Nature and Elements of Communication, Oral Communication in Context

Definition of Communication

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to define communication and differentiate verbal from
nonverbal communication.

How do you communicate? What is the difference between verbal and nonverbal communication?

Learn about it!

Communication
Communication is the transmission of ideas and emotions between or among persons with the use
of verbal and nonverbal cues.

The word communication comes from the Latin word communis, which means "common." To be
common means to come together or to share something in common together. Communication helps
people to adapt to or survive in the place they live in.

Verbal Communication
Verbal communication, also called spoken communication, is the process or act of conveying one's
thoughts or ideas using speech. Sounds and language are used for relaying the message that one
needs others to know.

Examples:
telephone conversations
job interviews

Explanation:
Telephone conversations and job interviews entail verbal communication, as the participants would
have to speak to each other in order to get their message across.

Nonverbal Communication
Nonverbal communication refers to the use of wordless cues in order to convey a message. These
cues include facial expressions, hand gestures, body language, and the tone, pitch, and volume of
voice. Even when one is using words, there is also nonverbal communication involved.

Examples:
shaking your head
smiling

Explanation:
Shaking your head gives someone the impression that you disagree with something, while smiling
conveys that you are pleased, happy, or amused about something.

Tips
 Know what your purpose is so that you can effectively send your message verbally, through
gestures, or using a mix of both.
 Be a good listener because communication is not one-way. In order for you to respond
properly to the person you are communicating with, you should first be able to listen to and
understand the person's message.
The Process of Communication

Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to explain the process of communication.

What actions are involved in the process of communication?

Learn about it!

Communication
Communication is a structured two-way process essential to transmission of information and
expression of ideas among individuals. It comes in two forms, namely, verbal and nonverbal
communication.

Verbal communication mainly uses words, whereas nonverbal communication involves facial
expressions, gestures, body language, and the volume, tone, and pitch of the speaker's voice.

Human beings communicate in two types of settings. Daily conversations such as chats and friendly
greetings happen in informal settings. On the other hand, formal settings are those in which
communication involves a specific purpose and requires controlled and deliberate effort.
Communication done in formal settings includes interviews, debates, and seminars.

The Process of Communication

The communication process starts with a stimulus, an idea or a concept that is activated by the
sender. The sender encodes the message into words and expresses his thoughts in proper
sequence. The message is then heard and interpreted or decoded by the receiver. After that, the
receiver provides feedback and becomes a sender. The first sender then receives the feedback and
decodes its message to provide feedback.

Example:
Cathy: Good morning! Do you remember our lesson last Friday?
Jane: Oh, I could not remember anything about it. Let us check our notebooks.
Cathy: I see. I have my notebook in my bag.

Explanation:
The stimulus in the conversation is Cathy's intention to ask Jane about the lesson last Friday. Cathy
translates this stimulus into words. She starts with a greeting and asks an open-ended question.
Jane receives the message and recognizes the stimulus of the conversation. Jane remembers the
stimulus, understands the ideas, and provides feedback that she does not remember anything. Then
she suggests opening their notebooks. Cathy agrees with Jane regarding her suggestion. If Jane
gives feedback, the conversation will continue.

Key Points
 The process of communication consists of the sender, receiver,
message, and interpretation. Feedback continues the cycle of the conversation.
 Recognizing the importance of good communication helps in creating better relationships
among people.

The Models of Communication

Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to identify the different communication models and their
features.

What are the various communication models and how do they differ from one another?

Learn about it!

Communication
Communication is characterized as a two-way process of transmitting information. This involves
certain elements, such as the sender, the message, and the receiver, among others.

Various communication models explain how communication happens. These are:

 Linear communication model

 Interactive communication model
 Osgood and Schramm circular model
 Transactional model
 Helical model

Linear Communication Model

The linear communication model presents communication as a one-way activity in which

information flows from the sender to the receiver.

This process shows only a passive receiver. Feedback is not a requirement, and the role of the
receiver is only to accept information.

Examples:
listening to the radio
watching the news on television

Explanation:
In listening to broadcast media, the flow of communication is only one-way. The receiver of the
message does not need to provide the sender with feedback.

Interactive Communication Model

The interactive communication model shows a two-way activity. The sender and the receiver
have the same role in the activity: either one comes up with an idea, sends a message, and reacts to
a concept. The model involves feedback, an element missing from the linear communication model.
It may also include noise, an element that affects the interpretation of the message.

Example:
telephone conversations

Explanation:
When two people are talking on the phone, both are required to speak and respond to each other's
message.

Osgood and Schramm Circular Model

Showing the same elements as the interactive communication model, the Osgood and Schramm
circular model presents communication as an endless "circular" flow of conversations. The model
emphasizes the functions of the speakers or participants in the communication: encoding, decoding,
and interpreting. The speaker encodes the message, and the listener decodes and interprets it. After
interpreting, the listener then becomes the speaker; he encodes another message to provide
feedback and continue the conversation.

Example:
class recitation

Explanation:
When a teacher asks a question, a student is expected to interpret the message and respond. The
teacher then gives a follow-up question, and the discussion continues.

Transactional Model

The transactional model presents communication not only as a two-way process but also a
simultaneous activity. Senders and receivers are called participants since they are both capable of
sending or receiving messages anytime or at the same time.

The noise and the environment are the other elements that affect the process. The noise is any
distraction that affects the interpretation of the message.

Example:
an energetic person talking to a sleepy person

Explanation:
One's physiological state may affect communication. When a participant in a conversation is sleepy,
it may be hard for him to decode messages correctly and make appropriate responses.
Helical Model

The helical model has basic elements that are similar to the other communication models.
However, unlike those models, it promotes an upward and forward movement. It shows that
knowledge increases as the interaction goes on.

Also, the helical model proposes that communication starts at birth and evolves as one grows up,
and that one's responses depend on past experiences. So, there is not only a forward movement in
the process but also some looking back involved.

Example:
the learning of a new word

Explanation:
When a child learns a new word, he or she learns how to pronounce it and what it means. Later on,
he or she may use it in conversations. As he or she grows up, he or she learns that the word has
several meanings and that it can be used in different contexts. His or her experience shows that
communication not only evolves but also is dependent on the past.

Tip
Familiarize yourself with the different models of communication. The models may give you a better
understanding of how communication works and what could affect the communication process.

The Five Elements of Communication

Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to identify the elements of communication and their
roles in the communication process.

What are the elements of communication? What roles do they play in the communication process?

Learn about it!

Communication
Communication is the transmission of ideas and emotions between or among persons with the use
of verbal and nonverbal cues.

Elements of Communication
Understanding the elements of communication will help you get a better picture of the
communication process and how it works. Below are the different elements of communication.

 Participants
 Context
 Message
 Channel
 Feedback

Participants
The participants are the communicators who can be both senders and receivers. A sender
transmits the information to the receiver, and the receiver decodes the message in order to
formulate a response.
Context
Context refers to the interrelated conditions affecting the message. These include physical, social,
psychological, and cultural factors.

Physical context refers to the place, time, environment, and distance between
communicators. Social context refers to the relationship of the communicators,
whereas psychological context refers to their moods and feelings. Cultural contextincludes the
beliefs and norms of the participants.

Message
The main point of having communication is the message. The message is the idea or information
that the sender would like to convey to the receiver. It is thus important that the message is stated
clearly and in a way that is understandable to the receiver.

Channel
The channel is the means of delivering the message. It can be a face-to-face conversation, a letter,
a phone call, an e-mail, or the social media.

Feedback
The feedback is the response of the receiver. This helps the sender of the message to determine
whether the message was understood by the receiver. If the participants of the conversation
continue giving feedback, the flow of communication continues.

Example:
Situation: Mark is calling Jenny to invite her to a get-together. After three rings, Jenny answers her
cellular phone.

Mark: Hi, Jenny! This is Mark.

Jenny: Hi, Mark! How are you?
Mark: I’m fine. Thank you. My birthday is this Saturday, and I'm inviting a few friends over to watch
movies at my house. I was wondering if you would like to join us.
Jenny: Oh, what time will it be?
Mark: Around two in the afternoon.
Jenny: (There's white noise on Jenny's end, and Mark can barely hear her.)
Mark: Hello? Jenny? Are you still there?
Jenny: Yes, I'm still here. I would love to join you this Saturday.
Mark: Great! See you then!

Explanation:
The participants in the conversation are Mark and Jenny. The initial sender of the message is Mark,
and his message is that he is inviting Jenny to a little get-together at his house.

Jenny's feedback to Mark's question is to ask what time the get-together will be. Mark then gives
feedback to Jenny's question. However, Mark cannot hear Jenny’s reply because of white noise.
This is caused by the physical context as well as the channel, as Jenny is using a cellular phone;
and the signal fluctuated during the call. Despite the noise, the conversation continues until Jenny
accepts Mark’s invitation.

Tip
Familiarize yourself with the different elements of communication and their roles. Thoroughly
understanding each of them and using your knowledge to your advantage will help you prevent
misunderstanding during the communication process.

Intercultural Communication
Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to demonstrate an understanding of intercultural
communication and show sensitivity to one's culture, gender, age, social status, and religion.

Have you talked to a foreigner before? How was your experience?

How do you talk to an elder, to a member of the opposite sex, to a person of a lower or higher social
status, and to someone who has different religious beliefs and practices? What do you notice in your
conversations with them?

Why is it important to consider a person's culture, gender, social status, and religion for a successful
communication?

Learn about it!

Intercultural Communication
You live in a culturally diverse world. In these rapidly changing times, you find many opportunities for
intercultural interaction. In school, you may have a classmate who differs from you in ethnicity, race,
religion, or nationality. Through technology, you can now easily communicate with people of different
social and cultural backgrounds.

Intercultural communication refers to communication between members of different cultural,

social, or linguistic groups. To engage in intercultural communication, participants should essentially
understand the following:

 Self-awareness, or an understanding of one's self and place in society, is essential for

better communication with others, especially with those who are different from you. Knowing
who you are and to which cultural and social group you belong will enable you to relate
better to others and to show sensitivity to them.
 The way you communicate with others is largely influenced by your view of them.
 Culture, gender, age, social status, and religion are some sociocultural factors that
influence and affect communication.

Culture
Through communication with others, culture is created, learned and shared. Without communication,
there is no way of preserving and transmitting cultural characteristics from one person, place, and
time to another. In turn, our culture influences the way we communicate with others. Hence, there
exists a dynamic relationship between culture and communication.

Culture has been described in many different ways. In general, culture refers to the learned set of
knowledge, norms, behaviors, values, beliefs, attitudes, customs, and practices that people in a
particular group share at a specific point in time. Moreover, according to Dr. Bradford Hall in his
article "Theories of Culture and Communication" (1992), culture can be viewed as a set of learned
and group-related perceptions. That is, people view the world in certain ways because of the cultural
group to which they belong. Note, however, that differences in worldview also exist within cultures.

Cultural differences in nonverbal communication are among the main causes of misunderstandings
in intercultural situations. Most nonverbal signals (e.g., body language, space, gestures, clothing)
are culturally defined, and they account for difficulties in communicating with others. A participant
acts according to his or her culture, while another participant who has a different culture might
interpret the actions of the other participant differently.

Take a look at this dialogue between a Filipino and an American.

Situation: Raul meets with his new friend Peter at a restaurant. Raul arrives late.

Raul: Hi, Peter! I'm sorry I'm late. I was stuck in traffic.
Peter: (looking irritated) Well, you should have called ahead of time. So, how are you?

Raul: I'm actually not feeling well. I went to the park yesterday and . . . (continuously telling Peter the
activities he did yesterday)

In this situation, Peter appears irritated because Raul arrived late. Unlike in Filipino culture,
punctuality is very important in American culture. If you know that you will be arriving late, it is a must
to telephone ahead of time to let the person know of the delay. Also, asking "How are you" or "How
have you been" is simply a greeting for Americans. They do not really expect you to tell them about
your health or all the things you did unlike in Filipino culture.

It is important that you become aware of and sensitive to the values and norms of people of various
cultural groups. To communicate with them effectively, you must be empathetic to them.

Gender
Men and women in general differ in the way they express themselves or in how they communicate
with others. This is referred to as communication style. In men-only conversations, some tend to
dominate the conversation, and they seldom talk about their private lives. On the other hand, in
women-only conversations, they usually allow everyone to participate, and they often talk about their
personal relationships.

Here are more gender differences in communication styles. However, note that these differences do
not apply to all men and women and to all cultures.

In intercultural communication, nonverbal communication also differs significantly between genders

and across cultures. Here are some examples:

 In most Western cultures, it is normal for women and men to hug even if they are not close
friends.
 In Middle Eastern cultures, public displays of affection (e.g., touching, holding hands) are
unacceptable.
 In most Western cultures, maintaining eye contact throughout a conversation is a sign of
respect and attentiveness. In many Latin American and Asian cultures, prolonged eye
contact can indicate rudeness, especially between people of different social hierarchies. In
Middle Eastern cultures, men and women are not supposed to make eye contact. However,
making eye contact with a person of the same sex, especially a man with another man, is a
sign of sincerity.

As you participate in intercultural communication, consider gender differences in communication

styles and across cultures to avoid conflict or misunderstanding. Also, your awareness, adaptation,
and correct interpretation of nonverbal signals are essential for achievement of mutual
understanding in any communication situation.
Aside from culture and gender, it is vital that you show sensitivity to the participants regarding their
age, social status, and religion.

Age
People of different ages or generations may have difficulty communicating with one another. A
person's age or the generation to which he or she belongs influences the way he or she
communicates with others. Younger generations tend to use digital formats (e.g., text messaging,
social networking), while older generations prefer face-to-face discussions.

Age-related communication also reflects culture. In Filipino culture, for example, pagmamano and
Filipino expressions like po and opo are taught to children at an early age as a sign of politeness and
respect to the elders. In Turkish culture, kissing the right hand is a common way of greeting the
elders.

Social Status
Differences in social status may affect the way we communicate with others, especially in
intercultural communication. A person's standing or position in society can influence the way that
person chooses his or her peers. People are more likely to interact with others of the same social
standing as them. Also, communication gap is likely to happen between a person of a higher status
and that of a lower status since they differ in background, education, income, and social habits,
among others.

Status differences are evident across cultures. In many Western and Eastern cultures, a person of a
lower status is introduced to a person of a higher status in a formal business setting. In Japanese
business culture where titles are very important, people exchange business cards that clearly state
their ranks even before they shake hands or bow. Bowing in Japan also indicates status. A person
with a lower status must bow lower than the person with a higher status.

Religion
Communication between persons belonging to different religions is a common source of intercultural
conflict. This usually arises when the participants engaged in a conversation impose one's religious
views on others who may not share those views.

Differences in religious views may lead to prejudice. For instance, some may find it difficult
interacting with others who do not share their religion. A person may even avoid talking to someone
from a particular religious group.

Religion deeply influences culture. In Thailand where Buddhism is the main religion, anger is
considered to be one of the three poisons (the other two are greed and ignorance). Buddhism
believes that "righteous" or"justifiable" anger does not exist. Thus, anger or aggression should be
avoided. In many religious groups, certain types of foods are prohibited. For example, Muslims do
not eat pork; most Hindus do not eat beef; and Jews do not eat pork and shellfish.

Being aware of religious differences and being open to the religious views of others foster
understanding and mutual respect.

Key Points
 Intercultural communication refers to communication between members of different cultural,
social, or linguistic groups.
 The way you communicate with others is largely influenced by your view of them. Culture,
gender, age, social status, and religion are some sociocultural factors that influence and
affect communication.
 Showing sensitivity to others will enable you to relate better to them.
 Awareness, adaptation, and correct interpretation of nonverbal signals are essential to
achieving mutual understanding and respect in any communication situation.

Verbal and Nonverbal Communication

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to distinguish verbal from nonverbal communication
and identify the different types of nonverbal communication.

Aside from using words, how else do you convey your message?

Learn about it!

Verbal Communication
Verbal communication refers to the use of words or speech in sending messages and transmitting
ideas or feelings. The communicators make use of language in order to convey what they would like
others to know.

Examples:
letters
conversations

Explanation:
In letters and conversations, the participants use words, language, and sounds in order to convey
what they want to say.

Nonverbal Communication
Nonverbal communication refers to the act of expressing ideas in ways that do not involve or go
beyond using words. Body language, appearance, voice, and environment are some of the
nonverbal cues that greatly affect the meaning of one's message.

Examples:
nodding
frowning

Explanation:
The act of nodding is used to show one's approval while frowning conveys that one is displeased or
disapproves something.

Types of Nonverbal Communication

 Proxemics
 Kinesics
 Chronemics
 Paralanguage
 Haptics

Proxemics
Proxemics refers to the space or distance between the sender and the receiver. This
includes intimate distance (less than 6 inches to 18 inches), for embracing, touching, or
whispering; personal distance (1.5 to 4 feet), which is for interacting with good friends or
family; social distance (4 to 12 feet), which is for interacting with acquaintances, and public
distance (12 to 25 feet or more), which is used for public speaking.

Example:
maintaining a few feet of distance when talking to a person you are not close to
Explanation:
When you are speaking with someone you are not very comfortable with, it is natural to maintain
social distance, which is around four to twelve feet.

Kinesics
Kinesics refers to the use of body language in communication. This includes gestures, eye contact,
and facial expressions.

Example:
not being able to look someone in the eye

Explanation:
Not being able to establish eye contact may mean that the person is uncomfortable, uncertain, or
embarrassed.

Chronemics
Chronemics refers to the role of time in the communication process. Since various cultures may
have different perceptions of time when it comes to punctuality or in interactions, chronemics may
greatly affect communication.

Example:
not responding right away to a question

Explanation:
When someone is asked a question and does not respond right away, it may be interpreted as
hesitation, disinterest, or uncertainty.

Paralanguage
Paralanguage refers to the tone, speed, and volume of a speaker's voice. Sighs and gasps are also
considered as paralanguage.

Example:
using a loud voice and speaking fast

Explanation:
When a person is speaking fast and loudly, it may be that he is angry or agitated.

Haptics
Haptics is the use of touch to convey meaning in a conversation. This is often dependent on culture.
In some countries, friendly touching is encouraged, but in others, it is considered an invasion of
one's personal space.

Example:
patting someone on the back

Explanation:
Patting someone's back is often done to comfort an individual.
Key Points
 Verbal communication refers to the use of words or speech in sending messages and
transmitting ideas or feelings.
 Nonverbal communication refers to the act of expressing ideas in ways that do not involve
or go beyond using words.
 The types of nonverbal communication
include proxemics, kinesics, chronemics, paralanguage, and haptics.

Effective Communication Skills

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 identify the barriers to effective communication,

 explain why there is a breakdown in communication,
 use various strategies in order to avoid communication breakdown, and
 demonstrate skills to achieve effective communication.

Have you had a misunderstanding with someone because you misunderstood his or her message?
Why does communication breakdown happen and what can you do to avoid it?

Learn about it!

Communication Breakdown
You have learned that communication is an active process that involves giving and receiving ideas,
thoughts, opinions, feelings, and attitudes between two or more participants which lead to a
response or feedback. In the course of the exchange, the message may not be transmitted exactly
the same as it is in the mind of the sender, and/or the intended message of the sender is not clearly
understood by the receiver. These lead to communication breakdown.

Recognizing the different barriers to effective communication is important to be able to avoid

communication breakdown. Here are some barriers that may cause breakdown in communication.

 Language barriers – no language in common; inability to understand unfamiliar accents;

use of unfamiliar words or expressions, jargon (words or phrases that are used by members
of a particular group or trade, and may not be well understood by outsiders), and idioms
(phrases or expressions that convey meaning other than their literal meaning)
 Cultural barriers – discomfort or hesitation in communicating due to differences in ways of
thinking, behavior, views, and beliefs; insensitivity to the culture of others
 Physical barriers – disruptive physical setting (or environment where communication takes
place) such as noise, poor lighting, and distance (e.g., participants are seated too far from
each other)
 Prejudging – jumping to the conclusion that one already understands the message before it
is completely expressed; deciding prematurely that the message has little or no value
 Information overload – giving too much information at a time
 Lack of interest and attention – tuning out information that one finds uninteresting; not
giving necessary attention to the speaker or the message.
 Study the following dialogue and identify the cause(s) of communication breakdown.
 (Mr. Flores is talking to his assistant Liza in his office.)
Mr. Flores: Liza, I just got off the phone with Ms. Garcia. She said that she didn’t receive the
documents for signing yesterday.
Liza: I remember you saying something about the documents. But, I don’t recall that they
need to be delivered immediately.
Mr. Flores: I can’t believe this. I told you yesterday to send the documents to Ms. Garcia, so I
can forward them to the Accounting department today.
Liza: I’m sorry, but I didn’t get that part. I had so many things going on at the time you were
talking to me about it. You were also giving me many different instructions at the same time.
  In the dialogue, communication breakdown happened because of lack of attention and
information overload. Liza lacked focus and attention while Mr. Flores was talking about
delivery of the documents that day. Also, Liza was overwhelmed with all the instructions Mr.
Flores was giving her

Avoiding Communication Breakdown

It is important to deal with communication barriers so you can have smooth and effective
communication. Below are some communication strategies which you can use to avoid
communication breakdown.

 Use time-gaining expressions to have time to think. To gain time to think of what to say or to
keep the conversation going, you can use conversation fillers like “Really?”, “Go on,” “Uhm,
let me see,” “Uh-huh,” “Anyway,” and “Tell me more . . . .”
 Give positive remarks or comments. Show interest in the conversation by providing positive
remarks or comments like “I understand,” “Sounds good,” and “I see what you mean.” These
also keep the conversation going.
 Be specific. Use simple and precise words to convey your message. Spell out what you want
to say or what you expect from the other person.
 Ask for repetition or clarification. When you did not hear or understand what the speaker
said, ask him or her to repeat it or ask for clarification. Use polite expressions such as “Can
you please repeat what you said?”, “What did you say again?”, and “What did you mean
when you said that . . . ?”
 Check for understanding. See to it that you have understood what has been said and that
others have fully understood you. Practice critical listening by evaluating and analyzing
what is said before responding. Ask, “So, are you saying that . . .” to confirm the
information. To check other people’s understanding, you can ask, “So, what is your
understanding of this?” or “Do you understand what I’m saying?”
 Do not jump to conclusions. Listen attentively to what the speaker has to say before you
pass judgment. Give the speaker time to develop and express his or her ideas before you
accept or reject them.

Developing Effective Communication Skills

Effective communication is more than just the transmission of information from one person to
another. It takes place only when the information is shared and mutually understood. Having
effective communication skills enables you to connect better with others, build and maintain
relationships, and express yourself and be fully understood.

The following are some ways on how you can achieve effective communication.

 Keep focused. One way to stay focused is to have a specific purpose for speaking or
listening. If you are the speaker, determine what your purpose for speaking is and clearly
express yourself to achieve it. If you are the listener, ascertain the speaker’s purpose
through his or her verbal and nonverbal cues.
 Speak intelligibly. This refers to using appropriate speaking volume (or loudness) and rate
(or the pace at which you speak), good enunciation (or the distinctness of the sound of
spoken words), proper word stress, and correct or acceptable pronunciation.
 Listen with your ears and eyes. Recall that nonverbal communication is as important as
verbal communication. Pay attention to the verbal message as well as the nonverbal
message. Effective communication depends on what you say and how you say it.
 Minimize distractions. Block out any form of interference, or adjust to different forms of
distraction.

Key Points
 Communication breakdown happens when the message is not transmitted exactly the same
as it is in the mind of the sender and/or when the intended message of the sender is not
clearly understood by the receiver.
 Language, cultural, and physical barriers; prejudging; information overload; and lack of
interest and attention are some barriers or reasons for communication breakdown.
  To overcome or avoid communication breakdown, you can use time-gaining strategies, give
positive remarks or comments, and ask for repetition or clarification, among others.
 Effective communication takes place only when the information is shared and mutually
understood.

Functions of Communication

Regulation/Control and Social Interaction

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to identify two of the functions of communication (i.e.,
for regulation/control and for social interaction), recognize a speaker’s purpose, and ascertain the
verbal and nonverbal cues that each speaker uses to achieve his or her purpose.

Why do people communicate?

How do you identify the speaker’s purpose in a conversation?

Learn about it!

Communication is an essential means of understanding yourself and others. Through your
words, voice, and actions, you share your thoughts, ideas, knowledge, beliefs, values, attitudes, and
feelings with others. Without communication, you will not be able to enhance your sense of self, and
there will be no personal and social relationships formed.

For a successful communication, it is important to have a clear purpose in mind. Communication

may fail because you give little attention to its purpose. The five primary functions or purposes of
communication are:

 for regulation or control,

 for social interaction,
 for motivation,
 for information, and
 for emotional expression.

In this lesson, you will learn two of the functions of communication: regulation/control and social
interaction.

Regulation or Control
Examples
Consider the following situations. Which do you think is an example of communication?

1. You are discussing global warming with your partner. You look at your partner and nod your
head.
2. You are brainstorming with your group mates about your stage play. You lean forward and
open your mouth, signaling that you want to speak.

Explanation
If you answered “both,” then give yourself a pat on the back. Although no words are spoken, the
given situations illustrate communication. Recall the two modes of communication: verbal and
nonverbal. The situations involve nonverbal cues that are used to regulate or control conversational
flow. When you nodded your head, you were signaling to your partner that he or she can continue
speaking; when you leaned forward and opened your mouth, you were signaling to your groupmates
that you wish to speak.
Communication is used to regulate or control the pace and flow of conversations or the
speaking of a participant so constant interruptions and awkward silences between or among
speakers are avoided. Verbal and nonverbal cues help achieve this purpose.

Some verbal cues:

 “That’s it” and “Thank you” − signal that a speaker is finished speaking
 “Yeah” and “Uh-huh” − encourage a speaker to continue speaking
 “Um . . . ” and “Well . . . ” − indicate that a speaker is not done talking or is not exactly sure
what to say next
 “Do you follow?” and “Is that clear?” − check the continuous flow of conversation

Other nonverbal cues:

 Eye contact − (1) When a speaker looks at a listener, the speaker is signaling that he or she
is requesting feedback or wants the listener to take the floor; (2) when a listener looks at and
slightly up at the speaker, the listener is signaling that he or she wants the floor; and (3)
when a speaker looks away or avoids eye contact from a listener who wishes to take floor,
the speaker is suppressing the listener’s attempt to take the floor.
 Head-shaking − indicates that the listener wants the speaker to stop talking
 Index finger raised − signals that the speaker is not done talking
 Leaning back − signals that the speaker is finished talking and is now yielding the floor

Such verbal and nonverbal cues are used to maintain, regulate, or control the flow of conversations.

Social Interaction
You, by nature, are a social being. You belong to a group or society to fulfill your needs. You have
this innate desire to form social relationships with other human beings. Simply, you need to interact
with others for your existence.

Social interaction occurs through communication. In a social interaction, an exchange takes

place between two or more persons for social fulfillment. Some purposes of social interactions
include the following: making social calls, introducing oneself, and inviting someone/accepting
invitations.

Read the following dialogue.

Situation: Jose goes to the mall to buy materials for his school project. He sees his friend from junior
high school, Edgar, whom he has not seen for quite some time.

Jose: Hi, Edgar! How have you been? (smiles at Edgar)

Edgar: Hello, Jose! It's good to see you! I'm good. How about you?
Jose: I'm fine. It's been a while since the last time we saw each other. What's new with you?
Edgar: Well, not much. I'm here to buy ingredients for a cake I'm baking. I'm taking up HRM. You?
Jose: I'm taking up Architecture. I'm actually here to buy some art supplies for my project.
Edgar: Cool! We should get together sometime.
Jose: Yeah! I'd like that. Here, let me give you my number.
Edgar: Thanks! Here's my number, too.
Jose: Great! Let's catch up soon, okay?
Edgar: That’d be nice!
Jose: It was nice seeing you again. Bye!
Edgar: Bye!

The given dialogue shows an interaction between two high school friends. It is clear that the purpose
of communication in the situation is for social interaction.

Suppose you and your friend are to role-play the given situation. What nonverbal cues will you use
to enhance the verbal exchanges?
Summary
Communication has five primary functions or purposes: for regulation/control, social interaction,
motivation, information, and emotional expression. Communication is used to regulate or control the
pace and flow of conversations or the speaking of a participant so constant interruptions and
awkward silences between or among speakers are avoided. Verbal and nonverbal cues are used to
achieve this purpose. Communication is also used for social interaction, an exchange between two
or more persons for social fulfillment.

Motivation

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to identify another function of communication (i.e.,
motivation), recognize a speaker’s purpose, and ascertain the verbal and nonverbal cues that a
speaker uses to achieve his or her purpose.

What do you usually tell someone when he or she is faced with a difficult task?
What oral communication activities or speech situations aim to motivate others?

Learn about it!

Communication and Motivation
Communication is a cooperative activity. You engage in and maintain conversations to achieve a
particular goal. Through communication, you build social relationships with other people.

Communication also functions to motivate yourself and others. Motivation is the driving force that
enables you to take action in order to accomplish a desired goal. You use communication to
motivate yourself and others in various situations. For example, you sometimes engage in an
introspective self-talk (or “talking to oneself” by examining one’s own thoughts) when you are faced
with a difficult decision-making situation. You also talk to a friend who is having a hard time
understanding the lessons in your class.

Motivation is important for various reasons which include the following:

 It increases productivity. When a person is excited or stimulated to do something, he or she

can easily carry out a task.
 It empowers people. A person who is motivated feels a sense of personal achievement,
contributing to his or her confidence in performing a task.

How can you motivate others through communication?

Motivating Others through Communication

There are many ways on how you can motivate others. The following are simple steps you can do:

1. Walk the talk. You cannot motivate others if you are not motivated yourself. Know and
understand what motivates you. Then, find ways on how to better motivate yourself.
2. Be an active listener. Listen attentively and genuinely to what the other person has to say.
Find out what the person’s goal is, or what he or she wants to do.
3. Remind the person that he or she makes a difference. Every small contribution or action
makes a difference. Let the person know that his or her effort is recognized and appreciated.
4. Communicate clearly and with compassion. Clearly state your intention to avoid
misinterpretation. Focus on the quality, not quantity, of communication. Learn to adapt your
communication style to the person you are speaking.

Read the following dialogue between best friends.

Rina: Hey, Carla! Why do look so sad?
Carla: Oh, is it that obvious? I got a poor mark for my essay despite the hard work I put into it.
(looking glum)
Rina: Oh . . . (gives Carla a pat on the shoulder) Well, what’s important is that you did your best. I’m
sure you can do better on your next essay.
Carla: You think so?
Rina: I know so. You can do it! I can check your next essay before you submit it if you want.
Carla: That’d be great! Thanks, Rina. You really are the best! (smiles and hugs Rina)
Rina: It’s nothing. You’re welcome!

In the dialogue, notice the verbal (e.g., “You can do it!”) and nonverbal cues (e.g., pat on the
shoulder, hug) that were used to show encouragement and appreciation.

Motivation in Various Situations or Settings

Motivation is observable in different situations or settings. In a classroom, a teacher motivates the
class to study harder to get good grades and to graduate. In school club or organization meetings,
the president or leader motivates the members to do their best in any of their projects or activities. In
a workplace, an employer or manager encourages the employees to perform well in their jobs.

One of the most popular ways of motivating others is by delivering a speech. A motivational
speech is given to encourage personal or professional growth in the audience. It is also designed to
move an audience to make a positive change.

Example:
Steve Jobs, CEO of Apple and Pixar Animation Studios, was one of the most influential people of the
20th century. He delivered a motivational commencement speech at Stanford University in 2005.
Below are paragraphs taken from his speech.

Again, you can't connect the dots looking forward; you can only connect them looking backward. So
you have to trust that the dots will somehow connect in your future. You have to trust in
something − your gut, destiny, life, karma, whatever. This approach has never let me down, and it
has made all the difference in my life.

Your time is limited, so don’t waste it living someone else’s life. Don’t be trapped by dogma − which
is living with the results of other people’s thinking. Don’t let the noise of others’ opinions drown out
your own inner voice. And most important, have the courage to follow your heart and intuition. They
somehow already know what you truly want to become. Everything else is secondary.

The full speech aims to inspire and motivate the audience “to pursue their dreams and see the
opportunities in life’s setbacks.” Steve Jobs ended his speech with these statements: “Stay hungry.
Stay foolish.”

Summary
Another function of communication is for motivation or to motivate others. Motivation is the driving
force that enables a person to take action in order to accomplish a desired goal. It increases
productivity and empowers people. Motivation occurs in different situations or settings such as in the
classroom, a meeting, and in the workplace.

Information

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to demonstrate understanding of how communication is
used to provide and get or receive information.

What kinds of information do you share with your family or friends?

How do you share this information with them?
How do you usually obtain information from other people?
Learn about it!
Information is generally defined as knowledge or facts about a certain subject (e.g., event, person,
situation). Information sharing is an important component in communication. Recall that oral
communication is a process whereby information (e.g., knowledge, ideas, observations, thoughts) is
transmitted from a sender to a receiver through verbal and nonverbal means. By sharing information
with others, you bring valuable knowledge to others; you build, foster, and maintain relationships
with others; you shape how others perceive you; and you influence others.

Providing Information
You provide information to others in various speech situations like when delivering an informative
speech, when someone asks for directions, and when getting to know someone. Here are some tips
when giving information to others:

1. Make eye contact and speak clearly. To show interest and sincerity, establish and
maintain eye contact with the person you are talking to. Do not mumble or garble your words.
Enunciate words.
2. Use variations in speech. Vary the intonation and volume of your voice, and use
appropriate pauses to enhance meaning.
3. Focus on the needed information. Decide what information is needed and give direct and
precise information. Do not overwhelm the person you are talking to with too much
information or with information that is irrelevant to the topic.

It is also important to note the quality of information you provide. When delivering an informative
speech, for instance, the information you present must be well-supported with details. These
details should be based on facts and reliable evidence. Good information must also be relevant,
accurate, clear or easy to understand, and complete.

Getting or Receiving Information

You obtain different kinds of information every day as you communicate with others. You can know
more about a person when you talk to him or her; you can become aware of the current events or
issues when you discuss them with your friends; and you can learn new concepts, terms, or ideas
when you listen to your teacher discussing in class.

Here are some tips when obtaining or receiving information from others:

1. Write down pertinent information. Take down notes to remember key concepts or information
you received. Do not write down everything you hear or word for word. Make notes of only those
which you think are useful or relevant.

2. Ask questions. Wh-questions (e.g., who, what, when, where, why) and phrases or expressions
can be used to obtain information. Examples of such phrases or expressions include the following:

 Can you tell me . . . ?

 I'd like to know . . . .
 Do you have an idea on. . . ?
 Would you happen to know . . . ?

3. Ask for clarification and verification. When you think that you did not understand something
clearly, ask for clarification. Phrases like “Could you repeat . . . ?” and “What did you mean when you
said that . . . ?” can be used to ask for clarification. Clarifying ensures that the information you
received is interpreted or understood correctly. You can also use polite phrases to verify the
information you heard, such as “So, you would like me to . . . . ” and “In other words, you are saying
that . . . . ” Verify if you got the information right and be prepared to be corrected.

When getting or receiving information, remember to be aware of not only the verbal messages but
also the nonverbal messages. Nonverbal messages convey information that is likely more genuine
because nonverbal behavior cannot be controlled as easily as spoken words. Nodding, leaning
forward, and maintaining eye contact indicate that you (or the listener) are interested or paying
attention to what the speaker is saying.
Example:
Read the following dialogue between a student and a school librarian.

Tim: Good morning, ma’am.

Librarian: Good morning. How may I help you?
Tim: I need some information about early airplanes.
Librarian: Have you looked on the shelves under “Aviation?”
Tim: Yes, but I couldn’t find anything.
Librarian: Let me check our database. (types on the computer) It looks like the books are out. It’s a
very popular subject. We have several sets of encyclopedia though. I’m sure you’ll find some
relevant information there.
Tim: Where are they located?
Librarian: You’ll have to go to the reference section.
Timm: Thank you, ma’am. You’ve been very helpful.
Librarian: You’re welcome.

Explanation:
Tim obtained information by engaging in a conversation with the school librarian. The school
librarian, in turn, provided helpful information to Tim. As can be observed, communication was used
to give and acquire information.

Summary
Another function or purpose of communication is for information. People communicate with others or
engage in conversations to provide information and/or to obtain information. When informing others,
it is important to make eye contact and speak clearly, use variations in speech, focus on the needed
information, and give accurate and reliable information. When getting or receiving information, it is
helpful when you write down only the pertinent information, ask questions, and ask for clarification
and verification.

Emotional Expression

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to identify emotional expressions in different
communication situations and demonstrate emotions to convey meaning.

Think of a moment when you were really happy or sad. How did you share your happiness or
express your sadness with others?

Learn about it!

Expressing Emotions to Communicate
One of the characteristics that distinguish humans from animals is their ability to communicate
through emotional expression. Unlike animals, humans can express their emotions through verbal
and nonverbal means. As humans interact with one another, they experience different types of
emotions. These emotions, when not managed, expressed, and responded to appropriately, can
lead to misunderstanding and miscommunication. Here are some important points to learn:

 The ability to effectively express and manage emotions when interacting with others is
important in communication. An emotion is a mental state or feeling toward something and
is marked by physiological and behavioral changes in the body.
 Recent scientific studies suggest that there are four basic human emotions: happy, sad,
afraid/surprised, and angry/disgusted.
 Emotions can be conveyed verbally and nonverbally. Nonverbal expression of emotions can
be shown by changes in the following: voice (e.g., pitch, volume, tone), facial expressions,
and body movements.
  Emotions help humans communicate their ideas and feelings toward certain
situations.

Understanding Emotions in Communication

 A speaker’s or a listener’s emotions can significantly affect the communication process.
 Emotions can vary from time to time depending on the situation, the participants, and
even the environment in which the communication occurs.

Saying and Showing One’s Feelings

Every day, you feel a variety of emotions as you deal with others or even as you reflect on yourself.
It is important to learn how to express your emotions appropriately to get your message across.

Read the following dialogue aloud with expression.

Kris: Hey, May! Are you all right? Why do you look so gloomy?

May: Oh, Kris . . . My mom scolded me last night.

Kris: What for? Tell me what happened.

May: Well, I received a failing grade in my major subject. I was too focused on my extracurricular
activities that I didn't get to study hard for my exam. It’s really depressing me.

Kris: Hey, cheer up! It’s not the end of the world. Come on, I’ll help you study and prepare for your
class.

May: Really? That's so kind of you! I appreciate your help.

Kris: It’s my pleasure. What are friends for, right?

May: Thanks, Kris. I’m really lucky to have you as my friend. Thanks for making me feel better.

What emotions were reflected in the dialogue? How were these emotions expressed?

As can be inferred from the dialogue, May was feeling sad because she got reprimanded by her
mom for having a failing grade. This mood was expressed nonverbally through May’s gloomy or sad
face, which her friend Kris noticed. However, toward the end of the conversation, May was feeling
better because Kris lifted her spirits by offering to help her study and prepare for her class. Her
happy mood was expressed verbally through statements such as “That's so kind of you! I appreciate
your help” and “I’m really lucky to have you as my friend. Thanks for making me feel better.”

Expressing the Basic Types of Emotions

Happy
This is usually experienced when a person is excited, pleased, content, or delighted. Receiving
an award, celebrating a birthday, eating your favorite food, seeing a longtime friend, and visiting a
new place are some situations that usually make a person happy.

In a conversation, happiness can be expressed nonverbally through a person’s voice, facial

expressions, and gestures. When a person is happy, his or her tone of voice is enthusiastic and
pitch is elated. Laughing, smiling, and even crying also express happiness. Hand signals like V for
the victory sign and the “high five” also suggest happiness.

There are also common expressions to show happiness. Here are some of them:

 That is good news! I am so excited!

 I feel so blessed!
 Congratulations! I am so proud of you!
 I feel like I am on top of the world!
Sad
This is usually characterized by feelings of loss, despair, sorrow, hopelessness,
disappointment, or depression. Hearing a bad news, having a broken heart, and losing a loved
one are some situations that make a person sad.

Sadness can be signaled by a loose posture, lowered or drooping eyes, slight pout, low pitch
of voice, and long pauses. Sighing and crying also indicate sadness.

The following expressions are commonly used to show sadness:

 I am a little down today.

 I feel so sad about it.
 I am so devastated to hear that.

Expressing the Basic Types of Emotions

Surprised
This is usually felt when something unexpected happens. It is also characterized by a feeling
of shock or amazement. The feeling of surprise can be seen in situations such as getting a
promotion, seeing a celebrity, and winning a lottery.

Surprise, unlike other emotions, is usually difficult to conceal. When a person is surprised, the
following physical signs are common: mouth opens or jaw drops, eyes widen, and eyebrows raise.

Here are some common expressions that show surprise:

 Really? I can’t believe it!

 Wow! I did not see that coming.
 I am speechless.
 Oh my gosh!

Angry
This is usually experienced when a person feels an intense frustration. It is also felt when he or
she feels offended, irritated, humiliated, threatened, disrespected, or provoked. Insult, betrayal, and
disrespect are some triggers of anger.

Gestures such as clenching of the fists, grinding of the teeth, tapping of the feet, and pacing are
signs of anger. Raising of the voice or screaming, rising of body temperature, and rapid breathing
also indicate anger.

The following are some common expressions that show anger:

 I am sick and tired of the situation!

 What were you thinking!
 That totally sucks!
 I am so pissed right now!

Key Points
 An emotion is a mental state or feeling toward something and is marked by physiological and
behavioral changes in the body.
 Emotions can be conveyed verbally and nonverbally.
 Emotions help humans communicate their ideas and feelings toward certain situations.
 Humans experience different types of emotions. Recent scientific studies suggest that there
are four basic human emotions—happy, sad, surprised, and angry.
 Emotions must be managed, expressed, and responded to appropriately to avoid
misunderstanding and miscommunication.
Communicative Competence Strategies in Various Speech Situations

Types of Speech Context: Intrapersonal, Interpersonal, and Public Communication

Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to identify the various types of speech context and
distinguish them from one another.

What do you think about or reflect on when you are alone?

How is “communicating” with yourself different from communicating with your friend or peers or an
audience?

Learn about it!

You, as a social being, will engage in various speaking activities throughout your life. You will have
classes or meetings to attend, presentations to make, discussions and arguments to participate in,
and groups to work with. In each of these activities, you will need to equip yourself with a set of skills
that will help you communicate with others in different contexts. Speech context refers to the
situation or environment and the circumstances in which communication occurs.

Types of Speech Context

Situation:

St. John High School will be hosting a youth conference. They invited Ms. Mae Reyes, the president
of Youth West Organization, to give a brief talk about their organization and her meaningful
experiences in her involvement in the organization. What should Mae do to deliver an excellent talk?

Intrapersonal Speech Context

This type of speech context involves one participant only; that is, the individual is both the sender
and the receiver of the message in the communication process. Intrapersonal communication is
simply communicating within oneself. It takes place when the “self” is engaging in inner talk or
internal discourse such as mumbling, thinking aloud, reflecting, remembering, analyzing, and
evaluating. Doodling, reading aloud, brainstorming, and daydreaming also indicate intrapersonal
communication.

Intrapersonal communication is essential to understanding yourself and others. You need to keep in
touch with yourself to be able to make appropriate responses and sound decisions. Moreover, how
you see yourself affects how you communicate with others. For example, if you have low self-
esteem, you may stutter or find it difficult to express yourself when speaking to other people.

The situation requires Mae to engage in intrapersonal communication. She has to think about what
to include in her talk and reflect on her experiences as the president of the organization. Without
self-dialogue, she cannot deliver an excellent talk.

Interpersonal Speech Context

Unlike in an intrapersonal communication that involves one participant only, an interpersonal
communication is an interaction between two or more participants. In this type of speech context,
there is an interdependent relationship between or among the participants, meaning the action of
one participant more often than not directly affects the response or reaction of the other
participant(s). Interpersonal communication can be direct (face-to-face encounter) or indirect (done
through the use of a tool or technology like talking to someone over the telephone or Internet,
communicating by e-mail, and teleconferencing in distance-learning class).

There are two kinds of interpersonal communication: dyadic and small group. A dyad is composed
of two participants who take turns as the sender (or speaker) and the receiver (or listener) in the
interaction. A dyadic communication, also referred to as “one-to-one communication,” varies from
formal situations (purposive interviews) to informal situations (dialogues or casual conversations).
Examples of one-to-one encounters are discussing a project with a partner, interviewing an
applicant, and talking about your day with your mom or dad.

On the other hand, small group communication is composed of three or more participants, or a
group of participants, who engage in a discussion to achieve a common goal (e.g., solve a problem,
perform an action or task, decide on something). The participants in the group contribute information
and opinion, or exchange thoughts about a topic. Examples of small group interactions are
roundtable discussions, panel discussions, group brainstorming sessions, and study groups.

In the given situation, Mae can discuss her speech with a comember. She can also call a meeting
with the members of the Youth West Organization for input or feedback about her speech. Both
options involve interpersonal communication.

Public Speech Context

This type of speech context involves a single speaker and a sizable number of persons or an
audience. The speaker is tasked to deliver a message or a speech of general interest to the
audience.

Public communication requires more planning and preparation on the part of the speaker since it
lacks the intimacy that are typical of one-to-one and small group interactions. There are limited or no
opportunities for feedback because the speaker has a definite or prescribed time limit, and both the
speaker and the audience maintain their roles throughout the speech event (the audience may,
however, convey nonverbal messages). Thus, the speaker needs to use and sustain appropriate
verbal and nonverbal cues to convey his or her message to the audience.

Some examples of situations that involve public communication are a professor giving a lecture at a
conference, a president delivering an inaugural address, a candidate delivering a campaign speech,
and a student delivering a valedictory speech.

Going back to the given situation, Mae will engage in public communication as she delivers her
speech during the youth conference. As the speaker, she needs to have a clear purpose of her
speech, speak in a way that is both confident and natural, and use appropriate verbal and nonverbal
cues.

Key Points
 Speech context refers to the situation or environment and the circumstances in which the
communication occurs.
 There are three types of speech context: intrapersonal, interpersonal, and public.
 Intrapersonal communication is simply communicating within oneself.
 Interpersonal communication is an interaction between two or more participants. There
are two kinds of interpersonal communication: dyadic and small group.
 Public communication involves a single speaker and a sizable number of persons or an
audio.

Intimate and Casual Speech Styles

Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to differentiate between intimate and casual speech styles,
identify social situations in which each speech style is appropriate to use, and observe the
appropriate language forms in using a particular speech style.

How do your parents talk to each other?

How do you talk to a very close sibling or friend?
What is your conversation like with your classmates or peers?
In what way does your style or manner of speaking differ to a person who is close to you and to an
acquaintance?
Learn about it!
Speech Style for Informal Communication
When a person interacts with others, he or she uses a particular style of speaking or speech
style. The type of speech style to use depends on the social context, that is, the situation and
the social relationship involved between or among the participants.

You choose your words carefully according to whom you are talking to. Language choice reveals
information about the social relationship between or among people. In his book The Five
Clocks, Dutch linguist Martin Joos has identified five types of speech style: intimate, casual,
consultative, formal, and frozen. In this lesson, you will learn two types of speech style: intimate and
casual.

Intimate Speech Style

An intimate speech style, according to Martin Joos, is characterized by a complete absence of social
inhibitions. This style is used by participants who share a very close relationship such as
between very close friends, siblings, husband and wife, parents and children, and boyfriend and
girlfriend. In this style, the participants share a completely private vocabulary, making it difficult for
others who are outside of the group to understand. Since the participants have an intimate
relationship and they often know each other’s intention, there is no need for a clear articulation of
words.

The following are some other features of an intimate speech style:

 Conversations are usually done in private.

 Participants usually use short, incomplete utterances.
 Grammar and proper word choice are not given importance.
 Nonverbal messages are often used.
 Participants share inside jokes.
 Words that signal intimacy like terms of endearment (e.g., “darling,” “honey,” “babe”) are
used.

Let's think!
Read the dialogue below between husband and wife.

Kim: Papsy?

Edgar: Yes?

Kim: Do you love me?

Edgar: (after a split second) Of course!

Kim: Aha! Why did it take you too long to respond? I can’t believe you don’t love me anymore.

Edgar: No, Mamsy. I didn’t say that. You know I’ll always be your wedding singer, right?

Kim: Yeah . . . I love you too, Papsy dapski.

The conversation between Kim and Edgar shows an intimate speech style. Pet names such
as papsy, mamsy, and papsy dapski are used to address each other only. The reference to
the wedding singer is understandable only to both of them.

Casual Speech Style

A casual speech style is used in relaxed or informal conversations between or among friends,
peers, colleagues, or family who share a common knowledge or interest. Thus, the participants
may use group language, so only members of the group can understand it. Other characteristics of
this speech style include the following:

 Slang (or nonstandard words or expressions), colloquial words, elliptical sentences (some
words are omitted), and informal contractions (e.g., “ain’t,” “dunno,” “gonna”) are used.
 Interruptions are common.
 Nicknames are used in addressing one another.

Let's think!
Read the casual conversation below among three friends.

Allan: Dude! Are you guys free on Friday night?

Jay: What d’ya have in mind?

Allan: How about goin’ to the mall to see Star Wars?

Ryan: Yeah! That’d be awesome! I’m in!

Jay: I’d want to . . . but my parents . . .

Allan: Dude, c’mon! You’re what, 18 now?! Just tell them you’re with me.

Ryan: And me!

Jay: OK. I’ll try . . . But no promises, OK?

Allan: Fine, bro. Just lemme know. Gotta go!

Ryan: See ya!

Jay: Bye!

In the conversation, Allan, Jay, and Ryan use a casual speech style. Notice the frequent use of
contractions and elliptical sentences.

Key Points
 The type of speech style to use depends on the social context.
 When you interact with others, you choose your words carefully according to whom you are
talking to.
 An intimate speech style is used by participants who share a very close relationship. This
style is reserved for very close family members and friends, and lovers.
 A casual speech style is used in relaxed or informal conversations between or among
friends, peers, colleagues, or family who share a common knowledge or interest.

Consultative and Formal Speech Styles

Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to differentiate between consultative and formal speech
styles, identify social situations in which each speech style is appropriate to use, and observe the
appropriate language forms in using each speech style.

How do you talk to your doctor? In what way does the language you use in talking to your doctor
vary from the way you talk to your friends or family?
Have you given or listened to a speech before? Was the language you or the speaker used different
from what is used in ordinary conversations? In what way?

Learn about it!

In the previous lesson, you have learned that in communication, the language you use to convey a
message depends on your relationship with the person(s) you are addressing and the social
situation or occasion you are in. You speak differently in different social contexts. You use, for
example, an intimate style when talking to your best friend about your dreams and goals in life. On
the other hand, you use a casual style when talking to your classmate about what you did last
summer.

In this lesson, you will know two more types of speech style, consultative and formal, as posited by
Martin Joos. Before learning about these, it is important to note the following ideas about speech
style:

 According to Ronald Wardhaugh in his book An Introduction to Sociolinguistics (1986), “No

one speaks the same way all the time.” For him, “language will exhibit considerable internal
variation, and single-style speakers will not be found.” However, he states that this variation
has limits (or norms). For instance, you cannot just alter the meaning of words or pronounce
them differently. If you do any of these, not only is it unacceptable, but also the receivers of
your message will not be able to understand what you are conveying.
 Your choice of words is influenced by situational factors such as addressee, setting or
occasion, and task or topic.

Consultative Speech Style

This style is considered to be the most operational style among the other styles. It is used in a
semiformal situation where a speaker needs to provide background information because the listener
(or addressee) may not be able to understand without it. In turn, the listener participates
continuously by giving feedback. Thus, both the speaker and the listener are active participants.

The following are other characteristics of the consultative style:

 It is used in ordinary conversations or routine transactions that lead to an outcome or

result.
 Interruptions are allowed. The listener gives short responses like I see, Uh-huh, and Ah to
signal that he or she is paying attention to the speaker, or has understood what was said.
 More formal than intimate and casual styles, this style requires a speaker to choose words
with some care.

Talks between strangers, acquaintances, or colleagues of unequal ranks where something is

achieved in the end often use a consultative style. Doctor-patient, lawyer-client, and employer-
employee conversations are some examples that are consultative in nature.

Let's think!
Read the following conversation between a doctor and his longtime patient.

Linda: Good morning, Dr. Gomez.

Dr. Gomez: Good morning, Linda. What seems to be the problem?

Linda: I’ve been getting severe headaches.

Doctor: How long have you had these headaches?

Linda: Uhm . . . about two weeks or so.

Dr. Gomez: Are these headaches constant, or do they come and go?
Linda: Constant.

Dr. Gomez: Are you feeling any other problems?

Linda: Oh, I sometimes get dizzy, and I experience this ringing in my ears.

Dr. Gomez: I see. Have you been feeling nauseated and uncontrollable eye movements, too?

Linda: Hmm . . . Yes, I have actually.

Dr. Gomez: And have you been taking any medications?

Linda: No.

Dr. Gomez: Well, I think you have vertigo. But, I still need to perform some tests. Please wait here.

Linda: Okay. Thank you, doctor.

In the given example, the consultative style is used between the doctor and his patient. Notice how
the participants use a more formal language compared to intimate and casual styles. Observe also
that one of the participants (the doctor) supplies the necessary information for understanding, and
that there is cooperation between the participants in order to achieve a particular outcome (i.e.,
doctor’s diagnosis of the patient).

Formal Speech Style

What distinguishes this style from the consultative style is the lack of listener participation. Unlike
in interactions that use the consultative style, the listener does not participate, in most cases, in an
interaction that requires the formal style. A formal style is often used in formal situations, such
as in a graduation ceremony, an official meeting, a television newscast, and a conference, where
there is only one-way communication. Since there is little or no feedback from the listeners or
audience, the speaker needs to plan ahead his or her utterances, or what he or she is going to say.

Other characteristics of the formal style are:

 Interruptions are not allowed. Only the speaker is the source of information.
 Pronunciation is very clear.
 Words are carefully chosen, and grammar rules are followed.
 Ellipsis (omission of one or more words) is not allowed.
 Sentence structures are more complex and varied.
 Extensive and technical vocabulary is required.
 Ideas are cohesive and organized.
 All background or necessary information is clearly given.

The formal style may also be used for speaking to a single hearer, such as in introductions between
strangers where full names, ranks, or honorific titles are used as forms of address. Here is an
example of this style:

Caroline: President Echavez, may I present to you the Honorable Roman Suarez, the Ambassador
of the Philippines to the United States.

Ambassador: It is a great honor to meet you, Your Excellency.

President: The honor is all mine.

The dialogue uses the formal style as observed in the use of formal language (e.g., may I present to
you as opposed to the casual style this is, it is a great honor to meet you instead of the casual
style Hi or Hello) and of honorific titles like Honorable and Your Excellency.
Key Points
Among the five types of speech style, the consultative style is the most operational since it is
designed to achieve an outcome or result. It is used in semiformal situations where a speaker needs
to provide background information because the listener (or addressee) may not be able to
understand without it.

Meanwhile, a formal style is used in formal situations where there is only one-way communication.
What distinguishes this style from the consultative style is the lack of listener participation.

Frozen Speech Style

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 distinguish the frozen speech style from the other types of speech style,
 identify social situations in which each speech style is appropriate to use, and
 observe the appropriate language forms in using each speech style.

What are the four types of speech style that you have learned?
How do they differ from one another?

Let’s Review!
Recall the four types of speech style you have learned so far.

 An intimate speech style is used by participants who share a very close relationship. This
style is reserved for family members, friends, and lovers.
 A casual speech style is used in relaxed or informal conversations between or among
friends, peers, colleagues, or family who share a common knowledge or interest.
 A consultative speech style is designed to achieve an outcome or result. It is used in
semiformal situations where a speaker needs to provide background information because
the listener (or addressee) may not be able to understand without it.
 A formal speech style is used in formal situations where there is little or no feedback from
the listeners or audience, so the speaker needs to plan ahead his or her utterances, or what
he or she is going to say.

Now, you will learn the last type of speech style–frozen speech style.

Learn about it!

Frozen Speech Style
A frozen speech style, also called the oratorical style, is the most formal style and is reserved for
very formal situations such as in religious services, state affairs, and court proceedings. This style
is used to address or given before an audience of absolute strangers. It uses prescribed and highly
formal language, such as in official or historical documents and literary texts.

Here are other characteristics of this style:

 It uses “frozen” language, where statements are learned by rote. Examples are the Lord’s
Prayer, the Pledge of Allegiance, and the National Anthem.
 It has a symbolic or historical nature.
 It is typically prescribed by law, custom, or ritual.
 It involves certain fixed or stock expressions that are rarely or never altered or changed.
Examples include the following:
o “I now pronounce you husband and wife” in wedding ceremonies
 o “I solemnly swear to . . .” in oath-taking ceremonies
o “Do you swear to tell the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth, so help you
God?” in court proceedings

Example:
Below is the Pledge of Allegiance to the Philippine Flag (Panunumpa ng Katapatan sa Watawat ng
Pilipinas).

Ako ay Filipino
Buong katapatang nanunumpa
Sa watawat ng Pilipinas
At sa bansang kanyang sinasagisag
Na may dangal, katarungan, at kalayaan
Na pinakikilos ng sambayanang
Maka-Diyos,
Makatao,
Makakalikasan, at
Makabansa.

Explanation:
This pledge, which is found under Section 25 of Republic Act No. 8491 and is recited after the
Patriotic Oath (Panatang Makabayan), cannot be changed in any way unless officially revised by a
legislative body. It is an example of the frozen style.

Key Point
The five types of speech styles are the following: intimate, casual, consultative, formal, and frozen.
Among these, the most formal style is the frozen style. It is used in symbolic moments or in very
formal situations. It uses prescribed and highly formal language. It also involves certain fixed or
stock expressions that are rarely or never altered or changed.

Types of Speech Act: Locution, Illocution, and Perlocution

Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to identify the types of speech act and distinguish them
from one another, and respond appropriately and effectively to a speech act.

When you say something to someone, does he or she always get the intended meaning of your
utterance, or does he or she sometimes misinterpret it?
What do you think is the reason(s) for the misinterpretation, if any?

Learn about it!

Speech goes beyond the words you literally say. When you speak, you are actually doing
something; that is, you are performing an action. This is referred to as a speech act. Whenever you
say or utter something, you are expressing an intention. However, there are times when your
intended meaning in or by saying something may be understood differently by your addressee and
vice versa. Thus, it is important to know the types of speech act to foster effective communication
when engaging in conversations. Here are some essential points to learn:

 The speech act theory was first proposed by John Langshaw Austin in 1962 and was
further developed by John Rogers Searle in 1969. It is based on the premise that words
cannot only convey information but that they can also carry out actions. Austin and
Searle are concerned with what the speaker means by his or her utterance (intention) rather
than what the utterance means in a language.
 Austin identifies three basic types of speech act: locution, illocution, and perlocution.
  Distinguishing the speech acts from one another helps one to respond appropriately and
effectively to a speech act.

Locution
A locutionary act refers to the act of saying something or the actual words spoken.

Example:
John: It’s really cold in here.

Explanation:
The basic act of utterance that John made is a locutionary act.

Illocution
An illocutionary act refers to the act a speaker performs in saying the utterance. The speaker
makes a locutionary act with some intention in mind. Searle (1975) classifies illocutionary acts into
five major categories: assertives, directives, commissives, expressives, and declarations. The
following states the purpose of each category of illocutionary act according to Searle:

Assertives
The speaker commits to something being the case. Examples of this kind are stating, suggesting,
asserting, describing, insisting, swearing, and concluding (that something is the case).

Example:
I am wearing a yellow shirt. (stating/describing)

Directives
The speaker gets the addressee to do something. Examples are requesting, ordering, challenging,
daring, commanding, pleading, and asking (someone to perform an action).

Example:
Could you please buy me some food?
(asking/requesting/ordering)

Commissives
The speaker commits to some future course of action. Examples include offering, promising, vowing,
and planning.

Example:
I will eat a balanced diet from now on. (vowing)

Expressives
The speaker expresses his thoughts about something or a certain situation. Examples are
congratulating, thanking, apologizing, condoling, and welcoming.

Example:
I’m deeply sorry for what I said to you yesterday. (apologizing)

Declarations
The speaker brings about immediate changes in the state of affairs solely in virtue of the utterance.
Examples of this kind are appointing, nominating, baptizing, blessing, declaring (war), and firing.

Example:
I nominate Miss May Pascual for class president. (nominating)

Perlocution
A perlocutionary act refers to the effects, which may be intended or not, the utterance has on the
behavior, thoughts, and feelings of the addressee. To simply put it, by saying something, a speaker
gets an addressee to do something.

To clearly illustrate the three types of speech act, study the following example.

Example:
John: It’s really cold in here.
Austin: Let me close the window.
John: Thank you.

Explanation:
Locution: The actual words said by the speaker or John (“It’s really cold in here.”)

Illocution: The action done by the speaker in making the utterance⎼⎼(1) the act of requesting for
someone to close the window, or (2) the act of informing the addressee or Austin to let the window
stay closed because John likes the cold.

Perlocution: The consequence or effect of what was said, or what was achieved by saying
something; that is, John’s utterance resulted in Austin closing the window.

The speech act is successful since Austin was able to recognize John’s intention just by merely
saying a few words.

Key Points
 Speech goes beyond the words you literally say; thus, it is important to know the types of
speech acts to foster effective communication when engaging in conversations.
 The speech act theory has three basic types: locution, illocution, and perlocution.
 Locution is the act of saying something or the actual words spoken.
 Illocution, known as the intention, has five major categories according to Searle: assertive,
directive, commissive, expressive, and declaration.
 Perlocution, known as the effect of the utterance, seeks a change in the behavior, thoughts,
and feelings of the addressee.

Nomination and Restriction

Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to apply nomination and restriction in a conversation to
control the participation of speakers according to social status and the environment.

What is nomination?
What is restriction?
When do you apply nomination and restriction in a conversation?

Learn about it!

How does your teacher call students to recite in a classroom discussion? What happens if a teacher
refrains from calling people to join the interaction? What do you feel when you are not called and you
want to answer a question?
There are types of conversations wherein participants do not have equal roles. Some participants
may be superior from others since they control the flow of the conversation. The main speaker
decides who among the participants can contribute to the conversation; this process is called
nomination and restriction. Nomination and restriction vary according to the social status of the
participants and the environment where the communication situation takes place. In this lesson, you
will learn about nomination and restriction as communicative strategies.

Nomination refers to the act of the speaker wherein he or she invites the participant to join in the
conversation or discussion. Meanwhile, restriction refers to the act of the speaker wherein he or
she restricts or limits participants from contributing to the conversation or discussion.

Analyzing the nature of nomination and restriction helps participants understand their roles in various
types of conversation.

There are two factors to consider for nomination and restriction: social relationships and
environment.

 Social relationships determine the specific role of the participants whether they can
nominate or restrict other speakers from joining the conversation.
o Higher authorities refer to those who are assigned to control the flow of the
conversation. Their role is to ask questions that will maintain the quality and
productivity of communication. For example, interviewers are considered to be a
higher authority since they are responsible for asking questions to the interviewees.
o Lower authorities refer to the participants who start as listeners and are then
nominated to be speakers when called by the higher authorities. They are called
using their names. They may also use nonverbal cues to initiate that they want to join
the conversation.
 Environment refers to the setting of the conversation. It also determines the roles of the
speakers. For example, in a classroom discussion, teachers nominate or restrict the
participants. If the setting is changed into a seminar led by students, there will be a segment
for entertaining questions or comments from the teachers. They may nominate the teachers
who will join the discussion and restrict others.
o One-on-one communication: Tutorials and interviews are common settings for
nomination and restriction. For example, in a job interview, the interviewer
interrogates the applicant about his or her personal, educational, and professional
backgrounds. While the interviewer is asking questions, the applicant is restricted
from speaking as doing so may interrupt the interviewer. Once the interviewer is
done asking a question, without having to explicitly mention the applicant’s name, he
or she is nominated to answer.
o Group communication: Panel discussion, class discussion, forum, and debates
involve nomination and restriction. In a debate, while a participant delivers his or her
piece, the other participant is restricted from speaking. He or she must wait for his or
her turn to present his or her argument. Another example is in a forum. After the
speaker presents his or her piece, he or she nominates participants by encouraging
them to ask questions about the presentation.

There are also guidelines which you must follow in nominating or restricting participants in a
discussion.

 The main speaker should state the topic that will be discussed. It is necessary to give
participants an idea on what will be talked about.
 Calling the participants by their names is the proper way of nominating them in the
conversation. Also, the speaker may use nonverbal cues, such as pointing at the person to
signal that he or she may share his or her ideas.
 Participants who wish to join the discussion can perform verbal or nonverbal cues to express
their interest. For example, a participant can raise his or her hand or say “May I be allowed to
speak?”
 When other participants try to join the discussion even without nomination, the speaker may
use verbal and nonverbal cues to restrict them. He or she can say “Let me finish first, then I’ll
get back to your question . . .” or announce before the discussion starts that “questions or
comments will be entertained after the presentation.” Keep in mind that in restricting
participants, the speaker or the higher authority should approach them politely or
professionally.
Example:
Read the situation below:

The class of Mr. Valdez just finished discussing the article written by Miss Maria Cusipag entitled
“Teenage Pregnancy.” The article focuses on the consequences of being pregnant at a very young
age.

Mr. Valdez wants to know his students’ reaction to the arguments presented by the author.
Mr. Valdez: The author states that teenage parents cannot grapple with financial problems. Do you
agree or disagree with the author? Let’s hear your insight, Dianna.
Dianna: I agree with the author. Teenage parents are too young to get a financially stable job. If they
get hired, they are usually paid according to their educational qualification.
Mr. Valdez: However, teenage parents have guardians to provide for their needs. Do you think they
will allow them to spend for everything? Also, there are other sources of income, such as putting up
a small business. What can you say about it, Dominic?
Dominic: Exactly. However, the success in business endeavors is not easily achieved. For a
business to succeed, teenage parents should commit their time and effort. In this case, their
attention will be divided to attending to the needs of their child and of their business. It will be a long
and difficult process, and it does not have any guarantee.
Class: Students begin chatting with their seatmates to express agreement. Janna raises her hand.
Mr. Valdez: Class, please maintain silence. Yes, Janna?
Janna: I agree with Dominic that putting up and managing a business requires one’s dedication and
full attention. There is no guarantee that a business will become successful or profitable. Remember
that children’s needs must be given immediately.
Mr. Valdez: Thank you for all your insights. Now let’s proceed to the next argument: education.

Explanation:
 It was mentioned earlier that the main speaker decides who among the participants can join
or are restricted from joining the discussion. Notice that, in the example above, Mr. Valdez is
the nominated speaker and those who are invited to join the discussion are called by their
names.

Now let us assume that Mr. Valdez did all the talking and does not call any of the participants. This
means that the participants are restricted from joining the discussion.

 Social relationships: In the case of the example above, Mr. Valdez is considered to be the
higher authority. He has the option to nominate or restrict the students, the lower authorities,
from joining the discussion.
 Environment: The situation mentioned above is an example of a group communication with
the classroom as a setting. Here, the role of the teacher is important as he controls the flow
of the discussion.

Key Points
 Nomination refers to the act of the speaker wherein he or she invites, or nominates, the
participant(s) to join the discussion.
 Restriction refers to the act of the speaker wherein he or she restricts or prevents the
participant(s) from joining the discussion.
 Social relationships and environment are the factors to consider in nominating and
restricting.
 The social relationships are described by the higher and lower authorities. Higher
authorities control the flow of the discussion and are responsible for nominating and
restricting. Meanwhile, lower authorities wait for the higher authorities’ verbal and
nonverbal cues to join the conversation.
 The environment refers to the setting the communication situation.
 Analyzing the nature of nomination and restriction helps participants understand their roles in
various types of conversation.

Turn-taking
Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to understand the nature of turn-taking and apply it in
various communication situations.

What is turn-taking?
What are the different turn-taking acts?
What are the various signals and cues in turn-taking?

Learn about it!

To establish a good conversation, participants must work together and understand their roles in the
communication process. They must know when to play the roles of speakers and listeners. It is
impossible for two participants to be speakers at the same time since the message should only
come from one source. The nature of turn-taking suggests that communicators should learn
appropriate timing in conversations–when to speak and when to listen.

Turn refers to the opportunity given to a speaker to talk, whereas turn-taking is a process in which
a participant stops speaking and yields the floor to another participant so he or she could begin to
speak.
There are three turn-taking acts: keep-turn, release-turn, and take-turn.

 Keep-turn suggests that a speaker must not stop until he fulfills his purpose in a
conversation.
 Release-turn suggests that a speaker is finished talking and is ready to yield the floor to
another person to take his or her turn. He or she may use signals or pause in a conversation.
 Take-turn suggests that another participant can take the role of the speaker.

Signals and cues indicate that a speaker wants to keep, yield, or take his or her turn.

 Intonation signals that a speaker wants to keep or yield his or her turn. Rising and falling
intonations indicate that a speaker is releasing his or her turn. A falling intonation indicates
that a speaker is about to end his or her turn, while a rising intonation implies that a
speaker is asking the participants for clarification and confirmation or sometimes to express
disbelief.
 Verbal cues suggest that a speaker wants to yield or to keep his or her turn. For example,
calling the participants’ names indicate that a speaker is releasing his or her turn. Meanwhile,
using sentence connectors such as “additionally,” “on the contrary,” “furthermore,”
“consequently,” or “likewise” suggests the speaker has something more to say.
 Nonverbal cues or gestures like raising one’s hand show that a participant wants to take
the floor or speak. Also, when a speaker points to or fixes his or her gaze on a participant
may mean that he or she wants that participant to speak.

Aside from acts and signals and cues, turn-taking also has rules.

 Limit interruptions – Participants should wait for the speaker to finish first before
interrupting.
 Properly timed signals – Participants should wait for verbal and nonverbal cues.
 Acknowledge understanding and provide attention – Participants should dedicate their
attention to or be interested in the discussion so that they will know when to take turns.

xample:
Mr. Sanchez is going to attend to his first job interview as a civil engineer. He studied his résumé
and prepared for the responses to questions that might be asked. When he arrived at the office, he
has been asked to wait for twenty minutes. Once the interviewer calls his name, he may enter Room
D. After twenty minutes, he, together with another applicant, has been asked to enter the room.

Miss Santos: Good afternoon, Mr. Sanchez and Miss Sarmiento. I am Miss Santos, the human
resource officer. (She then proceeds to provide information about the history of the company.)
Mr. Sanchez: Good afternoon, Miss Santos!
Miss Santos: Please take a seat.
Miss Sarmiento: Thank you, Ma’am!
Miss Sanchez: This is going to be a fifteen-minute interview. I will forward your applications to the
supervisors if I find you–
Miss Sarmiento: Oh? Just a fifteen-minute interview?
Miss Santos: You heard it right. Let me finish first. I will forward your applications to the supervisors
if I find you qualified for the position. Can you tell me something about your academic background?
Let’s start with you, Mr. Sanchez.
Mr. Sanchez: I graduated as a summa cum laude in 2014. I have always treated my days in the
university as a preparation for my career. Also–
Miss. Sarmiento: Me too! In fact, I have served as a student leader during my second year in
college. That was amazing! By the way, do you have a position as a team leader?
Miss Santos: (Nods) We do. However, they are only open for tenured employees. Mr. Sanchez, do
you also want to work as a team leader?
Mr. Sanchez: (Answers after three seconds) Yes, I do! However, I understand that I need to have an
experience first as a site engineer before leading a group of people.
Miss Santos: (Flips the résumé of Miss Sarmiento on the second page)
Miss Sarmiento: (Having seen the action of Miss Santos) Oh, by the way, the second page does not
contain any significant information, except character references.
Miss Santos: I am just looking at your résumé. Kindly wait for my next question.
(Miss Santos continues asking questions. The interview lasts for fifteen minutes.)

Explanation:
 In the given example, you will notice various turn-taking acts that were included. Miss
Santos’s introduction of herself implied keep-turn. She did not stop in between, thus
achieving her purpose of briefing the applicants about the company.
 Meanwhile, the act of Miss Santos calling Mr. Ramirez’s name to answer her question
means that she was yielding her turn.
 Mr. Ramirez demonstrated the take-turn act when he responded to Miss Santos’s question.

Key Points
 Turn-taking refers to the process where a participant stops speaking and yields the floor to
another participant so he or she could begin to speak.
 There are three turn-taking acts: keep-turn, release-turn, and take-turn.
 Intonation, verbal cues, and nonverbal cues or gestures indicate signals that a speaker
wants to keep his or her turn, is ready to give up his or her turn, or another participant would
like to take the turn of the speaker.

Topic Control and Topic Shifting

Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to apply different techniques in controlling or shifting
topics for a productive flow and smooth transition of ideas in any communication situations.

What do you do when you want to introduce a new topic in the middle of a conversation?
Do you advise the participants regarding your plan to shift the topic?
Do you use verbal cues to signal the shift in a conversation?
What techniques do you apply to inform the participants that your topic is relevant to the situation?

Learn about it!

 The main speaker introduces the topic, or the main message, in a conversation, whereas
other participants contribute ideas in the discussion.
 There are two types of topic: sentence topic and discourse topic. The sentence topic, or
sometimes called sentential topic, refers to the main idea or focus of a sentence. On the
 other hand, the discourse topic refers to the topic of the conversation as a whole. Simply
put, the sentence topic is specific while the discourse topic is general in nature.

Topic Shifting
 Topic shifting occurs when one intentionally or unintentionally changes the direction of the
flow of ideas in a conversation. A speaker usually introduces a new topic when he or she is
not familiar or not interested with the topic being talked about.
 There are two ways on how to shift a topic: speaking topically and speaking on the topic.
 Speaking topically occurs when the listener concentrates on some phrases from the last
statement mentioned by the speaker. The idea develops and sticks within the context of the
situation. For example, May mentioned her impression of the community in one of her class’s
outreach programs. Andrew, her classmate, asked “What impression?” Note that although
Andrew introduced a new topic by means of asking May to specify her impression, his
statement was still relevant to the topic.
 Speaking on the topic occurs when the listener concentrates on a word, but the newly
introduced idea may not be related to the context of the topic. For example, one of your
classmates asked, “Who is your favorite basketball player?” Another classmate responded
by saying how much he loves basketball. Although the response was still related to
basketball, it was, in a way, out of context.

Topic Control
 Topic control occurs when the main or assigned speaker manipulates the discussion so as
to maintain its flow without moving away from or changing the topic. Participants should be
mindful of verbal cues as the main speaker uses statements such as “Let’s focus on . . .” or
“Let’s discuss . . .” to set the topic of the conversation or “As I was saying . . .” or “Going back
to . . .” to sustain or return to the original topic.
 Topic control depends on the type of the communication situation. Participants should
recognize who controls the conversation and who among the members are allowed to speak.

Example:
Read the situation below.

Larry conducted a team building among the officers of the student council. He facilitated the group
discussion by asking questions. Meanwhile, anyone is allowed to share their insights.

Larry: For our group discussion today, we will talk about community development. We have
accomplished several programs for this advocacy. Let’s begin the discussion with your insights.
Anna: When I first heard about community development, I was hesitant because I honestly thought
that it’s exhausting. I initially thought that, as students, it would be impossible for us to help nearby
communities.
Jerry: I agree with Anna. I have never imagined myself doing that. By the way, Anna, did your
impression change?
Anna: Yes. I realized that even if we are still students, we can help other people in our own little
ways.
Larry: (No one expressed disagreement.) That’s a good way to start our discussion. Since most of
you agreed with her, let’s now focus on the first project we have done: Community Development of
San Andres. What challenges did you face in the beginning? What were your thoughts about it?
Jerry: Budget. That’s the greatest challenge we have encountered. The principal provided a budget
plan, but it would always depend on the situation. (He went on with how they solved the problem.) I
am proud of our team. This did not cause any conflict with anyone unlike other groups.

(The members continued sharing their insights regarding the questions.)

Explanation:
 In the situation, community development is the discourse topic. This means that participants
may contribute any concepts related to it. The conversation does not include a specific
category. Meanwhile, in Jerry’s statement, “Budget. That’s the greatest challenge we have
encountered,” the sentence topic is budget. Notice that he is also speaking topically since his
 response is connected with Larry’s question “What challenges did you face in the
beginning?”
 Furthermore, Larry set the topic in the beginning of the discussion when he said, “Let’s begin
the discussion with your insights.” He then limited or controlled the flow of conversation when
he reminded the students to share the challenges they faced in the beginning of the project.

Key Points
 Topic refers to the main message in a conversation. There are two types of topic: sentence
topic and discourse topic. A sentence topic, also called sentential topic, refers to the main
idea of a sentence, while discourse topic refers to the topic of the conversation as a whole.
 Topic shifting happens when a speaker intentionally or unintentionally changes the topic.
There are two ways in shifting a topic: speaking topically and speaking on the
topic. Speaking topically is the act of contributing ideas based on some phrases from a
statement, while speaking on the topic means that the participant only focuses on a word
but introduces a new idea which may be out of context.
 Topic control occurs when the assigned speaker introduces a topic that will be the focus of
the conversation and limits the discussion to it by using verbal cues.

Repair and Termination

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 identify the violations committed in different communication situations, and

 apply immediate solutions to repair or terminate them.

What do you do when a person interrupts you while you are talking?
When someone asks a question irrelevant to the topic, do you reprimand him or her?
When does dead air occur?

Learn about it!

Interruptions are common examples of violations in a conversation. Since communication requires
an interactive exchange of messages within the speaker and participant, these violations should be
repaired and terminated to avoid misunderstanding among the participants. Thus, it is important for
each participant to know how to recognize these violations so as to apply specific communication
strategies to fix them.

 In a communication situation, violations refer to unnecessary acts of participants that often

cause a misunderstanding or a delay in the process or flow of the discussion.
 Common violations include grabbing the floor, overlapping, hogging the floor, and being
silent.
o Grabbing the floor, also called interruption, is committed when a speaker is not
able to fulfill his or her purpose because a participant takes over the role of being a
speaker, without allowing him or her to finish his or her turn first.
o Overlapping is similar with grabbing the floor. However, instead of a participant
giving up his or her turn to another, both of them are talking at the same time.
o Hogging the floor occurs when a speaker ignores others who try to join or take over
the discussion.
o Being silent, or dead air, happens when no one wants to speak or take the floor.

Repair and Termination

 Repair and termination are communication strategies used to fix violations in various
communication situations. Speakers who control the discussion are responsible for applying
these strategies once a violation occurred. However, they have to do it cautiously, without
being rude. Here are some guidelines on how to repair or terminate:
 o Recognizing the violation is the first step to repairing a conversation. When a
participant interrupts or overlaps, the main speaker should recognize this situation
and address it briefly. The speaker can say “I appreciate your comment. I will
respond to that after I have discussed a few more slides.”
o Shifting back to the main topic is the next step after recognition. One may use
verbal cues such as “anyway,” “going back,” or “as I was saying.”
o Asking leading questions are necessary to let other participants know that they
have returned to the original topic. Yes-no questions are usually used to confirm
understanding among members.
o After disregarding unnecessary topics, speakers may choose to end or terminate the
conversation by taking a break, shifting to a new topic, or rescheduling a
conversation.

Example:
Analyze the situation:

There is a gathering among the presidents of the organizations for the annual planning of events.
Each month, there will be an assigned group to host several events. Mr. Gomez, a faculty member,
is the facilitator of the meeting. He asks who among the organizations would like to handle the
events for August. The Filipino Club assumes that they should host the events since the Philippines
celebrates Buwan ng Wika (Appreciation of the Filipino Language). However, another group wants
to take over.

Mr. Gomez: Next item in the agenda is the host for August. Every group is–
Mr. Philip: (Interrupts Mr. Gomez) Since we celebrate “Buwan ng Wika” every August, the Filipino
Club should be the host for August.
Mr. Gomez: Thank you for volunteering! It has been a tradition of every school. Does everyone
agree? If no one disagrees–
Mr. Yvan: (Without raising his hand, he starts talking along with Mr. Gomez.) But we have to
consider that our school has recently won a robotics competition. The award will be given in August.
We, the Science Club, would like to host the events too. It is a good way of promoting it. Is that
possible, Mr. Gomez?
Mr. Gomez: I understand. Going back to what I was saying, the Filipino Club can take over if no one
disagrees. However, if one team shows interest, we should hold another meeting. Are we clear?
Mr. Philip: (Raises his hand and is called by the facilitator) Well, I appreciate your intention, Mr.
Yvan. It is a great honor to our school. However, we cannot grant your request.
Mr. Yvan: (Raising his hand but being ignored by Mr. Philip)
Mr. Philip: We have announced it last summer that students who are interested to join contests
related to the current theme for “Buwan ng Wika” can prepare as early as now. We can’t cancel it.
We have provided the schedule.
Mr. Gomez: Please be reminded that no organization is allowed to release a schedule without our
consent.

(Everyone is silent for a while.)

Mr. Gomez: I hope this incident will never happen again, Mr. Philip.
Mr. Yvan: Anyway, since the announcement has been made, we would like to host the events for
September instead. We hope we can be given enough time to announce the events and honor the
members of the Robotics Club on August 8.
Mr. Gomez: That is not a problem. I think the issue has been resolved. Anyway, it is already 12
noon. You may take a break and come back at 1:00 p.m.

(Everyone leaves the room.)

Explanation:
 In the situation, notice the following violations committed:
o Grabbing the floor – Mr. Gomez did not finish what he was about to say because Mr.
Philip interrupted him.
o Overlapping – Mr. Yvan, without raising his hand, started to say his piece while Mr.
Gomez was still talking.
o Hogging the floor – Mr. Yvan raised his hand to get Mr. Philip’s attention, but the
latter ignored him.
 o Dead air – After the intense argument, everyone was silent.
 It should be noted that Mr. Gomez was established as the facilitator of the meeting. Thus, he
was in charge of repairing or terminating the violations committed by Mr. Yvan and Mr. Philip.
Below are the instances where some of the guidelines for repair and termination are
applicable:
o Recognize the violation – When Mr. Philip interrupted Mr. Gomez, Mr. Gomez
acknowledged him by saying, “Thank you for volunteering!”
o Shift back to the main topic – Mr. Gomez, after being interrupted, returned to the
topic by using verbal cues such as “Going back to what I was saying.”
o Ask leading questions – Mr. Gomez remarked “Are we clear?” to indicate that they
were about to go back to the original topic.
o Terminate the conversation – Mr. Gomez terminated the conversation by saying that
the issue has been resolved and that it was time for lunch.

Key Points
 Violations refer to unnecessary acts of participants that often cause a misunderstanding or
a delay in the process or flow of the discussion.
 Common violations include grabbing the floor, overlapping, hogging the floor, and being
silent.
 The main speaker is in charge of repairing or terminating a conversation. He or she is
responsible for recognizing the violations, shifting back to the main topic, asking leading
questions, and terminating the conversation.

Types of Speeches
Expository or Informative Speech

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:.

 identify an expository or informative speech,

 distinguish the types of informative speeches, and
 show the qualities of a good informative speaker.

Have you ever given an oral report about an assigned topic in class before? What was it about? How
did you prepare for it?
What techniques or strategies did you use to deliver your oral report effectively?

Learn about it!

Public communication involves a single speaker and an audience. The speaker is tasked to deliver
a message or a speech of general interest to the audience.

Speeches can be classified according to purpose and delivery. According to purpose, speeches
can be informative, persuasive, or entertaining.

This lesson focuses on the expository or informative speech. (Note: The other types of speech
according to purpose and delivery will be discussed in the succeeding lessons.)

Expository or Informative Speech

As a student, you engage in various speech activities in school. In class you give an oral report,
explain a concept, tell a news story, and describe or demonstrate a process, among others. In each
of these activities, your purpose is to inform the audience.

An expository or informative speech aims to provide the audience with information about a topic
or to expand their knowledge about a topic with which they are already familiar. Some situations that
call for an informative speech are the following:
  A science teacher discussing how a typhoon forms with her students
 A pharmaceutical sales representative describing the uses and side effects of a drug
 A production manager instructing factory workers on how to operate a machine
 A fitness trainer demonstrating different exercises to reduce belly fat
 A news anchor reading a news story about a fire incident

Not only does an informative speech provide the audience with knowledge, but it also shapes its
perception. With the new information, the audience may view something (e.g., concept, belief,
experience) differently. Additionally, it allows the audience to understand a situation, issue, or
problem and helps them to think critically and make sound judgments and decisions.

Types of Informative Speeches

Below are the three main types of informative speeches.

1. Description speech – This provides a vivid picture of a person, a place, an object, or an

event. It creates a clear picture of a subject in the minds of the audience using sensory
details (i.e., sight, sound, smell, touch, and taste). Examples of speech topics for a
descriptive speech are describing the person who influenced you the most, the symptoms of
a rare genetic disorder like progeria, and the magnificence of the Northern Lights.
2. Definition speech – This explains a concept, term, or an abstract topic (e.g., idea, principle,
philosophy). It tells the audience what something is using facts, the etymology of the concept
or word, classification, examples, or other details. Examples of speech topics for a definition
speech are explaining the effects of global warming, the concept of realism, and the term net
cash flow in business.
3. Demonstration speech – This presents information about how to do something or how
something is done. It gives the audience detailed information of a certain process in order to
achieve a particular task or information about how something happens. Examples of speech
topics for a demonstration speech are explaining how to operate a vote-counting machine,
how toothpaste is made, and how to apply for a student loan.

Example:
Below is an excerpt from an informative speech by Sarah Putnam entitled “The Titanic.”

From the disaster to the movie, the sinking of the Titanic remains one of the most famous tragedies
in history. The Titanic was thought to be the largest, safest, most luxurious ship ever built. At the
time of her launch, she was the biggest existing ship and the largest moveable object ever built.
According to Geoff Tibbals, in his 1997 book The Titanic: The extraordinary story of the “unsinkable”
ship, the Titanic was 882 feet long and weighed about 46 000 tons. This was 100 feet longer and 15
000 tons heavier than the world’s current largest ships. Thresh stated in Titanic: The truth behind the
disaster, published in 1992 that the Titanic accommodated around 2345 passengers and 860 crew-
members.

Source: https://www.cmich.edu/office_provost/academicaffairs/cbtc/documents/sampleoutlines.pdf (
accessed on 16 May 2016)

Explanation:
The given example is an informative speech about one of the most famous ships in history,
the Titanic. The speaker gave concrete details about the Titanic by appealing to the sense of sight
(e.g., “the Titanic was 882 feet long and weighed about 46 000 tons. This was 100 feet longer and
15 000 tons heavier than the world’s current largest ships.”) The complete speech gives information
on why the sinking of the Titanic remains one of the most famous tragedies in history.

Qualities of a Good Informative Speaker

Whether you are giving a descriptive, definition, or demonstration speech, you should have the
following characteristics:

 Be credible. The audience is more likely to listen to you if it sees that you are fully prepared
and qualified to speak about the topic. Otherwise, you would not be able to hold the interest
of the audience members if they know that you do not have expertise on the subject. Also,
the audience would lose interest if it sees that you cannot identify with it or that you give the
 impression that you are being untruthful. To build credibility, present valid arguments and
sound reasoning, relate with the audience, and be honest.
 Be accurate and knowledgeable. You need to show the audience that you are well-
informed and that you know what you are talking about. A good informative speaker presents
accurate information that is up-to-date, reliable, and unbiased.
 Be clear. You must clearly convey the information to avoid misinterpretation and confusion
among the audience. To ensure the clarity of your speech, use simple words and
straightforward sentences, define unfamiliar concepts, and choose an organizational pattern
(e.g., chronological, spatial, cause-effect) that will clearly present the information.
 Be memorable. Make a long-lasting impact on the audience by being memorable. Show
enthusiasm, creativity, and sincerity. It is also essential that you build rapport with the
audience. Engage them by sharing a personal experience, asking a provocative question,
and telling a humorous story, among others.

Key Points
 An expository or informative speech aims to provide the audience with information about a
topic or to expand their knowledge about a topic with which they are already familiar. The
three types of informative speeches are description, definition, and demonstration.
 A description speech provides a vivid picture of a person, a place, an object, or an event.
 A definition speech explains a concept, a term, or an abstract topic.
 A demonstration speech presents information about how to do something or how
something is done.
 To be a good informative speaker, you must be credible, accurate and knowledgeable, clear,
and memorable.

Persuasive Speech

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 recognize a persuasive speech,

 identify the different modes of persuasion, and
 follow given guidelines to deliver a persuasive speech effectively.

What is the purpose of giving a persuasive speech? How do you deliver one?

Learn about it!

Sign the Petition Now!

Something must be done about the unmarked intersection at Ubaldo Street and Aguinaldo Street for
three reasons. First, it is located in an area where children sometimes run into the streets. Since
most of the residents in the area are informal settlers, some small children run around or cross the
streets unaccompanied. Second, it is used heavily by drivers to get to the main highway. Because
drivers know that there is no traffic light or stop sign there, they speed down the streets. Finally,
students and employees make the intersection especially busy during rush hours. They cross that
intersection at least twice a day. With speeding vehicles, the dangerous intersection is a constant
threat to people like them. Today, I urge you to sign this petition to install a traffic light and a
pedestrian crossing at this intersection to ensure public safety. Grab a pen and sign now!

The purpose of the passage above is to persuade the audience to take action, that is, to sign the
petition to install a traffic light and pedestrian crossing at the intersection of Ubaldo Street and
Aguinaldo Street.
Persuasive Speech
A persuasive speech aims to influence the audience to accept the speaker’s position or stand on
an issue. The speaker attempts to convince the audience members to adopt his or her way of
thinking or change the way they think about things. Also, a persuasive speech is designed to urge
the audience to take a particular action. A speaker seeks to persuade the audience to start doing the
action now. Sales pitches, political campaign talks, business presentations, and debates are forms
of persuasive speech.

Modes of Persuasion
Persuasion is best achieved using rhetorical appeals. In his book Rhetoric, the Greek philosopher
Aristotle classified three rhetorical appeals or modes of persuasion. According to him, a persuasive
speech must have the following elements to persuade an audience:

1. Ethos - This is an appeal to the speaker’s credibility or authority as perceived by the

audience. Before a speaker can convince an audience to accept his or her views, he or she
must appear credible. He or she should sound reliable, competent, and trustworthy. To build
credibility, the persuasive speaker needs to gain the respect of the audience and must be
able to let the audience see that he or she is of good character, generally trustworthy, and an
authority to speak on the topic.
2. Pathos - This is an appeal to the audience’s emotion. The goal is to provoke an emotional
response from the audience or to let the audience feel a particular emotion (e.g., love, fear,
anger, pity, sympathy) in response to what the speaker said. Using words and visuals that
evoke feelings and telling a personal story are some ways to make an emotional appeal. An
advertisement about a beauty product, for instance, attempts to make the audience feel
insecure or unattractive, so they will be influenced to buy the product.
3. Logos - This is an appeal to logic or reason. The speaker has to present a
valid argument or claim, which is a statement that an audience is urged to accept. To
develop a logical argument, a speaker needs to provide proof or strong evidence (e.g., facts,
case studies, statistics) in support of that argument. To be successful, the speaker has to
show the audience why his or her argument is rationally sound. He or she can use analogy
or inductive or deductive reasoning, draw cause-and-effect relationships, and make
inferences.

Using all three rhetorical appeals, a speaker has the best chance to persuade an audience to accept
his or her position and to call them to action.

Example:
Does your home make you happy?

A house is not a home. A home is where you want to be more than any place in the world. At Carson
Construction, we build homes.

With over a decade of experience in satisfying customers, we at Carson Construction can turn your
dream home into a reality. Our staff of top architects, experienced project managers, and master
builders have a reputation of providing our clients with only the best. Our people bring their technical
knowledge, innovativeness, and dedication to the delivery of our best construction services. For the
past 10 years, we have built over 1000 homes all over the country, and we currently have more than
50 clients under contract.

Whether redesigning your home to suit your family’s needs or building the home of your dreams,
Carson Construction will carefully craft every detail of your home using only quality materials.

We strive to be a truthful adviser and a responsible contractor, and we would love to turn your house
into a home. We can help your vision of a home come to life!

Explanation:
The given example is an advertisement of a construction company that seeks to convince the
audience to avail of their construction services. It begins with a thought-provoking question that gets
the audience thinking about their own homes. It appeals to the audience’s emotion (i.e., whether
they are happy or not with their homes). The succeeding paragraphs contain information that builds
the credibility of the company and present reasons as to why the company can deliver the best
construction services.

Guidelines in Delivering a Persuasive Speech

A successful persuasive speech requires much preparation. To be an effective persuasive speaker,
keep the following guidelines in mind:

1. Determine your goal. The first step in preparing for a persuasive speech is to know exactly
what you want to achieve. Is your goal to change the audience’s particular way of thinking?
What do you want them to do or think about?
2. Know your audience. Know who your listeners are. Consider what topic will interest your
audience and what the audience will gain from your speech. Also, determine their needs,
level of knowledge, and attitudes. You can ask yourself the following: Are they neutral, or are
they seeking change? Will they most likely oppose or support you?
3. Organize the information. Like any speech, a persuasive speech has three essential parts:
introduction, body, and conclusion. Each part needs to have a clear topic sentence
supported by details. Use an organizational pattern (e.g., problem-solution, cause-effect) that
best suits your topic and purpose.
4. Provide strong evidence. Determine the points you want to make and provide strong and
sufficient evidence to support each point. Use reputable and reliable sources of information.
5. Practice your speech. Stand in front of a mirror or record yourself, and then identify areas
that need improvement. Also, you can have a friend or a family member listen to you and ask
him or her for feedback. When delivering the speech, take note of the following:

 Make eye contact with the audience.

 Speak clearly and confidently.
 Use appropriate body language (e.g., standing straight), gestures (e.g., an open palm when
making a point), and facial expressions (e.g., showing a relaxed smile).
 Project your voice effectively.

Key Points
 A persuasive speech aims to influence the audience to accept the speaker’s position or
stand on an issue, and to urge the audience to take a particular action.
 The three modes of persuasion according to Aristotle are the following: ethos, an appeal to
the speaker’s credibility or authority as perceived by the audience; pathos, an appeal to the
audience’s emotion; and logos, an appeal to logic or reason.
 To deliver a persuasive speech effectively, a speaker has to (1) determine the goal, (2) know
the audience, (3) organize the information, (4) provide strong evidence, and (5) practice the
speech.

Entertainment Speech

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 identify an entertainment speech,

 distinguish the types of speeches according to purpose, and
 follow some tips on how to make and deliver an entertaining speech.

What are the three types of speeches according to purpose? How do you differentiate them?

Let’s Review!
So far, you have learned the following types of speeches according to purpose:
  An expository or informative speech aims to provide the audience with information about a
topic or to expand their knowledge about a topic with which they are already familiar. The
three types of informative speeches are description, definition, and demonstration
speeches.
 A persuasive speech aims to influence the audience to accept the speaker’s position or
stand on an issue, and to urge the audience to take a particular action. The three modes of
persuasion are ethos, pathos, and logos.

Now, you will learn about the last type of speech: the entertainment speech.

Learn about it!

Entertainment Speech
Entertainment is any activity that holds a person’s attention and interest or that provides
amusement or enjoyment to occupy spare time. There are different forms of entertainment. You can
entertain yourself by reading a book, watching TV, listening to music, playing a musical instrument,
solving a puzzle, drawing an artwork, going to the movies, chatting online with your friends, and
surfing the Internet, among others. Often, amusement comes from storytelling or watching others
give a performance (e.g., dance, music, drama).

You have probably listened to people give an entertaining talk at various social occasions. These
include casual dinners, parties, graduations, and weddings. An entertainment speech aims to
amuse audience members and put them in a jovial mood. Although it can also inform or persuade,
its primary focus is to entertain an audience or create a pleasant or interesting diversion.

There are various ways to make a speech entertaining. Here are some of these ways:

 Tell a funny or a scary story.

 Use a humorous story or an anecdote.
 Relate a personal experience.
 Incorporate drama by using narration and dialogue.
 Use sarcasm, exaggeration, or pun (play on words which suggests two or more meanings,
such as “A bicycle can't stand on its own because it is two-tired”).

It is important to note, however, that an entertainment speech does not need to be funny all the time
and all throughout. It should be interesting enough to hold the attention of the audience members,
and it should create an enjoyable experience for them.

Tips on Making and Delivering an Entertainment Speech

Giving an entertainment speech can be difficult since you need to ensure that your speech will
create a pleasant atmosphere and that the audience will have an enjoyable experience. The
following are some pointers on how to successfully entertain an audience:

1. Know your audience. As for any type of speech, it is important to know and assess your
audience. Since the audience members usually gather to have a good time, find out what
interests them. Think about how you can give them what they came for. Remember that you
are there to entertain the audience, not yourself.
2. Decide on a topic or theme. Choose a significant topic that is appropriate to the audience
and the occasion. Talk about things familiar to the audience. Although an entertaining
speech is meant to be amusing, it should still convey an essential point. Use entertaining
strategies to impart a serious message.
3. Start with an attention-grabber. Have an engaging opening in your introduction. You can
open with a joke, an incident, or a striking fact that is related to your topic.
4. Use simple language and vivid descriptions. Since your main purpose is to entertain, this
is not the time to use technical or complex words. Use simple words so it will be easy for the
audience to follow your speech. Also, bring a strong image into the minds of the audience
members through vivid descriptions. Use sensory words that appeal to their senses.
5. Use humor effectively. The ability to make people laugh is not an easy task. Humor is
subjective, so what may be humorous to you may not be humorous to another or to other
 cultures. Nonetheless, humor is a great way to make the audience feel relaxed. You can add
a little humor, but you should make sure that it does not offend or insult others.
6. Use appropriate nonverbal cues. To add flair to your speech, use appropriate facial
expressions (e.g., flashing a big smile), body movements (e.g., moving around the stage),
and large gestures (e.g., spreading hands apart to indicate length, distance, or size).

Remember, to deliver an entertainment speech successfully, create a delightful experience for the
audience. Also, it is important to be yourself, have a good time, and enjoy the experience as well.

Example:
For an example of an entertainment speech, go to this link (accessed on 20 May 2016). The speech
was delivered by Jim Carrey during a graduation at Maharishi University of Management in Fairfield,
Iowa on 24 May 2014.

Explanation:
The commencement speech was delivered in an inspiring, funny, and enlightening way. It captured
and sustained the interest of the audience. The speaker opened his speech by using irony. He said
that the painting he brought was not one of his "bigger" pieces when in fact, the painting he brought
was huge. The introduction was funny, making the audience laugh and feel relaxed. He continued by
using informal language in welcoming the guests. He then talked about planting a seed (figuratively)
and made a joke about it by referring to Monsanto, an agricultural company that sued farmers for
alleged seed patent infringement. Also, the speaker used sarcasm when he said, “Excuse me if I
seem a little low energy tonight – today – whatever this is,” for it is apparent that he was energetic.
The speaker then went on by sharing serious, profound thoughts, incorporating humor to create an
amiable atmosphere.

Overall, the speaker gave an entertaining speech with a truly uplifting and fitting message:

You are ready and able to do beautiful things in this world and after you walk through those doors
today, you will only ever have two choices: love or fear. Choose love, and don’t ever let fear turn you
against your playful heart.

Summary
An entertainment speech aims to amuse audience members and put them in a jovial mood. Some
ways to make a speech entertaining include:

 telling a funny or a scary story;

 using a humorous story or an anecdote;
 relating a personal experience;
 incorporating drama using narration and dialogue; and
 using sarcasm, exaggeration, or pun.

In making and delivering an entertainment speech, you should:

1. know your audience,

2. decide on a topic or theme,
3. start with an attention-grabber,
4. use simple language and vivid descriptions,
5. use humor effectively, and
6. use appropriate nonverbal cues.

Reading from a Manuscript

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you will be able to explain reading from a manuscript as a method of
speech delivery and follow guidelines on how to effectively deliver a speech by reading from a
manuscript.
How do you deliver a speech by reading from a manuscript? What are the advantages and
disadvantages of using this method?

Learn about it!

You have learned that speeches are classified into two main categories: according to purpose and
according to delivery. The three types of speeches according to purpose are informative, persuasive,
and entertainment. Meanwhile, there are four types of speeches according to delivery: reading from
a manuscript, memorized speech, impromptu speech, and extemporaneous speech.

This lesson focuses on reading from a manuscript. (Note: The other types of speeches according to
delivery will be discussed in the succeeding lessons.)

Reading from a Manuscript

You have probably watched a speaker deliver a speech by reading from a piece of paper or by using
a teleprompter. Many presidents, for instance, read their speech when addressing the nation during
their inaugural day or during a state of emergency. Reading from a manuscript (or manuscript
speech) is done when a speaker reads to the audience a prepared text or manuscript, which may be
prepared by someone else or by the speaker himself or herself. This is usually given when the
manuscript will be part of an official record wherein extremely careful wording is required. For
example, an official spokesperson is provided with a proclamation, a formal public announcement,
and reads it exactly as written. A speaker may also opt to use this method when he or she feels that
the important points are best conveyed by reading the manuscript, especially when it is remarkably
written.

Giving a manuscript speech has its merits and drawbacks. Below are some of the advantages and
disadvantages of reading from a manuscript.

Guidelines on Reading from a Manuscript

Reading from a manuscript presents a huge challenge since the speaker is mainly limited to the
written speech. If you choose to deliver a manuscript speech, follow these guidelines:

First, write a good speech. Since you will likely be reading most of the words, make an exceptional
speech that contains logically connected paragraphs and well-supported topic sentences. Carefully
choose each word and make sure that your speech conveys a clear message.

Second, format your speech properly. Formatting your speech properly makes it easier for you to
read it. Here are some tips on how to format your speech for readability:

1. Indent each paragraph and include only two to three paragraphs per page.
2. The right margin should not be justified so that the words are equally spaced.
3. Double-space between lines.
4. Use only one side of the page.
5. Use a font type that is easy to read and a font size that is large enough to be read. The
standard font type is Times New Roman with a font size of 12 points. You can use another
font type, but make sure you can clearly read it.

Third, practice your speech repeatedly. Know your speech “by heart” by practicing it repeatedly.
Record yourself and then identify areas in your speech and in your delivery that need improvement.

Fourth, vary your voice. Varying your voice in terms of volume, pitch or intonation, and emphasis
allows you to make important points stand out from those that are less significant, and to express
your feelings or attitudes. Use also appropriate pauses within the sentences.

Finally, look at the audience from time to time. Do not read the manuscript word for word looking
down. Glance at the audience when highlighting keywords or when beginning a long sentence.
(Short sentences are eventually memorized when practicing the speech repeatedly.) Questions
written in the speech should be spoken while looking at the audience.
Even if you are reading from a manuscript, you can still sound natural. To do this, speak clearly and
at a normal pace, make eye contact with the audience at appropriate times, and be relaxed.

Example:
Pres. Richard M. Nixon was the only U.S. president to resign the office. Suppose that you are
President Nixon and you will be announcing your resignation to the public. Deliver an excerpt of your
resignation address by reading from a manuscript. Apply the given guidelines in this lesson.

For more than a quarter of a century in public life, I have shared in the turbulent history of

this evening. I have fought for what I believe in. I have tried, to the best of my ability, to discharge
those

duties and meet those responsibilities that were entrusted to me. Sometimes I have succeeded. And

sometimes I have failed. But always I have taken heart from what Theodore Roosevelt once said
about

the man in the arena, whose face is marred by dust and sweat and blood, who strives valiantly, who
errs

and comes short again and again because there is not effort without error and shortcoming, but who

does actually strive to do the deed, who knows the great enthusiasms, the great devotions, who
spends

himself in a worthy cause, who at the best knows in the end the triumphs of high achievements and
with

the worst if he fails, at least fails while daring greatly.

I pledge to you tonight that as long as I have a breath of life in my body, I shall continue in

that spirit. I shall continue to work for the great causes to which I have been dedicated throughout

my years as a Congressman, a Senator, Vice President, and President, the cause of peace not just

for America but among all nations -- prosperity, justice and opportunity for all of our people.

There is one cause above all to which I have been devoted and to which I shall always be

devoted for as long as I live.

When I first took the oath of office as President five and a half years ago, I made this

sacred commitment: to consecrate my office, my energies, and all the wisdom I can summon to the

cause of peace among nations. I've done my very best in all the days since to be true to that pledge.
As

a result of these efforts, I am confident that the world is a safer place today, not only for the people
of

America but for the people of all nations, and that all of our children have a better chance than
before of

living in peace rather than dying in war.

This, more than anything, is what I hoped to achieve when I sought the Presidency.
This, more than anything, is what I hope will be my legacy to you, to our country, as I leave the

Presidency.

To have served in this office is to have felt a very personal sense of kinship with each and every

American.

In leaving it, I do so with this prayer: May God's grace be with you in all the days ahead.

Summary
There are four types of speeches according to delivery: reading from a manuscript (or manuscript
speech), memorized speech, impromptu speech, and extemporaneous speech. The manuscript
speech or reading from a manuscript is done when a speaker reads to the audience a prepared text
or manuscript, which may be prepared by someone else or by the speaker himself or herself.
Reading from a manuscript has its advantages and disadvantages. To sound natural when reading
from a manuscript, speak clearly and at a normal pace, make eye contact with the audience at
appropriate times, and be relaxed.

Memorized Speech

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 explain a memorized speech;

 follow tips on how to effectively deliver a memorized speech; and
 deliver a memorized speech successfully.

Do you have a good memory?

How do you usually memorize something, say, a paragraph?
What do you do when you forget some of the lines?

Learn about it!

Memorized Speech
Memorizing a speech is usually done by skilled speakers. Most expert or professional speakers
deliver their speeches from memory. For instance, many experienced politicians memorize their
speeches for their campaign rallies, making some minor tweaks to suit their audience. Many
marketing or business executives deliver effective sales pitches by speaking from memory.

A speaker gives a memorized speech by committing every word of the speech to memory and
then delivering it in front of an audience. The speaker does not bring with him or her any notes or
manuscript. Unless you are an exceptionally proficient speaker, speaking from memory is usually
appropriate for relatively short speeches such as when presenting or accepting an award, making an
announcement, giving opening or closing remarks, or introducing a speaker.

Before deciding whether to give a memorized speech or not, learn about its advantages and
disadvantages first.

Tips on Delivering a Memorized Speech

Delivering a memorized speech can be nerve-racking as you are never sure that your memory will
not fail you. Here are some tips to help you successfully deliver a memorized speech.
 1. Keep it short. Make sure that your speech is not too lengthy and wordy so it will be easier
for you to memorize it. Create an outline of your main points and familiarize it. Also, write
your speech as if you are speaking naturally.
2. Practice. Once your speech is put together, practice it. Find a quiet place and read your
speech out loud. Read it repeatedly so you can memorize the words and internalize the
message. You may divide the speech into parts and memorize each part until you have
committed all parts to memory. Then, rehearse the delivery. Watch yourself speak in front of
a mirror so you can identify nonverbal cues that you can do (e.g., smiling, making eye
contact, pacing) or avoid doing (e.g., fidgeting, slouching, swaying).
3. Visualize. When memorizing, you may get stuck on certain words or parts of the speech.
One technique to get back on track is to visualize or create a mental image of the difficult
word or part. Assign an image that you can easily associate with the word or part which you
have trouble remembering. The next time you practice your speech, recall the image and the
content will likely get back to you.
4. Project your voice. How you project your voice may make or break your speech. If you
speak too softly and without energy, the audience will not be able to hear you and will lose
interest in what you are saying. However, if you speak too loudly, the audience might feel
that you are yelling or shouting. When giving a memorized speech, speak with projection and
energy. Good voice projection entails good posture and breathing. When practicing your
speech, stand straight with your head up, take deep breaths, and speak at a volume that will
be heard by all audience members.
5. Use appropriate pauses. Pauses can enhance your memorized speech when used
appropriately. A pause has many functions. It can build suspense or create a dramatic effect
as the audience anticipates what is to come next. It can also give them time to reflect,
allowing the words to make meaning in their minds. Moreover, it can be used to keep the
speech dynamic. So, incorporate pauses in your speech, but use them effectively.

A memorized speech requires extra effort with a lot of practice and careful preparation. Practice your
speech repeatedly until you have learned them by heart. If you do forget a word or a small part of
your speech, do not panic and just take a deep breath. Give yourself time to recover. To buy time,
you may engage the audience by asking them what your last point was, or you may also use humor.
If you still cannot remember, just continue speaking.

Example:
Imagine that you are Pres. Ramon Magsaysay and it is the 15th of March 1957. You will deliver a
speech at the kick-off ceremonies launching the Fund Drive for the Jose Rizal National Centennial
Commission. Memorize the speech below and use the given tips to successfully deliver it.

MY FRIENDS:

We are met today to inaugurate the fund drive for the Rizal Centennial Commission. We are
investing the event with fitting solemnity because it means so much to all of us. It is the historic
privilege of our generation to celebrate the centenary of the birth of Jose Rizal. It is our good fortune
to render in a special manner in our time the tribute which we owe to his greatness, to prove our
loyalty to his memory, to express our faith in him. It is our duty and privilege to communicate to those
who come after us the loftiest spiritual values of the legacy he left to our race.

As beneficiaries of his sacrifice, we are called upon–all of us–to contribute generously of our
resources and our energies so that the celebration we shall hold four years from now may be worthy
of the stature we accord to Rizal in the life of our nation. Let it not be said of us that we are lacking in
the veneration which other peoples render lesser men. Let us make the centennial of Rizal’s birth
truly a national event, with every Filipino giving his shave of the fund until the amount of ten million
pesos required for this grand event has been raised.

In countries under the heel of the Communist tyrant, projects like the one we inaugurate today are
insured against failure by resort to compulsion and coercion. But success thus achieved is of course
hollow and empty. In our democracy, these enslaving methods have no place United to Rizal in his
love of freedom, inspired by his dedication to the well-being of our Motherland, and encourage by his
faith in our capacity for greatness as a people, we shall, I am sure, respond freely and heartfully to
the present appeal to our generosity and to our patriotism.

I ask everyone to support this drive. It is my privilege to start it off with my personal contribution.
Source: link (accessed on 25 May 2016)

Did you have difficulties memorizing the speech? How did you overcome the difficulties, if any?
What techniques did you use to help you remember the speech and successfully deliver it?

Summary
Another type of speech according to delivery is the memorized speech. It is given by committing
every word of the speech to memory and then delivering it in front of an audience. The speaker does
not bring with him or her any notes or manuscript. A memorized speech requires extra effort with a
lot of practice and careful preparation. To successfully deliver a memorized speech, keep it short,
practice, visualize, project your voice, and use appropriate pauses.

Impromptu Speech

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 explain an impromptu speech;

 follow tips on how to deliver an impromptu speech; and
 deliver an impromptu speech successfully.

How do you feel when your teacher calls on you to explain a particular concept? Do you get nervous
or rattled, or do you calmly give an answer?

Learn about it!

Impromptu Speech
Most of us, if not all, have been asked to speak with no warning or notice. In school, teachers often
call on students to express their opinions on some issue. At a wedding reception, a family member
or close friend is asked to say a few words about the newlyweds. At a party or gathering, someone is
called upon to say grace before meals. All of these situations may involve an impromptu speech.
An impromptu speech is made with no advance planning. Unlike in manuscript and memorized
speeches, an impromptu speech is delivered with very little or no preparation. It is generally
brief, and it is unrehearsed. The speaker does not have time to practice the speech.

People who are asked to give an impromptu speech are usually knowledgeable about the topic or
subject. Some politicians, for example, are asked by reporters about certain issues almost anywhere
and anytime. In a department meeting, a manager might ask a staff member for an update on a
current project. At a birthday party, a shy best friend may be prodded to say something about the
birthday celebrant.

Impromptu speaking is not for everyone. It can be unnerving to a person who is not used to speaking
in public, let alone on the spot. As a result, the impromptu speech may be incoherent because the
person feels anxious and uncomfortable. What should one do when asked to speak on the spur of
the moment?

Tips on How to Deliver an Impromptu Speech

At some point in your life, you will be asked to deliver a speech spontaneously. You will have no time
to organize your ideas or to research information about the topic or subject. Since you are
unprepared, you may have difficulty in expressing your thoughts. Below are some tips you can do
when asked to give an impromptu speech.

1. Gather your thoughts. Think first before speaking. Relax, take a deep breath, look around, and
smile. Pause (for 2–3 seconds) to reflect and think about what you are going to say.

2. Consider the three major parts of a speech. Since you do not have time to prepare a detailed
outline, in your head, just think of an introduction, body, and conclusion for your speech. Make a
good introductory sentence about the topic to engage the audience.

3. Identify your main point(s). Think of the main point or idea you want to convey to the audience.
Then, support it briefly with details or good examples.

4. Keep your speech short. Be mindful of the time. Stop when you have made your point(s).
Remember, an impromptu speech is generally short.

5. End on a strong note. Give a memorable conclusion by tying all your points together. Relate your
conclusion back to the introduction.

6. Be confident. As you deliver your speech, show confidence and speak with conviction. Never
show the audience that you are nervous or frightened. Keep yourself together and just talk naturally.

Practice thinking on your feet. Say the first thing that comes to mind when you hear each of the
following words:

School love

family dream

friend Philippines

Were you a quick thinker? Did you find it easy to think on the spot?

This time, practice impromptu speaking using the list of topics below. Give yourself 3–5 minutes to
talk about each of the topics. Apply the given tips you have learned.

 My favorite book or movie

 The best thing about my life
 If I could invent something
 The three things that make me happy
 The worst day of my life

Key Points
 An impromptu speech is made with no advance planning. It is delivered with very little or no
preparation.
 People who are asked to give an impromptu speech are usually knowledgeable about the
topic or subject.
 Impromptu speaking can be unnerving to a person who is not used to speaking in public, let
alone on the spot. Therefore, to successfully deliver an impromptu speech, follow these tips:
(1) gather your thoughts, (2) consider the three major parts of a speech, (3) identify the main
point or points, (4) keep the speech short, (5) end on a strong note, and (6) be confident.

Extemporaneous Speech

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 explain an extemporaneous speech;

 distinguish it from the other types of speeches according to delivery;
 follow tips on how to effectively deliver an extemporaneous speech; and
 deliver an extemporaneous speech successfully.

What are the types of speeches according to delivery? How do they differ from one another?
Let’s Review!
Let us recall the three types of speeches according to delivery that you have learned so far:

 A manuscript speech or reading from a manuscript is done when a speaker reads to the
audience a prepared text or manuscript, which may be prepared by someone else or by the
speaker himself or herself.
 A memorized speech is given by committing every word of the speech to memory and then
delivering it in front of an audience.
 An impromptu speech is made with no advance planning. It is delivered with very little or no
preparation.

In this lesson, you will learn the last type of speech according to delivery: extemporaneous speech.

Learn about it!

Extemporaneous Speech
Extemporaneous speaking is the most preferred method of delivery among many public speakers
because it is a middle ground between a manuscript speech and a memorized speech. An
extemporaneous speech is given from notes or a speech outline. A speaker does not read a
manuscript word for word nor does he memorize every word. In this type of speech, the speaker
uses his or her prepared notes or outline as guide and elaborates it using his or her own words.

Here are other characteristics of an extemporaneous speech:

 It sounds natural. It uses a conversational tone because the speech is not read verbatim or
committed to memory.
 Its exact wording is chosen at the time the speech is being given. The speaker is not tied to
specific wording.
 It allows the speaker to practice in advance the flow of the speech using the prepared notes
or outline.
 It enables the speaker to engage the audience more and freely interact with them.
 It is flexible. It gives the speaker more room to adapt to the situation, and it allows for
elaboration, explanation, or restatement of ideas if the audience seem to be confused.

Although extemporaneous speaking is the most popular method of delivery, it may not be
appropriate in some very formal occasions where precise wording is required such as in an
inaugural ceremony and other political addresses. However, in many speech situations such as
meetings, oral presentations, lectures, and business proposals or presentations, extemporaneous
speaking is recommended.

Tips on How to Deliver an Extemporaneous Speech

Like manuscript and memorized speeches, an extemporaneous speech also requires planning and
practice. When preparing and delivering an extemporaneous speech, you need to keep these helpful
tips in mind:

1. Prepare the notes or outline. When you have already chosen a topic, the next step is to
prepare your notes or outline about the topic. The outline, whether a topic or sentence, lists
the main points and subpoints that support the thesis or the central idea of the speech. The
main points are divided into subpoints that provide supporting details about the main points.
Write the outline on notecards (e.g., 3 x 5 index cards) to keep your ideas in order. On each
notecard, write a main point and its subpoints, and include some keywords or relevant
phrases about them to serve as your guide for elaboration or explanation. Number each
notecard for easy browsing. Then, review your outline and familiarize it. If you do not want to
use an outline, you can use a graphic organizer (e.g., flowchart, mind map) instead. Choose
the graphic organizer that best suits your topic and purpose.
2. Rehearse your speech using your notes. After you have finalized your outline, practice your
speech repeatedly. Rehearse for several times using the notecards to stay on track and until
you get the feel of your speech. However, during the actual speech, do not spend more time
 looking at the notecards than on expressing your ideas and interacting with the audience.
Only glance at your notes when you are citing statistics or quoting an authority, or when you
suddenly do not remember a key idea.
3. Speak in a conversational manner. When you deliver your speech, speak as if you are
actually conversing with someone. Sound natural by using shorter sentences and by
speaking clearly in a friendly tone. Also, do not keep your eyes glued to your notes. Rather,
make eye contact with the audience to connect with them. Hold eye contact with a single
person and then with the other persons in the room.
4. Pay attention to the audience’s feedback. Remember, communication is a two-way process.
Even if the audience members are not expressing themselves verbally, they are still
communicating with you through nonverbal cues. Be aware of the audience’s nonverbal cues
and respond to them. For example, when you notice that the audience look confused, you
can restate your point using visuals or you can explain it by giving an example. In an
extemporaneous speech, you have room for adaptation or flexibility, and you are in control.

When you deliver any type of speech, remember to have a captivating introduction, an organized
body, and a strong conclusion. Also, reinforce your message through your voice, body, and
language.

Try it!
Practice extemporaneous speaking using the given tips. Choose one topic from the list below.
Deliver your speech in front of classmates or friends and solicit feedback. The speech should run for
4 – 7 minutes only.

 The local TV program that should be promoted (or banned)

 The major environmental issue in the Philippines
 Three key areas the government should focus on
 Should divorce be legalized in the Philippines?
 How can the government address traffic woes in Metro Manila?

What was the feedback of your audience? Are there things you should improve on? What should
you do to effectively deliver the speech next time?

Summary
There are four types of speeches according to delivery: manuscript (or reading from a manuscript),
impromptu, memorized, and extemporaneous. An extemporaneous speech is given from notes or a
speech outline. In this type of speech, the speaker uses his or her prepared notes or outline as guide
and elaborates it using his or her own words. To deliver an effective extemporaneous speech,
prepare the notes or outline, rehearse the speech using the notes, speak in a conversational
manner, and pay attention to the audience’s feedback. It is also important to have a captivating
introduction, an organized body, and a strong conclusion.

Speech Preparation: Topic and Audience

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 identify significant points in choosing a topic; and

 understand the importance of considering the audience’s needs and interests in preparing for
a speech.

How do you think one should prepare for his or her speech?
Why is it important to consider the members of the audience’s age, religion and culture, and
educational and professional backgrounds?
Learn about it!
Delivering a speech requires more than oral fluency and applying nonverbal cues. Even before
the presentation, speakers must keep in mind two important aspects: audience and topic. Knowing
the age, ethnicity, and educational and professional backgrounds of the audience can give the
speaker an idea on what topic he or she will talk about. It will also be helpful if the speaker chooses
a topic based on his or her knowledge or areas of expertise and knows the purpose of the event or
occasion where he or she is invited to speak.

Before preparing a speech, it is important for speakers to research on these two important
aspects: audience and topic.

Speech Preparation: Audience

Any speech presented is intended for the audience or target listeners. In preparing for a speech, the
speaker should consider the following:

 Age – A speaker needs to consider the age range of the audience so he or she knows what
kind of topic to discuss. For example, in delivering a speech to graduating students, topics
usually cover career choices, how-tos in the corporate world, do’s and don’ts during job
interviews, among others.
 Educational and professional backgrounds – If a speaker is asked to deliver in an event
where the audience have similar professional backgrounds, such as medical practitioners,
lawyers, or businesspersons, he or she should choose appropriate topics to discuss. For
example, lawyers would be puzzled to hear about a speech on the potency of a newly
developed medicine.
o A speaker must keep it mind that some members of the audience have various
educational backgrounds. They can be high school graduates, vocational graduates,
college graduates, and so on. In choosing a topic, the speaker can go for general
topics like current events, such as the elections, employment rates in rural and urban
areas, disaster prevention, among others.
 Ethnicity – The audience is composed of people from various ethnicities. This means that
they differ in race, culture, religion, and so on. A speaker must consider these factors so as
to avoid discussing sensitive topics, such as those that put a particular ethnic group in a bad
light, and to keep himself or herself from making assumptions or stating stereotypes. For
example, in talking about terrorism, a speaker should be careful in associating terrorists with
a specific group of people.

Speech Preparation: Topic

In choosing a topic to discuss, the speaker must consider the following: his or her expertise, needs
and interests of the audience, and the purpose of the event.

 A speaker must choose a topic based on his or her area(s) of expertise. It is imperative
that a speaker is knowledgeable, or an expert, about the topic that he or she is about to
deliver as it establishes credibility. This way, he or she also delivers the speech better.
However, there are instances where the speaker chooses a topic that is not of his or her
specialization. In this case, he or she should conduct a comprehensive research to cover
important points in the presentation.
 A speaker must consider the needs and interests of the audience. He or she must think
about what is relevant and interesting to the audience. Aside from the speaker, the audience
must also be knowledgeable about the topic that he or she is about to discuss. The speaker
must consider the educational and professional backgrounds of the audience.
o Moreover, when faced with a diverse crowd, the speaker can choose a topic that is
both general and beneficial in nature. For example, considering that a huge
population of the audience are employees, he or she can explain how taxes are
computed for single (with or without dependents), married (with a specific number of
children), etc., employees.
o If the speaker has ample time to prepare for the presentation, he or she can conduct
a survey of the attendees, their profession, age range, what they are interested to
know, etc. This way gives him or her an idea of what to talk about with the audience.
 A speaker must know the purpose of the event. If a speaker is invited to speak at a
graduation ceremony, he or she can talk about what the students can expect when they
 immerse in the corporate world, whether they should pursue further studies, or recall
memories when he or she was still a student. Another example is a product launch. The
purpose of a product launch is to convince the consumers to buy and use the product. In this
case, the speaker will talk about the effectivity of the product and its value for money.

Key Points
 In preparing for a speech, a speaker must consider the audience and the topic to discuss.
 A speaker must keep in mind to consider the following factors in choosing a
topic: age, ethnicity, and educational and professional backgrounds of the audience. For
age, it would be inappropriate for the speaker to tackle retirement benefits when the
members of the audience are college graduates who are about to embark on a new chapter
of their life, such as becoming an employee or an entrepreneur. Moreover, a speaker should
choose topics that are related to the knowledge or expertise of the target listeners and that
do not put a particular ethnic group to a bad light.
 There are three considerations when choosing a topic: the expertise of the speaker, needs
and interests of the audience, and purpose of the event. First, it is important that
speakers are knowledgeable, or an expert, of the topic they are to discuss as it establishes
credibility. Second, a speaker must consider what the audience needs or what interests
them. He or she should make sure that a topic is fit for the target listeners (e.g., innovations
in the medical field – doctors/nurses). Third, a speaker should know first what the purpose of
the event is so as to give him or her an idea of what topics to, or not to, discuss.

Sourcing the Information

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 identify different sources of information;

 recognize the characteristics of good information; and
 evaluate the credibility of online sources.

Where do you get information for your chosen speech topic? How do you know if the information is
reliable?

Learn about it!

Gathering Information about the Topic
Once you have carefully selected a speech topic and you have analyzed your audience, the next
step is to gather information about the topic. In most types of speeches, you will have time to
prepare the content of your speech. The speech should contain well-researched information that will
help the audience understand your message or the central idea of your speech.

Generally, a good speech requires a thorough research about the topic. You need to gather and
read background information to find out what is known about the topic, how much information is
there about the topic, and what kind of information is available on the topic.

Information can be obtained from various sources. Some of these are the following:

 Books ⎼ present comprehensive information about any topic

 Magazines ⎼ contain articles and photographs or illustrations; information is up-to-date,
usually about diverse topics of popular interest and current events
 Journals ⎼ collection of articles about a particular subject, discipline, or profession
 Newspapers ⎼ contain daily (or weekly) information about local, national, and world events or
issues
 Encyclopedias ⎼ a set of books (or a book) arranged alphabetically; contain general
information about many topics or subjects
  Web ⎼ gives access to many types of information available online (e.g., blogs, social media,
catalogs, videos, documents, databases)
 Interviews ⎼ meeting between two (or more) people to get in-depth information about a
particular subject or topic; the interviewer obtains pertinent information from the interviewee
who is knowledgeable or an expert about the subject or topic

Being able to back up your points with research and quality information is essential in delivering an
effective speech. When you gather and read more sources, you broaden your view of the topic.
You also discover new information which leads you to improve, refine, or enrich your
understanding of the topic.

Characteristics of Good Information

Not all pieces of information you have gathered are helpful and valuable to your topic. Thus, it is
important to determine if the information you have is “good information.” Here are some
characteristics of good information:

 It is up-to-date. Do not use outdated information. For instance, when you use statistics in
your speech, see to it that the figures you provide are based on the most current information
available.
 It comes from a credible source. Credible sources (e.g., articles, books, essays) are those
that have gone through a review and an evaluation process before they are published or
uploaded, or those that are written by people who are respected or authorities in their fields
of study.
 It is objective or unbiased. Make sure that the information presents the whole truth, not only
one side of the topic. Check if the author’s purpose favors a particular view of the topic.
Ensure that the information you will use is not biased.
 It is accurate. See to it that the information does not contain vague or sweeping
generalizations. Good information must be factual, detailed, exact, and verifiable.

To sum it up, you can use the guide questions below to see if you have good information.

 Is the information current? When was it published or last updated?

 Does the information come from a credible source? Who is the author? What are his or her
credentials (i.e., education, title and position, training, and experience) and are the
credentials relevant to the information given?
 Is the information complete and objectively written? Does it offer a balanced or fair
argument?
 Is the information factual and verifiable? Does it contain any sweeping statements?

(Note : For good information, your answers should be “yes” to all questions in italics.)

Evaluating the Credibility of Online Sources

Although the easiest way to gather information is through the Web, it is very important to evaluate
the credibility of online sources since anyone can put any information on the Web. So, how can you
determine whether the online source is credible or not? The following are some helpful tips on how
to evaluate the credibility of online sources.

1. Start with sources you know are reputable. In general, you select a speech topic because
you are knowledgeable or interested about it. Based on your knowledge or interest on the
topic, you probably have an idea which online sources are reputable. For example, if your
speech discusses the effects of typhoon Yolanda in the Philippines, you know that the
National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council is a reliable source of quality
information about the topic. Then think about what other organizations (e.g., World Health
Organization) may have good information about the topic.
2. Read the information about the author or publisher. Most Web sites contain information
about the author or publisher (e.g., government site, academic institution, professional
organization). You can usually find this information in the “About Us” or “Who We Are” link.
Check the qualifications of the author or the reputation of the publisher. If (a) there is no
author; (b) there is no indication that the author is qualified to write about the topic; (c) the
publisher does not seem reputable; or (d) there are no contact details provided, do not use
the information.
 3. Check the currency of information. Find out how often the site is updated or when the site
was last updated or modified. Click on each of the links to see if it still works.
4. Identify the purpose of the Web site. Some Web sites appear to be trustworthy, but they
have a hidden agenda (e.g., they may be trying to persuade you to buy something, they may
be promoting something). To find out if the purpose of the site (or the author) is commercial,
scan the Web pages and check if there are many advertisements. Think twice before using
any information from Web sites which contain advertisements as the information may be
biased.

Any factual information you will use in your speech should be obtained only from credible sources
whether printed or online. Note that not all sites having “.org” or “.edu” domain names are
credible. The best way is still to verify the legitimacy and reputation of the institution or
organization through research. Bear in mind also that sources of information should be properly
cited or acknowledged.

Summary
In most types of speeches, a speaker will have time to prepare the speech. A good speech, in
general, requires well-researched information about the topic. Information can be obtained from
various sources such as books, magazines, journals, newspapers, encyclopedias, the Web, and
interviews. Good information is up-to-date, comes from a credible source, objective or unbiased, and
accurate. Online sources should be evaluated carefully since anyone can put any information on the
Web.

Outlining and Organizing Speech Contents

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to identify the parts of a speech outline and make an
organized speech outline.

What are the parts of a speech outline? What is the purpose of each part?

Let’s Review!
How do you prepare for a speech? Recall the principles of speech writing that you have learned so
far:

1. Choosing a topic. You should choose a topic that you know about, want to know more about,
or the audience can identify with. The topic should also fit the occasion or the purpose of the
event.
2. Analyzing the audience. The effectiveness of a speech will partly depend upon the audience.
It is very important to build rapport with the audience. To do this, you should know your
audience (e.g., age, ethnic diversity, views, occupation), or the target listeners of the speech
to determine if your selected topic will suit or interest them.
3. Sourcing the information. You should gather information about the topic to make your speech
substantial. Information can be obtained from various sources such as books, magazines,
journals, newspapers, encyclopedias, the Web, and interviews. Good information is up-to-
date, comes from a credible source, objective or unbiased, and accurate.

Now that you have chosen a topic, analyzed your audience, and gathered information about your
topic, the final step in the preparation of your speech is to make a speech outline.
Learn about it!
Speech Outline
Before you actually start to write the speech, you must first make an outline to organize your ideas
and the information you have gathered. A speech outline serves as the framework or backbone
of the speech. It organizes the contents (i.e., main points, subpoints, sub-subpoints) of the speech.
By making a speech outline, you can see how your ideas connect with each other. It also allows you
to identify where you need to add, remove, or revise some pieces of information.

A basic speech outline has three parts: introduction, body, and conclusion.

I. Introduction
Usually written in one paragraph only, this first part of the speech aims to arouse the attention of the
audience, present the main idea (or thesis) and the purpose of the speech, and give an overview of
the main points of the speech. The following parts compose the introduction:

A. Hook: This is a statement that grabs the audience’s attention. It intrigues, draws in, and motivates
the audience to keep on listening to the speech. Some commonly used attention-grabbing
techniques are the following:

 Telling an anecdote
 Citing a quotation
 Asking rhetorical or thought-provoking questions
 Sharing some background information
 Giving a riddle or puzzle

B. Thesis statement: This is a sentence that states the central idea of the speech.

C. Purpose: This reveals the goal of the speech. It explains how the audience can benefit from
listening to the speech.

D. Overview of the main points: This provides the audience a brief overview of the main points that
the speech will tackle. It gives the audience an idea of the flow of the speech.

II. Body
Following the introduction is the body of the speech. The body explains, develops, and supports the
thesis statement using details, evidence (e.g., statistics, testimony), and examples. It is typically
composed of three paragraphs. Each paragraph has a topic sentence (or the main idea of the
paragraph) and several supporting sentences. To link one paragraph to the next, transitions are
used. These are words or phrases that show relationships between ideas and ensure a smooth flow
from one point to the next. Here are some examples of transitions:

 To add an idea: in addition, moreover, further, also

 To show similarity: similarly, likewise, in the same way, in like manner
 To contrast: on the other hand, however, but, on the contrary
 To illustrate: for example, specifically, in particular, notably
 To emphasize: more importantly, above all, indeed, in fact

III. Conclusion
This is the last part of the speech. The conclusion reiterates the thesis statement and summarizes
the main points covered in the body of the speech. It also contains a final, memorable statement
(e.g., quote, metaphor, advice, challenge or call to action) that provides closure or helps the
audience remember the speech.

When making a speech outline, focus on the specific purpose of the speech to sift out aimless or
irrelevant ideas. Then, review or go over the outline and see if your main points clearly support the
thesis statement and if they are logically connected. Remember, the outline serves as a tool to
organize the contents of the speech. Once you have prepared the outline, use it in writing the actual
speech contents. Consider the following when writing the actual speech: duration (appropriate length
or time allotted for the speech), proper word choice, and grammatical correctness.

Below is the basic structure of a speech outline. Follow it in making your own speech outline of your
chosen topic.

Topic/Subject: _

Purpose: (To inform, to persuade, or to entertain the audience about . . . )_

I. Introduction

A. Hook:
B. Thesis statement:
C. Purpose:
D. Overview of main points:

II. Body

A. First main point

1. Supporting detail/point
2. Supporting detail/point
3. Supporting detail/point

B. Second main point

1. Supporting detail/point
2. Supporting detail/point
3. Supporting detail/point

C. Third main point

1. Supporting detail/point
2. Supporting detail/point
3. Supporting detail/point

III. Conclusion

A. Restatement of thesis and summary of main points:

B. Final statement:

For examples of a speech outline, you may visit the following links:

 Example 1
 Example 2

Key Points
 Making a speech outline helps a speaker organize the contents of the speech.
 A speech outline serves as the framework or backbone of the speech. It has three main
parts: introduction, body, and conclusion.
 The introduction is the first part of the speech. It aims to arouse the attention of the
audience, present the main idea (or thesis) and the purpose of the speech, and give an
overview of the main points of the speech.
 The body, which follows the introduction, explains, develops, and supports the thesis
statement using details, evidence, and examples.
 The conclusion, the last part of the speech, reiterates the thesis statement, summarizes the
main points, and contains a final, memorable statement.
Principles of Speech Delivery

Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to use the principles of speech delivery with focus on
articulation; modulation; stage presence; facial expressions, gestures, or movements; and rapport
with the audience to effectively deliver a speech.

Who do you consider a good public speaker? What makes him or her good at public speaking?
What are the principles of effective speech delivery?

Learn about it!

Principles of Speech Delivery
No matter how clearly and thoughtfully written a speech is, the success of a speech equally depends
on its delivery. Effective speech delivery requires learning, practice, and extra effort. There are
several factors to consider in delivering a speech effectively. In this lesson, we will focus on the
following principles of speech delivery: articulation; modulation; stage presence; facial expressions,
gestures, or movements; and rapport with the audience.

Articulation
The shaping of speech sounds (consonants and vowels) by the tongue, lips, palate, jaw, and teeth,
called the articulators, is what is referred to as articulation. It includes both the utterance of words
or pronunciation, and the clarity of speech sounds or enunciation. In delivering a speech, a speaker
has to distinctly enunciate the individual speech sounds and correctly pronounce each word
so the audience will be able to understand the words clearly. Failure to enunciate the sounds
clearly and to pronounce the words correctly can lead to misunderstanding of the intended meaning
of words or sentences. To improve articulation, you can practice by reading the individual speech
sounds or the syllables of words while exaggerating or prolonging each sound or syllable. Open your
mouth fully and relax your tongue as you say each sound or syllable of a word.

Tongue twisters are a good way to practice your articulation. Recite each tongue twister fast and
repeatedly while maintaining precision and clarity in the spoken words.

 I have got a date at a quarter to eight; I’ll see you at the gate, so don’t be late.
 Fuzzy Wuzzy was a bear. Fuzzy Wuzzy had no hair. Fuzzy Wuzzy wasn't very fuzzy, was
he?
 I can think of six thin things, but I can think of six thick things too.

Modulation
Modulating the voice or varying it in terms of pitch, power, and pace makes a speech more pleasing
to the ear and allows a speaker to convey the right emotions.

 Pitch refers to the highness or lowness of a voice. A speaker should vary the pitch to
reinforce the message. A high pitch is usually used to express lighter emotions like
excitement and delight, while a low pitch is suitable for serious emotions like sadness and
sorrow. Using the same pitch can be quite boring and monotonous for the audience.
 Power is the vocal energy or intensity exerted by a speaker. The speaker should create
power or intensity in his or her voice to emphasize points without being loud.
 Pace, also called rate, is the speed of a speaker’s utterance. Complex or important ideas are
usually said slowly (but not too slow that the audience loses concentration or becomes
impatient), while light or exciting matters are often said rapidly (but not too fast that words
become slurred or unintelligible). A speaker should use a flexible rate that will convey the
message clearly and will give the audience time to hear and understand it.

As you deliver a speech, vary the pitch and intensity of your voice as well as your pace. Proper voice
modulation makes the words stand out and allows you to be clearly heard and understood by the
audience.
Do the following exercises to help you practice modulating your voice:

Exercise 1. Say the following statements aloud by using the right pitch of voice based on the
situations:

1. An excited husband says to his wife: “I’m now the new department manager!”
2. A police officer breaks the bad news to a family: “I have some very bad news to tell you.
Your son was shot last night and he’s dead. I’m very sorry for your loss.”

Exercise 2. Say “How dare you,” varying the intensity of your voice. Say it in either manner:

1. Ballistically or explosively angry

2. In a hurt tone but still in control of your emotions

Exercise 3. Recite the Panatang Makabayan at varying speeds. You may go to this link (accessed
on 06 June 2016) for a copy.

Stage Presence
A good public speaker does not only entail having the ability to speak eloquently, but also the ability
to command the attention of the audience. This is called stage presence. It involves the speaker’s
appearance, projection, and manner on the stage. A speaker needs to have stage presence for the
audience to be willing to listen to the speech and be interested enough to keep on listening. To
achieve stage presence, you have to take the stage confidently and deliver the speech
wholeheartedly. If you wholly believe in what you are saying, the audience will be more likely to
believe in you, too.

Facial Expressions, Gestures, and Movements

In public speaking, actions are as important as the spoken words. The coordination of verbal and
nonverbal messages is essential to successfully deliver the message of the speech. Recall
that facial expressions, gestures, and movements fall under kinesics or body language. A good
public speaker must use body language, among others, that supports the verbal message.

 Facial expressions reveal the speaker’s emotions and signal to the audience the
interpretation of the given message. The audience can read if you are being funny, sarcastic,
or serious through facial cues. Make sure that your facial expressions do not contradict your
verbal message.
 Gestures are purposeful movements of the head, arms, hands, and other parts of the body.
A good public speaker uses a wide variety of gestures to support and illustrate ideas. For
example, using the fingers to signal order or sequence and clenching the fist to emphasize a
point are purposeful gestures. However, gripping the podium, scratching the body, and
putting the hands in and out of the pockets are distracting gestures.
 Movements, or the act of moving from one spot to another during delivery, can signal
transition from one idea to the next. A good public speaker considers the proper timing of his
or her movements. Moving toward the audience, for instance, is appropriate when asking
questions, making critical connections, or offering a revelation. On the other hand, aimless
pacing back and forth and bouncing are very distracting movements.

A good public speaker utilizes the body as a tool for illustrating and emphasizing ideas. Facial
expressions, gestures, and movements should be genuine, appropriate, well-timed, and clearly
visible without being overwhelming.

Rapport with the Audience

Building rapport means engaging the audience and connecting with them. The following are some
ways you can do to establish rapport with the audience:

 Make regular eye contact. Look in the eye one member of the audience at a time. Vary your
eye contact throughout the room. Do not look down at the floor or stare at the ceiling or
walls.
 Speak naturally. Talk as if you are having a conversation with the audience. When delivering
the speech, make it look effortless, not overly rehearsed or robotic.
  Relate with the audience. Identify with the audience by being open or sharing what you have
in common with them. Tell a personal story or an anecdote that the audience can relate with.

Key Points
 A good public speaker must keep in mind the following principles of speech delivery:
articulation; modulation; stage presence; facial expressions, gestures, or movements; and
rapport with the audience.
 Articulation is the shaping of sounds by the articulators, namely, the tongue, lips, palate,
and teeth. It includes both pronunciation and enunciation. Meanwhile, modulation refers to
the variation of pitch, power, and pace when speaking. Pitch is the highness or lowness of a
voice; power is the vocal energy or intensity exerted by a speaker; and pace is the speed of
a speaker’s utterance.
 Stage presence refers to the ability of a speaker to command the audience’s attention. To
achieve stage presence, a speaker has to take the stage confidently and deliver the speech
wholeheartedly.
 Facial expressions, gestures, and movements are some nonverbal cues that illustrate or
emphasize verbal messages. These should be genuine, appropriate, well-timed, and clearly
visible without being overwhelming.
 Building rapport means engaging the audience and connecting with them. To build rapport
with the audience, a speaker should make regular eye contact, speak naturally, and relate
with the audience.