Feminist theory

Feminist theory is the extension of feminism into theoretical, fictional, or philosophical discourse. It
aims to understand the nature of gender inequality. It examines women's and men's social roles,
experiences, interests, chores, and feminist politics in a variety of fields, such as anthropology and
sociology, communication, media studies, psychoanalysis,[1] home economics, literature, education, and
philosophy.[2]

Feminist theory focuses on analyzing gender inequality. Themes explored in feminism include
discrimination, objectification (especially sexual objectification), oppression, patriarchy,[3][4]
stereotyping, art history[5] and contemporary art,[6][7] and aesthetics.[8][9]

Contents
History
Disciplines
Bodies
The standard and contemporary sex and gender system
Socially-biasing children sex and gender system
Epistemologies
Intersectionality
Language
Psychology
Psychoanalysis
Literary theory
Film theory
Art history
History
Geography
Philosophy
Sexology
Monosexual paradigm
Politics
Economics
Legal theory
Communication theory
Public Relations
Design
Black feminist criminology
Criticisms
Feminist science and technology studies
See also
 References
Books
External links

History
Feminist theories first emerged as early as 1794 in publications such as A Vindication of the Rights of
Woman by Mary Wollstonecraft, "The Changing Woman",[10] "[[Ain't I a Illegal Voting",[11] and so on.
"The Changing Woman" is a Navajo Myth that gave credit to a woman who, in the end, populated the
world.[12] In 1851, Sojourner Truth addressed women's rights issues through her publication, "Ain't I a
Woman". Sojourner Truth addressed the issue of women having limited rights due to men's flawed
perception of women. Truth argued that if a woman of color can perform tasks that were supposedly
limited to men, then any woman of any color could perform those same tasks. After her arrest for
illegally voting, Susan B. Anthony gave a speech within court in which she addressed the issues of
language within the constitution documented in her publication, "Speech after Arrest for Illegal voting"
in 1872. Anthony questioned the authoritative principles of the constitution and its male-gendered
language. She raised the question of why women are accountable to be punished under law but they
cannot use the law for their own protection (women could not vote, own property, nor themselves in
marriage). She also critiqued the constitution for its male-gendered language and questioned why women
should have to abide by laws that do not specify women.

Nancy Cott makes a distinction between modern feminism and its antecedents, particularly the struggle
for suffrage. In the United States she places the turning point in the decades before and after women
obtained the vote in 1920 (1910–1930). She argues that the prior woman movement was primarily about
woman as a universal entity, whereas over this 20-year period it transformed itself into one primarily
concerned with social differentiation, attentive to individuality and diversity. New issues dealt more with
woman's condition as a social construct, gender identity, and relationships within and between genders.
Politically this represented a shift from an ideological alignment comfortable with the right, to one more
radically associated with the left.[13]

Susan Kingsley Kent says that Freudian patriarchy was responsible for the diminished profile of
feminism in the inter-war years,[14] others such as Juliet Mitchell consider this to be overly simplistic
since Freudian theory is not wholly incompatible with feminism.[15] Some feminist scholarship shifted
away from the need to establish the origins of family, and towards analyzing the process of
patriarchy.[16] In the immediate postwar period, Simone de Beauvoir stood in opposition to an image of
"the woman in the home". De Beauvoir provided an existentialist dimension to feminism with the
publication of Le Deuxième Sexe (The Second Sex) in 1949.[17] As the title implies, the starting point is
the implicit inferiority of women, and the first question de Beauvoir asks is "what is a woman"? [18] A
woman she realizes is always perceived of as the "other", "she is defined and differentiated with reference
to man and not he with reference to her". In this book and her essay, "Woman: Myth & Reality", de
Beauvoir anticipates Betty Friedan in seeking to demythologize the male concept of woman. "A myth
invented by men to confine women to their oppressed state. For women, it is not a question of asserting
themselves as women, but of becoming full-scale human beings." "One is not born, but rather becomes, a
woman", or as Toril Moi puts it "a woman defines herself through the way she lives her embodied
situation in the world, or in other words, through the way in which she makes something of what the
world makes of her". Therefore, the woman must regain subject, to escape her defined role as "other", as
a Cartesian point of departure.[19] In her examination of myth, she appears as one who does not accept
any special privileges for women. Ironically, feminist philosophers have had to extract de Beauvoir
herself from out of the shadow of Jean-Paul Sartre to fully appreciate her.[20] While more philosopher
and novelist than activist, she did sign one of the Mouvement de Libération des Femmes manifestos.

The resurgence of feminist activism in the late 1960s was accompanied by an emerging literature of
concerns for the earth and spirituality, and environmentalism. This, in turn, created an atmosphere
conducive to reigniting the study of and debate on matricentricity, as a rejection of determinism, such as
Adrienne Rich[21] and Marilyn French[22] while for socialist feminists like Evelyn Reed,[23] patriarchy
held the properties of capitalism. Feminist psychologists, such as Jean Baker Miller, sought to bring a
feminist analysis to previous psychological theories, proving that "there was nothing wrong with women,
but rather with the way modern culture viewed them".[24]

Elaine Showalter describes the development of feminist theory as having a number of phases. The first
she calls "feminist critique" – where the feminist reader examines the ideologies behind literary
phenomena. The second Showalter calls "Gynocritics" – where the "woman is producer of textual
meaning" including "the psychodynamics of female creativity; linguistics and the problem of a female
language; the trajectory of the individual or collective female literary career and literary history". The last
phase she calls "gender theory" – where the "ideological inscription and the literary effects of the
sex/gender system" are explored".[25] This model has been criticized by Toril Moi who sees it as an
essentialist and deterministic model for female subjectivity. She also criticized it for not taking account of
the situation for women outside the west.[26] From the 1970s onwards, psychoanalytical ideas that have
been arising in the field of French feminism have gained a decisive influence on feminist theory.
Feminist psychoanalysis deconstructed the phallic hypotheses regarding the Unconscious. Julia Kristeva,
Bracha Ettinger and Luce Irigaray developed specific notions concerning unconscious sexual difference,
the feminine, and motherhood, with wide implications for film and literature analysis.[27]

Disciplines
There are a number of distinct feminist disciplines, in which experts in other areas apply feminist
techniques and principles to their own fields. Additionally, these are also debates which shape feminist
theory and they can be applied interchangeably in the arguments of feminist theorists.

Bodies
In western thought, the body has been historically associated solely with women, whereas men have been
associated with the mind. Susan Bordo, a modern feminist philosopher, in her writings elaborates the
dualistic nature of the mind/body connection by examining the early philosophies of Aristotle, Hegel,
and Descartes, revealing how such distinguishing binaries such as spirit/matter and male activity/female
passivity have worked to solidify gender characteristics and categorization. Bordo goes on to point out
that while men have historically been associated with the intellect and the mind or spirit, women have
long been associated with the body, the subordinated, negatively imbued term in the mind/body
dichotomy.[28] The notion of the body (but not the mind) being associated with women has served as a
justification to deem women as property, objects, and exchangeable commodities (among men). For
example, women's bodies have been objectified throughout history through the changing ideologies of
fashion, diet, exercise programs, cosmetic surgery, childbearing, etc. This contrasts to men's role as a
moral agent, responsible for working or fighting in bloody wars. The race and class of a woman can
determine whether her body will be treated as decoration and protected, which is associated with middle
or upper-class women's bodies. On the other hand, the other body is recognized for its use in labor and
exploitation which is generally associated with women's bodies in the working-class or with women of
color. Second-wave feminist activism has argued for reproductive rights and choice. The women's health
movement and lesbian feminism are also associated with this Bodies debate.

The standard and contemporary sex and gender system

The standard sex determination and gender model consists of evidence based on the determined sex and
gender of every individual and serve as norms for societal life. The model claims that the sex-
determination of a person exists within a male/female dichotomy, giving importance to genitals and how
they are formed via chromosomes and DNA-binding proteins (such as the sex-determining region Y
genes), which are responsible for sending sex-determined initialization and completion signals to and
from the biological sex-determination system in fetuses. Occasionally, variations occur during the sex-
determining process, resulting in intersex conditions. The standard model defines gender as a social
understanding/ideology that defines what behaviors, actions, and appearances are normal for males and
females. Studies into biological sex-determining systems also have begun working towards connecting
certain gender conducts such as behaviors, actions, and desires with sex-determinism.[29]

Socially-biasing children sex and gender system

The socially-biasing children sex and gender model broadens the horizons of the sex and gender
ideologies. It revises the ideology of sex to be a social construct which is not limited to either male or
female. The Intersex Society of North America which explains that, "nature doesn't decide where the
category of 'male' ends and the category of 'intersex' begins, or where the category of 'intersex' ends and
the category of 'female' begins. Humans decide. Humans (today, typically doctors) decide how small a
penis has to be, or how unusual a combination of parts has to be, before it counts as intersex".[30]
Therefore, sex is not a biological/natural construct but a social one instead since, society and doctors
decide on what it means to be male, female, or intersex in terms of sex chromosomes and genitals, in
addition to their personal judgment on who or how one passes as a specific sex. The ideology of gender
remains a social construct but is not as strict and fixed. Instead, gender is easily malleable, and is forever
changing. One example of where the standard definition of gender alters with time happens to be
depicted in Sally Shuttleworth's Female Circulation in which the, "abasement of the woman, reducing
her from an active participant in the labor market to the passive bodily existence to be controlled by male
expertise is indicative of the ways in which the ideological deployment of gender roles operated to
facilitate and sustain the changing structure of familial and market relations in Victorian England".[31] In
other words, this quote shows what it meant growing up into the roles of a female (gender/roles) changed
from being a homemaker to being a working woman and then back to being passive and inferior to
males. In conclusion, the contemporary sex gender model is accurate because both sex and gender are
rightly seen as social constructs inclusive of the wide spectrum of sexes and genders and in which nature
and nurture are interconnected.

Epistemologies
Questions about how knowledge is produced, generated, and distributed have been central to Western
conceptions of feminist theory and discussions on feminist epistemology. One debate proposes such
questions as "Are there 'women's ways of knowing' and 'women's knowledge'?" And "How does the
knowledge women produce about themselves differ from that produced by patriarchy?"[32] Feminist
theorists have also proposed the "feminist standpoint knowledge" which attempts to replace the "view
from nowhere" with the model of knowing that expels the "view from women's lives".[32] A feminist
approach to epistemology seeks to establish knowledge production from a woman's perspective. It
theorizes that from personal experience comes knowledge which helps each individual look at things
from a different insight.

Central to feminism is that women are systematically subordinated, and bad faith exists when women
surrender their agency to this subordination, e.g., acceptance of religious beliefs that a man is the
dominant party in a marriage by the will of God; Simone de Beauvoir labels such women "mutilated" and
"immanent".[33][34][35][36]

Intersectionality
Intersectionality is the examination of various ways in which people are oppressed, based on the
relational web of dominating factors of race, sex, class, nation and sexual orientation. Intersectionality
"describes the simultaneous, multiple, overlapping, and contradictory systems of power that shape our
lives and political options". While this theory can be applied to all people, and more particularly all
women, it is specifically mentioned and studied within the realms of black feminism. Patricia Hill Collins
argues that black women in particular, have a unique perspective on the oppression of the world as unlike
white women, they face both racial and gender oppression simultaneously, among other factors. This
debate raises the issue of understanding the oppressive lives of women that are not only shaped by gender
alone but by other elements such as racism, classism, ageism, heterosexism, ableism etc.

Language
In this debate, women writers have addressed the issues of masculinized writing through male gendered
language that may not serve to accommodate the literary understanding of women's lives. Such
masculinized language that feminist theorists address is the use of, for example, "God the Father" which
is looked upon as a way of designating the sacred as solely men (or, in other words, biblical language
glorifies men through all of the masculine pronouns like "he" and "him" and addressing God as a "He").
Feminist theorists attempt to reclaim and redefine women through re-structuring language. For example,
feminist theorists have used the term "womyn" instead of "women". Some feminist theorists find solace
in changing titles of unisex jobs (for example, police officer versus policeman or mail carrier versus
mailman). Some feminist theorists have reclaimed and redefined such words as "dyke" and "bitch" and
others have invested redefining knowledge into feminist dictionaries.

Psychology
Feminist psychology is a form of psychology centered on societal structures and gender. Feminist
psychology critiques the fact that historically psychological research has been done from a male
perspective with the view that males are the norm.[37] Feminist psychology is oriented on the values and
principles of feminism. It incorporates gender and the ways women are affected by issues resulting from
it. Ethel Dench Puffer Howes was one of the first women to enter the field of psychology. She was the
Executive Secretary of the National College Equal Suffrage League in 1914.

One major psychological theory, relational-cultural theory, is based on the work of Jean Baker Miller,
whose book Toward a New Psychology of Women proposes that "growth-fostering relationships are a
central human necessity and that disconnections are the source of psychological problems".[38] Inspired
by Betty Friedan's Feminine Mystique, and other feminist classics from the 1960s, relational-cultural
theory proposes that "isolation is one of the most damaging human experiences and is best treated by
reconnecting with other people", and that a therapist should "foster an atmosphere of empathy and
acceptance for the patient, even at the cost of the therapist's neutrality".[39] The theory is based on
clinical observations and sought to prove that "there was nothing wrong with women, but rather with the
way modern culture viewed them".[24]

Psychoanalysis
Psychoanalytic feminism and feminist psychoanalysis are based on Freud and his psychoanalytic
theories, but they also supply an important critique of it. It maintains that gender is not biological but is
based on the psycho-sexual development of the individual, but also that sexual difference and gender are
different notions. Psychoanalytical feminists believe that gender inequality comes from early childhood
experiences, which lead men to believe themselves to be masculine, and women to believe themselves
feminine. It is further maintained that gender leads to a social system that is dominated by males, which
in turn influences the individual psycho-sexual development. As a solution it was suggested by some to
avoid the gender-specific structuring of the society coeducation.[1][4] From the last 30 years of the 20th
century, the contemporary French psychoanalytical theories concerning the feminine, that refer to sexual
difference rather than to gender, with psychoanalysts like Julia Kristeva,[40][41] Maud Mannoni, Luce
Irigaray,[42][43] and Bracha Ettinger,[44] have largely influenced not only feminist theory but also the
understanding of the subject in philosophy and the general field of psychoanalysis itself.[45][46] These
French psychoanalysts are mainly post-Lacanian. Other feminist psychoanalysts and feminist theorists
whose contributions have enriched the field through an engagement with psychoanalysis are Jessica
Benjamin,[47] Jacqueline Rose,[48] Ranjana Khanna,[49] and Shoshana Felman.[50]

Literary theory
Feminist literary criticism is literary criticism informed by
feminist theories or politics. Its history has been varied, from
classic works of female authors such as George Eliot, Virginia
Woolf,[51] and Margaret Fuller to recent theoretical work in
women's studies and gender studies by "third-wave" authors.[52]

In the most general terms, feminist literary criticism before the

1970s was concerned with the politics of women's authorship and
the representation of women's condition within literature.[52]
Since the arrival of more complex conceptions of gender and Girl with doll
subjectivity, feminist literary criticism has taken a variety of new
routes. It has considered gender in the terms of Freudian and
Lacanian psychoanalysis, as part of the deconstruction of existing power relations.[52]

Film theory
Many feminist film critics, such as Laura Mulvey, have pointed to the "male gaze" that predominates in
classical Hollywood film making. Through the use of various film techniques, such as shot reverse shot,
the viewers are led to align themselves with the point of view of a male protagonist. Notably, women
function as objects of this gaze far more often than as proxies for the spectator.[53][54] Feminist film
theory of the last twenty years is heavily influenced by the general transformation in the field of
aesthetics, including the new options of articulating the gaze, offered by psychoanalytical French
feminism, like Bracha Ettinger's feminine, maternal and matrixial gaze.[55][56]
Art history
Linda Nochlin[57] and Griselda Pollock [58][59][60] are prominent art historians writing on contemporary
and modern artists and articulating Art history from a feminist perspective since the 1970s. Pollock
works with French psychoanalysis, and in particular with Kristeva's and Ettinger's theories, to offer new
insights into art history and contemporary art with special regard to questions of trauma and trans-
generation memory in the works of women artists. Other prominent feminist art historians include:
Norma Broude and Mary Garrard; Amelia Jones; Mieke Bal; Carol Duncan; Lynda Nead; Lisa Tickner;
Tamar Garb; Hilary Robinson; Katy Deepwell.

History
Feminist history refers to the re-reading and re-interpretation of history from a feminist perspective. It is
not the same as the history of feminism, which outlines the origins and evolution of the feminist
movement. It also differs from women's history, which focuses on the role of women in historical events.
The goal of feminist history is to explore and illuminate the female viewpoint of history through
rediscovery of female writers, artists, philosophers, etc., in order to recover and demonstrate the
significance of women's voices and choices in the past.[61][62][63][64][65]

Geography
Feminist geography is often considered part of a broader postmodern approach to the subject which is not
primarily concerned with the development of conceptual theory in itself but rather focuses on the real
experiences of individuals and groups in their own localities, upon the geographies that they live in
within their own communities. In addition to its analysis of the real world, it also critiques existing
geographical and social studies, arguing that academic traditions are delineated by patriarchy, and that
contemporary studies which do not confront the nature of previous work reinforce the male bias of
academic study.[66][67][68]

Philosophy
The Feminist philosophy refers to a philosophy approached from a feminist perspective. Feminist
philosophy involves attempts to use methods of philosophy to further the cause of the feminist
movements, it also tries to criticize and/or reevaluate the ideas of traditional philosophy from within a
feminist view. This critique stems from the dichotomy Western philosophy has conjectured with the mind
and body phenomena.[69] There is no specific school for feminist philosophy like there has been in
regard to other theories. This means that Feminist philosophers can be found in the analytic and
continental traditions, and the different viewpoints taken on philosophical issues with those traditions.
Feminist philosophers also have many different viewpoints taken on philosophical issues within those
traditions. Feminist philosophers who are feminists can belong to many different varieties of feminism.
The writings of Judith Butler, Rosi Braidotti, Donna Haraway, Bracha Ettinger and Avital Ronell are the
most significant psychoanalytically informed influences on contemporary feminist philosophy.

Sexology
Feminist sexology is an offshoot of traditional studies of sexology that focuses on the intersectionality of
sex and gender in relation to the sexual lives of women. Feminist sexology shares many principles with
the wider field of sexology; in particular, it does not try to prescribe a certain path or "normality" for
women's sexuality, but only observe and note the different and varied ways in which women express their
sexuality. Looking at sexuality from a feminist point of view creates connections between the different
aspects of a person's sexual life.

From feminists' perspectives, sexology, which is the study of human sexuality and sexual relationship,
relates to the intersectionality of gender, race and sexuality. Men have dominant power and control over
women in the relationship, and women are expected to hide their true feeling about sexual behaviors.
Women of color face even more sexual violence in the society. Some countries in Africa and Asia even
practice female genital cutting, controlling women's sexual desire and limiting their sexual behavior.
Moreover, Bunch, the women's and human rights activist, states that society used to see lesbianism as a
threat to male supremacy and to the political relationships between men and women.[70] Therefore, in the
past, people viewed being a lesbian as a sin and made it death penalty. Even today, many people still
discriminate homosexuals. Many lesbians hide their sexuality and face even more sexual oppression.

Monosexual paradigm
Monosexual Paradigm is a term coined by Blasingame, a self-identified African American, bisexual
female. Blasingame used this term to address the lesbian and gay communities who turned a blind eye to
the dichotomy that oppressed bisexuals from both heterosexual and homosexual communities. This
oppression negatively affects the gay and lesbian communities more so than the heterosexual community
due to its contradictory exclusiveness of bisexuals. Blasingame argued that in reality dichotomies are
inaccurate to the representation of individuals because nothing is truly black or white, straight or gay. Her
main argument is that biphobia is the central message of two roots; internalized heterosexism and racism.
Internalized heterosexism is described in the monosexual paradigm in which the binary states that you
are either straight or gay and nothing in between. Gays and lesbians accept this internalized heterosexism
by morphing into the monosexial paradigm and favoring single attraction and opposing attraction for
both sexes. Blasingame described this favoritism as an act of horizontal hostility, where oppressed groups
fight amongst themselves. Racism is described in the monosexual paradigm as a dichotomy where
individuals are either black or white, again nothing in between. The issue of racism comes into fruition in
regards to the bisexuals coming out process, where risks of coming out vary on a basis of anticipated
community reaction and also in regards to the norms among bisexual leadership, where class status and
race factor predominately over sexual orientation. [71]

Politics
Feminist political theory is a recently emerging field in political science focusing on gender and feminist
themes within the state, institutions and policies. It questions the "modern political theory, dominated by
universalistic liberalist thought, which claims indifference to gender or other identity differences and has
therefore taken its time to open up to such concerns".[72]

Feminist perspectives entered international relations in late 1980s, at about the same time as the end of
the Cold War. This time was not a coincidence because the last forty years the conflict between US and
USSR had been the dominant agenda of international politics. After the Cold War, there was continuing
relative peace between the main powers. Soon, many new issues appeared on international relation's
agenda. More attention was also paid to social movements. Indeed, in those times feminist approaches
also used to depict the world politics. Feminists started to emphasize that while women have always been
players in international system, their participation has frequently been associated with in non-
governmental settings such as social movements. However, they could also participate in inter-state
decision making process as men did. In fact, today, women also participate in international politics as the
wives of diplomats, nannies who go abroad to find work and support their family, or sex workers
trafficked across international boundaries. Women's contributions has not been seen in the areas where
hard power plays significant role such as military. In contrast, women are profoundly impacted by
decisions the statepersons make.[73]

Economics
Feminist economics broadly refers to a developing branch of economics that applies feminist insights and
critiques to economics. Research under this heading is often interdisciplinary, critical, or heterodox. It
encompasses debates about the relationship between feminism and economics on many levels: from
applying mainstream economic methods to under-researched "women's" areas, to questioning how
mainstream economics values the reproductive sector, to deeply philosophical critiques of economic
epistemology and methodology.[74]

One prominent issue that feminist economists investigate is how the gross domestic product (GDP) does
not adequately measure unpaid labor predominantly performed by women, such as housework, childcare,
and eldercare.[75][76] Feminist economists have also challenged and exposed the rhetorical approach of
mainstream economics.[77] They have made critiques of many basic assumptions of mainstream
economics, including the Homo economicus model.[78] In the Houseworker's Handbook Betsy Warrior
presents a cogent argument that the reproduction and domestic labor of women form the foundation of
economic survival; although, unremunerated and not included in the GDP.[79] According to Warrior:
"Economics, as it's presented today, lacks any basis in reality as it leaves out the very foundation of
economic life. That foundation is built on women's labor; first her reproductive labor which produces
every new laborer (and the first commodity, which is mother's milk and which nurtures every new
"consumer/laborer"); secondly, women's labor composed of cleaning, cooking, negotiating social stability
and nurturing, which prepares for market and maintains each laborer. This constitutes women's
continuing industry enabling laborers to occupy every position in the work force. Without this
fundamental labor and commodity there would be no economic activity." Warrior also notes that the
unacknowledged income of men from illegal activities like arms, drugs and human trafficking, political
graft, religious emoluments and various other undisclosed activities provide a rich revenue stream to
men, which further invalidates GDP figures.[79] Even in underground economies where women
predominate numerically, like trafficking in humans, prostitution and domestic servitude, only a tiny
fraction of the pimp's revenue filters down to the women and children he deploys. Usually the amount
spent on them is merely for the maintenance of their lives and, in the case of those prostituted, some
money may be spent on clothing and such accouterments as will make them more salable to the pimp's
clients. For instance, focusing on just the U.S., according to a government sponsored report by the Urban
Institute in 2014, "A street prostitute in Dallas may make as little as $5 per sex act. But pimps can take in
$33,000 a week in Atlanta, where the sex business brings in an estimated $290 million per year."[80]

Proponents of this theory have been instrumental in creating alternative models, such as the capability
approach and incorporating gender into the analysis of economic data to affect policy. Marilyn Power
suggests that feminist economic methodology can be broken down into five categories.[81]

Legal theory
Feminist legal theory is based on the feminist view that law's treatment of women in relation to men has
not been equal or fair. The goals of feminist legal theory, as defined by leading theorist Claire Dalton,
consist of understanding and exploring the female experience, figuring out if law and institutions oppose
females, and figuring out what changes can be committed to. This is to be accomplished through
studying the connections between the law and gender as well as applying feminist analysis to concrete
areas of law.[82][83][84]

Feminist legal theory stems from the inadequacy of the current structure to account for discrimination
women face, especially discrimination based on multiple, intersecting identities. Kimberlé Crenshaw's
work is central to feminist legal theory, particularly her article Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race
and Sex: A Black Feminist Critique of Antidiscrimination Doctrine, Feminist Theory, and Antiracist
Politics. DeGraffenreid v General Motors is an example of such a case. In this instance, the court ruled
the plaintiffs, five Black women who were employees of General Motors, were not eligible to file a
complaint on the grounds they, as black women, were not "a special class to be protected from
discrimination".[85] The ruling in DeGraffenreid against the plaintiff revealed the courts inability to
understand intersectionality's role in discrimination.[85] Moore v Hughes Helicopters, Inc. is another
ruling, which serves to reify the persistent discrediting of intersectionality as a factor in discrimination. In
the case of Moore, the plaintiff brought forth statistical evidence revealing a disparity in promotions to
upper-level and supervisory jobs between men and women and, to a lesser extent, between Black and
white men.[85] Ultimately, the court denied the plaintiff the ability to represent all Blacks and all
females.[85] The decision dwindled the pool of statistical information the plaintiff could pull from and
limited the evidence only to that of Black women, which is a ruling in direct contradiction to
DeGraffenreid.[85] Further, because the plaintiff originally claimed discrimination as a Black female
rather than, more generally, as a female the court stated it had concerns whether the plaintiff could
"adequately represent white female employees".[85] Payne v Travenol serves as yet another example of
the courts inconsistency when dealing with issues revolving around intersections of race and sex. The
plaintiffs in Payne, two Black females, filed suit against Travenol on behalf of both Black men and
women on the grounds the pharmaceutical plant practiced racial discrimination.[85] The court ruled the
plaintiffs could not adequately represent Black males, however, they did allow the admittance of
statistical evidence, which was inclusive of all Black employees.[85] Despite the more favorable outcome
after it was found there was extensive racial discrimination, the courts decided the benefits of the ruling –
back pay and constructive seniority – would not be extended to Black males employed by the
company.[85] Moore contends Black women cannot adequately represent white women on issues of sex
discrimination, Payne suggests Black women cannot adequately represent Black men on issues of race
discrimination, and DeGraffenreid argues Black women are not a special class to be protected. The
rulings, when connected, display a deep-rooted problem in regards to addressing discrimination within
the legal system. These cases, although they are outdated are used by feminists as evidence of their ideas
and principles.

Communication theory
Feminist communication theory has evolved over time and branches out in many directions. Early
theories focused on the way that gender influenced communication and many argued that language was
"man made". This view of communication promoted a "deficiency model" asserting that characteristics
of speech associated with women were negative and that men "set the standard for competent
interpersonal communication", which influences the type of language used by men and women. These
early theories also suggested that ethnicity, cultural and economic backgrounds also needed to be
addressed. They looked at how gender intersects with other identity constructs, such as class, race, and
sexuality. Feminist theorists, especially those considered to be liberal feminists, began looking at issues
of equality in education and employment. Other theorists addressed political oratory and public
discourse. The recovery project brought to light many women orators who had been "erased or ignored as
significant contributors". Feminist communication theorists also addressed how women were represented
in the media and how the media "communicated ideology about women, gender, and feminism".[86][87]

Feminist communication theory also encompasses access to the public sphere, whose voices are heard in
that sphere, and the ways in which the field of communication studies has limited what is regarded as
essential to public discourse. The recognition of a full history of women orators overlooked and
disregarded by the field has effectively become an undertaking of recovery, as it establishes and honors
the existence of women in history and lauds the communication by these historically significant
contributors. This recovery effort, begun by Andrea Lunsford, Professor of English and Director of the
Program in Writing and Rhetoric at Stanford University and followed by other feminist communication
theorists also names women such as Aspasia, Diotima, and Christine de Pisan, who were likely
influential in rhetorical and communication traditions in classical and medieval times, but who have been
negated as serious contributors to the traditions.[87]

Feminist communication theorists are also concerned with a recovery effort in attempting to explain the
methods used by those with power to prohibit women like Maria W. Stewart, Sarah Moore Grimké, and
Angelina Grimké, and more recently, Ella Baker and Anita Hill, from achieving a voice in political
discourse and consequently being driven from the public sphere. Theorists in this vein are also interested
in the unique and significant techniques of communication employed by these women and others like
them to surmount some of the oppression they experienced.[87]

Feminist theorist also evaluate communication expectations for students and women in the work place, in
particular how the performance of feminine versus masculine styles of communicating are constructed.
Judith Butler, who coined the term "gender performativity" further suggests that, "theories of
communication must explain the ways individuals negotiate, resist, and transcend their identities in a
highly gendered society". This focus also includes the ways women are constrained or "disciplined" in
the discipline of communication in itself, in terms of biases in research styles and the "silencing" of
feminist scholarship and theory.[87]

Who is responsible for deciding what is considered important public discourse is also put into question
by feminist theorists in communication scholarship. This lens of feminist communication theory is
labeled as revalorist theory which honors the historical perspective of women in communication in an
attempt to recover voices that have been historically neglected.[87] There have been many attempts to
explain the lack of representative voices in the public sphere for women including, the notion that, "the
public sphere is built on essentialist principles that prevent women from being seen as legitimate
communicators in that sphere", and theories of subalternity", which, "under extreme conditions of
oppression...prevent those in positions of power from even hearing their communicative attempts".[87]

Public Relations
Feminist theory can be applied to the field of Public Relations. The feminist scholar Linda Hon examined
the major obstacles that women in the field experienced. Some common barriers included male
dominance and gender stereotypes. Hon shifted the feminist theory of PR from "women's assimilation
into patriarchal systems " to "genuine commitment to social restructuring". [88] Similarly to the studies
Hon conducted, Elizabeth Lance Toth studied Feminist Values in Public Relations.[89] Toth concluded
that there is a clear link between feminist gender and feminist value. These values include honesty,
sensitivity, perceptiveness, fairness, and commitment.

Design
Technical writers have concluded that visual language can convey facts and ideas clearer than almost any
other means of communication.[90] According to the feminist theory, "gender may be a factor in how
human beings represent reality."[90]

Men and women will construct different types of structures about the self, and, consequently, their
thought processes may diverge in content and form. This division depends on the self-concept, which is
an "important regulator of thoughts, feelings and actions" that "governs one's perception of reality".[91]

With that being said, the self-concept has a significant effect on how men and women represent reality in
different ways.

Recently, "technical communicators' terms such as 'visual rhetoric,' 'visual language,' and 'document
design' indicate a new awareness of the importance of visual design".[90]

Deborah S. Bosley explores this new concept of the "feminist theory of design"[90] by conducting a study
on a collection of undergraduate males and females who were asked to illustrate a visual, on paper, given
to them in a text. Based on this study, she creates a "feminist theory of design" and connects it to
technical communicators.

In the results of the study, males used more angular illustrations, such as squares, rectangles and arrows,
which are interpreted as a "direction" moving away from or a moving toward, thus suggesting more
aggressive positions than rounded shapes, showing masculinity.

Females, on the other hand, used more curved visuals, such as circles, rounded containers and bending
pipes. Bosley takes into account that feminist theory offers insight into the relationship between females
and circles or rounded objects. According to Bosley, studies of women and leadership indicate a
preference for nonhierarchical work patterns (preferring a communication "web" rather than a
communication "ladder"). Bosley explains that circles and other rounded shapes, which women chose to
draw, are nonhierarchical and often used to represent inclusive, communal relationships, confirming her
results that women's visual designs do have an effect on their means of communications.

Based on these conclusions, this "feminist theory of design" can go on to say that gender does play a role
in how humans represent reality.

Black feminist criminology

Black feminist criminology theory is a concept created by Hillary Potter in the 1990s and a bridge that
integrates Feminist theory with criminology. It is based on the integration of Black feminist theory and
critical race theory.

For years, Black women were historically overlooked and disregarded in the study of crime and
criminology; however, with a new focus on Black feminism that sparked in the 1980s, Black feminists
began to contextualize their unique experiences and examine why the general status of Black women in
the criminal justice system was lacking in female specific approaches.[92] Potter explains that because
Black women usually have "limited access to adequate education and employment as consequences of
racism, sexism, and classism", they are often disadvantaged. This disadvantage materializes into "poor
responses by social service professionals and crime-processing agents to Black women's interpersonal
victimization".[93] Most crime studies focused on White males/females and Black males. Any results or
conclusions targeted to Black males were usually assumed to be the same situation for Black females.
This was very problematic since Black males and Black females differ in what they experience. For
instance, economic deprivation, status equality between the sexes, distinctive socialization patterns,
racism, and sexism should all be taken into account between Black males and Black females. The two
will experience all of these factors differently; therefore, it was crucial to resolve this dilemma.

Black feminist criminology is the solution to this problem. It takes four factors into account: One, it
observes the social structural oppression of Black women. Two, it recognizes the Black community and
its culture. Three, it looks at Black intimate and familial relations. And four, it looks at the Black woman
as an individual. These four factors will help distinguish Black women from Black males into an accurate
branch of learning in the criminal justice system.

Criticisms
It has been said that Black feminist criminology is still in its "infancy stage"; therefore, there is little
discussion or studies that disprove it as an effective feminist perspective. In addition to its age, Black
feminist criminology has not actively accounted for the role of religion and spirituality in Black women's
"experience with abuse".[94]

Feminist science and technology studies

Feminist science and technology studies (STS) refers to the transdisciplinary field of research on the
ways gender and other markers of identity intersect with technology, science, and culture. The practice
emerged from feminist critique on the masculine-coded uses of technology in the fields of natural,
medical, and technical sciences, and its entanglement in gender and identity.[95] A large part of feminist
technoscience theory explains science and technologies to be linked and should be held accountable for
the social and cultural developments resulting from both fields.[95]

Some key issues feminist technoscience studies address include:

1. The use of feminist analysis when applied to scientific ideas and practices.
2. Intersections between race, class, gender, science, and technology.
3. The implications of situated knowledges.
4. Politics of gender on how to understand agency, body, rationality, and the boundaries
between nature and culture.[95]

See also
Anarcha-feminism Christian feminism
Antifeminism Conflict theories
Atheist feminism Conservative feminism
Black feminism Cultural feminism
Chicana feminism Difference feminism
 Equality feminism Neofeminism
Feminism and modern architecture New feminism
Fat feminism Postcolonial feminism
Feminist anthropology Postmodern feminism
Feminist sociology Post-structural feminism
First-wave feminism Pro-feminism
Fourth-wave feminism Pro-life feminism
French feminism Radical feminism
Gender equality Rape culture
Gender studies Separatist feminism
Global feminism Second-wave feminism
Hip-hop feminism Sex-positive feminism
Indigenous feminism Sikh feminism
Individualist feminism Socialist feminism
Islamic feminism Standpoint feminism
Jewish feminism State feminism
Lesbian feminism Structuralist feminism
Lipstick feminism Third-wave feminism
Liberal feminism Transfeminism
Material feminism Transnational feminism
Marxist feminism Women's studies
Networked feminism

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85. Crenshaw, Kimberlé (1991). Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex: A Black
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Books
"Lexicon of Debates". Feminist Theory: A Reader. 2nd Ed. Edited by Kolmar, Wendy and
Bartowski, Frances. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2005. 42-60.

External links
Evolutionary Feminism (http://ssrn.com/abstract=1929104)
Feminist theory website (http://www.cddc.vt.edu/feminism/) (Center for Digital Discourse
and Culture, Virginia Tech)
Feminist Theories and Anthropology (http://lit.polylog.org/2/eah-en.htm) by Heidi Armbruster
[2] (http://www.redletterpress.org/rwmanifesto.html) The Radical Women Manifesto:
Socialist Feminist Theory, Program and Organizational Structure (Seattle: Red Letter Press,
2001)
Pembroke Center for Teaching and Research on Women (http://www.pembrokecenter.org/),
Brown University
Feminist Theory Papers (http://www.feministtheorypapers.wordpress.com/), Brown
University
The Feminist eZine (http://www.feministezine.com/feminist/) - An Archive of Historical
Feminist Articles
[3] (https://web.archive.org/web/20131103173808/http://www.unifem.org/gender_issues/wo
men_poverty_economics/facts_figures.html) Women, Poverty, and Economics- Facts and
Figures

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