent faults. For e.g. Overload protection of

a machine not only protects the machine but also prevents Insulation failure.

 To isolate or disconnect faulted circuits or equipment quickly from the remainder of the system so the system

can continue to function and to minimize the damage to the faulty part. For example – If machine is

disconnected immediately after a winding fault, only a few coils may need replacement. But if the fault is

sustained, the entire winding may get damaged and machine may be beyond repairs.

 To localize the effect of fault by disconnecting the faulty part from healthy part, causing least disturbance to

the healthy system.

 To disconnect the faulty part quickly so as to improve system stability, service continuity and system

performance. Transient stability can be improved by means of improved protective relaying.

 To minimize hazards to personnel

Desirable qualities of protective relaying:

1. Selectivity,

2. Discrimination

3. Stability

4. Sensitivity,

5. Power consumption

6. System Security

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7. Reliability

8. Adequateness

9. Speed & Time

Terminologies of protective relay:

 Pickup level of actuating signal: The value of actuating quantity (voltage or current) which is on threshold

above which the relay initiates to be operated. If the value of actuating quantity is increased, the

electromagnetic effect of the relay coil is increased and above a certain level of actuating quantity the moving

mechanism of the relay just starts to move.

 Reset level: The value of current or voltage below which a relay opens its contacts and comes in original

position.

 Operating Time of Relay: Just after exceeding pickup level of actuating quantity the moving mechanism (for

example rotating disc) of relay starts moving and it ultimately close the relay contacts at the end of its journey.

The time which elapses between the instant when actuating quantity exceeds the pickup value to the instant

when the relay contacts close.

 Reset time of Relay: The time which elapses between the instant when the actuating quantity becomes less

than the reset value to the instant when the relay contacts returns to its normal position.

 Reach of Relay: A distance relay operates whenever the distance seen by the relay is less than the pre-specified

impedance. The actuating impedance in the relay is the function of distance in a distance protection relay. This

impedance or corresponding distance is called reach of the relay.

History of Protective Relay:

The evolution of protective relays begins with the electromechanical relays. Over the past decade it upgraded

from electromechanical to solid state technologies to predominate use of microprocessors and

microcontrollers.The timeline of the development of protective relays is shown below:

1900 to 1963 1963 to 1972 1972 to 1980 1980 to 1990

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 Electromechanical
Static Relay Digital Relay Numerical Relay
Relay.

1925=Single Disc Type 1963=Static Relay (All

Relay (Single Input) Purpose)

1980=Digital 1990=Numerical

Type Relay (All Type Relay (All

1961=Single Cup Type 1972=Static Relay with
Purpose) Purpose)
Relay (Impedance self checking (All

Relay) Purpose)

TYPES OF PROTECTION RELAYS

The Protection relays can be categorized as under:

(A) Based on Characteristic:

1. Definite time Relays.

2. Inverse definite minimum time Relays (IDMT)

3. Instantaneous Relays

4. IDMT with Instantaneous.

5. Stepped Characteristic

6. Programmed Switches

7. Voltage restraint over current relay

(B) Based on logic:

1. Differential

2. Unbalance
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3. Neutral Displacement

4. Directional

5. Restricted Earth Fault

6. Over Fluxing

7. Distance Schemes

8. Bus bar Protection

9. Reverse Power Relays

10. Loss of excitation

11. Negative Phase Sequence Relays etc.

(C) Based on Actuating parameter:

1. Current Relays

2. Voltage Relays

3. Frequency Relays

4. Power Relays etc.

(D) Based on Operation Mechanism:

 (A) Electro Magnetic Relay

 (B) Static Relay

 Analog Relay

 Digital Relay

 Numerical /Microprocessor Relay

 (C) Mechanical relay.

 (1) Thermal

(a) OT Trip (Oil Temperature Trip)

(b) WT Trip (Winding Temperature Trip)

(C) Bearing Temp Trip etc.

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 (2) Float Type

(a) Buchholz

(b) Oil Surge Relay (OSR)

(c) Pressure Relief Valve (PRV)

 (d) Water level Controls etc.

 (3) Pressure Switches.

 (4) Mechanical Interlocks.

 (5) Pole discrepancy Relay.

(E) Based on Applications:

1. Primary Relays.

2. Backup Relays

Type of Relay based on Relay Operation Mechanism:

(1) Electromagnetic Relay:

 Electromagnetic relays are further categorized under two following categories.

(A) Electromagnetic Attraction Relay:

This Relay works on Electromagnetic Attraction Principle

(B) Electromagnetic Induction Relay:

This Relay works on Electromagnetic Induction Principle

(2) Solid State (Static) Relay:

 Solid-state (and static) relays are further categorized under following designations.

(A) Analog Relay:

 In Analog relays are measured quantities are converted into lower voltage but similar signals, which are then

combined or compared directly to reference values in level detectors to produce the desired output.

(B)Digital Relay:
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 In Digital relays measured ac quantities are manipulated in analogue form and subsequently converted into

square-wave (binary) voltages. Logic circuits or microprocessors compare the phase relationships of the square

waves to make a trip decision.

(C)Numerical Relay:

 In Numerical relays measured ac quantities are sequentially sampled and converted into numeric data form. A

microprocessor performs mathematical and/or logical operations on the data to make trip decisions.

(1) Electromechanical Relay:

 History of Relay: This is the first generation oldest relaying system and they have been in use for many years.

They have earned a well-deserved reputation for accuracy, dependability, and reliability. There are two basic

types of operating mechanisms: the electromagnetic-attraction relay and electromagnetic-induction relay.

 Measuring Principles: The electromechanical protective relay converts the voltages and currents to magnetic

and electric forces and torques that press against spring tensions in the relay. The tension of the spring and taps

on the electromagnetic coils in the relay are the main processes by which a user sets in a relay.

 Function of Relay: These relays are usually instantaneous in action, with no intentional time delay, closing as

soon after pickup as the mechanical motion permits. We can add time delay by means of a bellows, dashpot, or

a clockwork escapement mechanism. However, the timing accuracy is considerably less precise than that of

induction type relays. As such, users seldom choose these relays with time delay in switchgear applications.

 Electromechanical Relays can operate with either AC or DC on the coils. Therefore, the DC component of an

asymmetrical fault definitely affects these relays using this principle.

 Most relays come enclosed in a semi flush-mounting draw out case. Installers typically install relays usually on

the door of the switchgear cubicle. They bring sensor and control wiring to connections on the case. The relay

inserts into the case and connects by means of small switches or a bridging plug, depending on the

manufacturer.

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 As such, we can disconnect and withdraw it from the case without disturbing the wiring. When the relay is

disconnected, the current transformer (CT) connections in the case are automatically shorted to short circuit the

CT secondary winding and protect the CT from over voltage and damage.

 Operation of Electromagnetic-attraction Relay: Figure shows a typical electro-mechanical relay. An input

voltage is applied to the coil mechanism. The input voltage magnetizes the core which pulls the arm towards it.

This action causes the output contacts to touch, closing the load circuit. When the input voltage is removed, the

spring lever will push the contacts away from each other, breaking the load circuit connection.

Operation of Electromagnetic-Induction Relay:

Induction relays are available in many variations to provide accurate pickup and time-current responses for a

wide range of simple or complex system.

They are actually like induction motors. On the relay, the moving element (rotor) is usually a metal disk,

although sometimes it’s a metal cylinder or cup. The stationary part (stator) is one or more integral

electromagnets, with current or potential coils inducing currents in the disk, causing it to rotate. Until the

rotational forces are great enough to turn the disk and bring its moving contact against the stationary contact, a

spring restrains the disk motion

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 This closes the circuit the relay is controlling. The greater the sensed fault, the greater the current in the coils,

and the faster the disk rotates.

A calibrated adjustment called the time dial sets the spacing between the moving and stationary contacts; this

varies the operating time of the relay from fast (contacts only slightly open) to slow (contacts nearly a full disk

revolution apart). Reset action begins upon removing the rotational force, either by closing the relay contact

that trips a breaker or by otherwise removing the malfunction the relay is sensing. The restraining spring resets

the disk to its original position. The time required to reset depends on the type of relay and the time-dial setting

(contact spacing).

Most electromechanical Relays are typically rated for minimum input to output isolation voltages of 1500 to

2000 VAC.

Limitations of Electromagnetic relays:

 Low speed of operation.

 Change in characteristics over a period due to ageing effect.

 Component failure leading to relay failure.

 Relay is Bulky: Because there are internal mechanical components with physical dimension restraints, the

package size of an electromechanical Relay can limit the size of a PCB design Excessive power consumption.

 Imposes high burden on CT

 No fault data available except phase indication.

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 Inherent in its design, the Electromechanical Relay must make mechanical contacts in order to switch a load. At

the point of these contacts, oxidation breakdown occurs over extended life cycling (typically 106 operations),

and the relay will need to be replaced.

 When an electromechanical Relay is activated, bounce occurs at the contact site. Bounce creates a window of

time where the load circuit is flickering between open and closed, a condition which may need to be considered

in load design.

 Isolation voltage is another area where Electromechanical Relays are limited.

(2) The Solid State Relay (Static Relay):

 History of Relay: The static relay are next generation relays. The Solid Static relay was first introduced in

1960’s. The term ‘static’ implies that the relay has no moving mechanical parts in it. Compared to the

Electromechanical Relay, the Solid Static relay has longer life-span, decreased noise when operates and faster

respond speed. However, it is not as robust as the Electromechanical Relay.

 Static relays were manufactured as semiconductor devices which incorporate transistors, ICs, capacitors, small

microprocessors etc.

 The static relays have been designed to replace almost all the functions which were being achieved earlier by

electromechanical relays.

 Measuring principles: The working principle of the Solid Static relays is similar to that of the

Electromechanical Relay which means the Solid Static relays can perform tasks that the Electromechanical

Relay can perform.

 The Solid Static relays use analogue electronic devices instead of magnetic coils and mechanical components to

create the relay characteristics. the measurement is carried out by static circuits consisting of comparators, level

detectors, filter etc while in a conventional electro-magnetic relay it is done by comparing operating torque (or

force) with restraining torque (or force). The relaying quantity such as voltage/current is rectified and

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 measured. When the quantity under measurement attains certain well-defined value, the output device is

triggered and thereby the circuit breaker trip circuit is energized.

 In a solid state relay, the incoming voltage and current waveforms are monitored by analog circuits, not

recorded or digitized. The analog values are compared to settings made by the user via potentiometers in the

relay, and in some case, taps on transformers.

 In some solid state relays, a simple microprocessor does some of the relay logic, but the logic is fixed and

simple. For instance, in some time over current solid state relays, the incoming AC current is first converted

into a small signal AC value, and then the AC is fed into a rectifier and filter that converts the AC to a DC

value proportionate to the AC waveform. An op-amp and comparator is used to create a DC that rises when a

trip point is reached. Then a relatively simple microprocessor does a slow speed A/D conversion of the DC

signal, integrates the results to create the time-over current curve response, and trips when the integration rises

above a set point. Though this relay has a microprocessor, it lacks the attributes of a digital/numeric relay, and

hence the term “microprocessor relay” is not a clear term.

 Function of Relay: Early versions used discrete devices such as transistors and diodes in conjunction with

resistors, capacitors, inductors, etc., but advances in electronics enabled the use of linear and digital integrated

circuits in later versions for signal processing and implementation of logic functions. While basic circuits may

be common to a number of relays, the packaging was still essentially restricted to a single protection function

percase, while complex functions required several cases of hardware suitably interconnected.

 User programming was restricted to the basic functions of adjustment of relay characteristic curves. Therefore,

it can be viewed in simple terms as an analogue electronic replacement for electromechanical relays, with some

additional flexibility in settings and some saving in space requirements.

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 In some cases, relay burden is reduced, making for reduced CT/VT output requirements. in a static relay there

is no armature or other moving element and response is developed by electronic, magnetic or other components

without mechanical motion.

 A relay using combination of both static and electro-magnetic units is also called a static relay provided that

static units accomplish the response.

 Additional electro-mechanical relay units may be employed in output stage as auxiliary relays. A protective

system is formed by static relays and electro-mechanical auxiliary relays.

 The performance of static relay is better than electromagnetic relays as they are fast acting and accuracy of

measurement is better than electromagnetic relay.

 The constraint in static relay is limited function/features. In the last decade, some microprocessors were

introduced in this relay to achieve the functions like (i) Fuse failure features (ii) Self check feature (iii) Dead

Pole detection and iv) Carrier aided protection features.

 Operation of Relay: The essential components of static relays are shown in fig. The output of CT and PT are

not suitable for static components so they are brought down to suitable level by auxiliary CT and PT. Then

auxiliary CT output is given to rectifier. Rectifier rectifies the relaying quantity i.e., the output from a CT or PT

or a Transducer

 The rectified output is supplied to a measuring unit comprising of comparators, level detectors, filters, logic

circuits. The output is actuated when the dynamic input (i.e., the relaying quantity) attains the threshold value.

This output of the measuring unit is amplified by amplifier and fed to the output unit device, which is usually

an electro-magnetic one. The output unit energizes the trip coil only when relay operates.

Advantages of Solid State Relay:

 Static Relay burden is less than Electromagnetic type of relays. Hence error is less.
26 | P a g e
 Low Weight

 Required Less Space which results in panel space saving.

 Arc less switching

 No acoustical noise.

 Multi-function integration.

 Fast response.

 Long life (High Reliability): more than 109 operations

 High Range of Setting compared to electromechanical Relay

 More Accurate compared to electromechanical Relay

 Low Electromagnetic Interference.

 Less power consumption.

 Shock and vibration resistant

 No contact bounce

 Microprocessor compatible.

 Isolation of Voltage

 No moving parts: There are no moving parts to wear out or arcing contacts to deteriorate that are often the

primary cause of failure with an Electro Mechanical Relay.

 No mechanical contact bounce or arcing: A solid-state relay doesn’t depend on mechanical forces or moving

contacts for its operation but performs electronically. Thus, timing is very accurate even for currents as low as

the pickup value. There is no mechanical contact bounce or arcing, and reset times are extremely short.

 Low input signal levels: Ideal for Telecommunication or microprocessor control industries. Solid state relays

are fast becoming the better choice in many applications, especially throughout the telecommunication and

microprocessor control industries.

 Cost Issues: In the past, there has been a rather large gap between the price of an electromechanical relay and

the price of a solid state relay. With continual advancement in manufacturing technology, this gap has been

27 | P a g e
 reduced dramatically making the advantages of solid state technology accessible to a growing number of design

engineers.

Limitations of static relays:

 Auxiliary voltage requirement for Relay Operation.

 Static relays are sensitive to voltage transients which are caused by operation of breaker and isolator in the

primary circuit of CTs and PTs.

 Serious over voltage is also caused by breaking of control circuit, relay contacts etc. Such voltage spikes of

small duration can damage the semiconductor components and also cause mal operation of relays.

 Temperature dependence of static relays: The characteristics of semiconductor devices are affected by ambient

temperature.

 Highly sophisticated isolation and filter circuits are required to be built into the relay design to take care of

electromagnetic interference and transient switching disturbances in the power system.

 Highly reliable power supply circuits are required.

 Effect of environmental conditions like humidity, high ambient temperature, dust accumulation on PCB leading

to tracking.

 The component failure.

 Non availability of fault data.

 Characteristic variations with passage of time.

(A) Digital Relay:

 History of Relay: Around 1980s the digital relay entered the market. Compared to the Solid State Relay, the

digital relay takes the advantages of the development of microprocessors and microcontrollers. Instead of using

analog signals, the digital relay converts all measured analog quantities into digital signals.

 Digital protection relays is a revolution step in changing Relay technology. In Digital Relay Microprocessors

and micro controllers are used in replacement of analogue circuits used in static relays to implement relay

28 | P a g e
 functions. Digital protection relays introduced in 1980. However, such technology will be completely

superseded within the next five years by numerical relays.

 By the mid-1990s the solid state and electromechanical relay had been mostly replaced by digital relay in new

construction. In distribution applications, the replacement by the digital relay proceeded a bit more slowly.

While the great majority of feeder relays in new applications today are digital, the solid state relay still sees

some use where simplicity of the application allows for simpler relays, and which allows one to avoid the

complexity of digital relays

 Measuring principles: Compared to static relays, digital relays introduce Analogue to Digital Convertor (A/D

conversion) of all measured analogue quantities and use a microprocessor to implement the protection

algorithm. The microprocessor may use some kind of counting technique, or use the Discrete Fourier

Transform (DFT) to implement the algorithm.

 The Microprocessors used in Digital Relay have limited processing capacity and memory compared to that

provided in numerical relays.

 Function of Relay: The functionality tends therefore to be limited and restricted largely to the protection

function itself. Additional functionality compared to that provided by an electromechanical or static relay is

usually available, typically taking the form of a wider range of settings, and greater accuracy. A

communications link to a remote computer may also be provided.

 The limited power of the microprocessors used in digital relays restricts the number of samples of the

waveform that can be measured per cycle. This, in turn, limits the speed of operation of the relay in certain

applications. Therefore, a digital relay for a particular protection function may have a longer operation time

than the static relay equivalent. However, the extra time is not significant in terms of overall tripping time and

possible effects of power system stability.

29 | P a g e
 Operation of Relay: Digital relay consists of: (1) Analogue input subsystem, (2) Digital input subsystem, (3)

Digital output subsystem, (4) A processor along with RAM (data scratch pad), main memory (historical data

file) and Power supply

 Digital relaying involves digital processing of one or more analog signals in three steps: Conversion of

analogue signal to digital form Processing of digital form Boolean decision to trip or not to trip

Advantages of Digital Relay:

 High level of functionality integration.

 Additional monitoring functions.

 Functional flexibility.

 Capable of working under a wide range of temperatures.

 They can implement more complex function and are generally more accurate

 Self-checking and self-adaptability.

 Able to communicate with other digital equipment (pear to pear).

 Less sensitive to temperature, aging

 Economical because can be produced in volumes

 More Accurate.

 plane for distance relaying is possible

 Signal storage is possible

Limitations of Digital Relay:

 Short lifetime due to the continuous development of new technologies.

 The devices become obsolete rapidly.

 Susceptibility to power system transients.

30 | P a g e
 As digital systems become increasingly more complex they require specially trained staff for Operation.

 Proper maintenance of the settings and monitoring data.

(B) Numerical Relay:

 History of Relay: The first protection devices based on microprocessors were employed in 1985. The

widespread acceptance of numerical technology by the customer and the experiences of the user helped in

developing the second generation numerical relays in 1990.

 Conventional electromechanical and static relays are hard wired relays. Their wiring is fixed, only their setting

can be manually changed. Numeric relays are programmable relays. The characteristics and behaviour of the

relay are can be programmed.

 First generation numerical relays were mainly designed to meet the static relay protection characteristic,

whereas modern numeric protection devices are capable of providing complete protection with added functions

like control and monitoring. Numerical protection devices offer several advantages in terms of protection,

reliability, and trouble shooting and fault information.

 The distinction between digital and numerical relay rests on points of fine technical detail, and is rarely

found in areas other than Protection. They can be viewed as natural developments of digital relays as a result

of advances in technology. Typically, they use a specialized digital signal processor (DSP) as the computational

hardware, together with the associated software tools.

 Measuring principles: The input analogue signals are converted into a digital representation and processed

according to the appropriate mathematical algorithm. Processing is carried out using a specialized

microprocessor that is optimized for signal processing applications, known as a digital signal processor or DSP

for short. Digital processing of signals in real time requires a very high power microprocessor.

 The measuring principles and techniques of conventional relays (electromechanical and static) are fewer than

those of the numerical technique, which can differ in many aspects like the type of protection algorithm used,

sampling, signal processing, hardware selection, software discipline, etc. These are microprocessor-based relays

in contrast to other relays that are electromechanically controlled.

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 Function of Relay:Modern power system protection devices are built with integrated functions. Multifunction

like protection, control, monitoring and measuring are available today in numeric power system protection

devices. Also, the communication capability of these devices facilitates remote control, monitoring and data

transfer.

 Traditionally, electromechanical and static protection relays offered single-function, single characteristics,

whereas modern numeric protection offers multi-function and multiple characteristics.

 The measuring principles and techniques of conventional relays (electromechanical and static) are fewer than

those of the numerical technique, which can differ in many aspects like the type of protection algorithm used,

sampling, signal processing, hardware selection, software discipline, etc.

 First generation numerical relays were mainly designed to meet the static relay protection characteristic,

whereas modern numeric protection devices are capable of providing complete protection with added functions

like control and monitoring. Numerical protection devices offer several advantages in terms of protection,

reliability, and trouble shooting and fault information. Numerical protection devices are available for

generation, transmission and distribution systems

 Numerical relays are microprocessor based relays and having the features of recording of parameter used as

disturbance recorder flexibility of setting & alarms & can be used one relay for all type of protections of one

equipment hence less area is required. Wide Range of setting, more accurate, Low burden hence low VA of CT

is required which minimize the cost. Numeric relays take the input analog quantities and convert them to

numeric values. All of the relaying functions are performed on these numeric values.

 The following sections cover relay hardware, relay software, multiple protection characteristics, adaptive

protection characteristics, data storage, instrumentation feature, self-check feature, communication capability,

additional functions, size and cost-effectiveness.

32 | P a g e
 Numerical protection devices are available for generation, transmission and distribution systems. Modern

power system protection devices are built with integrated functions. Multi-functions like protection, control,

monitoring and measuring are available today in numeric power system protection devices. Also, the

communication capability of these devices facilitates remote control, monitoring and data transfer.

 These relays provide great precision and convenience in application in the sophisticated electronic products. By

combining several functions in one case, numerical relays also save capital cost and maintenance cost over

electromechanical relays. The disadvantages of a conventional electromechanical relay are overcome by using

micro controller for realizing the operation of the relays. Micro controller based relays perform very well and

their cost is relatively low

 Also, the communication capability of these devices facilitates remote control, monitoring and data transfer.

Traditionally, electromechanical and static protection relays offered single-function, single characteristics,

whereas modern numeric protection offers multifunction and multiple characteristics. Some protections also

offer adaptable characteristics, which dynamically change the protection characteristic under different system

conditions by monitoring the input parameters.

 Operation of Relay: A current signal from CT is converted into proportional voltage signal using I to V

converter.

 The ac voltage proportional to load current is converted into dc using precision rectifier and is given to

multiplexer (MUX) which accepts more than one input and gives one output.

 Microprocessor sends command signal to the multiplexer to switch on desired channel to accept rectified

voltage proportional to current in a desired circuit.

33 | P a g e
 Output of Multiplexer is fed to analog to digital converter (ADC) to obtain signal in digital form.

Microprocessor then sends a signal ADC for start of conversion (SOC), examines whether the conversion is

completed and on receipt of end of conversion (EOC) from ADC, receives the data in digital form. The

microprocessor then compares the data with pick-up value. If the input is greater than pick-up value the

microprocessor send a trip signal to circuit breaker of the desired circuit.

 Incase of instantaneous over current relay there is no intentional time delay and circuit breaker trips instantly. In

case of normal inverse, very inverse, extremely inverse and long inverse over current relay the inverse current-

time characteristics are stored in the memory of microprocessor in tabular form called as look-up table.

Advantages of Numerical relays:

 Compact Size: Electromechanical Relay makes use of mechanical comparison devices, which cause the main

reason for the bulky size of relays. It uses a flag system for the indication purpose whether the relay has been

activated or not. While Numerical Relay is in Compact Size and use Indication on LCD for Relay activation.

 Digital protection can be physically smaller, and almost always requires less panel wiring than equivalent

functions implemented using analog technology.

 Flexibility: A variety of protection functions can be accomplished with suitable modifications in the software

only either with the same hardware or with slight modifications in the hardware.

 Reliability: A significant improvement in the relay reliability is obtained because the use of fewer components

results in less interconnections and reduced component failures.

 Multi Function Capability: Traditional electromechanical and static protection relays offers single-function

and single characteristics. Range of operation of electromechanical relays is narrow as compared to numerical

relay.

 Different types of relay characteristics: It is possible to provide better matching of protection characteristics

since these characteristics are stored in the memory of the microprocessor.

 Digital communication capabilities: The microprocessor based relay furnishes easy interface with digital

communication equipments. Fibre optical communication with substation LAN

 Modular frame: The relay hardware consists of standard modules resulting in ease of service.
34 | P a g e
 Low burden: The microprocessor based relays have minimum burden on the instrument transformers.

 Sensitivity: Greater sensitivity and high pickup ratio.

 Speed: With static relays, tripping time of ½ cycle or even less can be obtained.

 Fast Resetting: Resetting is less.

 Data History: Availability of fault data and disturbance record. Helps analysis of faults by recording details of

(1) Nature of fault, (2) Magnitude of fault level, (3) Breaker problem, (4) C.T. saturation , (5) Duration of fault.

 Auto Resetting & Self Diagnosis: Electromechanical relay do not have the ability to detect whether the normal

condition has been attained once it is activated thus auto resetting is not possible and it has to be done by the

operating personnel. while in Numerical Relay auto Resetting is Possible

 By combining several functions in one case, numerical relays also save capital cost and maintenance cost over

electromechanical relays

 Separate connection is not required, zero sequence voltages and currents can be derived inside the processor

 Basic hardware is shared between multiple functions, the cost of individual protection functions can be reduced

significantly.

 Loss of voltage feature helps block the relay in case of momentary/permanent loss of voltage.

Limitations of Numerical Relay:

 Numerical Relay offers more functionality, and greater precision. Unfortunately, that does not necessarily

translate into better protection.

 Numerical Relay can make faster decisions. However, in the real world, faster protection itself is of no value

because circuit breakers are still required to interrupt at the direction of the protective equipment, and the ability

to make circuit breakers interrupt faster is very limited.

 Numerical Relay protection often relies on non-proprietary software, exposing the system to potential risk of

hacking.

 Numerical Relay protection sometimes has exposure to externally-sourced transient interference that would not

affect conventional technology.

35 | P a g e
 Numerical Relay protection shares common functions. This means that there are common failure modes that

can affect multiple elements of protection. For example, failure of a power supply or an input signal processor

may disable an entire protective device that provides many different protection functions. This problem has

received a lot of design attention, and experience generally has supported the notion that the equipment has a

very high reliability once it is past the infant mortality stage. But it remains something to be aware of.

 A multifunction numeric relay can provide three phase, ground, and negative sequence directional or non-

directional over current protection with four shot recloser, forward or reverse power protection, breaker failure,

over/under frequency, and over/under voltage protection, sync check, breaker monitoring and control, it would

take 10 – 11 single function Solid State or Electromechanical relays at least 5 to 6 times the cost. Additionally,

Numeric relays have Communications capabilities, sequence-of-events recording, fault reporting, rate-of-

change frequency, and metering functions, all in an integrated system.

Comparison of Different Type Relay:

Electro Mechanical
Characteristic Static Relay Digital Relay
Relay

Technology 1st generation 2nd generation

Present generation Relays.
Standard Relays. Relays.

They use principle In this relays

Operating They use Microprocessor. Within built
of electromagnetic transistors and
Principle software with predefined values
principle. IC’s r been used

Measuring Induction R, L, C,
Microprocessors, Digital ICs, Digital
elements/ disc,Electromagnets, Transistors,
Signal Processors
Hardware Induction cup, Analogue ICs

36 | P a g e
 Balance Beam comparators

Level
Electrical
detects,comparison
Measuring Qtysconverted A/D
withreference
method intomechanical conversion,Numericalalgorithmtechniques
value in analogue
force, torque
Comparator

Depend upon
There value may
gravitation and the
Surrounding vary with respect
value changes to the
Environment to temperature
surrounding
also.
magnetic fields also.

Relay Size Bulky Small Small

Speed of
Slow Fast Fast
Response

Timing Mechanical clock

Static timers Counter
function works, dashpot

Time of
Temp .Dependant Temp. Dependant Stable
Accuracy

Reliability High Low High

37 | P a g e
Vibration
No Yes Yes
Proof

Characteristics Limited Wide Wide

Requirement
Required Required Not Required
of Draw Out

CT Burden High Low Low

CT Burden 8 to 10 VA 1 VA <0.5 VA

Reset Time Very High Less Less

Auxiliary
Required Required Required
supply

Range of
Limited Wide Wide
settings

Isolation High
Low High
Voltage

Function Single Function Single Function Multi Function

Maintenance Frequent Frequent Low

Resistance 100 mille ohms 10 Ohms 10 Ohms

38 | P a g e
Output > 20 Pico Farads
< 1 Pico Farad > 20 Pico Farads
Capacitance

Deterioration

due to Yes No No

Operation

Relay
No Partially Programmable
Programming

SCADA
No No Possible
Compatibility

Operational

value Not Possible Possible Possible

indication

Visual
Flags, targets LEDs LEDs, LCD
indication

Self
No Yes Yes
monitoring

Parameter Plug setting, dial Thumb wheel,dual Keypad for numeric values,through

setting setting in line switches computer

Fault
Not possible Not possible possible
Disturbance

39 | P a g e
Recording

Types of protection

Protection schemes can be divided into two major groupings:

1. Unit schemes

2. Non-unit schemes

1. Unit Type Protection

Unit type schemes protect a specific area of the system, i.e., a transformer, transmission line, generator or bus
bar.

The unit protection scheme is based on Kirchhoff’s Current Law – the sum of the currents entering an area of

the system must be zero.

Any deviation from this must indicate an abnormal current path. In these schemes, the effects of any

disturbance or operating condition outside the area of interest are totally ignored and the protection must be
designed to be stable above the maximum possible fault current that could flow through the protected area.

2. Non unit type protection

The non-unit schemes, while also intended to protect specific areas, have no fixed boundaries. As well as

protecting their own designated areas, the protective zones can overlap into other areas. While this can be very

beneficial for backup purposes, there can be a tendency for too great an area to be isolated if a fault is detected
by different non unit schemes.

The most simple of these schemes measures current and incorporates an inverse time characteristic into the
40 | P a g e
protection operation to allow protection nearer to the fault to operate first.

The non-unit type protection system includes following schemes:

1. Time graded overcurrent protection

2. Current graded overcurrent protection

3. Distance or Impedance Protection

2.1 Overcurrent protection

This is the simplest of the ways to protect a line and therefore widely used.
It owes its application from the fact that in the event of fault the current would increase to a value several times

greater than maximum load current. It has a limitation that it can be applied only to simple and non costly
equipments.

2.2 Earth fault protection

The general practice is to employ a set of two or three overcurrent relays and a separate overcurrent relay for

single line to ground fault. Separate earth fault relay provided makes earth fault protection faster and more
sensitive.

Earth fault current is always less than phase fault current in magnitude.
Therefore, relay connected for earth fault protection is different from those for phase to phase fault protection.

Various types of Line Faults

Types of Faults and Effects in Electrical Power Systems

41 | P a g e
Electrical powers system is growing in size and complexity in all sectors such as generation, transmission,

distribution and load systems. Types of faults like short circuit condition in power system network results in severe

economic losses and reduces the reliability of the electrical system.

Electrical fault is an abnormal condition, caused by equipment failures such as transformers and rotating machines,

human errors and environmental conditions. Theses faults cause interruption to electric flows, equipment damages

and even cause death of humans, birds and animals.

Types of Faults

Electrical fault is the deviation of voltages and currents from nominal values or states. Under normal operating

conditions, power system equipment or lines carry normal voltages and currents which results in a safer operation

of the system.

But when fault occurs, it causes excessively high currents to flow which causes the damage to equipments and

devices. Fault detection and analysis is necessary to select or design suitable switchgear

equipments, electromechanical relays, circuit breakers and other protection devices.

There are mainly two types of faults in the electrical power system. Those are symmetrical and unsymmetrical

faults.

1.Symmetrical faults

These are very severe faults and occur infrequently in the power systems. These are also called as balanced faults

and are of two types namely line to line to line to ground (L-L-L-G) and line to line to line (L-L-L).
42 | P a g e
Symmetrical faults

Only 2-5 percent of system faults are symmetrical faults. If these faults occur, system remains balanced but results

in severe damage to the electrical power system equipments.

Above figure shows two types of three phase symmetrical faults. Analysis of these fault is easy and usually carried

by per phase basis. Three phase fault analysis or information is required for selecting set-phase relays, rupturing

capacity of the circuit breakers and rating of the protective switchgear.

2.Unsymmetrical faults

These are very common and less severe than symmetrical faults. There are mainly three types namely line to

ground (L-G), line to line (L-L) and double line to ground (LL-G) faults.

Unsymmetrical faults

Line to ground fault (L-G) is most common fault and 65-70 percent of faults are of this type.

43 | P a g e
It causes the conductor to make contact with earth or ground. 15 to 20 percent of faults are double line to ground

and causes the two conductors to make contact with ground. Line to line faults occur when two conductors make

contact with each other mainly while swinging of lines due to winds and 5- 10 percent of the faults are of this type.

These are also called unbalanced faults since their occurrence causes unbalance in the system. Unbalance of the

system means that that impedance values are different in each phase causing unbalance current to flow in the

phases. These are more difficult to analyze and are carried by per phase basis similar to three phase balanced

faults.

Causes of Electrical Faults

• Weather conditions: It includes lighting strikes, heavy rains, heavy winds, salt deposition on overhead lines and

conductors, snow and ice accumulation on transmission lines, etc. These environmental conditions interrupt the

power supply and also damage electrical installations.

• Equipment failures: Various electrical equipments like generators, motors, transformers, reactors, switching

devices, etc causes short circuit faults due to malfunctioning, ageing, insulation failure of cables and winding.

These failures result in high current to flow through the devices or equipment which further damages it.

• Human errors: Electrical faults are also caused due to human errors such as selecting improper rating of

equipment or devices, forgetting metallic or electrical conducting parts after servicing or maintenance, switching

the circuit while it is under servicing, etc.

• Smoke of fires: Ionization of air, due to smoke particles, surrounding the overhead lines results in spark between

the lines or between conductors to insulator. This flashover causes insulators to lose their insulting capacity due to

high voltages.
Effects of electrical faults

• Over current flow: When fault occurs it creates a very low impedance path for the current flow. This results in a

very high current being drawn from the supply, causing tripping of relays, damaging insulation and components of

the equipments.

• Danger to operating personnel: Fault occurrence can also cause shocks to individuals. Severity of the shock

depends on the current and voltage at fault location and even may lead to death.

44 | P a g e
• Loss of equipment: Heavy current due to short circuit faults result in the components being burnt completely

which leads to improper working of equipment or device. Sometimes heavy fire causes complete burnout of the

equipments.

• Disturbs interconnected active circuits: Faults not only affect the location at which they occur but also disturbs

the active interconnected circuits to the faulted line.

• Electrical fires: Short circuit causes flashovers and sparks due to the ionization of air between two conducting

paths which further leads to fire as we often observe in news such as building and shopping complex fires.
Fault limiting devices

It is possible to minimize causes like human errors, but not environmental changes. Fault clearing is a crucial task

in power system network. If we manage to disrupt or break the circuit when fault arises, it reduces the considerable

damage to the equipments and also property.

Some of these fault limiting devices include fuses, circuit breakers, relays, etc. and are discussed below.

• Fuse: It is the primary protecting device. It is a thin wire enclosed in a casing or glass which connects two metal

parts. This wire melts when excessive current flows in circuit. Type of fuse depends on the voltage at which it is to

operate. Manual replacement of wire is necessary once it blowout.

Protecting devices

45 | P a g e
• Circuit breaker: It makes the circuit at normal as well as breaks at abnormal conditions. It causes automatic

tripping of the circuit when fault occurs. It can be electromechanical circuit breaker like vacuum / oil circuit

breakers etc, or ultrafast electronic circuit breaker.

• Relay: It is condition based operating switch. It consists of magnetic coil and normally open and closed contacts.

Fault occurrence raises the current which energizes relay coil, resulting in the contacts to operate so the circuit is

interrupted from flowing of current. Protective relays are of different types like impedance relays, mho relays, etc.

• Lighting power protection devices: These include lighting arrestors and grounding devices to protect the

system against lighting and surge voltages.

Application based three phase fault analysis

We can analyze three phase faults by using simple circuit as shown below. In this temporary and permanent faults

are created by fault switches. If we press button once as a temporary fault, timer’s arrangement trips the load and

also restores the power supply back to the load. If we press ON this button for a particular time as a permanent

fault, this system completely shutdowns the load by relay arrangement.

46 | P a g e
Three phase fault analysis

No Type of Fault Operation of Relay

1 Phase to Ground fault (Earth Fault) Earth Fault Relay
2 Phase to Phase fault Not with Ground Related Phase Overcurrent relays
3 Double phase to Ground fault Related Phase Overcurrent relays
and Earth Fault relays

Overcurrent Relay gives protection against:

Overcurrent includes short-circuit protection, and short circuits can be:

1. Phase faults

2. Earth faults

3. Winding faults

Short-circuit currents are generally several times (5 to 20) full load current. Hence fast fault clearance is
always desirable on short circuits.

Primary requirement of Overcurrent protection

The protection should not operate for starting currents, permissible overcurrent, current surges. To achieve this,
the time delay is provided (in case of inverse relays).

The protection should be co-ordinate with neighboring overcurrent protection.

Overcurrent relay is a basic element of overcurrent protection.

Purpose of overcurrent Protection

These are the most important purposes of overcurrent relay:

 Detect abnormal conditions

 Isolate faulty part of the system

47 | P a g e
  Speed Fast operation to minimize damage and danger

 Discrimination Isolate only the faulty section

 Dependability / reliability

 Security / stability

 Cost of protection / against cost of potential hazards

Overcurrent Relay Ratings

In order for an overcurrent protective device to operate properly, overcurrent protective device ratings must be
properly selected. These ratings include voltage, ampere and interrupting rating.

If the interrupting rating is not properly selected, a serious hazard for equipment and personnel will exist.

Current limiting can be considered as another overcurrent protective device rating, although not all overcurrent
protective devices are required to have this characteristic

Voltage Rating: The voltage rating of the overcurrent protective device must be at least equal to or greater than

the circuit voltage. The overcurrent protective device rating can be higher than the system voltage but never

lower.

Ampere Rating: The ampere rating of a overcurrent protecting device normally should not exceed the current

carrying capacity of the conductors As a general rule, the ampere rating of a overcurrent protecting device is

selected at 125% of the continuous load current.

Difference between Overcurrent and Overload protection

Overcurrent protection protects against excessive currents or currents beyond the acceptable current ratings,
which are resulting from short circuits, ground faults and overload conditions.

48 | P a g e
While, the overload protection protects against the situation where overload current causes overheating of the

protected equipment.

The overcurrent protection is a bigger concept So that the overload protection can be considered as a subset of
overcurrent protection.

The overcurrent relay can be used as overload (thermal) protection when protects the resistive loads, etc.,

however, for motor loads, the overcurrent relay cannot serve as overload protection Overload relays usually
have a longer time setting than the overcurrent relays.

Types of Overcurrent Relay

These are the types of overcurrent relay:

1. Instantaneous Overcurrent (Define Current) Relay

2. Define Time Overcurrent Relay

3. Inverse Time Overcurrent Relay (IDMT Relay)

 Moderately Inverse

 Very Inverse Time

 Extremely Inverse

4. Directional overcurrent Relay

1. Instantaneous Overcurrent relay (Define Current)

Definite current relay operate instantaneously when the current reaches a predetermined value.

49 | P a g e
 Instantaneous Overcurrent Relay – Definite Current

 Operates in a definite time when current exceeds its Pick-up value.

 Its operation criterion is only current magnitude (without time delay).

 Operating time is constant.

 There is no intentional time delay.

 Coordination of definite-current relays is based on the fact that the fault current varies with the position

of the fault because of the difference in the impedance between the fault and the source

 The relay located furthest from the source operate for a low current value

 The operating currents are progressively increased for the other relays when moving towards the source.

 It operates in 0.1s or less

Application: This type is applied to the outgoing feeders.

2. Definite Time Overcurrent Relays

In this type, two conditions must be satisfied for operation (tripping), current must exceed the setting value and
the fault must be continuous at least a time equal to time setting of the relay.

Definite time of overcurrent relay

50 | P a g e
Modern relays may contain more than one stage of protection each stage includes each own current and time
setting.

1. For Operation of Definite Time Overcurrent Relay operating time is constant

2. Its operation is independent of the magnitude of current above the pick-up value.

3. It has pick-up and time dial settings, desired time delay can be set with the help of an intentional time delay

mechanism.

4. Easy to coordinate.

5. Constant tripping time independent of in feed variation and fault location.

Drawback of Relay:

1. The continuity in the supply cannot be maintained at the load end in the event of fault.

2. Time lag is provided which is not desirable in on short circuits.

3. It is difficult to co-ordinate and requires changes with the addition of load.

4. It is not suitable for long distance transmission lines where rapid fault clearance is necessary for stability.

5. Relay have difficulties in distinguishing between Fault currents at one point or another when fault

impedances between these points are small, thus poor discrimination.

Application:

Definite time overcurrent relay is used as:

1. Back up protection of distance relay of transmission line with time delay.

2. Back up protection to differential relay of power transformer with time delay.

3. Main protection to outgoing feeders and bus couplers with adjustable time delay setting.

3. Inverse Time Overcurrent Relays (IDMT Relay)

In this type of relays, operating time is inversely changed with current. So, high current will operate overcurrent
relay faster than lower ones. There are standard inverse, very inverse and extremely inverse types.

51 | P a g e
Discrimination by both ‘Time’ and ‘Current’.

The relay operation time is inversely proportional to the fault current.

Inverse Time relays are also referred to as Inverse Definite Minimum Time (IDMT) relay.

Inverse Definite Minimum Time (IDMT)

The operating time of an overcurrent relay can be moved up (made slower) by adjusting the ‘time dial setting’.
The lowest time dial setting (fastest operating time) is generally 0.5 and the slowest is 10.

 Operates when current exceeds its pick-up value.

 Operating time depends on the magnitude of current.

 It gives inverse time current characteristics at lower values of fault current and definite time

characteristics at higher values

 An inverse characteristic is obtained if the value of plug setting multiplier is below 10, for values

between 10 and 20 characteristics tend towards definite time characteristics.

 Widely used for the protection of distribution lines.

Based on the inverseness it has three different types:

Inverse types

3.1. Normal Inverse Time Overcurrent Relay

The accuracy of the operating time may range from 5 to 7.5% of the nominal operating time as specified in the

relevant norms. The uncertainty of the operating time and the necessary operating time may require a grading
margin of 0.4 to 0.5 seconds.

It’s used when Fault Current is dependent on generation of fault not fault location.
52 | P a g e
Normal inverse time Overcurrent Relay is relatively small change in time per unit of change of current.

Application:
Most frequently used in utility and industrial circuits especially applicable where the fault magnitude is mainly

dependent on the system generating capacity at the time of fault.

3.2. Very Inverse Time Overcurrent Relay

 Gives more inverse characteristics than that of IDMT.

 Used where there is a reduction in fault current, as the distance from source increases.

 Particularly effective with ground faults because of their steep characteristics.

 Suitable if there is a substantial reduction of fault current as the fault distance from the pow er source

increases.

 Very inverse overcurrent relays are particularly suitable if the short-circuit current drops rapidly with the

distance from the substation.

 The grading margin may be reduced to a value in the range from 0.3 to 0.4 seconds when overcurr ent

relays with very inverse characteristics are used.

 Used when Fault Current is dependent on fault location.

 Used when Fault Current independent of normal changes in generating capacity.

3.3. Extremely Inverse Time Overcurrent Relay

 It has more inverse characteristics than that of IDMT and very inverse overcurrent relay.

 Suitable for the protection of machines against overheating.

 The operating time of a time overcurrent relay with an extremely inverse time-current characteristic is

approximately inversely proportional to the square of the current

 The use of extremely inverse overcurrent relays makes it possible to use a short time delay in spite of
high switching-in currents.

53 | P a g e
  Used when Fault current is dependent on fault location

 Used when Fault current independent of normal changes in generating capacity.

Application:
 Suitable for protection of distribution feeders with peak currents on switching in (refrigerators, pumps,

water heaters and so on).

 Particular suitable for grading and coordinates with fuses and re closes

 For the protection of alternators, transformers. Expensive cables, etc.

4. Directional Overcurrent Relays

When the power system is not radial (source on one side of the line), an overcurrent relay may not be able to

provide adequate protection. This type of relay operates in on direction of current flow and blocks in the
opposite direction.

Three conditions must be satisfied for its operation: current magnitude, time delay and directionality. The
directionality of current flow can be identified using voltage as a reference of direction.

Application of Overcurrent Relay

Motor Protection:
 Used against overloads and short-circuits in stator windings of motor.

 Inverse time and instantaneous overcurrent phase and ground

 Overcurrent relays used for motors above 1000 kW.

Transformer Protection:
 Used only when the cost of overcurrent relays are not justified.

 Extensively also at power-transformer locations for external-fault back-up protection.

Line Protection:
 On some sub transmission lines where the cost of distance relaying cannot be justified.

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  Primary ground-fault protection on most transmission lines where distance relays are used for phase

faults.

 For ground back-up protection on most lines having pilot relaying for primary protection.

Distribution Protection:
Overcurrent relaying is very well suited to distribution system protection for the following reasons:

 It is basically simple and inexpensive.

 Very often the relays do not need to be directional and hence no PT supply is required.

It is possible to use a set of two O/C relays for protection against inter-phase faults and a separate Overcurrent

relay for ground faults

Overcurrent Relay
The overcurrent relay operates only when the value of the current is greater than the relay setting time. It protects
the equipment of the power system from the fault current.The purpose of the overcurrent protection is to
minimize damages due to overcurrent faults to the electrical system by detecting the abnormalities quickly
and isolating the disturbed components from the healthy electrical system selectively. To operate selectively,
the input current entering the overcurrent relay needs to be set at certain value. If the input current goes to
the overcurrent relay greater than its setting value, the relay will operate by sending the electrical signal to
the circuit breaker (CB) to trip the electrical circuit immediately.

Depending on the time of operation the overcurrent relay is categorized into following types.

 Instantaneous Overcurrent relay

 Inverse time Overcurrent Relay
 Definite Time Overcurrent Relay
 Inverse Definite Time Overcurrent Relay
 Very Inverse Definite Time Overcurrent Relay
 Extremely Inverse Definite Time Overcurrent Relay

Fig. 1.
The illustration of the operation of an overcurrent relay [8]

The overcurrent relays are classified into two types based on their operation time, i.e.: an instantaneous relay
and a time delay relay.

Instantaneous Relay

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This kind of overcurrent relay operates quickly without any delays when the current entering the relay
exceeds its pick-up current value [9]. This relay is used to protect the outgoing feeder from overcurrent faults
such as due to the short-circuit conditions, transient conditions and over loads. Its operation time is within
100ms. The construction of the instantaneous relay comprises of a moving armature, plunger and an
induction disk.

Time delay Relay

A time delay relay operates with certain time delay. If the fault current exceeds the pick-up or operating
current of the relay, the relay will send the signal to the circuit breaker to trip after its time delay is
reached [9]. The pick-up current and the time delay of the relay can be adjusted according to the protection
requirement of the system. The operation of the relay is determined by the magnitude of the pick-up current
and the time delay. It only operates if two conditions are fulfilled. Even though the current entering the relay
exceeds its pick-up current such as the starting current and the surge current, the relay is still not operating if
the time delay of the relay is not met [10], [11], [12]. Based on the variations of the time delay, the time delay
relay can be distinguished into two types i.e.: the definite time and the inverse time relays. Basically, both
relays with definite and inverse characteristics have certain time delay. The definite time delay relay has a
constant time delay. The definite time relays are usually applied as a back-up relay [10], [11], [12]. For
example, it is used to back-up the distance relay to protect the transmission line and to back-up the
differential relay to protect the power transformer. It also can be applied as the main protection relay to
protect the outgoing feeder and bus coupler.

In contract to the definite time relay, the time delay of the inverse relay is varied depending on the
magnitude of the incoming fault current. Generally, if the magnitude of the detected fault current is very
high, the time delay of the relay is also very fast. The characteristics of the inverse time relay can be classified
into four types as shown in the standard IEC 60255 [1], i.e.: Standard inverse, the Definite inverse, the Very
inverse and the Extremely inverse. Their characteristic curves are shown in Figure 2.

The time delay of those different inverse relays can be calculated as expressed:

Standard Inverse:

t=TMS(0.14(lr)0.02−1)(1)

Very Inverse:

t=TMS(13.5lr−1)(2)

Extremely Inverse:

t=TMS(80IZr−1)(3)

where,

= the time delay of the relay (second)

= the time multiplier setting (second)

= the ratio of the fault current to the setting current

r

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Fig. 2.
The Inverse characteristic curves with the time delay [12]

View All

The inverse characteristic curves show the relationship between the operation time in seconds and the fault
current of the relay as the multiple of its pick-up current [9]. The curve has the asymptote in the vertical axis
and it is inverse to the current that exceeds to the pick-up current. The inverse time characteristic curve can
be shifted up and down by adjusting the Time Dial Setting (TDS). If the relay reaches its pick-up value due to
a fault current, then its time delay is set to identify that incoming fault current. The relay will send the signal
to the circuit breaker to trip only if the duration of the fault exceeds its setting time delay. The example of the
relay operation is given in Fig. 3 where the pick-up current value is set at 1 Ampere and the TDS is positioned
at 0.1. Then the value of its time delay is adjusted to the magnitude of the fault current relay which is the area
under the curve as shown in the Fig. 3.

Fig. 3.
Operation time of the inverse relay with a TMS setting at 0.1 [12]

View All

Another example of the relay operation is given in Fig. 4 where different sets of TDS can be chosen for the
overcurrent relay SPCJ 4D29 type.

Fig. 4.
The inverse characteristic curve of the reference relay SPCJ 4D29 with different TMS settings [12]

Instantaneous Overcurrent Relay

The relay has no intentional time delay for operation. The contacts of the relay are closed instantly when the
current inside the relay rises beyond the operational value. The time interval between the instant pick-up value and
the closing contacts of the relay is very less.

The most significant advantage of the instantaneous relay is that it has low operating time. It starts operating
instantly when the value of current is more than the relay setting. This relay operates only when the impedance
between the source and the relay is less than that provided in the section.

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The most important feature of the relay is their speed of operation. The relay protects the system from earth fault
and also used for protecting the system from circulating current. The instantaneous overcurrent relay is placed in
the outgoing feeder.

Inverse-Time Overcurrent Relay

The relay operates only when the magnitude of their operating current is inversely proportional to the magnitude of
the energize quantities. The operating time of relay decreases with the increases in the current. The operation of
the relay depends on the magnitude of the current

The characteristic curve for the relay is shown in the figure below. The relay will not operate when the value of
current is less than the pick value. The relay is used for the protection of the distribution lines. The inverse time
relay is of three types.

Inverse Definite Minimum Time Relay

The relay whose operating time is approximately proportional to the fault current is known as the IDMT relay. The
operating time of the relay is maintained by adjusting the time delay setting. The IDMT relay uses the
electromagnetic core because it can easily saturate for the current having larger magnitude than pick up current.
The relay is used for the protection of the distribution line.

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Very Inverse Relay

The inverse characteristic of the relay is more than the IDMT. Such type of relay is used in the feeder and on long
transmission lines. The relay is used in the places where there the magnitude of the short-circuit current fall rapidly
because of the large distance from the source. It is used for sensing the fault current which is free from the fault
location.

Extremely Inverse Relay

The characteristic time of the relay is extremely large as compared to the IDMT and the Very inverse relay. This
relay is used for protecting the cable, transformer, etc. The relay can operate instantly when the pickup value of the
current is more than the relay setting time. The relay provides faster operation even under the fault current. It is
used for sensing the overheating of the machines.

A. Software design
The purpose of the software design is to connect all the electrical components of the proposed digital relay
such as the sensor current ACS712, the Arduino Uno, the breaker relay module SPDT, keypad, the resistor as
a whole system that can functions to protect the electrical power system from any overcurrent faults.

The program for the microcontroller Arduino Uno was written using the Arduino IDE 1.8.5.0 (sketch). The
standard inverse time was chosen as the characteristic of the proposed digital relay.

B. Hardware design
In this stage, all the electrical components are assembled and connected together as shown in Fig. 5 to
produce the prototype of the proposed digital relay with standard inverse characteristic. Not only the
hardware components are connected, but the software part was also integrated into the prototype to regulate
the operation of the hardware components.

1) Current Sensor ACS712

The installation of the current sensor ACS712 30A is in series to the one phase cable where the current
flowing through the circuit as shown in Fig. 6. The current sensor ACS712 has the ability to measure the
current up to 30Amps. The sensor works based on the hall sensor effect where the magnitude of the current
passes through the conductor (IP+ to IP-) is directly proportional to the magnitude of the magnetic field. The
generated magnetic fields are accumulated in the hall and produce the output voltage at the output terminals
of the sensor. The current sensor ACS712 30A sends the reading of the alternating current to Arduino Uno
through the jumper of the female-male cable.

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Fig. 6.
The installation of the current sensor ACS712

View All

2) The calculation of the fault duration:

The calculation of the time that is used in the prototype is using the function that is available in the Arduino
Uno which is called the millis() function. Besides, the pull-up resistor system as shown in Fig. 7 is also used
to assign the pick-up condition which is marked by either HGH or LOW conditions to the digital pin of the
Arduino Uno. If the relay has reached its pick-up current setting, the value of the millis() at that condition is
used as a reference. Then the increased millis() value is used as a subtraction to the reference millis() value.
Afterward, the difference between the two values is used as a stopwatch to calculate the duration time in
milliseconds (ms).

Fig. 7.
The pull-up resistor circuit.

View All

3) Electromagnetic switches
When the magnitude of the fault current occurred exceeds the setting current value and its duration is longer
than the setting delay time of the relay, then the fault is considered and written as a permanent fault in the
Arduino Uno program. At this stage, the digital pin of the Arduino Uno has a voltage of 5 Volts. A single pole
double through (SPDT) electromagnetic switch is used to break the electrical circuit when the permanent
fault occurs. The assembly of the breaker circuit is shown in Fig. 8.

Fig. 8.
The Installation of the electromagnetic switch

View All

4) Keypad
The keypad is used to enter the setting current and the TMS values of the proposed relay. The current value
of the relay is set through the ‘A’ button of the keypad. After the A button is pressed, then the operating
current value of the relay can be entered. Finally, the’#’ button is pressed to input the setting current value to
the Arduino Uno. The input and output (I/O) connection of the keypad to the I/O pin of the Arduino Uno is
shown in Fig. 9.

Fig. 9.
The connection of keypad to the I/O pin of Arduino Uno

View All

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The TMS of the proposed relay is set through the ‘B’ button of the keypad. After the B button is pressed, the
value of the TMS can be entered and the ‘#’ button is also used to enter the value to the Arduino Uno.

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Chapter-4

Results and Findings

The physical construction of the prototype of the proposed digital standard inverse relay is shown.
To test the performance of the prototype relay, the following three tests are carried out, i.e.: the
short-circuit test, the transient test and the overloading test. Apart from those tests, the first test is
done to verify the reading the current sensor ACS712. In this section, the results of the complete
tests are given.

4.1. Testresults:

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Chapter-5

Conclusion

5.1. Applications

 Overcurrent protection protects electrical power systems against excessive currents which

are caused by short circuits, ground faults, etc.

 Overcurrent relays can be used to protect practically any power system elements, i.e.

transmission lines, transformers, generators, or motors.

 For feeder protection, there would be more than one overcurrent relay to protect different
sections of the feeder.

 This overcurrent relay is used in the distribution networks and the power plants. The relay
gives the fast operation in the fault conditions because of their fault time characteristic.

 It’s also used in the transmission networks e.g., on 500KV transmission lines.

 It is cost-effective.

 Current Limiters are not required.

 It has been designed for 11KV grid stations,500 KV transmission lines and Power
plants protection.

 This is not being manufacturing in our country, Pakistan till date.

 Once manufacturing begins in Pakistan, no shipping cost and import taxes would be
required.

 This would eventually provide jobs for engineers and will create other employment
opportunities hence paving a new way to technological advancement.

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5.2. Challenges:

 Testing had to be done once and again for each and every thing since it was the first time we

made it as has not been designed at a local level or even in Pakistan.

 Availability of 3 phase supply

 Lab availability was a compulsion for our project due to various heavy components which

are not easily available. Because of this, we were unable to work at all times and were

restricted to work in limited timing.

 Unavailability of heavy power loads

 440 Volts supply out of reach

 Hit and Trial Methods took lots of time and energy

 Another major issue was faced in the creation of line to line fault

 Tracing of line to line fault

5.3. Recommendations:

After conducting this study, following are some recommendations for in this respect:

 Researches should be done for this purpose on large scale inPakistan.

 Design should be initiated in Pakistan so imports may lessen and economy may boost up

 More economical manufacturing may be done so it can be provided to users at low cost.

 Entrepreneurs may come to this side.

 Wireless GUI may be made

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5.4. Limitations:

 Load current cannot be less than 1 Ampere in this case

 Current Sensor rating is low i.e. 20-30 Amp.

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 5.5. Future Research Directions:

 Research can be done towards numeric relays and their manufacturing

 Digital Signal Processing can be applied to this prototype.

 Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning is the immediate future.

 It can be taken towards the smart protection of power systems.

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 References:

Handbook of Switchgear –Bhel

Digital/Numerical Relays -T.S.M. Rao
ieee.org
https://circuitglobe.com/overcurrent-relay.html
https://electricalnotes.wordpress.com/2012/12/01/types-and-revolution-of-electrical-relays/
https://www.slideshare.net/DrAmberGad/relay-generation-and-history
https://www.elprocus.com/what-are-the-different-types-of-faults-in-electrical-power-systems/

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