Matsya Palan Shrinkhala -7

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GAGE FISH CULTURE IN THE LAKES

AND RESERVOIRS

ph.D
Deep Bahadur Swar,

Directorate of Fisheries Development

lnland Aquaqculture and Fisheries Section
Central Fisheries Building

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Foreword
Natural and man-made water bodies in Nepal are the major and an expanding
water resour@s which offer vast scope for fisheries potential. They range frcm
deep oligotrophic lakes to small eutrophic water bodies with productive culture
based fisherles. The strategies required to achieve desirable productivity level
from these water bodies are diverse and impoftantly, are still evolving as our
knowledge of these systems improve.

Cage fish culture in lakes and reservoirs is one of the recently developed
technology in the field of fisheries development lt is one of the approaches
utilizing the larger water bodies for fish production without compromising them
esthetically. The information presented in this book "Matsya Palan Shrinkhala-7"
are based on the practical experience of the author in Nepal and abroad. Dffierent
techniques of fish farming in cages, are provided to enable the users to apply
under local conditions.

I believe that this publication will serve as a good reference for developing
systems which will work under prevailing local conditions. lt will also assist
fisheries scientist, teachers, managers, exbnsion workers and allwith an interest in
cage fish culture in their effort to improve the productivity of natural and man
made water bodies in a sustainable and equitable manner. The hard work of the
author and publisher in mmpleting this book on Cage Fish Culture in the Lakes
and Reservoirs is commendable.

a,. i i'1,4y')-/.
,$',4
Ratneshdr Lal lGyastha
Secretary
Ministry'Of Agricultura and Cooperatives
Singh Durbar
 Content

\lss6t^ ^E\6t- G Page No.

DescriPtion
1
1. lntroduction
2
2. Cage culture
Cages 4
* 3.
4
3.1 Types of cages
I 3. 2 Sel ecf ion of materi a ls for cage construction 6
of cage 7
3.3 Design and construction
13
3.4 Floating sYstem
14
sYstem
3.5Anchoring
4. Site Selection 15
programme16
4. 1 Enviornmental criteria for the culture
4.2 Physical criteriafor cages 20
21
4.3 Site facilities and management

Selection of suitable sPecies 22

5.
5.1 Criteria of selection 22
22
5.2 Some cultivable sPecies

26
6. Management
6.1 Seed suPPlY 26
27
ta ?-.
6.2 Feed and feeding
6.3 Routine managemeht
34
E'*
36
fr{" 7. Harvesting
7l Partial 36
36
7.2Tolal harvest
37
8. References

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List of Table
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*
Table No. [ Description Page,No.
1. Advantages and limitations 3
of cage culture

2. Durability of different cage component I

3 Criteria for site selection of cage 17

4. Water quality criteria used to determine

feasibility for acquaculture development
of carp and otherfresh waterfishes 20

5. Feeding rate for carp according to water

temperature and body weight of the fish 33

,:

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 1. INTRODUCTIOI{

tl
Fish producfion
In Nepal can be expanded through the wise use of
inlandwaters involving and
aquaculture development. Naturaland man made lakes
rivers in the country additional
offer vast scope for aquaculture devetopment ano
water bodies are being made available construdion of new
for fisheries with the
ponds in the southern belt of
irigation dams and hydro-electric powerstations. Village the
has been done to develop
country are widely used for fish culture but litile aquaculture in
three lakes in the
lakes ,hd r"r"rroirs. Currenly only Pokhara Valley and Kulekhani
Reservoir are being ,.Ld fo," cagefish qllture.
Fish culture
in cages in Nepal started in 1972at lake phewa, pokhara
\hlley (swar et ar.
1993) as a facirity for hording common carp (cypimus carpio)
brood stock in the
lake when the fish pond oithe fisheries centers near
Phewa sr,rffered a
Lake water shortage. The cages were used for severar
rearfish
years to but remained a demonstrative / study unit.
The larger lakes work of
of the Pokhara Valley were studied under the frame-
the lntegrated by FAoruNDp.
Fishery and Fish Cultuie Development project, assisted
(Ferro 1980, pradhan
and swar 1grg. swar and Fernando 1 gld, 19g0, swar swar and
Begnas and Rupa were productive
1992). These studies reported that lakes phewa,
5] mt with proper management
and could support an annual fish harvest of (Ferro
with planktivorous
1980/81).'EarlyGovernment cage triats species, bighead
E -r--+ (Hypophthalmichthys
(Aristichthys'nobitis)and silver carp motitrix) were successful
t'{\*. and attracted the interest of
localfishermen.
Eight fishermen initially received

Id. financial assistance of the

Agriculture Development
1978'Fishermen
Bank of Nepai and set their

F cages in lake phewa in

few cages in those
of lakes Begnas and Rupa also showed
interest and set a rakes in the foilowing years. This programme
assisted by FAo 1980.
was furthgr Under "Freedom Fiom Hunger campgian,, project,
fishermen were trained
100 and cages and nylon twice-were made available. The
money paid by the fishermen kept
for cost of the cages and other materials is being
as a revolving
fund to further develop the cage culture program.
lndrasarobar Reservoir in Kulekhani was also
studied to evaluate
potentialfish production
and to provide information that could be useful in future
fisheries development pranning (pradhan study
and swar lggr). The resurt of the
supported the culture of planktinous
fishes in the submersibt"
1
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the reservoir. Thus the cage fish culture b'bcamepopular among the fisheries
# living in Kulekhani area. Presently cage culture has subsequenfly expanded
among localfisheries,fflhe Pokhara Valley and Kulekhani because it is a good
source of income and €mployment.
quantities
Techniques and given here are based on work carried out in Nepal,
lndonesia, vietnam, Japan, and rhailand. They can onfy serve as a starting point,for
developilg systems which work well under prevailing local conditions.
Severalalternatives are usually given to enablethe users to appty those which can be
realised under local conditions. Trials and experience will show which methods are the
best applicable. Advantages and iimitations of cage fish culture are given in Table 1.

2. CAGE CLUTURE

Cage culture is defined as raising of fish ftom juvenile stage to commer-

cialsize in a volume of waterenclosed on allsides including bottom, while per-
mitting the free circulation of water through the rearing units. Cage culture can be conducted in
almost any unpolluted body of standing water and some flow-
ing waters.This technique circumvents the problems of oxygen deficiency and accumulation of
i because of
I
excreta. The cage can be stocked with a nigh density of tisn free circulation of
waterthrough thecage. Even in the most stagnant
i.
li, water body, wind and convection current will result in circulation through a float-
I I!,
ti
ing cage. Circulation is also enhanced by the swimming motion of fish. Thus there is
easily moved to
a exchange of water through the cage. As the fish grow they can be
enclosures with larger mesh to allowfor increased flow ofwater
through the cage.

2
 Table - 1 Advantages and limitations of cage culture I Adapted from Coche
,F
(1 979) and McLarcey (1.984) l.
,: Oi
Advantaqes.l Disadvantaqes
?
1. Cage culture can be carried on in natural
water bodies without compromising them
esthetically or wildlife habitat.
2. Total or partical use of water body is possible.
3. Can be applied in a water body with -
unsuitable bottom for efficient harvesting
4. Possibility of making maximum use of all Difficult to apply when the water surface is very
water resources. rough.
5. Economic use of water.
6. Facilitates combination of several types of
_

culture within one water body; treatment and

harvest remaining independent.
7. Easy relocation of culture{nstallation in case
of emergency.
8 Need for adequate water renewal in the cages
for elimination of metabolite and maintenance
of a high dissolved exygen level, some times
rapid fouling of cage wall requiring frequent
clean in g.

9. Optimum utilization of artificial food for growth, l-,ligh dependence on artificial feeding. High qual-ity
minimizing its conversion rate to fish flesh. balanced food desirable; in particular ptotiens,
Vitamins and minerals. Feed loss possible
through the cage wall .
10.Easy daily observation of the fish population.
11. Easy control of fish reproduction (especta//y
of Tilapia spp.)
12.Easy control of competitors and predators. Some times important interference by the natu-
ral population around the cage.
13. Reduced fish handling mortality.
14. Parasite and disease control are easier and lncreased susceptibility of fish to a dissolved oxy-
more economical (especially in floating gen deficit. Close confinement offers an ideal
cages) situation for the spread of infectious disease.

15. Fish harvest is easy and flexible.

16. Complete harvest of the fish produced. The risk of theft are increased.
17. Harvest of a realtivey uniform product.
'lS.Storageand transport of live fish greatly :
facilitated.
lg.lnitial investment is relatively small. Period for amortization of the capital investment
is relatively short. lncreased labour cost for h,an-
dling, stocking, feeding and cage maintenance.
24. Small hole in a cage might cause a big loss.

21. At high densities cage culture with feed can be a

considerable source of pollution.

3
3. CAGES
'o; .t-:-

3.1 rYPES OF C4dES

There are four basic tyPes of cages:
a. Fixed Cages

Fixed cages consists of a net bag supported by post driven into the
bottom of a lake or river.They are commonly used in some tropical countries, such
as the philippines.They are restricted to sheltered shallow siteswith suit-
able substrates.

Fig. 1 Fixed Caoe

B. Floating Cages
Floating cages consists of a net bag supported by a buoyant collar or
in a variety
frames.This type is byfarthe mostwidely used and can be designed
pur-
of shapes and sizes (such as circular, rectargular, square etc.)to suit the
pose of the fish grower.
T

Fig-:zEloillifg ge

C. Submersible Cages
rig-
Submersible cages ccnsist of a net bag supported by the frame or
designs
ging of maintain shape. The advantage of this type of cage over other is
of
that its position in the water column can be adjusted to take advantage
a bag being
prevailing environmental conditions. Some designs rely simply on supported
from buoys or a floating frame on the water surface.

Fig. 3 Submersible case

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D. Submerged Gages
:,
{i

Submerged cages areelatted wooden boxes, with gaps between the slats
to facilitate water flow, and anchored to the substrate by means of stones
or posts.

Fig. 4 Submersed caqe

3.2 SELECTION OF MATERIALS FOR CAGE CONSTRUCTION

be;
ldeally, the materials used to form the cage bag should
a. Strong
b. Light
c. Rot, corrosion and weather resistant
d. Fouling resistant
a
Easily worked and rePairable
f. Drag free
g. Smooth textured and thus non-abrasive to fish
h lnexpensive
present in the
To a greater or lesser extent, similar properties should be
material
material used to fabricate the cage frame and collar. No single
a
possesses all the qualities listed above, and so all are to some extent
6
tr compromise. However, some materials arq better suited for certain
purposes.
species, sites
and Bamboo,.n{gn and poryethylene are considered io be of the
good
materials to make c?#s. Galvanized iron pipe is good mat#*fBf
cage frames. Bamboos and oildrums can be used as floats (Table 2)

Table 2. Durabitity of different cage component

Cage

a. Polyethelene net Periodic cleaning

b. Bamboo cage
c. Chicken wire net
d. Netlon with angle iron frame Periodic painting

Frame

a. Galvanized iron pipe Periodic painting

b. Bamboo logs :
c. Wooden pole Pairfiingevery yr.

Float

a. Oildrums Painting every yr

b. Bamboo logs
c. Plastic buoys
d. Styrofoam

3.3 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF CAGE

3.3. 1 DESTGN

All cage designs should start with the bag which shoutd be primarily
designed to suit the fisli cultured. Rectangular or square designs have good
results
in cultivating cyprinids and tilapias. cage bag depths of between 1.6 to
7
il
2marerecommendedandgivetlaefishsuffici:.1:l:I:]fromsurfaceeffects; whilst
for exercise and feeding Generally
providing an adequate watgs'volume the
to construct and easy to
cageswith the Oi*"ntion oftS*SrZ are economical
handle.

Thefunctionofthebagcomponentistoholdfishsecurelywhitst
permittingsufficientwaterexchangetoreplenishoxygen(andinSomecases' food) and remove
lt is also important that
potentially harmful toxic metabolites' the cage volume remains
to deformation by externalforces'
relatively resistant which would not only cause
but also injuries or mortal'tties
crowding and stress amongst the valuabie stocX. ldeally,
should be slightly denser than
cage nets
not so dense so to make
water thus facilitating hanging'but
or significantly
handling excessively difficult or labourer intensive
affectfloating sYstems'
or mooring
3.3.2 CONSTRUCTION

3.3.2.1NYLON NET CAGE.

Syntheticfibrenetbagsareusuallydesignedwithanareaoffreeboard area which
prevent fish jumping out'
protrudes above the water surface] to
[an to the species'some such
height of the freeboard is determined according
The
assi|vercarpbeingtremendousleapers.However,theinfluenceofwindforces
ontheexposednettingshouldbeborneinmirld.Acompromiseistouseatop
predators'
cover-also important for deterring
come in a variety of widths
synthetic fibre netting is available in rolls which
ordered from a commercial
and mesh sizes, Unless prefabricated bags are
into cage bags on thefarm. Prior
compan!, netting must be cut and assemble,d to
of twigs, bushes and debris
assembly, a large, reasonably level ?fall,clear
bags can be fabricated from
must be avaiLable. Simple square or rectangular
dimension of the bag must be
fine mesh (2-5mm) mosquito netting. The
construct if the
decided beforehand and it is simplest and most economicalto
and width of base is a function of the
total depth of the bag including freeboard
I
rr diameter of the roll of material. For example the depth and width of the bag

could be twice the width ot qtt

Double stitching of the edges in this case is
recommended and can bed8he using a donlestic sewing machine fitted with strong
nylon thread. For larler mesh netting, cutting out for assembly is a litle more difficult.
Most cage bags are fabricated from knotless netting which can
be hung on the square or diamond of the mesh. The farmer is reportedly easier and
more economical for small mesh (< 6mm bar length) sizes. Howevlr, if the
netting is to be hung so that the meshes adopt a diamond shape, it is
impossible to sirnply measure and cut out from a roll corresponding to the sizes
panels
of which make up the cage bag without first deciding on the hanging ratio.
Because of its shape, diamond mesh netting can be hung in a variety of ways,
which also dictate the horizontal and vertical mesh openings. For fish cages
hsweverthe netting is often hung with a hanging ratio ( r )of 0.3 i.e. the
horizontal opening of the mesh is equivalentloT0% of the stretched mesh size
value. For practical purposes, the following formula is used to calculate the length
of netting:

Ls=Ldl1-r
Where Ls = Length of stretched netting (m)
Ld = Desired length (m)
Thus for a 4x3m cage bag, a total length of 14m netting is desired.
Assuming r = 0.3.
Ls=Ldt(1 -r)
Ls = 14l (1 -0.3 )= 14 I A.7 =20 m.
Forthe depth of netting .
Ds=Ddl2r-r2
where Dd = desired depth (m) and Ds=depth of stresched netting (m). An
alternative to measuring the stretched netting is to count the number of
meshes (m). The number of meshes can be computed using .

M=Ddl{2r-r2)ml
Where ml= stretched mesh length (m)
 bottom panels have
*i After calculations of dimensions of the side and
should be planned so as to mrnimise
been made, cutting fiem out flom the roll
should be cut
waste. lf possibte,'ih;'f";;tft.t in one piece'An additional
can be machine - stitched'
advantage of using , [noir".lt material is that seams
However, machine
and hence ur* *or" resjstant to tearing than the panels.
unless the net
machine, and so'
stitching is impossible without a speciaized
bottom panel must
iuOri.rted, stitching of the side to.the
that of
bag is commerciarV and twine which is similar to
net need'ie
be done by hand using a small
netting Yarn.

Theextentandnatureoftheriggingrequireddependsprimarilyupon
in a fixed or
bag whether it is tJie Jsed froating type'and
the size of the cage ropes should be
bags less than.50m3,
the design of tne cottlr. For small rigging may also
whiist for
attached to the outside of all edges, larger design'
have to be attached at intervats itong the panels to help,strengthen and stifien
usually
n"tchanging'
lifting ouring harvesting
the structure and tofaciritate ?19
6-l0msyntheticropesareused.U.suallytheropeissimplylashedtothenet using a twine *ni"n Lglin
to that of the netting yarn'Each
is similar in iiameter
meshispickedupbyaneedleandboundtotheropewithablanketstitch.

the rope firmly.

Every 5_10 cm, " itor"o hitch is tied to secure
onthelargercagebags,ropesarestitchedoutsideofthewallsand floor of the bag
way as described above'For
at Jn" ,"Lr intervals, in the same floating cages, |"il;
only at all corners, but also at a
,norro be included not meter interval on all ropes, in
titting and net changing'The
order to facilitate loops should eitner oe'tnoit"o and whipped
or spliced. weights can be hung in order
from the rigging *ni.n runs along the floor seam,
to help the bag hang can befabricated
properly in the *ri"ror, alternatively, a metalframe
and lashed size of the weights required is
to the exterior of the ttoor seam'Tt'renumber and
taking weather condition into
generally oetermineJ tnrougn trail and error,
arcount.

10
I
[.

tE vlEl/I,

Fig. 5 Nylon or polythene net cage with bamboo frame as an

float
A. Top view B. Side view C. lsometric View.
11
3. 3. 2. 2. BAMBOO CAGE
:
.. 1

Bamboo, on the other h#10, is much more suitable material being strong,
cheap, widey available and easily worked with simple tools. Bamboo
cages could be constructed in a variety of shapes and sizes. However, the
rectangular type measuring 6m length, 2m width and 1. 6m height is very
popular among cage fish farmers in Doung River near Hanoi and several other
running water systems in Vietnam and Thailand. Typically bamboos ( 4cm
diameter) are fixed to a frame (6 x 2 x 1. 6m ) made of larger bamboo
( 8cm diameter ). The bamboo can be fixed either with the help of nails or
galvanized iron wire. Space is left between two bamboos to allow for free
circulation of water. Provided the bamboos have been properly selected and
treated prior to use, the cages will last up to two years. They can be floated by
using a variety of materials such as bundles of bamboos ( 30 pieces of 8 cm
diameter ) or hard wood logs or properly painted empty oil drums which are
lashed to the side of the structure for supplementary floatation. Simple
anchoring systems, such as ropes and blocksweights are most commonly used
to installthem in thewater bodies.

Figure 6. BamEqo Caoe

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3.4. 3.4 FLOATING SYSTEM
I
C
l
The framing and floatifig system are essential to keep net cages in
proper shape and size at the water surface. A simple cage can be framed and
i
I
l floated by using four bamboo logs. The bamboo logs should be bound at the
I
corners with synthetic rope (4mm diameter or 10 gauge galvanized iron wire )
I
l
I
to maintain the shape of netting. No additionalfloats are needed to support a
i
I
single cage. The operation of this type of cage must be done by boat.
I

l
when four or more cages are set together, with pathways between them,
the frame must be constructed either of more than 2 bamboos, wooden poles
or galvanized iron pipes. Empty oil drums or styrofoam blocks are used to float
such frames. The drums or styrofoam blocks are tied at certain distances
according to their carrying capacity. The frame is fixed with anchoring rope to
concrete blocks at the four corners. Several net cages can be set in this type of
frame, which is costly, but durable and very convenient for operation.

A, Sid€rV1!eu

Fig7ry
13
 _l

3.5 ANCHORING SYSTEM

o
given keep the
It is essential to anchoithe cage to keep it at a site and
used depending
cage in a given shape and size. Differenttypes of anchors are on'ln"nature of
a single set of net
the bottom, the depth and water currents, For
lf are
cages, locally available stones grooved in the middlecould be used. there several cages
lron anchors
a concrete block can also be used as an anchor. are also cohmonly used. Every
comer. The
frame requi'resan anchor at each length of the anchoring rope should be aboutthree
the depth
times longerthan of the water column. This provides enough slackforwater
usually purpose.
movement. synthetic ropes of 10 mm diameter are used for this The
anchoring
storms and floatation
line should be adjustable and strong enough towithstand
with stones
weights. The lower margin of four corners of the cage has to'betied
to keep it in the Proper Position'

Shne.Andmf
lrgn Andlo{

.Conqd,b..Block Anchor.

Fio. 8 Anchorino materials

14
-1

4. SITE SELECTION

The economic uii8iiity of any fish farming operation is vitally

dependent upon site selection. ltwill affect running costs, rate of production and
mortality rates etc. Water based aquaculture systems can suffer more than land
based operations as a result of wrong site selection, and hence it is extremely
important to get site selection for mges right. The criteria for selection of
suitable sites for cage fish culture may be considered under three categories
(Table. 3 ). The first is primarily concerned with the physico chemical conditions
which dictate whether a species of fish can thrive in an environment
(temperature, salinity, oxygen, current, pollution, algalblooms, exchange ). The
second lists the conditions that should be considered in orderto installa cage
structure successfully (weather, shelter, depth, substrate ), whilst the third
category includes those factors which determine profitability of the venture
(legal aspect, access, land based facilities, security, economic and social
considerations ). Although much of thedata required must be collected through
surveyworkand analysis of watersamples, invaluable information can also be
gained by talking to local people about factors likely to affect the venture,
including matters such prevailing weather conditions, occurrence of toxic blooms,
pollution, etc. Consultations with them on the establishment of a cage fish farm
may also help to avoid problems of poaching and vandalism.

Table - 3. Criteria for site selection of cage

Category 1 Category 2 Category 3

Temperature Depth Legal aspect

Salinity Shelter Access
Pollution Substrate Security
Suspended solids Proximity to markets
Algalblooms
Disease organisms
water exchange

15

',i:;t'.,.._ lut
.ti 4.1
Environmentat Criteril for the culture programme

4.1.1 WATER QUALTTY ' !,

An ideal cage that it
which means
farm site must have good water quality,
should not only be uncontaminated by toxic industrial poilutants ammonia,
such as
species, pH,
nitrate, heavy metals and phenolic compounds, but also that the
temperature, oxygan, salinity, and otherenvironmentalparamenters
should be carefully considered.

4.1.1. 1. TEMPERATURE AND SALINITY:

Fish have no means of controlling their body temperature,
Mrich changes
with that of the environment.
A raise in temperature will increase the
lism of
metabo- the animal and cause a concomitant increase in oxygen
and activity as well as in ammonia and carbon
cbnsumption dioxide production
Salinity is a measure
other solids
of the amount of dissolved salt and
present in
water and usually expressed rn parts per thousand (0 / 00 ). lts
relevance
to aquaculture lies in its control of osmoticpressure, which can greafly
affect the ionicbalance of farmed animals.
When selecting
a sites for cage culture, the optimum temperature and
salinity requirements
of the species concerned should be met, since behaviour,
feeding, food
conversion and growth can be adversely affected, out side these
optima. Sub optimal
conditions can also contribute towards stress, leading to
increased
susceptibility to parasitic infections and reduced resistance to
disease.
Selection
of appropriate site should therefore take into consideration
the pr:evailing
temperature and salinity conditions and their range of variation.
4.1. L 2. OXYGEN :
oxygen is required by all organisms for the produption of energy.
oxygen requirements
vary with the species, theil stage of development and
size, and
are also affected by environmentalfactors, such as temperature. lf the
supply
of oxygen to an animal deviates from the ideal then feeding, food
conversion, growth
and health can be adversely affected and it is therJfore of
16
 great importance good
oxygen conditions pr"uritat a site. Diurnal varibtion of
dissolved (
oxygen is.very stHgs-fqlforthefrsh. srp".i.irration orois.Jr",gir",
oxygen, nitrogen arso
) $:g::: extensive mortarities of a numbeiotffiies held in
cages through gasbubble disease.
tn summary, sites which are strongly stratifiedfor
much of the year,
where algal blooms
or tend to develop are likely to have poor oxygen
periodically if Sites which navl "ondition,
and should be avoided possible. gooO Ootto,
currents
and which therefore, disperse sadimenting wastJs are also
preferable

4.1.1.3.(pH) HYDROGEN tON CONCENTRATTON :

Extreme values of pH can directly damage gil! surfaces of the fish,
ultimately resulting in their death. pH is expressed on
a scale ranginge'efrom'-'
(acidic) to 14 (alkaline). pH varue of 7 is considered
o to be neutral.
Freshwaters, b.ecause
of the great variability in their ioniccomposition,
may have values most species
that lie anywhere between pH3 ind pH11. The ideal fito,. seems
g.5 most marine sites are
to be in the range 6 to while pH is not a prooiem in must be taken with
marked seasonal
freshwater sites since there can be and.diurnal changes, particularly in low-
lntensive
buffer"J*ri"rr. operations willstimulate phytoplankton productionwhich can, die to
increased photosynthetic
o, production, read to erevated pH varue, p"rtiJrrrv
in summer (Table 4)

17
 I
r
for aquacu]lure
{ Table 4. water quality criteria used to determine feasibility
et al, 1990).
oi]Jop*"r,t ot ano otner trryhwater fishes (after soematwoto
"iip o.,

Criteria
Parameter common cart Nile tilapia Others
<16.8>420c Lethal
1. WatertemPt >370c
25-270c 25-300c 20-320c Growth oPtimur

2. Do <0. 7mg /l <0, 5mg /l <0.3-1mg/l Lethal

3mg/l <3mg/l <3mg/l Can live
5mg/l Sub optimum
>6mg/l >5mg/l 5mg/l Growth oPtimun

3. PH <4.8> 10.8 <4.8>11 <4.8> 11 Lethal

6.5-7.5 6.5-8.0 6.0-8,0 Growth oPti'nrun

4 Co2 20mg/lat - 2\mgil Can live

at pH 5-6 at pH 5-6
>25mgll Cause death

5. ConductivitY 500umhos/cm Stressed

50-500umhos/cn
1000umohs/cm lethal

et al (1 972) and Boyd(1982 )'

Source : Al abaster and lolyd ( 1980 ), Bradach
4.1.1.4 TURBIDITY
of problems in aquatic
Although suspended solids can cause a number
fish that are of con@rn
systems, it is piincipuity tn"it direct e{ects on the caged to
will cause gill damage
tne cage fish farmer. High levels of suspended solids
giil epithelial tissues. lf the damage is
including protiferation ,ni thickening
the species'The larger and
severe the fish ,ry Ui". Mortality rate varies with
;;;i;;ili.[, .rr." greater injuryto giil tissues.lvrorraritv often occurs after a period of
presence of suspended
exposur",ln,it compticaiing dirgnosis'The solids in the
such as 'finrot''
water has also been implicated in disease Turbidity affects the
and impairment of groMh'
visibility, resulting lessfeeding

18
 -rhas
It appearsthatturbldity belowabout 100m91 little effect on most
fish species. Above this valqq the picture becomes complicated particularly by
factors such as duration o{dxposure to such conditions.

4.1.1.5 POLLUTTON

M .W. Holdgate (1979) has defined pollution as: 'theintroduction by

man into the environment of substances or energy liable to causes hazards to
€ human health harm to living resources and ecologicql systems damage to
structure or amenity or interference with legitimate uses of the environment'.
Thus with respect to cage fish farming a pollutant could be something which
damages the cage structure, adversely affects the cultured fish or its food or
could accumulate in the fish to such a degree as to prove toxic to man when
ingested. The risk may be significantly reduced by seting €ges as far away as
possible from large industrial areas. Special care must be taken to ascertain
the levels of any pollutants during the site selection process.

4.1.2.1 PHYTOPLANKTON BLOOM

The term phytoplankton bloom refers to the periodic occurrence of large

populations of planktonic algae in fresh and marine waters, whenever the
appropriate conditions prevail: high light level, high nutrient levels, warm Water
temperatures and a combination of favourable hydrographic conditions. Algal
blooms can adversely affect fish, not only through their physical presence in the
water, which damage or clog gills, but also through their influence on the DO
pool. Several phytoplankton species are responsible for a musty flavour in fish,
whilst other species are known to produce toxins. The effect of phytoplankton
on DO also affects the farmed fish. From a cage culture point of view, it would
therefore, seem best to avoid sites where toxin producing cyanobacter:ia may
exist.

4.1.2.2. DISEASE
Disease risk can be minimised by avoiding sites where there are para-
sites or other disease agents present, such as intermediary hosts, from which
they colud be transmittedto the caged fish.

19
4.1.2.3. WATER EXCHANGE
.
intensive
Good water exchange o, tf Efirg, at a site is essential for cage
of and all the
culture operations in order to minimize the build up wastes
upon the
attendant problems that this can cause. Water exchange is dependent
currents.

ln extensive culture situations, watercurrents are also essentialforthe

supply of food. However, excessive current will impose additional dynamic
fish'
loadings on the cages, and cause stress to the caged
4.2 PHYSICAL CRITERIA FOR CAGES

4.2. 1. WEATHER
particular for cage
The weather can determine the suitability of a site or area
the enclosed fish.
fish culture through its influence both on cage structure and on
cold.
Of particular concern are violent storms and conditions of extreme
conditions
Therefore, the site which are subject to storms and extreme climatic
should be avoided for cage fish farming'

4.2.2 SHELTER
projecting above
ln the sea, wind blowing across its surface tear at any structure
from
the water, whilst waves attack any object on the water/ air interface. Shelter
prime in site
these forces, and in particularwaves, is therefore a consideration
not such a severe
selection for cage culture in the marine environment. lt is often
problem in fresh water lakes and reservoirs.

4.2.3 CURRENT
as and reservoirs,
Surface current velocities in lenticwater bodies, such lakes are
r sites. The
usuatty much lower (0.2-2.O cm s ) than in rivers or marine current are
out flows
principally of wind driven origin, although draw-down from
effects on
and discharges from inflowing rivers and streams oan have localised
patterns'
velocities whilst other factors, such as seiche can modify whole lake However,
uniform,
current velocities in lenticwater bodies, being usuallyfairly
rarely influence site selection.

2A
@-

* 4.2,4 DEPTH
.;
Some cages such ets $te rigid wood and bamboo construction uSed in
traditionalfish culture in lnddnesia are designed to sit in shallowwaterwith their bottom
in contact with the substrate. The depth of water in which these cages are sited is not
critical, provided that they are covered,qr largely covered, by water for most of the
culture period. Too great a fall in water level could seriously reduce the volume, thus
significantly increasing stocking density and adversely affecting water quality. Fixed
cages are usually used in shallow areas of lakes and reservoir or river, where the
depth does not exceed 8m or so. Floating cages may in theory be used in virtually
any depth of water, although the cost and associated problems concerned with
mooring increasewith depth.

For most types of cage culture, the cages should be sited in sufficient
depth to maximize the exchange of water, and yet to keep the bottom of the
cageswellcearof the substrate. lt is always advisable to avoid risks by holding
fish at least 4-5 m above the bottom sediments. :

4.3 SITE FACILITIES AND MANAGEMENT

4.3.1 LEGAL ASPECTS

Cage fish farms in the water column and moored to the lake of
reservoir bottom and/ or the shore. ln some cases, the cages may also be
attached to the land above the high water marks via an access walk way. ln
most countries the land below the low water tide level is owned by the state and
so permission to moor a structure must be obtained from the appropriate
Government Department. Similarly if the cages have to be attached to the land
above the high water level permission must be obtained from the land owner. Cage
fish farms sholud not obstruct free navigation.

4.3.2 SITUATION, SERVTCES AND SHORE FACILTTIES

For large and intensive cage fish culture development ventures the
availability of sufficient land to construct an office, feed store and laboratory
close to the fish cages may be an important consideration in site selection.

21
 fresh water, road and
services are also important. The availability of
prior to selection a site'
other es-sential services should b.e ascertained
be critical. Proximity to markets
;;;i;Jilitorrocrr tabour and hou3ifig can also il
production costs and profitability'
rrppties of fish feed may affe6t

4. 3. 3 SECURITY
many parts of the world'
security is a problem for cage fish farmers in since
publicly owned orhave
cages are often sited in water bodies which are unrestricted
p9?:h?rs and vandals. Cages
access and are thus vulnerable to located near
risk'ln spite of the number of
population may be more at
centres of rl"riitv ,n"rrrr".,
where they can keep
farmeis may prefer to site their cages , *n"tfu watch overthem.
are unwilling to locate
ln many countries the farmers their cages wnereihey cannot
least once a day by a member of
bschecked at
theirfamily.

SPECIES
5. SELECTION OF SUITABLE
can be cultured in
ln principle, almost every cultivable species of fish
most of the Asian countries
cages. But fish species used in cage culture in
varieties of carps.
O"[ng to the tamity cyprinidae and are mainly
5.1 CRITERIA OF SELECTION
following critena :
They are selected for cage culture on the basis of the

a. Natural ability to grow rapidly'

b. living in or
Food habits iOa[teO to the types of organisms
around the water bodies'
c- Ability to adapt to crowded conditions'
d. oxygen'
Tolerance of low dissolved
e. Ease of handling and harvest'

5.2. SOME CULTIVABLE SPECIES :

the available resources'the
different feeding naoits are selected to utilize
f"iiilil ;rrpi"rr* found suitable for cage culture in Nepalese Lakes and
Reservoir.
22
 a. Grass carp (Ctinopharyngod on idella)
grass
Adult carp feed & a wide variety of aquatic macro vegetation and also
(7-9
consume certain terrbstrial plants. The natural food of grass carp fry mm) is
protozoa,
rotifer and nauplii larvae. Their diet include cladocera
and copepods when they grow to 12 mm. As the fish grow larger, phytoplankton
and minute algae are added to their diet. Older fish with a weight above 50g can be fed
with chopping grass in the cages.They can be by cultivated in water bodies poor in plankton.

Fig. 9 grass carp

b. Bighead carp (Aristichthys nobilis)

This fish feeds by straining plankton from water. Larvae feeds mainly on small
plankton such as unicellular phytoplankton, rotiferand nauplii larvae. Fry and adults
feed mainly on zooplankton but eat phytoplankton as well. ltfeeds
about
20% of its body weight and digest 2O-30o/o of the consumed blue green algae. lt is
passive
when handled, so handling mortality is low. Bighead carp continue to feed
down to 140 C. This fish has the best potential for cage culture where the water bodies are
fertile.

Fig. 10 Bigheadcarp

23
 r-
li

mol itri kl
c. Si lver carp I lHybo phth at michthys
a

adult. Young fry feed on

This fish is mainly a prryt8ptankton feeder when
diet expands as the fry grows to
zooptankton, rotifer ;;i;;fihi iarvae. Their
have
and phytoplankton'.Thegills of silver carps
include copepods,'"troo""r"
otclosety set gill Silver carp also feed
a complex networt< anJ Oitfusion rakers'
., ihis fish
at tetrrp'ltemperature oovril;l;;c' li:'lt:?':.1"-t::lY:"::1tl:,:Tl"*:"lllt
'atur ""::'l:;^*'..,;;
;;;" :, however'ts stress intolerance.
major problem with thisspecies

water.'The
requires careful handling'

Fig. 11 silvercarP

d. Rohu (LaDes rohita )

on plant matte-r in-
Rohu is a bottom and column feeder which feeds cludins
-ZS,O-gyp on unicellular
decaying ,"di,iigl'''iing.erlings t{.0!. -subsists and filamentous rf
rotifer and protozoans
gZ" [i5'lr1,roiting vig'etation.(S5%) {2o/o) andcrustaceZit
component in the food in-
ie6l'fneroiten"vegetatibn creases in bigger fi;;: Th; d;*th of
supplementary food is very
this fisn-witnout poor. when stockedln low d6nsiti es 1z-iotolin
in a cage however'growth by
number has been r"ry gooi. [iin, n"f pr tb oeah tne cages
feeding on algal and mesh'
other organism growing on the

Fig. 12 rohu
24
 e.Common carp (Cyprinus Cgrpio)
{.1
post
common carp is a bo8om feeder. larvae up to 1Omm feed on
ceriodaphnia, moina, cyclopsland nauplii larvae. Olderfish thrive on decaying vegetable
matter containing bottom dwelling organisms, notably tubificids. mollouscs, chironomids,
ephimerids and tricopteran. Being a bottom feeder,
common carp needs additionalfeeding in the cages.

Fig. 12 common carp

f. Tilapia (Oreochromis spp)

T'ilapiais a omnivorous. lt is nowcultured in severalcountries in Asia. lt

is ponds
cultured in raceways and cages depending on localconditions. Tilapia is a

survive in temprature
tropical fish with poor resistance to cold temprature, so it can not
region. lt is useful in aquaculture where warmwater from industries can be utilized.

Fig.14 tilapia
25
 l
I

4
6. MANAGEMENT

}
6.1 SEED SUPPLY

6. 1. 1 SELECTION OF FINGERLINGS
must rely on external
Unless cage farmers also have a hatchery, they
'buyerbeware'when it comes
suppties ior fingerliigs and follow.the old maxim of to
points must be considered before
choosing r rorr"Jof supply. Thefollowing
purchasing the fingerling :
be selected'
1. Suitable fish species must
2. The fingerling must be healthY
3. fish culture'
The size must be suitable for cage
6.1.2 TRANSPORTATION
systems should be
The carp being transferredfrom hatcheries orother starved
ord-er to clear their gut and
for at t"ariiqiAhours prior to transport in to reduce oxygen
of journey'fish should
consumption. Because of the rigors the be carefullyihecked, and
and, if necesSary
injured or weak fish removed treatment for ectoparasite should also
out'The process of capture'
be carried nrnJLing or toaOini anJtransport are highly
fish, resulting not only in
stressfulto physical OamagJbut also in change blood
increased oxygen
chemistry consumption, osmoregulatory problems and increased
suceptabilityto disease' to
some species such Ls silver carp, are particularly.difficult
transport. lt should be kept to a
follows, therefore, that during transport, handling
minimum' with water and
plastic bags can be used i,ni"n should be one third filled
prior to sealing and double bagglglT,;afetV
reryraining Jpace fitied with oxygen
can hold up to 3000 lt'and
Alternatively, an insulated transport box which mounted on
sholud have rounded
the nacr of truck can be used..The tank corners to minimiie tne
tanks are often connected to
Oamage to the fish'Such aeration or oxygenation
short and the number of
equipment'lf the distance is fingerling is small, they can be
in plastic buckets without the use of
transported
oxygen.

6. 1. 3 sTocKlNG :
be taken to
Before transferring the fish to cages, care should
ensure
26
f-

that the temperature of the fish is adjusted to appibximately that of their new
environment.The bags of fish should be placed in the cages and the
temperatures allowed to equiliplate priorto release. ln warm climates, transfer
to cages should be carried or.rt in the evening or early morning if possible. The
feeding lf fish immediately after transfer to cages is generally not recommended.
Somefish, such as tilapia, recoverfairlyquicklyfrom handling and regularfeed-
ing can commence 3-4 hour after transfer whereas more stress sensitive fish,
such as silver carp are best left undisturbed for 1 2-24hoursbefore feeding.

6,2 FEED AND FEEDING

6.2.1 TYPES OF FOOD

Fish feeds are of two basic types

a. Semi - intensive feed

seml-intensive feed are relatively low in protein and made from locally
available materials at low cost. Fish grown in semi-intensive situations still rely
heavily on natural feed which is comparatively high in terms of protein.
Supplementary food, high in terms of carbohydrate and fat, will spare the
protein from being used as an energy source, and allow it instead to be utilized
forgrowth. This type of aquaculture is only suited to certain species of fish, such
as herbivores, planktivores, detrivores or omnivores, grown in conditionswhere
there is a plentiful supply of naturalfeed.

b. lntensive feeds

lntensive feeds are used principally in the culture of carnivorous

species and high value species. lntensive feeds differ from semi-intensive feeds in
that they must supply all the nutrrtional requirements of the cultured species,
including the right quantities and qualities of proteins, fats, carbohydrates,
minerals and vitamins.

27
 wlrH LocAL
6.2.2 PREPARATION OF BALANcED rrEo
INGREDIENTS
d
most appropriate
of the two basictypes of feeds, it is believed thatthe
is a lowcost semi-intensive
for the Nui coc Reservoir in vietnam, cage farming
a combination of naturally
feed. ln this, system the fish can be grown using
by- products'a
available feed and supplementary feed with agriculture
of different local
semi- intensive feed can be formurated with the combination
square method
rngreOients of known crude protein percentage'A simplified
desired protein percentage'
.o-rtO befollowed to prepare a balanced feed of 1

. Selection of local ingredients and determining their protein percentage'

protein percentage in
2. Listing out the ingredientsintoaccording to their
two groups'
ascending order. Divide them
protein than the
a. protein supplement feed- with higher

protein both feeds.

3. calculate the average percentage of in
protein percentage of the feed in
4. Draw a square and write desired
the feed
centre, the average protein percentage of protein supplement
on the
left side of the square.
protein percentage of
Similarly write down the average
basalfeed on the
top of the square.
the desired one and
Subtract the average percentage of basal feed from
the average protein
frotein percentaie of the desired feed from
down on the bottom
percentage of protein supplement feed. write them
the quantity
lnd the rig-nt sioe of the square. The numbers will represent
of feed.
both feeds in the total quantity of the formulated

28
For examplc.:
$"ii,
lr'rOJ
lngnedients tf
1. VHreat'powder i
2..Riqebran
3. Soy bean meal
4.Trashfish - :

Protein supplement
feed 34olo Avg
Protein
'
: ': i :' .: , I

6 protein supplement
feed in quantity

b.Trashfish, ,,.

Basalfeed: ,
powde(
.a.\&heat
b.Rice bran 08
1 8.,.=90/o average protei n percentage

protdiital mixing
in tt ris way 25 kg of balariced feed of t 5% !F, i,ry€qby 1 I
percentagg
kg. of Uaiat anO efg of ppteil, gupplem.gql fee,.{,,The of each
ingredientwould be:

29
 I
i

ilf 2. (19* 25)x100=........i': 760/o

Rice bran = .i..:'. 38 %

be formulated by mixing the

Thus 100 kg of balanced feed with 15% protein can
as
following ingredients :

38.00
1. Wheat Powder
2. Rice bram 38.00
3. Soy bean meal 12.00
.

12.OO
4. Trashfish..

FEED
6.2.3 STORAGE OF
: humidity, heat,
A storage facility must maintain the quality of feed
can destroy or greatly
insects, roderyts, f;;gf dirt and other contaminants
less nutritive, and even toxicto
o"rn"g"f"edstuffs, reioering them unpalatable,
the fish.

Feedstuffsshouldbekeptinclean,dry,coolfacilitiesusedsolelyforthat purpose in
often stored on
order to avoid contamination with other materials farms, such as
products'Both tem-
insecticides and pesticides or petroleum o];;il;no nr*ioitv nave a
rates at which chemical
great influence on the changes take place ,nO on the lrowth of
lnsects and rodents
fungi and insects' can not only eat considerable [uantities of the
but also spoil much of feed has
feedstuff, more than they consume. Faecalcontamination
been shown to be a of stored
source of salmonella infection in farmed fish'Deterioration
dry fedd points are followed
and feedstuffs can be mnimised if the following :

l.Feedshouldbecheckedbeforebeingputintothestore.

2.Feedsshouldbestoredinbagsandraisedofftheground.
be maximized and temperature
3. Ventilation in the storage facility should
as
should be kePt as low Possible'
4. up'
All spoiled material should be swept
5.Rodentsandinsectsmustbekeptundercontrol.
30
J
6 Feeds should be checked frequently and any change in ..........

colour and textilre noted for evidence of spoilage.

. b:

6.2. 4.FEEDING I
.ln
most intensive and semi-intensive cagefarmsfish arefed throughout
the year, except during period of adverse weather. Since all metabolic activities
of fish are directly related to the water temperature, feeding rate should be
calculated (Table- 5) on the basis of temperature and body weight of the fish.

Moist balls of feed or pelleted feeds any be conveniently fed to the fish
by placing them on a feeding tray. The principal advantage of handfeeding is
that farmer. can assess how hungry their fish are and consequently adjust the
amount of feed to be given. ln this way they can also readily monitor the health
status of their stock, since sick or stressed fish will usually stop feeding.
Depending on whethercage rearing is smallorfamily based, the quantities and
qualities of the materials used may be highly variable.

.f

I
13

31
 r

to water
# Table 5 - Feeding rate (bqdy weight % ) for: cary according
temperature and body weiq&i;fthe fish.

15 4,9 4.1 3.3 3.1 2.7 2.?

"
1'6 5.2 4.4 2.5 3.3 2'.g 2.3
I
17 5.5' 4,7' 3.7' 3.6 3.1 2.s
18 5.8 . 5'o " a,o. 3.9 3.4 2.7 a

19 6.3 5.4 4.4, 4.2 3.7 2.9

20 6.9. 5.9 4.9 4.6 4.0 3.2
21 7..5 6.4 5.2 '4:9 4.3 3,4
22
i
8.1 6.9 56 5.3 4:5 3.6
5.6 4.9 39
23 8.7 7.4, 6.0 :
1..
'l .

24 7.9 6.4 6,0 5.1, ,''#'1.,

25 9.8 8.2 6.7 6.2 5.4 4.4

26 10.4 8.8 7.O 6.6 5.8 4.6 ,

27 11.0 9.4 7.5 7,2 6.2 5.0

28 11.6 10.0 8.1 7.8 6.8 5.4
29 12.6 10.8 8.9 8.4 7.4 5.8
30 13.8 11.8 9.8 9.2 8.0 6.4
31 14.4 12.6 10.2 9.8 8.6 7.0
f 1{.
32 15.0 13.2 11.8 1A.4 9.2 7.6

32
 Tabte 5(contd)
scVg
50-100 100-200 i3g!=7'@-...7SQ ,@., a@rqry
:1 r1,i,.: i:: i :l:i 1;

t 1,.3 , "0.8
15 2.4 1.9 .
1..6,
16 2.6 2.4 1:7 1.4 0.8
17 2.8 2.2 ]it'.s:, .o,9
'1 1:8''
18 3.0 2.3, 1.9 1.7 1.0
{
$ 1g 3.2 2.5 2,0 1.8 rlx
20 3.4 2.7 2.2 1.9 1',1
. .i-.

21 3.6 2.9 2.3' 2.O' ,:,I:2,

22 3.9 3.1 2.5 2,2, 1.3
23 4.2 ,3.3 2,7 2,3 ,r.4
24 4.5 '3,5 2.9
2.5 it.5
25 4.8 3.8 3;i
2.7 1.6
26 5.2 4.1 3.3
2.9 1.7
fi 5.5 4.4 35
3.1 24 1:8
2a' '4.7 3.8
.

2.6:
29 5.0 4.1' '3.3, ':l',9
30 6.8
" :, ii:
4.4 3.S 2.8 2't
5,{,, 3.0 2.2
31 , 73 ,5.8: ,4.7 ,38 '1.: :.
32 7.8 6.2 5.0 4;1 3,3 2"7,
4.4 3.8 2.9
.t

1:';.

.:

33
sF. 6.3. ROUTINE MANAGEMENT
' lj':(

1.
:l

QUALITY:
6.3. MONIToRING ffien
t,
quality monitoring routine are asfollows :
The aims of investigating awater
lethal changes in water quality
1. to avoid losses caused by 'I*
of cages with in a
2. to evaluate siting and configuration
water bodY.
and feeding rates'
3. to maintain optimum stocking
are, so that jobs whicl'rmight
4. to help evaluate hcniv stressed the caged stock
growth check can be
further stress the fish, such as grading and
avoided.
quality at a site'so
5. to gain information of long term changes in water
that properly evaluated'
any proposeJ cnanges in production may
Themostvaluabledatathatshouldbecollectedinaredissolvedoxygen and temperature.
throughout the year should be
Periodic measurements carried out and lre tiequency of
during warm spells should be
observations increased. n single i"tnplirtrre and oxygen
from the middle of of
determination the cage within tn" gio,jp will suffice to glve an indication
levels of affecting

.thefish stocks.

Dataonnitrogen(ammonia,nitriteandnitrate)anddissolved
level are of importance in that
phosphorus tevets, p, deccni disc and cnloropnyll they
picture of what is happening in the
give the fish farmer a more complete cage farm
be carried out at regular
environment. Again, these tests should intervals but are
during periods of calm'hot weather'
oiprtti.rrrr importance whilst p and ,"..hi disc
using simple equipment'
reading can be readily taken other tests are ,trrrrv *rried o'utby
several portable Hach
chemical methods' kits, which are suitable for use by fish farmers,
available (can be purchased)'
are

34
''t i

+J 6. 3. z.GROWTH CHECK
:
Samples of fish snoul$ Htaken at regular intervals and weighed, so that
the growth of stocks can be rtonitored. Nets should be lifted priorto sampling,
as not only are the fish easier to catch when concentrated in a small volume of
water, but also the sample taken is more likely to be representative of the caged
stock. Fish are captured using a dip net, counted, transferred to a bucket and
weighed. The average weight is then easily computed.

Regular monitoring of fish stocks for a diseases is also essential. A close

inspection of the fish during feeding is also recommended, as the fish are
normally easierto see, and changes in feeding behaviour are also often a good
indicator of poor health. lf something wrong is suspected, then some fish should
be removed from the cage and examined further, changes in general
appearance, skin, eyes, fin and tailare all signs that some thing is wrong.

Dead fish should be removed from cages as they may be a source of

further infection and attract predator. This involves not only scooping out anyfish
floating on the surface, but also periodic lifting of nets and removal of dead fish
which are lying on the cage bottom. They must be removed from the site and
recording of mortalities is essential.
6.3.4.MAINTENANCE OF CAGE AND GEAR :
Besides the damage that can be caused by storms, predators, drifting
objects, boating, poaching and vandals, all materials used in the construction of
cages have a finite lifespan. They will eventually wearout. Therefore, cages,
nets and moorings must be checked at intervals for signsof damage and wear
and tear, and repaired or replaced if necessary. Although smalltears may be
repaired by lifting the damaged side of the net and hooking it on the cage
superstructure, for more extensive damage the netwill have to be changed and
repaired on shore.

Net fouling by a thick biological growth is a common problem in cage

culturewhich reducesthewaterexchange thus negatively influencefish growth.
Periodic cleaning of the cage is accomplished by manual brushing in situ, or
the netting is removed brushed, washed and airdried. Nets can also be cleaned
by subjecting them to a strong jet of water. Stocking of rohu in low densities
(2-4o/o) helps in cleaning the cagd by feeding on algai and other orgamism
growing on the mesh.

35
7. HARVESTING: ,
o
cages, such as
Harvesting is relatively eatl, in cges. ln well-framed
using a large scoop net
bamboo orwooden cages, harvesting can be done by
using a bamho polewhich is
with two handles. Net cages can be harvested by
inserted beneaththe cage at the
slighily longer than the frame of the cage and
be moved towards the opening of
opposite side of the opening. lt should slowly
the mouth of cage'Fish can be
the cage until a pocket full of fish is formed near
with the help of a small
removed, either for growth check or for harvest,
when
scoop-net. Cages should be harvested :

size'
a. Fish have reached an marketable

b. Further production is negligible'

by
c. Daily production will be improved
replacing the old
stockbY new stockof fingerlings'
in twowaYs:
The cagesare harvested
7.1. PARTIAL
fish are removed'
ln partial harvest only a certain number of selected
reduces the competition for
usually the largesiinaiviauais, their removal
food size faster.
in"r" by allowing smallfish to reach marketable
7.2. TOTAL HARVEST :
A complete
ln total harvesting, the total biomass of fish is removed'
harvest is conditions are met:
advisaOle only if thefollowing
a. Theoverallproductionwillbeimprovedbyreplacingoldstock*ith,
newfingerlings and /
harvest'
.b. The cage will be restocked immediately after

36
; References
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I

ll. 38